icb XU
oJLJ
■
ec.io
-
Cncpclopetita 36rttauutta:
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
IHustcatea toitl) nearly sir Jjunateti (JEngtatitngs.
VOL. XVII.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH :
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH:
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
.
i'dy. iiymu
^ D
i ^3 ^
E
NCYCLOP^EDIA DRITANNICA,
B
POETRY, Part II. Se&. 2. continued.
Of lyric
Poetry.
120
The fong.
THE variety of fubje&s, which are allowed the lyric
poet, makes it necefTary to confider this fpecies of
poetry under the following heads, viz. the fublime ode,
the lejfer ode, and the fong. We (hall begin with the
loweft, and proceed to that which is more eminent.
I. Songs are little poetical compolitions, ufually fet to
a tune, and frequently fung in company by way of en¬
tertainment and diverlion. Of thefe we have in our lan¬
guage a great number 5 but, confidering that number,
not many which are excellent j for, as the dnke of
Buckingham obferves,
Though nothing feems more eafy, yet no part
Of poetry requires a nicer art.
The fong admits of almoft any fubjedl j but the
greateft part of them turn either upon love, contentment,
nr the p/eafures of a country life, and drinking. Be the
fubjeft, howrever, what it will, the verfes thould be eafy,
natural, and flowing, and contain a certain harmony, fo
that poetry and muiic may be agreeably united. In thefe
compolitions, as in all others, obfcene and profane ex-
preffions fliould be carefully avoided, and indeed every
thing that tends to take off that refpeft which is due
to religion and virtue, and to encourage vice and immora¬
lity. As the bell fongs in our language are already in
every hand, it would feem fuperfluous to infert ex¬
amples. For further precepts, however, as well as fe-
le£t examples, in this fpecies of compofition, we may re¬
fer the reader to the elegant Ej/ay on Song Writing, by
in Mr Aikin.
Ihediftin- II. Tike lejjcr ode. The diftinguifhing charaffer of
character ^vvee^ne^s i ar|d as the pleafure we receive from
of the Merthisfort Poem arifes principally from its foothing and
ode. affe&ing the paflions, great regard fhould be paid to the
language as well as to the thoughts and numbers.
Th’ expreflion fhould be eafy, fancy high \
Yet that not feem to creep, nor this to fly :
No words tranfpos’d, but in fuch order all,
As, though hard wrought, may feem by chance to fall.
D. Buckingham’s EJJay.
The flyle, Indeed, fhould be eafy : but it may be alfo
florid and figurative. It folicits delicacy, but difdains
affectation. The thoughts fhould be natural, chaffe, and
elegant; and the numbers various, fmooth, and harmo¬
nious. A few examples will fufficiently explain what tve
mean.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
Longinus has preferved a fragment of Sappho, an an- Of Lyric
cient Greek poetefs, which is in great reputation am on gft Poetry,
the critics, and has been fo happily tranflated by Mr -
Philips as to give the Englifh reader a jurt idea of the r}ie Sap_
fpirit, eafe, and elegance of that admired authot *, and phic ode.
fhow how exaCtly fhe copied nature. To enter into the
beauties of this ode, we muff fuppofe a lover fitting by
his miftrefs, and thus expreffing his paflion :
Bleft as th’ immortal gods is he,
The youth who fondly fits by thee,
And fees and hears thee all the while v
Softly fpeak, and fweetly fmile.
’Twas this depriv’d my foul of reft,
And rais’d fuch tumults in my breaft $
' For while I gaz’d, in tranfport toft,
My breath wras gone, my voice was loft..
My bofom glow’d, the fubtle flame
Ran quick through all my vital frame :
O’er my dim eyes a darknefs hung ;
My ears with hollow murmurs rung.
In dewy damps my limbs were chill’d,
My blood with gentle horrors thrill’d }
My feeble pulfe forgot to play $
I fainted, funk, and dy’d away.
After this inftance of the Sapphic ode, it may not The Ana,
be improper to fpeak of that fort of ode which is called creontic
Anacreontic; being written in the manner and tafte of°^e*
Anacreon, a Greek poet, famous for the delicacy of his
wit, and the exquifite, yet eafy and natural, turn of his
poefy. We have feveral of his odes ftill extant, and
many modern ones in imitation of him, which are moft-
ly compofed in verfes of feven fyllables, or three feet
and a half.
We fliall give the young ftudent one or two examples
of his manner from Mr Fawkes’s excellent tranflation.
The following ode on the power of gold, which had
been often attempted but with little fuccefs, this gentle¬
man has tranflated very happily.
Love’s a pain that works our wo;
Not to love is painful too :
But, alas ! the greateft pain
Waits the love that meets difdain.
What avails ingenuous worth,
Sprightly wit, or noble birth ?
All thefe virtues ufelefs prove j
Gold alone engages love,
■E. May
POET
Of Lyria-
Poetry.
May he be completely curft,
Who the fleeping mifchief firft
"Wak’d to life, and, vile before,
Stamp’d with worth the fordid ore.
Gold creates in brethren if:rife j
Gold deftroys the parent’s Hie j
Gold produces civil jars,
Murders, maffacres, and wars j
But the word c ffedf of gold,
Love, alas ! is bought and fold.
His ode on the vanity of riches is of a piece with the
above, and conveys a good leffon to thofe who are over
anxious for wealth.
If the trcafur’d gold could give
Man a longer term to live,
I’d employ my utmoft care
Still to keep, and dill to fpare
And, when death approach’d, would fay,
4 Take thy fee, and walk away.’
But dnce riches cannot fa%'e
Mortals from the gloomy grave.
Why diould l myfelf deceive,
Vainly figh, and vainly grieve ?
Death will furelv be my lot,
Whether I am rich or not.
Give me freely while I live
Generous wines, in plenty give
Soothing joys my life to cheer,
Beauty kind, and friends fincere ;
Happy ! could I ever find
Friends fincere, and beauty kind.
But two of the mod admired, and perhaps the mod
imitated, of Anacreon’s odes, are that of Mars wounded
by one of the darts of Love, and Cupid dung by a
Bee j both which are wrought up with fancy and deli¬
cacy, and are tranflated with elegance and fpirit.—Take
that of Cupid dung by a bee.
Once as Cupid, tir’d with play,
On a bed of rofes lay,
A rude bee, that dept unfeen,
The fweet breathing buds between,
Stung his finger, cruel chance !
With its little pointed lance.
Straight he. fills the air with cries,
Weeps, and fobs, and ruhs, and flies j
’Till the god to Venus came,
Lovely, laughter-loving dame :
Then he thus began to plain ;
« Oh ! undone 1 die with pain 
“ Dear mamma, a ferpent fmall,
“ Which a bee the ploughman call,
“ Imp’d with wings, and arm’d with dart,
w Oh !—has flung me to the heart.”
Venus thus reply’d and" fmil’d :
‘ Dry thofe tears for fhame ! my child >
4 If a bee can wound fo deep,
4 Caufing Cupid thus to weep,
R Y.
Think, O think ! what cruel pain*
Part II.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
4 He that’s dung by thee fudains.’
Among the mod fuccefsful of this poet’s Englifli imi- 124
lators may be reckoned Dr Johnfon and Mr Prior. The^^uor^
following ode on Evening by the former of thefe writers^ a^'fC
has, if we midake not, the very fpirit and air of Anacreon.
Evening now from purple wings
Sheds the grateful gifts die brings;
Brilliant drops bedeck the mead j
Cooling breezes {hake the reed ;
Shake the reed and curl the dream
Silver’d o’er with Cynthia’s beam j
Near the chequer’d lonely grove
Hears, and keeps thy fecrets, Love.
Stella, thither let us dray !
Lightly o’er the dewy way.
Phoebus drives his burning car
Hence, my lovely Stella, far :
In his dead the queen of night
Round us pours a lambent light 5
Light that feems but jud to Ihow
Breads that beat, and cheeks that glow :
Let us now, in whifper’d joy,
Evening’s filent hours employ $
Silence bed, and confcious diades,
Pleafe the hearts that love invades :
Other pleafures give them pain }
Lovers all but love difdain.
But of all the imitations of the playful bard of Greece
that we have ever met w ith, the mod perfeft is the fob-
lowing Anacreontic by the regent duke of Orleans.
.Te fuis ne pour les plaifirs ;
Bien fou que s’en paffe :
Je ne veux pas les choilir 5
Souvent le choix m’embarraffe :
Aime t’on ? J’aime foudain ;
Bois t’on ? J’ai la verre vi la main ;
.Te tiens par tout ma place.
II.
Dormir ed un temps perdu \
Faut il qu’on s’y livre ?
Sommeil, prends ce qui t’ed du $
Mais attends que je fois yvre :
Saifis moi dans cet indant •,
Fais moi dormir promptement;
Je fuis prefle de vivre.
III.
Mais fi quelque objet charmant,
Dans un fonge aimable,
Vient d’un plaifir feduifant
'M’offrir 1’image agreajble *,
Sommeil, allons doucement •,
L’erreur ed en ce moment
Un bonheur veritable.
Tran flat ion of the Regent's Anacreontic (e).
Frolic and free, for pleafure born,
The felf-denying fool I fcorn.
Tho
(E) We give this trar flation, both becaufe of its excellence and becaufe it is faid to have been the produ&iftt
«f no lefs a man than the late Lord Chatham*
POE
The proffer’d joy I ne’er refufe ;
’Tis oft-times troublefome to chufe.
Lov’ft thou, my friend ? I love at fight :
Drink’ll; thou ? this bumper does thee right.
At random with the ftream I flow,
And play my part where’er I go.
Great God of Sleep, fince we mull be
Oblig’d to give fome hours to thee,
Invade me not till the full bowl
Glows in my cheek, and warms my foul.
Be that the only time to fnore,
When I can love and drink no more :
Short, very fliort, then be thy reign i
For I’m in hafte to live again.
But O ! if melting in my arms,
In fome foft dream, with all her charms.
The nymph belov’d Pnould then furprife,
And grant what waking Ihe denies j
Then prithee, gentle Slumber, flay j
Slowly, ah flowly, bring the day :
Let no rude noife my blifs deftroy ;
Such fweet delufion’s real joy.
We have mentioned Prior as an imitator of Anacreon
but the reader has bv this time had a fufficient fpecimen
of Anacreontics. The following Anfiver to Cloe jealous,
which was written when Prior was lick, has much of
the elegant tendernefs of Sappho.
Yes, faireft proof of beauty’s pow’r,
Dear idol of my panting heart,
Nature points this my fatal hour :
And I have liv’d : and we mull part.
While now I take my laft adieu,
Heave thou no figh, nor Ihed a tear j
Left yet my half-clov’d eye may view
On earth an objeft worth its care,
From jealoufy’s tormenting ftrife
For ever be thy bofom freed ;
That nothing may difturb thy Iff#,
Content I I aftrn to the dead
Yet when fome better-fated youth
Shaft with kis am’rous parly move thee,
Ilefleft one moment on his truth
Who, dying, thus perfifts to love thee.
There is much of the foftnefs of Sapoho, and the
fweetnefs of Anacreon and Prior, in the following <de,
which is afcribed to the unfortunate Dr Dodd ; and
was written in compliment to a ladv, who, being lick,
had fent the author a mofs rsfe-bud, inftead of making
his familv a vifit. This piece is particularly to be
efteemed for the juft and finking moral with which it
is pointed.
The flighteft of favours bellow’d by the fair,
With rapture we take, and with triumph we wear;
But a mofs-woven rofe-bud. Eliza, from thee,
A tvell-pleafing gift to a monarch would bo
—Ah ! that illnefs, too cruel, forbidding Ihould Hand,
And refufe me the gift from thy own lovely hand !
With jov I receive it, with pleafu e will view,
Reminded of thee, by its odour and hue :
“ Sweet rofe. let me tell thee, tho’ charming thy bloom*
Tbo’ thy fragrance excels Seba’s richeft perfume ;
T K Y. _ 3
Thy breath to Eliza's r.o fragrance hath m*r, _ _ pfflv."
And but dull is thy bloom to her cheek’s blufhing tint. ,. j  l,
Yet, alas ! my fair flow’r, that bloom will decay,
And all thy lov’d beauties foon wither away ;
Tho’ pluck’d by her hand, to whofe touch, we mull own,
Harfti and rough is the cygnet’s molt delicate down
Thou too, fnowy hand; nay, I mean not to preach ;
But the rofe, lovely muralill, luffer to teach.
“ Extol not, fair maiden, thy beauties o’er mine ;
They too are fliort-liv’d, and they too mud decline ;
And fmall, in conclufion, the diff’rence appears,
In the bloom of few days, or the bloom of few years !
But remember a virtue the rofe hath to boalt,
 Its fragrance remains when its beauties are lofl !
I2<>
We come now to thofe odes of the more florid and Odes mor*
figurative kind, of which we have many in our language Aond^and
that deferve particular commendation. Mr War ton’s 2U
Ode to Fancy has been jullly ad mired bythe bell judges;
for though it has a diftant refemblance of Milton’s
1’Allegro and II Penferofo, yet the work is original; the
thoughts are moftly new and various, and the language
and numbers elegant, expreflive, and harmonious.
O parent of each lovely mufe,
Thy fpirit o’er my foul diffufe !
O’er all my artlefs fongs prefide,
My foot fie ps to thy temple guide 4
To offer at thy turf-built {brine
In golden cups no collly wine,
No murder’d fading of the flock,
But flow’rs and honey from the rosk.
O nymph, with loofely flowing hair,
With bulkin’d leg, and bofom bare ;
Thy waift with myrtle-girdle bound,
Thy brows with Indian feathers crown’d^
Waving in thy fnowy hand
An all-commanding magic wand,
Of pow’r to bid frelh gardens blow
’Mid cheerlefs Lapland’s barren fnow :
Whofe rapid wings thy flight convey,
Through air, and over earth and fea ;
While the vail various landfcape lies
C nfph uous to thy piercing eyes.
O lover of the defert, nail ! «
Say, in what deep and pathlefs vale.
Or on what hoary mountain’s fide,
’Midfl falls of water, you refide ;
’Midft broken rock's a ru£ged feene,
With green and graffy dales between ;
’Midfl; forefts dark of aged oak.
Ne’er echoing with the woodman’s ftroke ;
Where never human art appear’d,
Nor ev’n one llraw-roof’d cott was rear’d ;
Where Nature fee ms to fit alone,
Majeftic on a craggy throne.
Tell me the path fweet wand’rer ! tell.
To thv unknown fequefter’d cell,
Where woodbines duller round the door,
Where fliells and mofs o’orlay the floor.
And on whofe top an hawthorn blows,
Amid whole thickly-woven boughs
Some nightingale Hill builds her neft,
Each ev’ning warbling thee to reft.
Then lay me by the haunted ftream,
Wrapt in fome wild poetic dream ;
A 2 In.
Part II,
Of Lyric
Poetry.
IIS
Sappho*
POETRY.
4
Of Lync Jn converfe while metliinks I rove
, ry~ f With Spenfer through a fairy grove 5
Till fuddenly awak’d, I hear
Strange whifper’d mufic in my ear j
And my glad foul in blifs is drown’d
By the fweetiy foothing found !
Me, goddefs, by the right-hand lead,
Sometimes through the yellow mead ;
Where Joy and Avhite-rob’d Peace refort,
And Venus keeps her feftive court
Where Mirth and Youth each ev’ning meet,
A.nd lightly trip with nimble feet,
Nodding their lily-crowned heads,
Where Laughter rofe-lip’d Hebe leads j
Where Echo walks deep hills among,
Lift’ning to the fhepherd’s fong.
Yet not thefe flow’ry fields of joy
Can long my penfive mind employ ;
Hafte, Fancy, from the feenes of Folly,
To meet the matron Melancholy !
Goddefs of the tearful eye,
• That loves to fold her arms and figh.
Let us with filent footfteps go
To charnels, and the houfe of wo j
To Gothic churches, vaults, and tombs.
Where each fad night fome virgin comes.
With throbbing bread and faded cheek,
Her promis’d bridegroom’s urn to feek :
Or to fome abbey’s mould’ring tow’rs,
Where, to avoid cold wint’ry fhow’rs,
The naked beggar fhivering lies,
While whiflling tempefts round her rife,
And trembles led the tott’ring wall
Should on her deeping infants fall.
Now let us louder drike the lyre,
For my heart glows with martial fire ;
I feel, I feel, with fudden heat,
My big tumultuous bofom beat ‘7
• The trumpet’s clangors pierce my ear,
A thoufand widows Oirieks I hear :
Give me another horfe, I cry ;
Lo, the bafe Gallic fquadrons fly !
Whence is this rage ?—what fpirit, fay,
To battle hurries m|jaway ?
• ’Tis Fancy, in her fiery car,
Tranfports me to the thickeft Avar ;
There Avbirls me o’er the hills of flain,
Where tumult and deftruftion reign •,
Where, mad with pain, the Avounded deed,
Tramples the dying and the dead j
Where giant Terror dalks around,
With fullen joy furveys the ground,
And, pointing to th’ enfanguin’d field,
Shakes his dreadful gorgon ftfield !
O guide me from this horrid feene
To high arch’d Avalks and alleys green.
Which lovely Laura feeks, to (hun
The fervors of the mid-day fun.
The pangs of abfence, O remove,
For thou can’ft place me near my love j
Can’d fold in vifionary blils,
And let me think I deal a kifs 5
While her ruby lips difpenfe
Lufcious ue&ar’s quinteffence !-
3
When young ey’d Spring profufely throws
From her green lap the pink and rofe 5
When the foft turtle of the dale
To Summer tells her tender tale ;
When Autumn cooling caverns feeks,
And dains with Avine his jolly cheeks y
When Winter, like poor pilgrim old,
Shakes his filver beard with cold }
At ev’ry feafon let my Car
Thy folemn Avhifpers, Fancy, hear.
O Avarm enthufiadic maid !
Without thy powerful, vital aid,
That breathes an energy divine,
That giA'es a foul to ev’ry line,
Ne’er may I drive with lips profane,
To utter an unhalloAv’d drain 5
Nor dare to touch the facred dring,
Save Avhen with frailes thou bid’d me fing.
O hear our pray’r, O hither come
From thy lamented Shakefpeare’s tomb,
On Avhich thou lov’d to fit at eve,
Mufing o’er thy darling’s grave.
O queen of numbers, once again
Animate fome chofen fAvain,
Who, fill’d Avith unexhauded fire,
May boldly finite the founding lyre j
Who Avith fome neAV, unequall’d fong,
May rife above the rhyming throng :
O’er all our lid’ning paflions reign,
O’erwhelm our fouls Avith joy and pain j
With terror fliake, Avith pity move,
Rouze Avith revenge, or melt Avith love.
O deign t’attend his evening Avalk,
With him in groves and grottoes talk ^
Teach him to fcorn, Avith frigid art,
Feebly to touch th’ enraptur’d heart ;
Like lightning, let his mighty verfe
The bofom’s inmod foldings pierce j
With native beauties win applaufe,
Beyond cold critics dudied laAvs :
O let each mufe’s fame increafe !
O bid Britannia rival Greece !
The following ode, written by Mr Smart on the 5th
of December (being the birth-day of a beautiful young-
lady), is much to be admired for the variety and har¬
mony of the numbers, as Avell as for the beauty of the
thoughts, and the elegance and delicacy of the compli¬
ment. It has great fire, and yet great fweetnefs, and is
the happy iffue of genius and judgment united.
Hail elded of the monthly train,
Sire of the Avinter drear,
December ! in Avhofe iron reign
Expires the chequer’d year.
Hufh all the blud’ring blads that blow,
And proudly plum’d in filver fnoAV,
Smile gladly on this bled of days ;
The livery’d clouds fhall on thee Avait,
And Phcebus dune in all his date
With more than dimmer rays.
Though jocund June may judly boad
Long days and happy hours ;
Though Augud be Pomona’s hod,
And May be crown’d Avith flowr’s :
Tell
Part II *
Of Lyric
Poetry,
Part H.
Of Lyric . Tell June Ins fire and crlrafon dies,
Poetry. jgy Harriot’s bluili, and Harriot’s eyes,
v Eclips’d and vanquifii’d, fade away j
Tell Auguft, thou canfl let him fee
A richer, riper fruit than he,
A fweeter flow’r than May. <
A paitoral The enfuing ode, written by Mr Collins on the death
and elegiac of Mr Thoinfon, is of the paftoral and elegiac kind, and
°^e' both piefurefque and pathetic. To perceive all the beau¬
ties of this little piece, which are indeed many, we muft
fuppofe them to have been delivered on the river Thames
near Richmond.
In yonder grave a Druid lies,
. Where flowly winds the Healing wave ;
The year’s belt fweets (hall duteous rife
To deck its poet’s filvan grave !
In yon deep bed of whifp’ring reeds
His airy harp * {hall now be laid,
That he, whofe heart in furrow bleeds,
May love through life the foothing {hade.
Then maids and youths {hall linger here.
And, while its founds at diftance fwell,
Shall fadly feem in pity’s ear
To hear the woodland pilgrim’s knell.
Remembrance oft {hall haunt the Ihore,
When Thames in fummer wreaths is dreft,
And oft fufpend the dafhing oar,
To bid his gentle fpirit reft !
And oft as eafe and health retire
To breezy lawn, or foreft deep,
The friend Ihall view yon whitening fpire f,
And ’mid the varied landfcape weep.
But thou, who own’ll that earthy bed,
Ah ! what will ev’ry dirge avail ?
Or tears, which hrve and pity Ihed,
That mourn beneath the gliding fail ?
Yet lives there one, whofe heedlefs eye,
Shall fcorn thy pale fhrine glimm’ring near ?
With him, fweet bard, may fancy die,
And joy defert the blooming year.
But thou, lorn ftream, whofe fullen tide
No fedge-crown’d lifters now attend,
Now waft me from the green hill’s fide,
Whofe cold turf hides the buried friend.
And fee, the fairy valleys fade,
Dim night has veil’d the folemn view !
Yet once again, dear parted {hade,
Meek nature’s child, again adieu !
The genial meads, aflign’d to blefs
Thy life, {hall mourn thy early doom 5
Their hinds, and Ihepherd girls, {hall drels,
With fimple hands, thy rural tomb.
Long, long, thy ftone and pointed clay
Shall melt the mufing Briton’s eyes y
O vales and wild woods, {hall he fay,
In yonder grave your Druid lies !
Under this fpecies of the ode, notice ought to be ta¬
ken of thofe written on divine fubje&s, and which are
ufually called hymns. Of thefe we have many in our
language, but none perhaps that are fo much admired
as Mr Addifon’s. The beauties of the following hymn
are too well known, and too obvious, to need any com¬
mendation y we ftiall only obferve, therefore, that in this
hymn (intended to difplay the power of the Almighty)
5
he feems to have had a pfalm of David in his view, Of Lyric
which fays, that *‘the heavens declare the glory of God,. ^oe^' ,
and the firmament ftieweth his handywork.”
The fpacious firmament on high,
With all the blue ethereal Iky,
And fpangled heav’ns, a {hining frame.
Their great original proclaim :
Th’ unwearied fun, from day to day,
Does his Creator’s pow’r difplay,
And publilhes to ev’ry land
The work of an Almighty hand.
Soon as the ev’ning {hades prevail,
The moon takes up the wond’rous tale.
And nightly to the lift’ning earth
Repeats the ftory of her birth :
While all the ftars that round her burn,
And all the planets in their turn,
Confirm the tidings as they roll,
And fpread the truth from pole to pole.
What tho’ in folemn filence all
Move round the dark terreftrial ball ?
What tho’ nor real voice or found
Amid their radiant orb be found ?
In reafoh’s ear they all rejoice,
And utter forth a glorious voice,
For ever finging, as they ftune,
“ The hand that made us is divine.”
The following paftoral hymn is a verlion of the 23d
Pfa/m by Pdr Addifon j the peculiar beauties of which
have occafioned many tranflatxons y but we have feen
none that is fo poetical and perfect as this. And in
juftice to Dr Boyce, we muft obferve, that the mufic
he has adapted to it is fo fweet and exprefiive, that we
know not which is to be moil admired, the poet or the
mufician.
The Lord my pafture {hall prepare,
t And feed me with a ftiepherd’s care ;
His prefence {hall my wants fupply,
And guard me with a watchful eye \
My noon-day walks he {hall attend.
And all my midnight hours defend.
When in the fultry glebe I faint,
Or on the thirfty mountain pant,
To fertile vales and dewy meads
My weary wand’ring fttps he leads ;
Where peaceful rivers foft and flow
Amid the verdant landfcape flowT.
Tho’ in the paths of death I tread,
With gloomy horrors overfpread,
My ftedfaft heart fhall fear no ill':
For thou, O Lord, art with me ftill j
Thy friendly crook {hall give me aid,
And guide me through the dreadful ftiade.-
Tho’ in a bare and rugged way,
Through devious lonely wilds I ftray,
Thy bounty fhall my pains beguile :
The barren wildernefs {hall fmile,
With hidden greens and herbage crown’d y
And ftreams Qiall murmur all around'.
III. We are now to fpeak of thofe odes which areThefub-
of the fublime and noble kind, and diftinguiftied fromhme ode.
others by their elevation of thought and ditftion, as well
by tije variety or irregularity of their numbers as the
frequent
POETRY.
* The harp
of JEolus.
f Rieh-
mond-
Church.
128
The. livmrv
POE
freqtfcnt ti'amitious and bold excurfions with which they
are enriched.
To give the young ftudent an idea of theMudden anti
frequent tranfitions, digreflions, and excurnons, which
are admitted into the odes of the ancient?, we cannot
do better than refer him to the celebrated fong or ode
of Moles j which is the oldeft that we know of and
was penned by that divine author immediately after the
• children of Ifrael croffed the Red fea. ^ _
At the end of this fong, we are told, that “ Miriam
the prophetefs, the tiller of Aaron, took a timbrel in her
hand, and all the women went out after her with tim¬
brels and with dances. And Miriam anfwered them,
Sina ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed glori-
outly j the horfe and his rider hath he thrown into the
fea.’’
From this laft paflage it is plain, that the ancients
very early called in mufic to the aid of poetry *, and that
their odes were ufually fung, and accompanied with
their lutes, harps, Ivres, timbrels, and other inllruments .
nay, fo effential, and in fuch reputation, was mufie held
by" the ancients, that we often find in their lyric poets,
addreiTes or invocations to the harp, the lute, or the
lyre ; and it was probably owing to the frequent uie
made of the laft-mentioned inftrument with the ode,
that this fpecies of Writing obtained the name of Lyric
1 This ode, or hymn, which fome believe was compofed
bv Mofes in Hebrew verfe, is incomparably better than
any thing the heathen poets have produced of the kind,
and is by all good judges confidered as a mafter-piece
of ancient eloquence. The thoughts are noble and iub-
lime : the ftvle is magnific ent and expreffive : the figures
are bold and animated : the tranfitions and excurfions
are fudden and frequent : but they are fliort, and the
poet having digreffed for a moment, returns immedi-
keW to the great, objeft that excited his wonder, and
elevated his foul with joy and gratitude. _ The images
fill the mind with their greatnefs, and ftrike the imagi¬
nation in a manner not to be exprefled.
If there be any thing that in fublimity approaches to
it, we muft look for it in the eaft, where, perhaps we
fliall find nothing fuperior to the following Hindoo
hymn to Narrayna, or “ the fpirit of God,’’ taken, as
Sir William Jones informs us, from the writings ct the
ancient Bramins.
Spirit of fpirits, who, through every part
Of fpace expanded, and of endlefs time,
Beyond the reach of lab’ring thought fublime,
Bad’ft uproar into beauteous order ftart j
Before heav’n was, thou art.
Ere fpheres beneath us roll’d, or fpheres above,
Ere earth in firmamental ssther hung,
Thou fat’ft alone, till, through thy myftic love,
Things unexifting to exiftence fprung.
And grateful defcant fung.
Omnifcient Spirit, whofe all-ruling pow’r
Bids from each fenfo bright emanations beam ;
Glows in the rainbow, fparkles in the ftream,
T
ft Y.
Smiles In tbe bud, and gtlfter.s In tho ffow’r
That crowns each vernal bow’r j
Sighs in the gale, and warbles in the throat
Ot every bird that hails the bloomy fpring,
Or tells his love in many a liquid note,
Whilft envious artifts touch the rival firing,
Till rocks and forefts ring j
Breathes in rich fragrance from the fandal grove.
Or where the precious mutk-deer playful rove j
In dulcet juice, from cluft’ring fruit diftils,
And burns falubrious in the tafteful clove ;
Safe banks and verd’rous hills
Thy prefent influence fills :
In air, in floods, in caverns, woods, and plains,
Thyjwill in fpirits all, thy fovereign Maya reigns.
Blue cryftal vault, and elemental fires,
That in th’ ethereal fluid blaze and breathe-.
Thou, tolling main, whofe fnaky branches wreathe
This penfile orb with intertwifting gyres j
Mountains, whofe lofty fpires, .
Prefumptuous, rear their fummits to the Ikies,
And blend their em’rald hue with fapphire light;
Smooth meads and lawns, that glow with varying
dyes
Of dew-befpangled leaves and bloffoms bright,
Hence ! vanifli from my fight
Delofive pidlures ! unfubftantial (hows !
My foul abforb’d one only Being knows.
Of all perceptions one abundant fource,
Whence ev’ry objeft, ev’ry moment flows :
Suns hence derive their force,
Hence planets learn their courie ;
But funs and fading worlds I view no more ;
God only I perceive ; God only I adore (f).
Part 11.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
We come now to the Pindaric ode, which (if we ex-xlie pin_
eept the hymns in the Old Teftament, the pfalms of dark ode.
King David, and fuch hymns of the Hindoos as that
juft quoted) is the rooft .exalted part of lyric poetry;
and was fo called from Pindar, an ancient Greek poet,
who is celebrated for the boldnefs of his flights, the im-
petunfity of his ftyle, and the feeming wildnefs and.ir-
regularity that runs through his compofitions, and which
are laid to be the effect of the greateft art. See Pix-
The odes of Pindar were held in fueh high eftima-
tion by the ancients, that it was fabled, in honour of
their fweetnefs, that the bees, while he was in the cradle,
brought honey to his lips : nor did the viftors at the
Olympic and other games think the crown a fufficient
reward for their merit, uhlefs their atchievements were
celebrated in Pindar’s fongs ; moft wifely prefaging,
that the firft would decay, but the other would endure
for ever. , . r
This poet did not always write his odes m the lame
meafure, or with the fame intention with regard to their
being fung. For the ode inferibed to Diagoras (the
concluding ftanza of which we inferted at the beginning
of this fe£Vion) is in heroic meafure, and all the ftanzaa
are equal: there are others alfo, as Mr Weft obferves,
1 made
(Fl For the pMofophy of this ode, which reprefonts the Deity the “ of 01 ^ 01’ly
neing (the r. .. of the Greeks), fee MetapHVHCS, N 269. and PHILOSOPHT, N 0.
Part II. P O E
Of Lyric maJe up ofJl^splies and auti/lrophes, without any cpodei
,t Poetry. and fome Compofed oljirophes only, of different lengths
^ and meafures: but the greateft part of his odes are di¬
vided intoJlrophe, citttijirophe, and epodcj m older, as
Mr Congreve conjectures, to their being lung, and ad-
dreffed by the performers to different parts of the au¬
dience. “ They were fung (fays he) by a chorus and
adapted to the lyre, and fometimes to the lyre-and pipe.
They confided oftene.lt of three ftanzas. The firft was
called theJlrophe, from the verfion or circular motion
of the fingers in that ftanza from the right hand to the
left. The fecond ftanza was called the untijlrophe, from
the contraverfton of the chorus; the fingers in performing
that, turning from the left hand tothe right, contrary al¬
ways to their motion in theJirophe. 1 he tun'd flar.za was
called the (it may be as being the after-fong), which
they fung in the middle, neither turning to one. hand
* Vid.Prf/nor the other. But Dr Weft’s * friend is of opinion,
rs Weft's ' that the performers alfo danced one way while they were
Pindar. finging theJlrophe, and danced back as they fung the an-
tijlrophc, till they came to the fame place again, and then
Handing ftill they fung the epode. He has translated a
paffage from the Scholia on Hephajlian, in proof of his
opinion ; and obferves, that the dancing \k\eJlrophe and
antijlrophe in the fame fpace of ground, and we may fup-
pofe the fame fpace of time alfo, fhovvs why thofe two
parts confided of the fame length and meafure.
As the various meafures of Pindar’s odes have been
the means of fo far milleading fome of our modern poets,
as to induce them to call compofitions Pindaric odes,
that were not written in the method of Pindar, it is ne-
ceffary to be a little more particular on this head, and
to give an example from that poet, the more effectually
to explain his manner ; which we (hall take from the
tranflation of Dr Weft.
The eleventh NemEAN OdE.
This ode is aferibed to Ariftagora«, upon oceafion
of his entering on his office of prefident or governor of
the ifland of Tenedos : fo that, although it is placed
among the Nemean odes, it has no fort of relation to
thofe games, and is indeed properly an inauguration ode,
compofed to be fung by a chorus at the facrifices and the
feafts made by Ariftagoras and his colleagues, in the
town-hall, at the time of their being inverted with the
magiftracy, as is evident from many expreffions in the
iirft Jlropfie and antijlrophe^
T R Y. 7
beauty, ftrength, courage, riches, and glory, re fulling (g)^yric
from his many victories in the games. But left he , «
lliould be too much puffed up with thefe praifes, he re¬
minds him at the fame time of his mortality, and tells
him that his clothing of tlefti is periffiable, that he
muft e’er long be clothed with earth, the end oj all
things ; and yet, continues he, it is but juiiice to praife
and celebrate the worthy and deferving, who from good
citizens ought to receive all kinds of honour and com¬
mendation ; as Ariftagoras, for inltance, who'hath ren¬
dered both himfelf and his country illuftrious by the
many victories he hath obtained, to the number of fix-
teen, over the neighbouring youth, in the games ex¬
hibited in and about his own. country. From whence,
fays the poet, I conclude he would have come off vic¬
torious even in the Pythian and Olympic games, had
he not been reftrained from engaging in thofe famous-
lifts by the too timid and cautious love of his parents.
Upon which he falls into a moral re tie Cl ion upon the
vanity of man’s hopes and fears ; by the former of which
they are oftentimes excited to attempts beyond their
fhrength, which accordingly iffue in their difgrace; as,
on the other hand, they are frequently reftrained, by
unreafonable and ill-grounded fears, from enterprifes, i:i
which they would in all probability have come off with
honour. This reflexion he applies to Ariftagoras, by
faying it was very eafy to forefee what fuccefs he was
like to meet with, who both by father and mother was
defeended from a long train of great and valiant men.
But here again, with a very artful turn of flattery to his
father Arcefilas, whom he had before reprefented as
flrong and valiant, and famous for his victories in the
games, he obferves that every generation, even of a
great and glorious family, is not equally illuftrious any
more than the fields and trees are every year equally
fruitful ; that the gods had not given mortals any cer¬
tain tokens by which they might foreknow when the
rich years of virtue fhould fucceed; whence it comes to
paff, that men, out of felf-conceit and prefumption, are
perpetually laying febemes, and forming enterprifes,
without previoufly confulting prudence or wifdom,
whofe f reams, fays lie, lie remote and out of the com¬
mon road. From all which he infers, that it is better
to moderate our defires, and fet bounds to our avarice
and ambition ; with which moral precept he concludes
the ode.
Strophe I.
Argument.
Pindar opens this ode with an invocation to Vefta
(the goddefs who prefided over the courts of juft ice, and
whofe ftatue and altar were for that reafon placed in the
town-halls, or Prytaneeums, as the Greeks called them),
befeeching her to receive favourably Ariftagoras and his
colleagues, who were then coming to offer facrifices to
her, upon their entering on their office of Pry tans or
magiftrates of Tenedos; which office continuing for a
year, he begs the goddefs to take Ariftagoras under
her prote.ftion during that time, and to condu£Fhim to
the end of it without trouble or difgraee. From Ari¬
ftagoras, Pindar turns himfelf in the next place to his
father Arcefilas, whom he pronounces happy, as well
upon account of his fon’s merit and honour, as upon
his own great endowments and good fortune : fuch as
4.
Daughter of Rhea ! thou, whofe holy fire
Before t he awful feat of juft ice flames !
Sifter of heav’n’s almighty fire !
Sifter of Juno, who coequal claims
With Jove to (hare the empire of the gods 1 .
O virgin Vefta ! to thy dread abodes,
I.o ! Ariftagoras directs his pace !
Receive and ne.tr thy facred feeptre place
Him, and his colleagues, who, with honeft zeal,
O’er Tenedos prefide, and guard the public weak
Antistrofhe I.
And lo ! with frequent off’rings, they adore
Th ee*, firft invok’d in every folemn pray’r !
To thee unmix’d libations pour,
And Jill with od’rous fumes the fragrant air.
Around
* It way
ufual in ali
folemn fa¬
crifices and
prayers to
begin with
invoking
Ycffg*
POE
Around in Jeftive fongs tlie hymning choir
Mix the melodious voice and founding lyre,
While ftill, prolong’d with hofpitable love,
Are folemniz’d the rites of genial Jove :
Then guard him, Vella, through his long career,
And let him dole in joy his miniilerial year,
Efode I.
But hail, Arcefilas ! all hail
To thee, blefs’d father of a fon fo great!
Thou whom on fortune’s higheft fcale
The favourable hand of heav’n hath fet,
Thy manly form with beauty hath refin’d,
And match’d that beauty with a valiant mind.
Yet let not man too much prefume,
Tho’ grac’d with beauty’s faireft bloom ;
Tho’ for fuperior drength renown’d j
Tho’ with triumphal chaplets crown’d :
Let him remember, that, in flelh array’d,
Soon lhall he fee that mortal veftment fade j
Till loft, imprifon’d in the mould’ring urn,
To earth, the end of all things, he return.
- Strophe II.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
T R Y.
Part II.
Strophe III.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
But who could err in prophefying good v
Of him, whofe undegenerating breaft
Swells with a tide of Spartan blood,
From fire to fire in long fucceflion trac’d
Up to Pifander $ who in days of yore
From old Amyclse to the Lelbian Ihore
And Tenedos, colleagu’d in high command
With great Oreftes, led th’ Alolian band ?
Nor was his mother’s race lefs ftrong and brave,
Sprung from a flock that grew on fair * Ifmenus’ wave.* Ifmenu$
was a river
Antistrophe III.
Tho’ for long intervals obfcur’d, again
Oft-times the feeds of lineal worth appear.
For'neither can the furrow’d plain
Full harvefts yield with each returning year 5
Nor in each period will the pregnant bloom
Inveft the fmiling tree with rich perfume.
So, barren often, and inglorious, pafs
The generations of a noble race ;
While nature’s vigour, working at the root,
In after-ages fwells, and bloffoms into fruit.
of Eoeotia,
of vvhich
country was
Menatip-
pus, the an-
ceftor of A-
riftagoras
by the mo¬
ther’s (ide.
Yet fliould the -worthy from the public tongue
Beceive their recompenfe of virtuous praife ;
By ev’ry zealous patriot fung,
And’deck’d with ev’ry flow’r of heav’nly lays.
Such retribution in return for fame,
Such, Ariftagoras, thy virtues claim,
Claim from thy country on whofe glorious brows
The wreftler’s chaplet ftill unfaded blows ;
Mix’d with the great Pancratiaftic crown,
Which from the neighb’ring youth thy early valour won.
Antistrophe II. *
And (but his timid parents’ cautious love,
Difturbing ever his too forward hands,
Forbade their tender fon to prove
The toils of Pythia or Olympia’s fands),
1- A river. Now by the Gods I fwear, his valorous might
Upon whofe Had ’fcap’d vi&orious in each bloody fight;
banks the from Caftaliaf, or where dark with fhade
Pythian ^The mount of Saturn J rears its olive head,
exhibited™ Great and illuftrious home had he return’d ;
+ A fmall While, by his fame eclips’d, his vanquilh’d foes had
hill planted [mourn’d,
with olives,
that over- EpODE II.
looked the
ftadium at Xhen his triumphal treffes bound
Olympia, the dark verdure of th’ Olympic grove,
With joyous banquets had he crown’d
The great quinquennial feftival of Jove j
And cheer’d the folemn pomp with choral lays,
Sweet tribute, which the mufe to virtue pays.
But, fuc-h is man’s prepoft’rous fate !
Now, with o’er-weening pride elate,
Too far he aims Ins fhaft to throw,
And ftraining burfts his feeble bow :
Now pufillanimous deprefs’d with fear,
He checks his virtue in the mid career;. /
And of his ftrength diftruftful, coward Hies
The conteft, tho’ empow’rd to gain the prize.
Epode III.
Nor hath Jove giv’n us to foreknow
When the rich years of virtue {hall fucceed :
Yet bold and daring on we go,
Contriving fchemes of many a mighty deed $
While hope, fond inmate of the human mind,
And felf-opinion, aftive, rafti, and blind,
Hold up a falfe illufive ray,
That leads our dazzled feet aftray
Far from the fprings, where, calm and flow,
The fecret ftreams of wifdom flow.
Hence fliould we learn our ardour to reftrain,
And limit to due bounds the thirft of gain.
To rage and madnefs oft that paflion turns,
Which with forbidden flames defpairing burns.
I3I
From the above fpecimen, and from what we have Diftinguuh-
already faid on this fubjeft, -the reader will perceive, ir g charac-
that odes of this fort are diftinguiflied by the happy tersofit‘
tranfitions and digrefllons which they admit, and the
furprifing yet natural returns to the fubjeft. This re¬
quires great judgment and genius j and the poet who
would excel in this kind of writing, fliould draw the
plan of his poem, in manner of the argument we have
above inferted, and mark out the places where thofe
elegant and beautiful failles and wanderings.may be
made, and where the returns will be eafy and proper.
Pindar, it is univerfally allowed, had a poetical and
fertile imagination, a warm and enthufiaftic genius, a
bold and figurative expreflion, and a concife and fen-
tentious ftyle : but it is generally fuppofed'that many
of thofe pieces which procured him fuch extravagant
praifes and extraordinary teftimonies of efteetn from
the ancients are loft •, and if they were not, it would be
perhaps impoffible to convey them into our language 5
for beauties of this kind, like plants of an gdoriferous
and delicate nature, are not to be tranfplanted into ano¬
ther clime without lofing much of their fragrance or
eflential quality.
With
Part II, POE
Of Lyric With regard to thofe compofitions which are ufually
. , called Pindaric odes, (but which ought rather to be di-
flinguilhed by the name of irregular odes'), we have'
Modem many in our language that deferve particular commen-
odes com- Nation : the criticifm which Mr Congreve has given us
ledEi d^" °n t^at ^uoje(^:’ ^ias tow rnuc^ asperity and too great
, jc 1 a" latitude ; for if other writers have, by miftaking Pin¬
dar’s meafures, given their odes an improper title, it
is a crime, one would think, not fo dangerous to the
commonwealth of letters as to deferve fuch fevere re¬
proof. Befide which, we may fuppofe that fome of
thefe writers did not deviate from Pindar’s method
through ignorance, but by choice ; and that,as their
odes were not to be performed with both finging and
dancing, in the manner of Pindar’s, it feemed unnecef-
fary to confine the firft and fecond ftanzas to the fame
exaft number as was done in his flrophes and anti-
ftrophes. The poet therefore had a right to indulge
himfelf with more liberty : and we cannot help thinking,
that the ode which Mr Dryden has given us, entitled,
Alexander's Feajl, or the Power of Mufic, is altogether
as valuable in loofe and wild numbers, as it could have
been if the ftanzas were more regular, and written in
the manner of Pindar. In this ode there is a wonder¬
ful fublimity of thought, a loftinefs and fweetnefs of
expreflion, and a moft pleafing variety of numbers.
’Twas at the royal feaft, for Perfia won
By Philip’s warlike fon,
Aloft, in awful ftate,
The god-like hero fate
On his imperial throne :
His valiant peers were plac’d around j
Their brows with rofes and with myrtles bound,
(So fhould defert in arms be crown’d) :
The lovely Thais by his fide
Sat like a blooming eaftern bride,
In flow'r of youth and beauty’s pride.
Happy, happy, happy pair !
None but the brave,
None but the brave,
None but the brave deferve the fair.
Chor. Happy, Happy, See.
'Timotheus, plac’d on high
Amid the tuneful quire,
With flying fingers touch’d the lyre :
The trembling notes afeend the Iky,
And heav’nly joys infpire.
The fong began from Jove,
Who left his blifsful feats above,
(Such is the pow’r of mighty love !)
A dragon’s fiery form bely’d the god :
Sublime on radiant fpires he rode,
When he to fair Olympia prefs’d ;
And while he fought her fnowy breaft :
Then round her (lender waift he curl’d,
And damp’d an image of himfelf, a fovereign of the
world,
The lift’ning crowd admire the lofty found.
A prefent deity, they Ihout around ;
A prefent deity, the vaulted roofs rebound :
With ravilh’d ears
The monarch hears,
Wol. XVII. Part I.
T R Y.
Aflumes the gou,
Affedts to nod, ,
And feems to (hake the fpheres.
Chor. With ravijh'd ears, &c.
The praife of Bacchus then the fweet tnufician fung;
Of Bacchus ever fair and ever young :
The jolly god in triumph comes ;
Sound the trumpets, beat the drums :
Flufh’d with a purple grace,
He (hows his honeft face :
Now give the hautboys breath; he comes, he comes !
Bacchus, ever fair and young,
Drinking joys did firft ordain :
Bacchus’ bleflings are a treafure,
Drinking is the foldier’s pleafure :
Rich the treafure,
Sweet the pleafure :
Sweet the pleafure after pain.
Chor. Bacchus'1 hleffings, &c.
Sooth’d with the found, the king grew vain,
• Fought all his battles o’er again ;
And thrice he routed all his foes, and thrice he flew
the flain.
The mafter law the madnefs rife ;
His glowing cheeks, his ardent eyes ;
And while he heav’n and earth defy’d,
Chang’d his hand, and check’d his pride.
He chofe a mournful mufe
Soft pity to infule :
He fung Darius great and good,
By too fevere a fate,
Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen,
Fallen from his high eftate,
And welt’ring in his blood ;
Deferted at his utmoft need,
By thofe his former bounty fed,
On the bare earth expos’d he lies,
With not a friend to clofe his eyes.
With downcaft looks the joylefs vi&or fat,
Revolving in his alter’d foul
The various turns of chance below ;
And noAV- and then a figh he Hole,
And tears began to flow.
Chor. Revolving, &.c.
The mighty mafter fmil’d to fee
That love was in the next degree :
’Twas but-a kindred found to move ;
For pity melts the mind to love.
Softly fweet, in Lydian meafures :
Soon he footh’d his foul to pleafures.
War, he fung, is toil and trouble ;
Honour but an empty bubble,
Never ending, ftill beginning,
Fighting ftill, and llill deftroying.
If the world be worth thy winning,
Think, O think, it worth enjoying.
Lovely Thais fits befide thee,
T.ake the good the gods provide thee.
The many rend the Ikies with loud applaufe-;
So love was crown’d, but mufic won the caufe.
The prince, unable to conceal his pain.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
Gaz’d on the fair,
Who caus’d his care,
B
And
lO
Of Lyric
Poetry.
POETRY.
And figh’d ana Iook u, ngn’a ana iootC'cl,
Sigh’d and look’d, and figh’d again:
At length with love and wine at once opprefs’d,
The vanquilh’d vi&or funk upon her bread.
Chor. T/ie prince, &c.
Notv flrike the golden lyre again j
A louder yet, and yet a louder drain.
Break his bands of deep afunder,
And roufe him, like a rattling peal of thunder.
Hark ! hark ! the horrid found
Has rais’d up his head,
As awake from the dead,
And amaz’d he dares around.
Revenge, revenge, Timotheus cries,
See the furies arife :
See the brakes that they rear,
How they hifs in their hair,
And the fparkles that dadi from their eyes!
Behold a ghadly band,
Each a torch in his hand !
Thofe are Grecian ghods that in battle were flain,
And unbury’d remain.
Inglorious on the plain :
Give the vengence due
To the valiant crew.
Behold how they tofs their torches on high,
How they point to the Perfian abodes,
And glitt’ring temples of their hodile gods.
The princes applaud with a furious joy 5
And the king feiz’d a flambeau, with zeal to dedroy $
Thais led the way
To light him to his prey,
And, like another Helen, die fir’d another Troy.
Chor. And the king feirfd, &c.
Thus long ago,
Ere heaving bellows learnt to blow,
While organs yet were mute j
Timotheus, to his breathing dute,
And founding lyre,
Could fwell the foul of rage, or kindle foft defire.
At lad divine Cecilia came,
Inventrefs of the vocal frame j
The fweet enthufiad, from her facred dore,
Enlarg’d the former narrow bounds,
And added length to folemn founds,
With nature’s mother-wit,and artsunknownbefore.
Let old Timotheus yield the prize,
Or both divide the crown :
He rais’d a mortal to the Ikies j
She drew an angel down.
Grand chor. At See.
There is another poem by Dryden, on the death of
Mrs Anne Killegrew, a young lady eminent for her
{kill in poetry and painting, which a great critic * has
\ Dr John- pronounced to be « undoubtedly the nobled ode that
our language has ever produced.” He owns, that as
a whole it mav perhaps be inferior to Alexander's Feaji;
but he affirms'that the fird danza of it is fuperior to any
fingle part of the other. This famous danza, he fays, fiows
with a torrent of enthufiafm : Fervet immenfufque ruit.
How far this criticifm is jud, the public mud determine.
L
Thou younged virgin-daughter of the Ikies,
Made ip the lad promotion of the blefs’d j
Whofe palms, new-pluck’d from Paradife,
In fpreading branches more fublimely rife,
Rich with immortal green above the red j
Whether, adopted to feme neighb’ring liar,
Thou roll’d above us, in thy wand’ring race*
Or in proceffion fix’d and regular,
Mov’d with the heav’n’s majedic pace;
Or call’d to more fuperior blifs,
Thou tread’d with feraphims the vad abyfs:
Whatever happy region is thy place,
Ceafe thy celedial fong a little fpace;
Thou wilt have time enough for hymns divine.
Since heaven’s eternal year is thine.
Hear then a mortal mufe thy praife rehearfe
In no ignoble verfe ;
Bat fuch as thy own voice did pra&ife here.
When thy fird fruits of poefy were giv’n
To make thyfelf a welcome inmate there,
While yet a young probationer,
And candidate of heav’n.
II.
If by tradu&ion came thy mind,
Our wonder is the lefs to find
A foul fo charming from a dock fo good j
Thy father was transfus’d into thy blood,
So wert thou born into a tuneful drain,
An early, rich, and inexhauded vein.
But if thy pre-exiding foul
Was form’d at fird with myriads more,
It did through all the mighty poets roll,
Who Greek or Latin laurels wore,
And was that Sappho lad which once it was before.
If fo, then ceafe thy flight, O heaven-born mind !
Thou had no drofs to purge from thy rich ore,
Nor can thy foul a fairer manfion find,
Than was the beauteous frame Ihe left behind
Return to fill or mend the choir of thy celedial kind
HI.
May we prefume to fay, that, at thy birth.
New joy was fprung in heav’n, as well as here on earth ?
For fure the milder planets did combine
On thy aufpicious horofeope to fliine,
And e’en the mod malicious were in trine.
Thy brother angels at thy birth
Strung each his lyre, and tun’d it high,
That all the people of the Iky
Might know a poetefs was born on earth.
And then, if ever, mortal ears
Had heard the mufic of the fpheres.
And if no clud’ring fvvarm of bees
On thy fweet mouth diddl’d their golden dewq
’Twas that fuch vulgar miracles
Heav’n had not leifure to renew :
For all thy blefs’d fraternity of love
Solemniz’d there thy birth, and kept thy holy day abovK
IV.
O gracious God ! how far have we
Profan’d thy heav’nly gift of poefy ?
Made proditute and profligate the Mufe,
Debas’d to each obfeene and impious ufe,
Whofe harmony was fird ordain’d above
For tongues of angels, and for hymns of love ?
O wretched me! why were we hurry’d down
This lubriqtte and adult’rate aga,
(my
Part II.
Of Lyric
Poetry.
nd.^
h?
}
POETRY.
Part TL
Of Lyric
Poetrv.
lild. }
(Nay added fat pollutions of our own)
T’increafe the dreaming ordures of the ftage !
What can we fay t’excufe our fecond fall ?
Let tliis thy veilal, Heav’n, atone for all:
Her Arethufian dream remains unfoil’d,
Unmix’d with foreign filth, and undefil’d}
Her wit was more than man, her innocence a child
V.
Art die had none, yet wanted none j
For nature did that want fupply :
So rich in treafure of her own,
She might our beaded dores defy :
Such noble vigour did her verfe adorn,
That it feem’d borrow’d where rtwas only borfl-.
Her morals, too, were in her bofom bred,
By great examples daily fed,
What in the bed of books, her father’s life die read.
And to be read herfeif, (he need not fear;
Each ted, and every light, her Mufe will bear,
Tho’ Epictetus with his lamp were there.
E’en love (for love fometimes her Mufe exprefs’d)
Wras but a lambent dame which play’d about her bread,
Light as the vapours of a morning dream,
So cold herfeif, while (he fuch warmth exprefs’d,
■’Twas Cupid bathing in Diana’s dream.
VI.
Born to the fpacious empire of the Nine,
One would have thought Ihe fhould have been content
To manage well that mighty government ;
But what can young ambitious fouls confine ?
To the next realm die dretch’d her fway,
For Painture near adjoining lay,
A plenteous province and alluring prey.
A Chamber of Dependencies was fram’d.
(As conquerors will never want pretence,
When arm’d, to judify th’ offence)
And the whole fief, in right of poetry, die claim’d.
The country open lay without defence :
For poets frequent inroads there had made,
And perfedlly could reprefent
The lhape, the face, with ev’ry lineament,
And all the large domains which the dumb fjier fway’d.
All bow’d beneath her government,
Receiv’d in triumph wherefoe’er die went.
Her pencil drew rvhate’er her foul defign’d.
And oft the happy draughtfurpafs’d the image in her mind.
The fylvan fcenes of herds and docks,
And fruitful plains and barren rocks,
Of diallow brooks that fiow’d fo clear,
The bottom did the top appear;
Of deeper too, and ampler hoods,
Which, as in mirrors, fhow’d the woods:
Of lofty trees, with facred (hades,
And perfpe&ives of pleafant glades,
Where nymphs of brighted: form appear,
And fhaggy fatyrs danding near,
Which them at once admire and fear.
The ruins too of fome majedic piece,
Boading the power of ancient Rome or Greece,
Whofe datues, friezes, columns, broken lie,
And, though defac’d, the wonder of the eye ;
What nature, art, bold fi&ion, e’er durd frame,
Her forming hand gave feature to the name.
So drange a concourfe ne’er was feen before,
But when the peopl'd ark the whole creation bore.
}
1
1
VII.
The fcene then chang’d, with bold ere fled look
Our martial king the fight with rev’rence druck:
For not content t’exprefs his outward part
Her hand call’d out the image of his heart :
His warlike mind, his foul devoid of fear,
His high-deligning thoughts were figur’d there,
As when, by magic, ghods are made appear.
Our phoenix queen was pourtray’d too fo bright,
Beauty alone could beauty take fo right:
Her drefs, her diape, her matchlefs grace,
Were all obferv’d, as vrell as heav’nly face.
With fuch a peerlefs majedy (he dands.
As in that day (he took the crown from facred hands j
Before a train of heroines was feen,
In beauty foremod, as in rank, the queen.
Thus nothing to her genius was denied,
But like a ball of fire the further thrown,
Still with a greater blaze (he (hone,
And her bright foul broke ©ut on ev’ry fide.
What next (he had defign’d, Heav’n only knows : T
To fuch iramod’rate growth her conqued rofe, 5-
That fate alone its progrefs could oppofe. j
VIII.
Now all thofe charms, that blooming grace,
The well-proportion’d diape, and beauteous face,
Shall never more be feen by mortal eyes;
In earth the much lamented virgin lies.
Nor wit nor piety could fate prevent j
Nor was the cruel Deftiny content
To finilh all the murder at a blow,
To fweep at once her life and beauty too $
But like a harden’d felon, took a pride
To work more mifehievoufly dow
And plunder’d fird, and then dedroy’d.
O double facrilege on things divine,
To rob the relick, and deface the dirine !
But thus Orinda died :
Heav’n, by the fame difeafe, did both tranflatc j
As equal were their fouls, fo equal was their fate.
IX.
Meantime her warlike brother on the feas
His waving dreamers to the winds difplays.
And vows for his return, with vain devotion, pays.
Ah generous youth ! that wi(h forbear.
The winds too foon will waft thee here !
Slack all thy fsiils, and fear to come,
Alas, thou know’d not, thou art wreck’d at home l
No more (halt thou behold thy fider’s face,
Thou had already had her lad embrace.
But look aloft, and if thou kenn’d from far,
Among the Pleiads a new kindled dar,
If any fparkles than the red more bright,
’Tis die that dimes in that propitious light.
When in mid-air the golden trump diall found.
To raife the nations under ground j
When in the valley of Jeholhaphat,
The judging God (hall clofe the book of fate j
And there the lad q/fifes keep
For thofe who wake and thofe who deep :~
When rattling bones together fly
From the four corners of the fky ;
When finews o’er the Ikeletons are fpread,
Thofe cloth’d with fleih, and life infpires the dead ;
B 2 The
I X
Of Lyric
Poetry.
12
P o
Of Lyric Xhe facred poets firfl thall hear the found,
t>‘jetr-y' And foremoft from the tomb fliall bound,
For they are cover’d with the lighteft ground 5
And ftraight with in-born vigour, on the wing,
Like mounting larks to the new morning fing.
There thou, fweet faint, before the quire {halt go
As harbinger of heav’n, the way to thow,
The way which thou fo well halt learnt ,below.
}
1
That this is a fine ode, and not unworthy of the ge¬
nius of Dryden, muft be acknowledged ; but that it is
the nobleft which the Englifh language has produced,
or that any part of it runs with the torrent of enthufi-
afm which characterizes Alexander1 s Feaji, are pofitions
which w’e feel not ourfelves inclined to admit. Had the
critic by whom it is fo highly praifed, infpeCted it with
the eye which fcanned the odes of Gray, we cannot
help thinking that he would have perceived fome parts
of it to be tediouily minute in defcription, and others
not very perfpicuous at the firft perufal. It may per¬
haps, upon the whole, rank as high as the following ode
by Collins on the Popular Superflitions of the High¬
lands of Scotland 5 but to a higher place it has furely no
claim.
I.
Home, thou return’d from Thames, whofe Naiads long
Have feen thee ling’ring with a fond delay,
Mid thofe foft friends, whofe heart fome future day,
Shall melt, perhaps,-to hear thy tragic fong,
Go, not unmindful of that cordial youth (g)
Whom, long endear’d, thou leav’ft by Lavant’s fide j
Together let us wifh him lafting truth,
And joy untainted with his defiin’d bride.
Go ! nor regardlefs, while thefe numbers boaft
My fliort-liv’d blifs, forget my focial name j
But think, far off, how’, on the fouthern coafi,
I met thy friendff.ip with an equal flame !
♦ whofe. Frefti to that foil thou turn’ll, where * ev’ry vale
Shall prompt the poet, and his fong demand :
To thee thy copious fubjcCfs ne’er {hail fail;
Thou need’ll but take thy pencil to thy hand,
And paint what all. believe who own thy genial land.
II.
There muff thou wake perforce thy Doric quill 5
’Tis fancy’s land to which thou fett’lf thy feet ;
Where {till, ’tis faid, the Fairy people meet,
Beneath each birken {hade, on mead or hill.
There, each trim lafs, that fkims the milky ftore,
To the fwart tribes their creamy bowl allots;
By night they fip it round the cottage-door,
While airy minftrels warble jocund notes.
"TRY. Part II.
There, ev’ry herd, by fad experience, knows, Of Lyric
How, wing’d with Fate, their elf {hot arrows fly, ^ Pot‘try-
When the fiek ewe her fummer food foregoes, " " ~f
Or, llretch’d on earth, the h<?art-fmit heifers lie.
Such airy beings awe th’ untutor’d fwain :
Nor thou, tho’learn’d, his homelier thoughts negleft :
Let thy fweet Mufe the rural faith fuflain ;
Thefe are the themes of fimple, fure effeiff,
That add new conquefts to her boundlefs remn,
And fill, with double force, her heart-commanding
HI. [ftrain.
Ev’n yet preferv’d, how often may’ft thou hear,
Where to the pole the Boreal mountains run,
Taught by the father to his lift’ning fon,
Strange lays, whofe pow’r had charm’d a Spenfer’s ear.
At ev’ry paufe, before thy mind poffeft,
Old Runic bards (hall feem to rife around,
With uncouth lyres in many-colour’d veft,
Their matted hair with boughs fantaflie erown’d :
Whether thou bid’ll the well-taught hind repeat
The choral dirge that mourns fome chieftain brave,
When ev’ry {hrieking maid her bofom beat,
And ffrew’d with choiceft herbs his fcented grave j
Or whether fitting in the fhepherd’s fhiel (h),
Thou hear’ft fome founding tale of war’s alarms*
When, at the bugle’s call, with fire and fteel,
The fiurdy clans pour’d forth their £r«,ttwy * fwarms* * bony
And hoflile brothers met to prove each other’s arms,
IV.
’Tis thine to fing how framing hideous fpells,
In Sky’s lone ifle the gifted wizzard-/eer-f-, f fits.
Lodgm in the wintry cave with Fate’s fell fpear(l),
Or in the depth of Uill’s dark foreft dw'ells :
How they whofe fight fueh dreary dreams engrofs,
With their own vifions oft aitonilh’d droop,
When, o’er the wat’ry ftrath, or quaggy mofs,
They fee the gliding g-hofts unbodied % troop. J embodied.
Or, if in fports, or on the feftive green,
Their glance fome fated youth defcry, § piercing.
Who now, perhaps, in lufty vigour feen,
And rofy health, thall foon lamented die.
For them the viewlefs forms of air obey j
Their bidding heed, and at their beck repair.
They know what fpirit brews the ftormful day,
And heartlefs, oft like moody madnefs, Hare
To fee the phantom train their fecret work prepare,
V.
To monarchs dear (k), fome hundred miles affray,
Oft have they feen Fate give the fatal blow !
The feer in Sky ftiriek’d as the blood did flow
When headlefs Charles warm on the fcaffold lay !
As-
(g) A gentleman of the name of Barrow, who introduced Home to Collins.
(H^ A fummer hut, built in the high part of the mountains, to tend their flocks in the warm feafon, when the
pafiure is fine.
(O Waiting in wintery cave his wayward fits.
'k) Of this beautiful ode two copies have been printed : one by Dr Carlyle, from a manulcript which he ac¬
knowledges to be mutilated ; another by an editor who feems'to hope that a nameleis fomebody will be believed,
when he declares, that “ he difcovered a perfeB copy of this admirable ode among fome old papers in the concealed
drawers of a bureau left him by a relation.” The prefent age has been already too much amufed with pretend¬
ed difcoveries of poems in the bottoms of old chejls, to pay full credit to an affertion of this kind, even though
the fcene of difcovery be laid in. a bureau. As the ode of the anonymous editor differs however very little
from that of Dr Carlyle, and as what is affirmed by a gentleman may be true, though “ he chooles not at
Part II. POE.
Of Lyric As Boreas thn:w his young Aurora (l) forth,
Poetry. in the firft year of the firft George’s reign,
^n(i battles rag’d in welkin of the North,
They mourn’d in air, fell, fell rebellion, (lain !
And as of late they joy’d in Prefton’s fight,
Saw at fad Falkirk all their hopes near crown’d !
They rav’d divining through their fecond-fight (m).
Pale, red Culloden, where thefe hopes were drown’d!
Illuftrious William (n) ! Britain’s guardian name !
One William fav’d us from a tyrant’s ftroke 5
' He, for a fceptre, gain’d heroic fame,
But thou, more glorious, Slavery’s chain haft broke,
To reign a private man, and bow to Freedom’^ yoke !
VL
Thefe, too, thou’lt fang ! for well thy magic mufe
Can to the topmoft heav’n of grandeur foar !
Or ftoop to wail the fwain that is no more !
Ah, homely fwains ! your homeward fteps ne’er loofe 5
Let not dank JVt// (o) miflead you to the heath r
Dancing in mirky night, o’er fen and lake,
He glows, to draw you downward to your death,
In his bewitch’d, low, marftiy, willow brake !
What though far off, from fome dark dell efpied,
His glimm’ring mazes cheer th’ excurfive fight,
Yet turn, ye wand’rers, turn your fteps afide,
Nor truft the guidance of that faithlefs light j
For watchful, lurking, ’mid th’ unruftling reed,
At thofe mirk hours the wily monfter lies.
And liftens oft to hear the pafling fteed.
And frequent round him rolls his iullen eyes,
If chance his favage wrath may fome weak wretch furprife.
VII.
Ah, lucklefs fwain, o’er all unbleft, indeed !
Whom late bewilder’d in the dank, dark fen,
Far from his flocks, and fmoking hamlet, then !
* his way- 'j'o that dark fpot * where hums the /edgy weed.
ward fate
ihall lead.
TRY. 1}
On him, enrag’d, the fiend, in angry mood,
Shall never look with pity’s kind concern,
But inftant, furious, raife the whelming flood
O’er its drown’d banks, forbidding all return !
Or, if he meditate his wifli’d efcape,
To fome dim hill that feems uprifing near,
To his faint eye, the grim and grifly fhape.
In all its terrors clad, (hall wild appear.
Meantime the wat’ry furge fhall round him rife,
Pour’d hidden forth from ev’ry fwelling fource !
What now remains but tears and hopelefs fighs ?
His fear-fhook limbs have loft their youthly force,
And down the waves he floats, a pale andbreathlefscorfe!
VIII.
For him in vain his anxious wife ftiall wait,
Or wander forth to meet him on his way ;
For him in vain, at to-fall of the day,
His babes (hall linger at th’ unclofing gate!
Ah, ne’er {hall he return ! Alone, if night,
Her travell’d limbs in broken {lumbers fteep !
With drooping willows dreft, his mournful fprite
Shall vifit fad, perchance, her filent fleep :
Then he, perhaps, with moift and wat’ry hand,
Shall fondly feem to prefs her fhudd’ring cheek,
And with his blue-fvvoln face before her ftand,
And, fliiv’ring cold, thefe piteous accents fpeak :
“ Purfue, dear wife, thy daily toils purfue,
“ At dawn or dufk, induftrious as before ;
“ Nor e’er of me one * helpiefs thought renew, * hapleft.
“ While I lie welt’ring on the ozier’d ihore,
“ Drown’dby thekelpie’sf wrath,nore’erlhallaidthee the water
IX. [more!’’fierd.
Unbounded is thy range j with varied (hill * * ftyle.
Thy mufe may, like thofe feath’ry tribes which fpring
From their rude rocks, extend her Ikirting wing
Round the moift marge of each cold Hebrid ifle,
To
Of Lyric
Poetry.
prefent to publifli his name,” we have inftrted into our work the copy which pretends to be perfetft, noting at the
bottom or margin of the page the different readings of Dr Carlyle’s edition. In the Doflor’s manufeript, which
appeared to have been nothing more than the pn'ma cura, or firft {ketch of the poem, the fifth ftanza and half of
the fixth were wanting-, and to give a continued context, he prevailed with Mr M‘Kenzie, the ingenious author
of the Mart of Feeling, to fill up the chafm. This he did by the following beautiful lines, which we cannot help
thinking much more happy than thofe which occupy their place in the copy faid to be perfect :
O’er the dire whirlpool, that in ocean’s wafte,
Draws inftant down whatever devoted thing
The falling breeze within its reach hath plac’d —
The diftant feaman hears, and flics with trembling hafte.
Or if on land the fiend exerts his fway,
Silent he broods o’er quickfand, bog, or fen,
Far from the ftielt’ring roof and haunts of men,
When witched darknefs {huts the eye of day,
And fhrouds each ftar that wont to cheer the night 5
Or if the drifted frrow perplex the way,
With treaeh’rous gleam he lures the fated wight
And leads him flound’ring on and quite aftray.”
(l) By young Aurora, Collins undoubtedly meant the firft appearance of the northern lights, which, is com-,
monly faid to have happened about the year 1715.
(m! Second-fight is the term that is ufed for the divination of the Highlanders.
(n) The late duke of Cumberland, who defeated the Pretender at the battle of Culloden.
(o) A fiery meteor, called by various names, fuch as Will with the Wifp, Jack with the Lanthorn, &c. It ho¬
vers in the air over marftiy and fenny places..
“ Or on fome bellying rock that {hades the deep,
They view the lurid figns that crofs the Iky,
Where in the weft the brooding tempefls lie ;
And hear their firft, faint, ruftling pennons fweep.
Or in the arched cave, where deep and dark
The broad unbroken billows heave and fwell,
In horrid mufings wrapt, they fit to mark
The lab’ring moon y or lift the nightly yell
Of that dread fpirit, whofe gigantic form
The feer’s entranced eye can well furvey.
Through the dim air who guides the driving ftorm,
And points the wretched bark its dellin’d prey.
Or him who hovers on his flagging wing,
A
t
H •• POE
Of Lyric To that hoar pile (p) which ftill its ruin Hiovvs :
t Jn \vhofe ftnall vaults a pigmy-folk is found,
Whofe bones the delver with his fpade upthrows,
And culls them, wond’ring, from the hallow’d ground !
Or thither (Q_), where beneath the fhow’ry w'efl,|
The mighty kings of three fair realms are laid :
Once foes, perhaps, together now they reft,
No flaves revere them, and no wars invade :
Yet frequent now, at midnight folemn hour,
The rifted mounds their yawning cells unfold.
And forth the monarchs ftalk with fov’reign pow’r
In pageant robes; and, wreath’d with ftieeny gold,
And on their twilight tombs aerial council hold.
X.
But, oh ! o’er all, forget not Kilda’s race,
On whofe bleak rocks, which brave the wafting tides,
Fair Nature’s daughter. Virtue, yet abides.
Go ! juft, as they, their blamelefs manners trace !
Then to my ear tranfmit fome gentle fong.
Of thofe whofe lives are yet fincere and plain.
Their bounded walks the rugged cliffs along,
And all their profpefft but the wint’ry main.
With fparing temp’rance at the needful time,
They drain the fcented fpring ; or, hunger-preft,
Along th’ Atlantic rock, undreading, climb,
* See #rVd-Ancl 0f its eggs defpoil the folan’s neft*.
catching^ Thus, blett in primal innocence, they live,
^Pdicarms, Suffic’d, and happy with that frugal fare
N° 3. ’ Which tafteful toil and hourly danger give.
Hard is their fliallow foil, and bleak and bare
Nor ever vernal bee Avas heard to murmur there !
XI.
Nor need’ll thou blufli that fuch falfe themes engage
Thy gentle mind, of fairer {lores poffeft ;
For not alone they touch the village breaft,
But fill’d in elder time th’ hiftoric page.
There, Shakefpeare’s felf, Avith every garlandcroAvn’d,
F/eiv to thofe fienj climes his fancy /been (r),
In mufing hour ; his Avayward fillers found,
And with their terrors drefs’d the magic fcene.
From them he fung, when, ’mid his bold defign,
Before the Scot, afffidied, and aghaft !
The {hadowy kings of Banquo’s fated line,
Thr«’ the dark cave in gleamy pageant pafs’d.
Proceed ! nor quit the tales, Avhich, Amply told,
Could once fo Avell my anfw’ring bofom pierce ;
Proceed, in forceful founds, and colours bold,
The native legends of thy land rehearfe ;
To fuch adapt thy lyre, and fuit thy poAv’rful verfe.
XII.
In fcenes like thefe, Avhich, daring to depart
From fober truth, are fiill to nature true,
And call forth frefti delight to fancy’s vieAV,
Th’ heroic mufe employ’d her Taffo’s art !
T R Y.
Part 11.
How have I trembl’d, when, at Tancc-d’s ftroke. Of Lyric
Its gufhing blood the gaping cyprels pour’d, Poetry.
When each live plant with mortal accents fpoke, v~~
And the wild blaft upheav’d the vanifh’d fword !
Hoav have I fat, Avhen pip’d the penfive Avind,
To hear his harp by Britiftr Fairfax ftrung !
Prevailing poet ! Avhofe undoubting mind,
Believ’d the magic Avonders Avhich he fung !
Hence, at each found, imagination gloAvs !
Hence, at each pi€lure, vivid life Jlarts here ! (s)
Hence his Avarm lay Avith fofteft fweetnefs flows !
Melting it ffows, pure, murmuring *, ftrong, and clear, * numer-
And fills th’ impaffian’d heart, and wins th’ harmonious0|-,s-
XIII. fear.
All hail, ye fcenes that o’er my foul prevail ! i
Ye fp/endidf friths and lakes, Avhioh, far away,
Are by fmooth Annan J fill’d, or paft’ral Tay J,
Or Don’s romantic fprings, at diftance, hail !
The time ihall come, when I, perhaps, may tread
Your lowly glens *, o’erhung with fpreading broom •, * valleys.
Or o’er your ftretching heaths, by fancy led,
Or o'er your mountains creep, in awful gloom ! (t)
Then will I drefs once more the faded bow’r.
Where Jonfon (u) fat in Drummond’s clajjic f {hade ;f fociaL
Or crop, from Tiviotdale, each lyric floAv’r,
And mourn, on Yarrow’s banks, where Willy's laid% ! f the wi-
Meantime, ye pow’rs that on the plains Avhich bore dowed
The cordial youth, on Lothian’s plains (x), attend ! :
Where’er HOME dwells §, on hill, or lowly moor, § he dwelt
To him I loofe j|, your kind proteftion lend, || i0fe>
And, touch’d Avith love like mine, preferve my abfent
friend !
f fpacious.
J 'Hire* ri¬
vers in
Scotland.
Dr Johnfon, in his life of Collins, informs us, that
Dr Warton and his brother, Avho had feen this ode in
the author’s poffeflion, thought it fuperior to his other
Avorks. The tafte of the Wartons Avill hardly be que-
ftioned : but Ave are not fure that the folloAving Ode to
the Pujfons has much lefs merit, though it be merit of a
different kind, than the Ode on the Superftitions of the
Highlands :
WHEN Mufic, heav’nly maid, Avas young.
While yet in early Greece (he fung,
The Paffions oft, to hear her ftiell,
Throng’d around her magic cell,
Exulting* trembling, raging, fainting,
Poffeft beyond the Mufe’s painting ;
By turns they felt the gloAving mind
Difturb’d, delighted, rais’d, refin’d.
Till once, ’tis faid, Avhen all Avere fir’d,
Fill’d Avith fury, rapt, infpir’d.
From the fupporting myrtles round
They fnatch’d her inftruments of found :
And
(p) One of the Hebrides is called the Ife of Pigmies, Avhere it is reported, that feveral miniature bones of the
human fpecies have been dug up in the ruins of a chapel there.
(qj Tcolmkill, one of the Hebrides, Avhere many of the ancient Scottifli, Irilh, and NoTAvegian kings, are faid
to be interred.
(r) Tift line Avanting in D^* Carlyle’s edition.
(s) This line Avanting in Dr Carlyle’s edition.
(t) This line Avanting in Dr Carlyle’s edition.
(u) Ben Jonfon paid a vifit on foot in J619 to the Scotch poet Drummond, at his leat of HaAVthornden, within
feven miles of Edinburgh.
(x) Barrow, it feems, was at the univerfity of Edinburgh, which is in the county of Lothian.
Part II. P O
Of Lyric And as they oft had heard apart
Poetry. Sweet leffons of her forceful art,
’ Each, for madnefs rul’d the hour,
Would prove his own expreflive power.
Firfl: Fear his hand, its fldll to try,
Amid the chords bewilder’d laid,
And back recoil’d, he knew not why,
Ev’n at the found himfelf had made.
Next Anger rulh’d ; his eyes on fire,
In lightnings own’d his fecret flings j
In one rude clafli he ftruck the lyre,
And fwept with hurried hand the firings. '
With woeful meafures wan Defpair—
Low fullen founds his grief beguil’d 5
A folemn, flrange, and mingled air ;
’Twas fad by fits, by flarts ’twas wild.
But thou, O Hope ! with eyes fo fair,
What was thy delighted meafure ?
Still it whifper’d promis’d pleafure,
And bade the lovely feenes at diflance hail !■—
Still would her touch the drain prolong,
And from the rocks, the wmods, the vale,
She call’d on Echo flill through all her fong $
And where her fweeteft theme fhe chofe,
A foft refponfive voice wa* heard at every clofe,
And Hope enchanted fail’d, and wav’d her golden hair.
And longer had (he fung ^—but, with a frown,
Revenge impatient rofe ;
He threw his blood-flain’d fword in thunder down,
And, with a withering look,
The war-denouncing trumpet took,
And blew a blatl fo loud and dread,
Were ne’er prophetic founds fo full of woe.
And ever and anon he beat
The doubling drum vdth furious heat;
And though fometimes, each dreary paufe between,
Dejefted Pity at his fide
Her foul-fubduing voice applied,
Yet flill he kept his wild unalter’d mien,
While each ftrain’d ball of fight feem’d burfling from
his head.
Thy numbers, Jealoufy, to nought were fix’d,
Sad proof of thy dillrefsful flate ;
Of differing themes the veering fong was mix’d 5
And now it courted Love, now raving call’d on Hate.
With eyes up-rais’d, as one infpir’d,
Pale Melancholy fat retir’d,
And from her wild fequefter’d feat,
In notes by diflance made more fweet.
Pour’d through the mellow horn her penfive foul,
And dafhing fbft from rocks around,
Bubbling runnels join’d the found ;
Through glades and glooms the mingled meafure Hole,
Or o’er fome haunted ftreams with fond delay,
Round an holy calm diffufing,
Love of peace, and lonely mufing,
In hollow murmurs died away.
But O ! how alter’d was its fprightlier tone !
When Cheerfulnefs, a nymph of healthiefl hue.
Her bow acrofs her fhoulder flung,
Her bufkins gemm’d with morning dew,
T R 15
Blew an infpiring air, that dale and thicket rung, Of Lyric
The hunter’s call to Faun and Dryad known $ . Foc'try‘ .
The oak-crown’d fifters, and their chafte-ey’d queen.
Satyrs and fylvan boys ivere feen,
Peeping from forth their alleys green 5
Brown Exercife rejoic’d to hear,
And Sport leapt up, and feiz’d his beechen fpear.
I.aft came Joy’s ecftatic trial $
He, with viny crown advancing,
Firfl; to the lively pipe his hand addreft,
But foon he faw the brifk awakening viol,
Whofe fweet entrancing voice he lov’d the befl.
They would have thought who heard the ftrain,
They faw in Tempe’s vale her native maids,
Amidfl: the feftal founding fhades,
To fome unwearied minflrel dancing,
While, as his flying fingers kifs’d the firings,
Love fram’d with Mirth a gay fantaftic round :
Loofe were her treffes feen, her zone unbound}
And he amidft his frolic play,
As if he would the charming air repay,
Shook thoufand odours from his dewy wings.
O mufic ! fphere-defeended maid,
Friend of pleafure, wifdom’s aid,
Why, Goddefs, why to us denied ?
Lay’ft thou thy ancient lyre afide ?
As in that lov’d Athenian bower,
You learn’d an all-commanding power':
Thy mimic foul, O Nymph endear’d,
Can well recal what then it heard.
Where is thy native Ample heart,
Devote to virtue, fancy, art ?
Arife, as in that elder time,
Warm, energic, chafle, fublime !
Thy wonders, in that god-like age,
Fill thy recording filter’s page—
’Tis faid, and I believe the tale,
Thy humblefl: reed could more prevail,
Had more of ftrength, diviner rage,
Than all which charms this laggard age y
Ev’n all at once together found
Caecilia’s mingled world of found—
O ! bid our vain endeavours ceafe,
Revive the juft defigns of Greece,
Return in all thy fimple ftate !
Confirm the tales her fons relate.
We fhall conclude this feflion, and thefe examples,
with Gray’s Progre/s ofPoefy, which, in fpite of the ie-
verity of Johnfon’s criticifa, certainly ranks high among
the odes which pretend to fublimity. The firft ftanza,
when examined by the frigid rules of grammatical criti-
cifa, is certainly not faultlefs: but its faults will be
overlooked by every reader who has any portion of the
author’s fervour :
I. I.
Awake, ALolian lyre, awake,
And give to rapture all thy trembling firings:
From Helicon’s harmonious fprings
A thoufand rills their mazy progrefs take;
The laughing flowers, that round them blow,
Drink life and fragrance as they flow.
Now the rich ftream of mufic winds along,
Deep, majeftic, faooth, and ftrong,
Thro’
§6
Of Lyric
Poetry,
P O E T Pv Y.
Part II.
Thro’ verdant vales, and Ceres’ golden reign :
Now rolling down the fteep amain,
Headlong, impetuous, fee it pour :
The rocks and nodding groves rebellow to the roar.
I. 2.
Oh ! Sovereign of the willing foul.
Parent of fweet and fblemn-breathing airs.
Enchanting fhell ! the fullen cares,
And frantic paflions, hear thy foft controul.
On Thracia’s hills the lord of war
Has curb’d the fury of his car,
And dropp’d his thirfty lance at thy command.
Perching on the feeptred hand
Of Jove, thy magic lulls the feather’d king
With ruffled plumes, and flagging wing :
(Quench’d in dark clouds of Humber lie
The terror pf his beak, and lightnings of his eye.
!. 3-
Thee the voice, the dance, obey.
Temper’d to thy warbled lay :
O’er Idalia’s velvet green
The rofy-crowned loves are feen.
On Cytherea’s day,
With antic fports, and blue^ey’d pleafures,
Frifking light in frolic meafures j
Now purfuing, now retreating,
Now in circling troops they meet ;
To brilk notes, in cadence beating,
Glance their many twinkling feet.
Slow melting ft rains their queen’s approach declare :
Where’er {he turns, the Graces homage pay.
With arms fublirae, that float upon the air,
In gliding ftate Are wins her eafy way :
o ’er her warm cheek, and rifing bofom, move
The bloom of young delire, and purple light of love.
IT. i.
Man’s feeble race what ills await •,
Labour, and penury, the racks of pain,
Difeafe, and forrow’s weeping train,
And death, fad refuge from the ftorms of fate.!
The fond complaint, my fong, difprove,
And juftify the laws of Jove.
Say, has he giv’n in vain the heav’nly mufe ?
Night, and all her fickly dews,
Her fpeftres wan, and birds of boding cry,
He gives to range the dreary Iky :
Till down the eaftern cliffs afar,
Hyperion’s march they fpy, and glitt’ring (hafts of war.
II. 2.
In climes beyond the folar road,
Where fhaggy forms o’er ice-built mountains roam,
The Mufe has broke the twilight-gloom.
To cheer the ftuv’ring native’s dull abode.
And oft, beneath the od’rous (hade
Of Chili’s boundlefs forefts laid,
She deigns to hear the favage youth repeat,
In loofe numbers wildly fweet,
Their feather-cin&ur’d chiefs, and dulky loves.
Her track, where’er the goddefs roves,
Glory purfue, and gen’rous ftiame,
Th’ unconquerable mind, and freedom’s holy flame.
II. 3- .
Woods, that wave o’er Delphi’s fteep,
liles, that crown the /Egean deep,
Of Lyric
Poetry,
Fields, that cool Iliffus-laves,
Or where Mgeander’s amber waves
In ling’ring lab’rinths creep,
How do your tuneful echoes languifti,
Mute, but to the voice of anguifh !
Where each old poetic mountain
Infpiration breath’d around ;
Ev’ry fhade and -hallow’d fountain
Murmur’d deep a folemn found :
Till the fad nine, in Greece’s evil hour.
Left their Parnaffus for the Latian plains. >
Alike they fcorn the pomp of tyrant power,
And coward vice that revels in her chains.
When Latium had her lofty fpirit loft,
They fought, oh Albion ! next thy fea-encircled coaft.
HI. i.
Far from the fun, and fummer-gale,
In thy green lap was nature’s * darling laid, * Shake.
What time, rvhere lucid Avon ftray’d, fpeare.
To him the mighty mother did unveil
Her awful face : the dauntlefs child
Stretch’d forth his little, arms, and fmil’d.
This pencil take ({he faid) whofe colours clear
Richly paint the vernal year :
Thine too thefe golden keys, immortal boy !
This can unlock the gates of joy j
Of horror that, and thrilling fears,
Or ope the facred fource of fympathetic tears.
III. 2.
Nor fecond he f, that rode fublime | Milton,
Upon the feraph wings of ecftacy,
The fecrets of th’ abyfs to fpy.
He pafs’d the flaming bounds of place and time :
The living throne, the fapphire blaze,
Where angels tremble while they gaze,
He faw : but, blafted with excefs of light,
Clos’d his eyes in endlefs night.
Behold, where Dryden’s lefs prefumptuous car,
Wide o’er the fields of glory bear
Two courfers of ethereal race,
With necks in thunder cloth’d, and long-refounding
pace.
HI. 3.
Hark, his hands the lyre explore !
Bright-ey’d fancy, hov’ring o’er,
Scatters from her piftur’d urn
Thoughts that breathe, and words that burn.
But ah ! ’tis heard no more—
Oh ! Lyre divine, what daring fpirit
Wakes thee now ? tho’ he inherit
Nor the pride, nor ample pinion,
That the Theban eagle bear,
Sailing with fupreme dominion
Through the azure deep of air :
Yet oft before his infant eyes would run
Such forms as glitter in the Mufe’s ray,
With orient hues, unborrow’d of the fun :
Yet (hall he mount, and keep his diftant way
Beyond the limits of a vulgar fate,
Beneath the good how far—but far above the great.
Sect. III. Of the Elegy.
The Elegy is a mournful and plaintive, but yet fweet I33
and engaging, kind of poem. It was firft invented tollie eleSy'
bewail
i
Part IL
POE
134
How to be
made.
bewail the death of a friend j and afterwards ufed to ex-
prefs the complaints of lovers, or any other melancholy
fubjecf. In procefs of time, not only matters of grief,
but joy, wilhes, prayers, expoftulations, reproaches, ad¬
monitions, and almoft every other fubjeft, were admit¬
ted into elegy •, however, funeral lamentations and af¬
fairs of love feem moll agreeable to its charafter, which
is gentlenefs and tenuity.
The plaintive elegy, in mournful flate,
D’lhevell’d weeps the flern decrees of fate :
Now paints the lover’s torments and delights y
Now the nymph flatters, threatens, or invites.
But he, who would thefe paflions well exprefs,
Mull more of love than poetry poffefs.
I hate thofe'lifelefs writers whofe forc’d fire
In a cold ftyle deferibes a hot delire ;
Who figh by rule, and, raging in cold blood.
Their fluggilh mufe fpur to an am’rous mood.
Th eir ecftafies infipidly they feign y
And always pine, and fondly hug their chain ;
Adore their prifon, and their fuff’rings blefs )
Make fenfe and reafon quarrel as they pleafe.
’Twas not of old in this affedfled tone,
That fmooth Tibullus made his am’rous moan ;
Or tender Ovid, in melodious {trains,
Of love’s dear art the pleafing rules explains.
You, who in elegy would juftly write,
Confult your heart y let that alone endite.
\_From the French of Defpreux.] SoAMES.
The plan of an elegy, as indeed of all other poems,
ought to be made before a line is written y or elfe the
author will ramble in the dark, and his verfes have no
dependence on each other. No epigrammatic points or
conceits, none of thofe fine things which mod people are
fo fond of in every fort of poem, can be allowed in this,
but tnuft give place to nobler beauties, thofe of nature
and the pttfjions. Elegy rejects whatever is facetious,
fatirical, or majeftic, and is content to be plain, decent,
and unaffected y yet in this humble ftate is Are fweet and
engaging, elegant and attractive. This poem is adorn¬
ed wuth frequent commiferations, complaints, exclama¬
tions, addreffes to things or perfons, fliort and proper ui-
greffions, allujions, comparifons, profopopceias or feigned
perfons, and fometimes with fliort deferiptions. The
diCtion ought to be free from any harfhnefs; neat, eafif,
perfpicuous, exprejjive o f the manners, tender, and pathe¬
tic ; and the numbers ftiould be fmooth and flowing, and
captivate the ear with their uniform fweetnefs and deli¬
cacy.
Of elegies on the fubjeCt of death, that by Mr Gray,
written in a country churchyard, is one of the belt that
has appeared in our language, and may be juftly efteem-
ed a mafterpiece. But bring fo generally known, it
would be fuperfluous to infert it here.
On the fubjeCt of love, we (hall give an example from
the elegies of Mr Hammond.
Let others boaft their heaps of Alining gold,
And view their fields with waving plenty crown’d,
Whom neighb’ring foes in conflant terror hold,
And trumpets break their (lumbers, never found :
While, calmly poor, I trifle life away,
Enjoy fweet leifure by my cheerful fire.
No wanton hope my quiet ftiall betray,
But cheaply blefs’d I’ll fcorn each vain defire.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
TRY. 17
With timely care I’ll fow my little field, Elegy.
And plant my orchard with its mafter’s hand y ——
Nor blufti to fpread the hay, the hook to wield,
Or range my {heaves along the funny land.
If late at dulk, while carelelsly I roam,
I meet a {{rolling kid or bleating lamb,
Under my arm I’ll bring the wand’rer home,
And not a little chide its thoughtlefs dam*
What joy to hear the ternpeft howl in vain,
And clafp a fearful miltrefs to my breaft ?
Or lull’d to {lumber by the beating rain,
Secure and happy fink at laft to reft.
Or if the fun in flaming Leo rifle,
By ftrady rivers indolently ftray,
And, with my Delia walking fide by fide,
Hear how they murmur, as they glide away.'
What joy to wind along the cool retreat,
To flop and gaze on Delia as I go !
To mingle fweet difeourfe with kiffes fweet,
And teach my lovely fcholar all I know !
Thus pleas’d at heart, and not with fancy’s dream.
In filent happinefs I reft unknown y
Content with what I am, not what I feem,
I live for Delia and myfelf'alone.
Ah foolifh man ! who, thus of her poffefs’d,
Could float and wander with ambition’s wind,
And, if his outward trappings fpoke him bleft,
Not heed the fjeknefs of his confcious mind.
With her I fcorn the idle breath of praife,
Nor truft to happinefs that’s not our own 5
The fmile of fortune might fufpicion raife,
But here I know that I am lov’d alone.
Stanhope, in wifdom as in wit divine,
May rife and plead Britannia’s glorious caufe,
With fteady rein his eager wit confine,
While manly fenfe the deep attention draws.
Let Stanhope fpeak his lift’ning country’s wrong.
My humble voice (hall pleafe one partial maid y
For her alone I pen my tender fong,
Securely fitting in his friendly {hade.
Stanhope {hall come, and grace his rural friend ;
Delia (hall wonder at her noble gueft,
With bluftung awre the riper fruit commend,
And for her hufband’s patron cull the beft.
Her’s be the care of all my little train,
While I with tender indolence am bleft,
The favourite fubjeft of her gentle reign,
By love alone diftingui(h’d from the reft.
For her I’ll yoke my oxen to the plough,
In gloomy forefts tend my lonely flock,
For her a goatherd climb the mountain’s browq
And fleep extended on the naked rock.
Ah ! what avails to prefs the (lately bed,
And far from her ’midft taftelefs grandeur weep,
By marble-fountains lay the penfive head.
And, while they murmur, drive in vain to
fleep !
Delia alone can pleafe and never tire,
Exceed the paint of thought in true delight j
With her, enjoyment wakens new defire,
And equal rapture glows thro’ ev’vy night,
Beauty and worth in her alike contend
To charm the fancy, and to fix the mind ;
In her, my wife, my miflrefs, and my friend,
I tafte the joys of fenfe and reafon join’d.
On
POETRY.
Part II.
Paftoral.
T35
The pafto-
ral.
*3*
Wliy it ge¬
nerally
pleafes.
137
Jts charac¬
ters and
On her I’ll gaze when others loves are o’er,
And dying prefs her with my clay-cold hand —
Thou weep’ll already, as I were no more,
Nor can that gentle bread the thought withftand.
Oh ! when I die, my lateft moments 1'parc,
Nor let thy grief with fliarper torments kill :
Wound not thy cheeks, nor hurt that flowing hair j
Tho’ I am dead, my foul fliall love thee dill.
Oh quit the room, oh quit the deathful bed,
Or thou wilt die, fo tender is thy heart !
Oh leave me, Delia ! ere thou fee me dead,
Tkefe weeping friends tvill do thy mournful part.
Let them, extended on the decent bier,
Convey the covfe in melancholy date,
Thro’ all the village fpread the tender tear,
While pitying maids our wond’rous love relate.
Sect. IV. Of the Pafora/.
This poem takes its name from the Latin word pajlor,
a “ fhepherd the fubject of it being fomething in the
padoral or rural life ; and the perfons, interlocutors, in¬
troduced in it, either fliepherds or other ruflics. .
Thefe poems are frequently called eclogues, which fig-
nifies “ fele£t or choice pieces }” though lome account
for this name in a different manner. They are alfo call¬
ed bucolics, from BaxoAej, “ a herdfman,”
This kind of poem, when happily executed, gives
great delight •, nor is it a wonder, fince innocence and
limplicity generally pleafe : to which let us add, that the
fcenes of padorals are ufually laid in the country, where
both poet and painter have abundant matter for the ex-
ercife of genius, fuch as enchanting profpefts, purling
dreams, fliady groves, enamelled meads, flowery lawns,
rural amufements, the bleating of flocks, and the mufic
of birds j which is of all melody the mod fweet and
pleating, and calls to our mind the wifdom and tafle of
Alexander, who, on being importuned to hear a man
that imitated the notes of the nightingale, and was
thought a great curiofity, replied, that he had had the
happinefs of hearing the nightingale herfelf
The chara&er of the pafloral confids in fimplicity,
brevity, and delicacy ; the two firfl render fn eclogue
natural, and the lad delightful. With refpea to na¬
ture, indeed, we are to confider, that as a pafloral is an
image of the ancient times of innocence and undefign-
ing plainnefs, we are not to defcribe fhepherds as they
really are at this day, but as they may be conceived
then to have been, when the bed of men, and even
princes, followed the employment. For this reafon, an
air of piety fliould run through the whole poem j which
is vifible in the writings of antiquity.
To make it natural with refpeft to the prefent age,
fome knowledge in rural affairs fhould be difcovered,
and that in fuch a manner as if it was done by chance
rather than by defign ; led by too much pains to feem
natural, that fimplicity be deflroyed from whence arifes
the delight ; for what is fo engaging in this kind of
poefy proceeds not fo much from the idea of a coun¬
try life itfelf, as in expofing only the bed part of a fhep-
herd’s life, and concealing the misfortunes and miferies
which fometimes attend it. Befides, the fubjeft mud con¬
tain fome particular beauty in itfelf, and each eclogue
prefent a fcene or profpedt to our view enriched with
variety : which variety is in a great meafure obtained Paftoral.
by frequent comparifons drawn from the mod agreeable l__" * f
objects of the country •, by interrogations to things in¬
animate } by fhort and beautiful digreflions j and by
elegant turns on the words, which render the numbers
more fweet and pleafing. To this let us add, that the
conne£tions mult be negligent, the narrations and de-
fcriplions fliort, and the periods concife.
Kiddles, parables, proverbs, antique phrafes, and fu-
perftitious fables, are fit materials to be intermixed with
this kind of poem. They are here, when properly ap¬
plied, very ornamental 5 and the more fo, as they give
our modern compofitions the air of the ancient manner
of writing. 13&
The flyle of the pafloral ought to be humble, yetftyle,
pure } neat, but not florid j eafy, and yet lively : and
the numbers fliould be fmooth and flowing.
This poem in general fliould be fliort, and ought
never much to exceed 100 lines *, for we are to confi-
der that the ancients made thefe fort of compofitions
their amufement, and not their bufinefs : but however
fliort they are, every eclogue mud contain a plot or
fable, which mud be Ample and one 5 but yet fo ma¬
naged as to admit of fliort digreflions. Virgil has al¬
ways obferved this. We fliall give the plot or ar¬
gument of his firfl padoral as an example. Melibceus,
an unfortunate fhepherd, is introduced with Tityrus, one
in more fortunate circumjlances ; the former addreffes the
complaint of his fujferings and bamfhment to the latter,
who enjoys his fiocks and folds in the midjl of the public
calamity, and therefore exprejfes his gratitude to the be-
nefaBor from whom this favour flowed: but Meliboeus
accufes fortune, civil wars, and bids adieu to las native
country. This is therefore a dialogue.
But we are to obferve, that the poet is not always
obliged to make his eclogue allegorical, and to have real
perfons reprefented by the fictitious characters intro¬
duced 5 but is in this refpeCt entirely at his own li¬
berty.
Nor does the nature of the poem require it to be al¬
ways carried on by way of dialogue 5 for a ftiepherd
may with propriety ling the praifes of his love, complain
of her inconflancy, lament her abfence, her death, &c.
and addrefs himfelf to groves, hills, rivers, and fuch like
rural objeCts, even when alone.
We fliall now give an example from each of thofe au¬
thors who have eminently diflinguiftied themfelves by
this manner of wuriting, and introduce them in the order
of time in which they were written. . _ i39
Theocritus, who was the father or inventor of this Examples
kind of poetry, has been defervedly efieemed by the of the pa-
bed critics; and by fome, whofe judgment we.cannot^heocrhS
difpute, preferred to all other pafloral writers, with^per¬
haps the Angle exception of the tender and delicate .
Gefner. We fliall infert his third idyllium, not becaufe
it is the bed, but becaufe it is within our compafs.
To Amaryllis, lovely nymph, I fpeed,
Meanwhile my goats upon the mountains feed.
O Tityrus, tend them with afliduous eare,
Lead them to crydal fprings and pafiures fair,
And of the ridgling’s butting horns beware.
Sweet Amaryllis, have you then forgot
Our fecret pleafures in the confcious grott,
Part II.
POE
Paftoral. Where in my folding arms you lay reclin’d
Bleft was the (hepherd, for the nymph was kind.
I whom you call’d your Dear, your Love, fo late,
Say, am I now the object of your hate ?
Say, is my form difpleafing to your fight ?
This cruel love will furely kill me quite.
Lo ! ten large apples, tempting to the view,
Pluck’d from your favourite tree, where late they grew
Accept this boon, ’tis all my prefent (lore }
To-morrow will produce as many more.
Meanwhile thefe heart-confuming pains remove,
And give me gentle pity for my love.
Oh ! was I made by fome transforming power
A bee to buzz, in your fequeiler’d bow’r !
To pierce your ivy (hade with murmuring found,
And the light leaves that compafs you around.
I know thee, Love, and to my forrow find,
A god thou art, but of the favage kind $
A lionefs fure fuckled the fell child,
And with his brothers nurd him in the wild j
On me his fcorching flames inceflant prey,
Glow in my bones, and melt my foul away.
Ah, nymph, whofe eyes deftrudlive glances dart,
Fair is your face, but flinty is your heart:
With kifles kind this rage of love appeafe ;
For me, fond Twain ! ev’n empty kifles pleafe.
Your fcorn diftradts me, and will make me tear
The flow’ry crown I wove for you to wear,
Where rofes mingle with the ivy-wreath,
And fragrant herbs ambrofial odours breathe.
Ah me ! what pangs I .feel *, and yet the fair
Nor fees my forrows nor will hear my pray’r.
I’ll doff my garments, fince I needs mull die,
And'from yon rock that points its fummit high,
Where patient Alpis fnares the finny fry,
I’ll leap, and, though perchance I rife again,
You’ll laugh to fee me plunging in the main.
By a prophetic poppy-leaf I found
Your chang’d affedlion, for it gave no found,
Though in my hand ftruck hollow as it lay,
But quickly wither’d like your love away.
An old witch brought fad tidings to my ears,
She who tells fortunes with the fieve and ftieers ;
For leafing barley in my fields of late,
She told me, I fhould love, and you fhould hate !
For you my care a milk-white goat fupply’d.
Two wanton kids run frifking at her fide ;
Which oft the nut-brown maid, Erithacis,
Has begg’d and paid before-hand with a kifsj
And fince you thus my ardent pafiion flight,
Her’s they fhall be before to-morrow night.
My right eye itches ; may it lucky prove,
Perhaps I foon fhall fee the nymph I love j
Beneath yon pine I’ll fing diftinft and clear,
Perhaps the fair my tender notes fhall hear j
Perhaps may pity my melodious moan $
She is not metamorphos’d into ftone.
Hippomenes, provok’d by noble ftrife,
To win a miftrefs, or to lofe his life,
Thre w golden fruit in Atalanta’s way :
The bright temptation caus’d the nymph to flay j
She look’d, (he languiih’d, all her foul took fire,
She plung’d into the gulf of deep defire.
To Pyle from Othrys fage Melampus came.
He drove the lowing herd, yet won the dame ;
1
T R Y.
Fair Pero bleft his brother Bias’ arms,
And in a virtuous race diffus’d unfading charms.
Adonis fed his cattle on the plain,
And fea-born Venus lov’d the rural iwain *,
She mourn’d him wounded in the fatal chace,
Nor dead difmifs’d him fyom her warm embrace.
Though young Endymion was by Cynthia bleft,
I envy nothing but his lading reft.
Jafion flumb’ring on the Cretan plain
Ceres once faw, and bleft the happy fwain
With pleafures too divine for ears profane.
My head grows giddy, love affe&s me fore $
Yet you regard not •, fo I’ll fing no more 
Here will I put a period to my care—
Adieu, falfe nymph, adieu ungrateful fair *,
Stretch’d near the grotto, when I’ve breath’d my laft,
My corfe will give the wolves a rich repaft,
As fweet to them as honey to your tafte.
Fawkes.
r4®
Virgil fucceeds Theocritus, from whom he has in Virgil,
fome places copied, and always imitated with fuccefs.
As a fpecimen of his manner, we fhall introduce his firft
paftoral, which is generally allowed to be the moft per-
fefl.
Meliboeus and Tityrus.
Me/. Beneath the lhade which beechen boughs diffufe,
You, Tityrus, entertain your fylvan mufe.
Round the wide world in banifhment we roam,
Forc’d from our pleafing fields and native home ;
While ftretch’d at eafe you fing your happy love?,
And Amyrillis fills the fhady groves.
Tit. Thefe bleflings, friend, a deity beftow’d ■,
For never can I deem him lefs than god.
The tender firftling of my woolly breed
Shall on his holy altar often bleed.
He gave me kine to graze the flow’ry plain,
And fo my pipe renew’d the rural ftrain.
Mel. I envy not your fortune j but admire,
That while the raging fword and wafteful fire
Peftroy the wretched neighbourhood around,
No hoftile arms approach your happy ground.
Far diff’rent is my fate •, my feeble goats
With pains I drive from their forfaken cotes :
And this you fee I fcarcely drag along,
Who yeaning on the rocks has left her young,
The hope and promife of my falling fold.
My lofs by dire portents the gods foretold j
For, had I not been blind, I might have feen
Yon riven oak, the faireft on the green,
And the hoarfe raven on the blafted bough
By croaking from the left prefag’d the coming blow.
But tell me, Tityrus, what heav’nly pow’r
Preferv’d your fortunes in that fatal hour ?
Tit. Fool that I was, I thought imperial Rome
Like Mantua, where on market-days we come,
And thither drive our tender lambs from home.
So kids and whelps the fires and dams exprefs $
And fo the great I meafur’d by the lefs:
But country-towns, compar’d with her, appear
Like fhrubs when lofty cyprefles are near.
Mel. What great occafion call’d you hence to Rome ?
Tit. Freedom, which came at length, tho’ flow to
come:
C 2
}
Nor
20 POE
Paftoral. Nor did my fearch of liberty begin
V'_". Till my black hairs were chang’d upon my chinj
Nor Amaryllis would vouchfafe a look,
Till Galatea’s meaner bonds I broke.
Till then a "helplefs, hopelc’fs, homely Twain,
I h-eght ftot freedom, nor afpir’d to gain.:
, Tho’ many a vidlim from my folds was bought,
And many a cheefe to country markets brought,
Yet all the little that I got I fpent,
And llill return’d as empty as I went.
Me/. We Hood amaz’d to fee your mill refs mourn,
Unknowing that (he pin’d for your return •,
We wonder’d why fhe kept her fruit fo long,
For whom fo late th’ ungather’d apples hung:
But now the wonder ceafes, fince I fee
She kepi them only, Tityrus, for thee:
For thee the bubb’ling fprings appear’d to mourn,
And whifp’ring pines made vows for thy return.
Tit. What Ihould I do? while here I was enchain’d,
i No glimpfe of godlike liberty remain’d j
Nor could I hope in any place but there
To find a god fo prefent to my pray’r.
There firft the youth of heav’nly birth I view’d,
For whom our monthly victims are renew’d.
He heard my vows, and gracioufly decreed
My grounds to be reftor’d my former flocks to feed
Me/. O fortunate old man! whofe farm remains
For you fufficient, and requites your pains,
Though rushes overfpread the neighboring plains,
Tho’ here the marfhy grounds approach your fields,
And there the foil a ftony harveft yields.
Your teeming ewes {hall no ftrange meadows try,
Nor fear a rot from tainted company.
Behold yon bord’ring fence of fallow trees
Is fraught.with flow’rs, thaflow’rs are fraught with bees:
The bufy bees, with a foft murm’ring ftrain,
Invite to gentle fieep the lab’ring Twain:
While from the neighb’ring rock with rural fongs
The pruner’s voice the pleafing dream prolongs;
Stock doves and turtles tell their am’rous pain,
And, from the lofty elms, of love complain.
Tit. Th’ inhabitants of feas and Ikies (hall change,
And fifh on fhore and flags in air fliall range,
The banifh’d Parthian dwell on Arar’s brink,
And the blue German fliall the Tigris drink;
Ere I, forfaking gratitude and truth,
Forget the figure of that godlike youth.
Ale/. But we muft beg our bread in climes unknown,
Beneath the feorching or the freezing zone;
And fome to far Oaxis {hall be fold,
Or try the Libyan heat or Scythian cold;
The reft among the Britons be confin’d,
A race of men from all the world disjoin’d.
O! muft the wretched exiles ever mourn!
Nor after length of rolling years return ?
Are we condemn’d by Fate’s unjuft decree,
No more our houfes and our homes to fee ?
Or {hall we mount again the rural throne,
And rule the country, kingdoms once our own?
Did we for thefe barbarians plant and fow,
On thefe, on thefe, our happy fields beftow ?
Good heaven, what dire effe&s from civil difeordsflow
Now let me graft my pears, and prune the vine:
The fruit is theirs, the labour only mine.
:}
T 11 ' Y.
Farewel my paftnres, my paternal flock!
My fruitful fields, and my more fruitful flock!
No more, my goats, fliall I behold you climb
The fteepy cliffs, or crop the flow’ry thyme;
No more extended in the grot below, ,
Shall fee you browzing on the mountain’s brow
The prickly ftirubs, and after on the bare
Lean down the deep abyfs and hang in air !
No more my flieep ftiall fip the morning dew ;
No more my fong ftiall pleafe the rural crew:
Adieu, my tuneful pipe! and all the world, adieu!
Tit. This night, at leaft, with me forget your care ;
Chefnuts and curds and cream fliall be your fare:
The carpet-ground fliall be with leaves o’erfpread,
And boughs fhall weave a cov’ring for your head :
For fee yon funny hill the {hade extends.
And curling fmoke from cottages afeends.
Dryden
Part IT.
Paftoral.
1
Spenfer was the firft of our countrymen who acquired
any confiderable reputation by this method of writing.
We fhall infert his fixth eclogue, or that for June,
which is allegorical, as will be leen by the
Argument. “ Hobbinol, from a defeription of the
pleafures of the place, excites Colin to the enjoyment
of them. Colin declares himfelf incapable of delight
by reafon of his ill fuccefs in love, and his lofs of Rofa-
lind, who had treacheroufly forfaken him for Menalcas
another ftiepherd. By Tityrus (mentioned before in
Spenfer’s feeond eclogue, and again in the twelfth) is
plainly meant Chaucer, whom the author fometimes
profeffed to imitate. In the perfon of Colin is repre-
fented the author himfelf; and Hobbinol’s inviting him
to leave the hill country, feems to allude to his leaving
the north, where, as is mentioned in his life, he had for
fome time refided.”
Hob. Lo! Colin, here the place, whofe pleafant fight
From other {hades hath wean’d my w'and’ring mind:
Tell me, wThat wants me here, to work delight?
The fimple air, the gentle warbling wind,
So calm, fo cool, as nowhere elfe I find:
The graffy ground with dainty dailies dight,
The bramble-bufh, where birds of every kind
To th’ water’s fall their tunes attemper right.
Co/. O! happy Hobbinol, I blefs thy ftate,
That paradife haft found which Adam loft.
Here wander may thy flock early or late,
Withouten dread of wolves to been ytoft ;
Tby lovely lays here mayft thou freely boaft:
But I, unhappy man! whom cruel fate,
And angry gods, purfue from coaft to coaft.
Can nowhere find to {hroud my lucklefs pate.
Hob. Then if by me thou lift advifed be,
Forfake the foil that fo doth thee bewitch:
Leave me thofe hills, where harbroughnis to fee,
Nor holly bulb, nor brere, nor winding ditch;
And to the dales refort, where fhepherds rich,
And fruitful flocks been everywhere to fee:
Here no night-ravens lodge, more black than pitch,
Nor elvifh ghofts, nor ghaftly owls do flee.
But friendly fairies met with many graces,
And light-foot nymphs can chace the ling’ring night,
With heydegures, and trimly trodden traces;
Whilft fillers nine, which dwell on Parnafi’ height,
Utv
4
Part II.
P O E
Part oral. Do make them^mtfic, for their more delight 5
And Pan hinsfelf to kifs their eryftal /aces,
Will pipe and dance, when Phoebe ihineth bright :
Such peerlefs pleafures have we in thefe places.
Co/. And I whilft youth, and couri'e of cardefs years,
Did let me walk withouten links of love,
In fuch delights did joy among!! my peers :
But riper age fuch pleaiures doth reprove,
My fancy eke from former follies move
To llrayed fteps : for time in paffing wears
(As garments doen, which waxen old above)
And draweth new delights with hoary hairs.
Though couth I fing of love, and tune my pipe
Unto my plaintiv'e pleas in verfes made :
Though would I feek for queen-apples unripe
To give my Rofalind, and in fomraer ihade
Dight gawdy girlonds was my common trade,
To crown her golden locks : but years more ripe,
And lofo of her, whofe love as life I wayde,
Thofe weary wanton toys away did wipe.
Hob. Colin, to hear thy rhymes and roundelays.
Which thou wert wont on wafteful hills to fing,
I more delight, than lark in fommer days :
Whofe echo made the neighbour groves to ring,
And taught the birds, which in the lower fpring
Did (hroud in lhady leaves from junny rays.
Frame to thy fong their cheerful cheriping,
Or hold their peace, for fhame of thy fweet lays.
I faw Calliope with mufes moe,
Soon as thy oaten pipe began to found,
Their ivory lutes and tamburins forego,
And from the fountain, where they fate around,
Ren after haflily thy filver found.
But when they came, where thou thy {kill did!! !how.
They drew aback, as half with fhame confound,
Shepherd to fee, them in their art outgo.
Col. Of mufes, Hobbinol, I con no Ikill.
For they been daughters of the highefi Jove,
And holden fcopn of homely fhepherds quill:
For fith I heard that Pan with Phoebus drove
Which him to much rebuke and danger drove,
I never lilt prefume to Parnafs’ hill,
But piping low, in fiiade of lowly gfove,
I play to pleafe myfelf, albeit ill.
Nought weigh I, who. my fong doth praife or blame,
Ne drive to win renown, or pals the red :
With diepherds fits not follow flying fame,
But feed his flocks in fields, where falls him bed,
I wot my rimes been rough, and rudely dred ;
• The fitter they, my carefpl cafe to frame :
Enough is me to paint out my unreft,
And pour my piteous plaints out in the fame.
The God of fhepherds, Tityrus, is dead,
Who taught me homely, as I can, to make :
He, whilfl he lived, was the fov’reign head
Of diepherds all, that been with love ytake.
Well couth he wail his woes, and lightly flake
The dames which love within his heart had bred,
And tell us merry tales to keep us wake,
The wliile our dieep about us fafely fed.
Now dead he is, and lieth wrapt in lead,
(O why fhould deal’n on him fuch outrage fhow !)
And all his paffing fkill with him is fled,
•Tbe lame whereof doth daily greater grow.
B.ut if on me fome little drops would dow
T II Y. 21
Of that the fpring was in his learned lied, Paftorai.
I feon would learn thefe woods to wail my woe,
And teacli the trees their trickling tears to fhed.
Then would my plaints, caus’d of difcourtefee,
As meffengers of this my painful flight,
Fly to my love, wherever that die be,
And pierce her heart with point of worthy wight
As fhe deferves, that wrought fo deadly fpight.
And thou, Alenalcas, that by treachery
Didft underfong my lafs to wax fe light,
Should’d well be known for fuch thy villany.
But lince I am not, as I with I were,
Ye gentle diepherds, which your flocks do feed,
Whether on hills or dales, or other where,
Bear witnefs all of this fe wicked deed :
And tell the lafs, whofe flower is vvoxe a weed,
And faultlefsFaith is turn’d to faithlefs feerc,
That die the trued iliepherd’s heart made bleed,
That lives on earth, and loved her mod dear.
Hob. O ! careful Colin, I lament thy cafe,
Thy tears would make the harded flint to flow !
Ah ! faithlefs Rofalind, and void of grace.
That art the root of all this rueful woe !
But now is time, I guefs, homeward to go 5
Then rife, ye bleffed flocks, and home apace
Led night with dealing fleps do you forello,
And wet your tender lambs that by you trace. ^
By the following eclogue the reader will perceive that Philip.;.
Mr Philips has, in imitation of Spenfer, preferved in his
pad orals many antiquated words, which, though they
aredifearded from polite converfation, may naturally be
feppofed dill to have place among the diepherds and
other rudics in the country. We have made choice of
his fecund eclogue, becaufe it is brought home to hi*,
own bufinefs, and contains a complaint againd thofe who
had fpoken ill of him and his writings.
Thenot, Colinet.
1/i. Is it not Colinet I lonefome fee
Leaning with folded arms againd the tree ?■
Or is it age of late bedims my fight ?
’Tis Colinet, indeed, in woful plight.
I hy cloudy look, why melting into tears,
Unfeemly, now the fky fe bright appears ?
Why in this mournful manner art thou found,
Unthankful lad, when all things fmile around *
Or bear’d not lark and linnet jointly fing,
1 heir notes blithe-warbling to falute the fpring ?
Co. I ho’ blithe their notes, not fe my wayward fate^'.
N or lark would fing, nor linnet, in my date.
Each creature, Thenot, to his talk is born ;
As they to mirth and rnufie., I to mourn.
Waking, at midnight, I my woes renew,
My tears oft mingling with the falling dew.
1/i. Small caufe, I ween, has ludy youth to plain};
Or who may then the weight of eld fudain,
When every flackening nerve begins to fail,
And the load preffeth as our days prevail ?
Yet though with years my body downward tend,
As trees beneath their fruit in autumn bend,
Spite of my fnowy head and icy veins,
My mind a cheerful temper dill retains •,
And why drould man, midiap what will, repine,
Sour every fweet, and mix with tears his wine ?
But tell me then ; it may relievo thy woe,
To let a friend thine inward ailment know* .
fee,.
2 POE
raftoral. Co. Idly "twill wafte'thee, Thenot, the whole day,
“ v ’ Should’ft thou give ear to all my grief can fay.
Thine ewes will wander ; and the heedlefs lambs,
In loud complaints, require their abfent dams.
Th. See Lightfootj he lhall tend them clofe: and I,
’Tween whiles, acrofs the plain will glance mine eye.
Co. Where to begin I know not, where to end.
Does there one fmiling hour my youth attend ?
Though few my days, as well my follies ftiow,
Yet are thofe days all clouded o’er with wo :
No happy gleam of funfliine doth appear,
My low’ring fky and wint’ry months to cheer.
My piteous plight in yonder naked tree,
Which bears the thunder-fear too plain, I fee:
Quite deftitute it ftands of {belter kind,
The mark of ftorms, and fport of every wind ;
The riven trunk feels not the approach of fpring;
Nor birds among the leaftefs branches fing:
No more, beneath thy (hade, fhall Ihepherds throng
With jocund tale, or pipe, or pleafing fong.
Ill-fated tree ! and more ill-fated I !
From thee, from me, alike the (hepherds fly.
Th. Sure thou in haplefs hour of time tvaft born,
When blightning mildews fpoil the rifing corn.
Or blafting winds o’er bloflbm’d hedge-rows pafs,
To kill the promis’d fruits, and feorch the grafs,
Or when the moon, by wizard charm’d, foreftiows,
Blood-ftain’d in foul eclipfe, impending woes.
Untimely born, ill luck betides thee ftill.
Co. And can there, Thenot, be a greater ill ?
Th. Nor fox, nor wolf, nor rot among our ftieep:
From thefe good ftiepherd’s care his flock may keep j
Again ft ill luck, alas! all forecaft fails *,
Nor toil by day, nor watch by night, avails.
Co. Ah me, the while ! ah me, the lucklefs day .
Ah lucklefs lad ! befits me more to fay.
Unhappy hour ! when frefli in youthful bud,
I left, Sabrina fair, thy filv’ry flood.
Ah filly I! more than my ftieeP»
Which on thy flow’ry banks I wont to keep.
Sweet are thy banks •, oh, when (hall I once more
With raviflr’d eyes review thine amell’d fliore i
When, in the eryftal of thy waters, fcan
Each feature faded, and my colour wan ?
When fhall I fee my hut, the fmall abode
Myfelf did raife and cover o’er with fod ?
Small though it be, a mean and humble cell,
Yet is there room for peace and me to dwell.
Th. And what inticement charm’d thee far away
From thy lov’d home, and led thy heart aftray ?
Co. A lewd defire ftrange lands and fwains to know.
Ah me ! that ever I ftiould covet wo.
With wand’ring feet unbleft, and fond of fame,
I foupht I know not what befides a name.
Th. Or, footh to fay, didft thou not hither rome
In fearch of gains more plenty than at home ?
A rolling ftone is ever bare of mofs ;
And, to their coft, green years old proverbs crofs. _
Co. Small need there was, in random fearch ot gain,
To drive my pining flock athwart the plain
To diftant Cam. Fine gain at length, I trow,
To hoard up to myfelf fuch deal of wo .
My iheep quite fpent through travel and ill fare,
And like their keeper ragged grown and bare,
TRY. Fart IT.
The damp cold green fward for my Rightly bed, t faftoral.
And fome flaunt willow’s trunk to reft my head. v
Hard is to bear of pinching cold the pain ;
And hard is want to the unpraftis'd {'wain ;
But neither want, nor pinching cold, is hard,
To blafting ftorms of calumny compar’d :
Unkind as hail it falls; tiie pelting ftiow’r
Deftroys the tender herb and budding flow’r.
Th. Slander we {hepherds count the vileft wrong ;
And what wounds forer than an evil tongue ?
Co. Untoward lads, the wanton imps of fpite
Make mock of all the ditties I endite.
In vain, O Colinet, thy pipe, fo {brill,
Charms every vale, and gladdens every hill:
In vain thou feek’ft the coverings of the grove,
In the cool ftiade to fing the pains of love :
Sing what thou wilt, ill-nature will prevail j
And every elf hath {kill enough to rail.
But yet, though poor and artlefs be my vein,
Menalcas feems to like my Ample {train :
And while that he delighteth in my fong,
Which to the good Menalcas doth belong,
Nor night nor day {hall my rude mufic ceafe $
I afle no more, fo I Menaleas pleafe.
J'h. Menalcas, lord of thefe fair fertile plains,
Preferves the Iheep, and o’er the {hepherds reigns ;
For him our yearly wakes and feafts we hold,
And choofe the faireft firftlings from the fold j
He, good to all who good deferves, fhall give
Thy flock to feed, and thee at eafe to live,
Shall curb the malice of unbridled tongues,
And bounteoufly reward thy rural fongs.
Co. Firft then fhall lightfome birds forget to fly,
The briny ocean turn to paftures dry,
And every rapid river ceafe to flow,
Ere I unmindful of Menalcas grow.
Th. This night thy care with me forget, and fold
Thy flock with mine, to ward th’ injurious cold.
New milk, and clouted cream, mild cheefe and curd,
With fome remaining fruit of laft year’s hoard,
Shall be our ev’ning fare *, and, for the night.
Sweet herbs and mofs, which gentle fleep invite:
And now behold the fun’s departing ray,
O’er yonder hill, the fign of ebbing day :
With fongs the jovial hinds return from plow ;
And unyok’d heifers, loitering homeward, low.
Mr Pope’s Paftorals next appeared, but in a different Pope7'
drefs from thofe of Spenfer and Philips; for he has dif-
carded all antiquated words, drawn his fwains more mo¬
dern and polite, and made his numbers exquifitely har¬
monious : his eclogues therefore may be called better
poems, but not better paftorals. We {hall infert the ec-
loaue he has inferibed to Mr Wycherly, the beginning
of which is in imitation of Virgil’s firft paftoral.
Beneath the {hade a fpreading beech difplays,
Hylas and A^gon fung their rural lays:
This mourn’d a faithlefs, that an abfent love,
And Delia’s name and Doris fill’d the grove.
Ye Mantuan nymphs, your facred fuccour bring *,
Hylas and /Egon’s rural lays I fing.
Thou, whom the ninfe with Plautus’ wit mfpire,
The art of Terence, and Menander’s fire :
Whofe fenfe inftru&s us, and whofe humour charms,
Whofe judgment fways us, and whofe fpirit warms!
Part II. POE
Paftoral, Oh, feiUM in nature ! fee the hearts of fwains,
u. Their artlefs paffions, and their tender pains.
Now felting Phoebus flione ferenely bright,
And fleecy clouds were ftreak’d with purple light j
When tuneful Hylas, with melodious moan, .
Taught rocks to weep, and made the mountains groan.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
To Delia’s ear the tender notes convey.
As fome fad turtle his loft love deplores,
And with deep murmurs fills the founding Ihores $
Thus, far from Delia, to the winds I mourn.
Alike unheard, unpity’d, and forlorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along l
For her the feather’d quires neglett their fong }
For her, the limes their pleafing (hades deny
For her, the lilies hang their head and die.
Ye flow’rs, that droop forfaken by the fpring j
Ye birds, that left by fummer ceafe to fing *,
Ye trees, that fade when autumn’s heats remove $
Say, is not abfence death to thofe who love ?
Go, gentle gales, and bear thy fighs away !
Curs’d be the fields that caufe my Delia’s flay :
Fade ev’ry bloflom, wither ev’ry tree,
Die ev’ry flow’r and perilh all but (he.
What have I faid ? where’er my Delia flies,
Let fpring attend, and fudden flow’rs arife j
Let opening rofes knotted oaks adorn.
And liquid amber drop from ev’ry thorn.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs along !
The birds lhall ceafe to tune their ev’ning fong.
The winds to breathe, the waving woods to move,
And ftreams to murmur, ere I ceafe to love.
Not bubbling fountains to the thirfty fwain,
Not balmy deep to lab’rers faint with pain,
Not (how’rs to larks, or funftiine to the bee,
Are half fo charming as thy fight to me.
Go, gentle gales, and bear my fighs away !
Come, Delia, come ! ah, why this long delay ?
Through rocks and caves the name of Delia founds j
Delia, each cave and echoing rock rebounds.
Ye pow’rs, what pleafing frenzy foothes my mind !
Do lovers dream, or is my Delia kind ?
She comes, my Delia comes !—now ceafe, my lay j
And ceafe, ye gales, to bear my fighs away !
Next JEgon fung, while Windfor groves admir’d j
Rehearfe, ye mufes, what yourfelves infpir’d.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful drain !
Of perjur’d Doris, dying, I complain :
Here where the mountains, lefs’ning as they rife,
Lofe the low vales, and fteal into the (kies j
While lab’ring oxen, fpent wfith toil and heat,
In their loofe traces from the field retreat;
While curling fmokes from village-tops are feen,
And the. fleet (hades glide o’er the dulky green.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
Beneath yon poplar oft we pafs’d the day !
Oft on the rind I carv’d her am’rous vows,
While (lie with garlands hung the bending boughs:
The garlands fade, the boughs are worn away ;
So dies her love, and fo my hopes decav.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful drain !
Now bright Arfturus glads the teeming grain j
Now golden fruits in loaded branches (hine,
And grateful eluftcrs fwell with floods of wine j
TRY. 23
Now bluftiing berries paint the yellow grove :
Juft gods ! (hall all things yield return but love ?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
The (hepherds cry, “ Thy flocks are left a prey.”—
Ah ! what avails it me the flocks to keep,
Who loft my heart, while I preferv’d my (lieep ?
Pan came, and alk’d, what magic caus’d my (mart,
Or what ill eyes malignant glances dart ?
What eyes but hers, alas ! have pow’r to move ?
And is there magic but what dwells in love ?
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful drains !
I’ll fly from (hepherds, flocks, and flow’ry plains.  
From (hepherds, flocks, and plains, I may remove,
Forfake mankind, and all the world—but love !
I know thee, Love ! wild as the raging main,
More fell than tygers on the Libyan plain :
Thou wert from ^Etna’s burning entrails torn,
Got by fierce whirlwinds, and in thunder born.
Refound, ye hills, refound my mournful lay !
Farewel, ye wmods, adieu the light of day !
One leap from vonder cliff (hall end my pains.
' No more, ye hills, no more refound my (trains !
Thus fung the (hepherds till th’ approach of night,
The (kies yet blulhing with departing light,
When falling dews with fpangles deck the glade,
And the low fun had lengthen’d ev’ry (hade.
r • • X44
To thefe paftorals, which are written agreeably to the Gay.
tafte of antiquity, and the rules above prefcribed, we lhall
beg leave to fubjoin another that may be called Zw/e/yz/e
pajloral, wherein the ingeniousjauthor, Mr Gay, has
ventured to deviate from the beaten road, and defcribed
the (hepherds and ploughmen of our own time and coun¬
try, inftead of thofe of the golden age, to which the
modern critics confine the paftoral. His fix paftorals,
which he calls the Shepherd's Week, are a beautiful and
lively reprefentation of the manners, cuftoms, and notions
of our ruftics. We (hall infert the firft of them, intitled
The Squabble, wherein two clowns try to outdo each
other in tinging the praifes of their fweethearts, leaving
it to a third to determine the controverfy. The perfons
named are Lobbin Clout, Cuddy, and CJoddipole.
Lob. Thy younglings, Cuddy, are but juft awake j
No throttle (brill the bramble-bufti forfake ;
No chirping lark the welkin (been * invokes j * Shining
No damfel yet the fwelling udder ftrokes j or bright
O’er yonder hill does fcant f the dawn appear j
Then why does Cuddy leave his cott fo rear J ? | Early6*
Cud. Ah Lobbin Clout! I ween § my plight is gueft 5 ^ Conceive.
For he that loves, a Jlranger is to rcjl.
If fwains belye not, thou haft prov’d the fmart,
And Blouzalinda’s miftrefs of thy heart.
This riling tear betokeneth well thy mind j
Thofe arms are folded for thy Blouzalind.
And well, I trow, our piteous plights agree ;
Thee Blouzalinda fmites, Buxorna me.
Lob. Ah Blouzalind! I love thee more by half,
Than deer their fawns, or coavs the new-fall’n calf.
Woe worth the tongue, may blifters fore it gall,
That names Buxoma Blouosalind Avithal.
Cud. Hold, witlefs Lobbin Clout, I thee advife,
Left blifters (ore on thy orvn tongue arife.
Lo yonder Cloddipole, the blithfeme fwain,
The wifeft lout of all the neighb’ring plain !
Panorai.
5
From
24 P
Pad ora1. From Cleddipole we learnt to read the ikies,
^ To know when hail will fall, or winds arife.
* Formerly. fje taught us erd * l^e heifer’s tail to view,
When ituck aloft, that fhow’rs would ftraight enfue :
He firft that ufeful fecret did explain,
That pricking corns foretold the gathering rain.
When fwallows fleet foar high and fport in air,
He told us that the welkin would be clear.
Let Cloddipole then hear us twain rehearfe,
And praife his fweetheart in alternate verfe.
I’ll wager this fame oaken itaif with thee,
That Cloddipole fhall give the prize to me.
Lob. See this tobacco-pouch, that’s lin’d with hair,
Made of the fkin of fleekefl: fallow-deer :
This pouch, that’s tied with tape of reddeft hue,
I’ll wager, that the prize fhall be my due.
Cud. Begin thy carrols, then, thou vaunting flouch :
* Be thine the oaken ftaff, or mine the pouch.
I.ob. My Blouzalinda is the blitheft lafs,
Than primrofe fweeter, or the clover-grafs.
Fair is the king-cup that in meadow blows,
Fair is the daify that befide her grows j
Fair is the gilly-flow’r of gardens fweet $
Fair is the marygold, for pottage meet :
But Blouzalind’s than gilly-flower more fair,
Than daify, marygold, or king-cup rare.
Cud. My brown Buxoma is the feateft maid
That e’er at wake delightfome gambol play’d ;
Clean as young lambkins, or the goofe’s down,
And like the goldfinch in her Sunday gown.
The witlefs lamb may fport upon the plain,
The frifking kid delight the gaping fwain ;
The wanton calf may Ikip with many a bound,
I Nimbleft. And my cur Tray play defteft f feats around :
But neither lamb, nor kid, nor calf, nor Tray,
Dance like Buxoma on the firfl of May.
Lob. Sweet is my toil when Blouzalind is near 5
Of her bereft, ’tis winter all the year.
With her no fultry fummer’s heat I know *,
In winter, when (he’s nigh, with love I glow.
Come, Blouzalinda, eafe thy fwain’s defire,
My fummer’s fhadow, and my winter’s fire !
Cud. As with Buxoma once I work’d at hay,
E’en noon-tide labour feem’d an holiday j
And holidays, if haply flie were gone,
Like worky-days I wifh’d would foon be done.
jVeryfuon. Eftfoons J, O fweetheart kind, my love repay.
And all the year fhall then be holiday.
Lob. As Blouzalinda, in a gamefome mood,
Behind a hay-cock loudly laughing flood,
I (lily ran and fnatch’d a hafty kifs •,
She wip’d her lips, nor took it much amifs.
Believe me, Cuddy, while I’m bold to fay,
Her breath was fweeter than the ripen’d hay»
Cud. As my Buxoma, in a morning fair,
With gentle finger flroak’d her milky care,
§ Wag- I quaintly 5 ftole a kifs •, at firft, ’tis true,
glibly. She frown’d, yet after granted one or two.
Bobbin, I fwear, believe who will my vows,
Her breath by far excell’d the breathing cows.
Lob. Leek to the Welfh, to Dutchmen butter’s dear,
Of Irifh fwains potatoes are the cheer \
Oats for their feafts the Scottifh ftiepherds grind,
Sweet turnips are the food of Blouzalind ;
O E T R Y<
Part IL
While ftie loves turnips, butter I’ll defpife,
Nor leeks, nor oatmeal, nor potatoes prize.
Cud. In good roaft beef my landlord flicks his knife,
The capon fat delights his dainty wife }
Pudding our parfon eats, the fquire loves hare ;
But. white-pot thick is my Buxoma’s fare.
While flie loves white-pot, capon ne’er fhall be.
Nor hare, nor beef, nor pudding, food for me.
Lob. As once I play’d at blind man’s buff, it hapt
About my eyes the towel thick was wrapt :
I mifs’d the fwains, and fuz’d on Blouzalind 5
True fpeaks that ancient proverb, Love is blind.
Cud. As at hot-cockles once I laid me down,
And felt the weighty hand of many a clown $
Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I
Quick role, and'read foft mifchief in her eye.
Lob. On two near elms the flacken’d cord I hung j
Now high, now low, my Blouzalinda fwung •,
With the rude wind her rumpled garment rofe,
And fliow’d her taper leg and fcarlet hofe.
Cud. Acrofs the fallen oak the plank I laid.
And myfelf pois’d againft the tott’ring maid !
High leapt the plank, and down Buxoma fell 5
I fpy’d—but faithful fweethearts never tell.
Lob. This riddle, Cuddy, if thou canft, explain.
This wily riddle puzzles every fwain :
What floxv'r is that which bears the virgin's name,
The richejl metal joined with the fame * ?
Cud. Anfwer, thou carle, and judge this riddle right,
I’ll frankly own thee for a cunning wight :
What jlow'r is that which royal honour craves,
Adjoin the virgin, and 'tis frown on graves f ?
Clod. Forbear, contending louts, give o’er
ftrains j
An oaken ftaff each merits for his pains.
But fee the fun-beams bright to labour warn,
And gild the thatch of goodman Hodge’s barn.
Your herds for want of water ftamd a-dry j
They’re weary of your fongs—and fo am I.
Paftoral.
* MarieolcL
f Rifemary.
your
We have given the rules ufually laid down for pafto-Shenftone.
ral writing, and exhibited fome examples written on this
plan *, but we have to obferve that this poem may take
very different forms. It may appear either as a comedy
or as a ballad. As a paftoral comedy, there is perhaps
nothing which poffeffes equal merit with Ramfay’s
Gentle Shepherd, and we know riot where to find in any
language a rival to the Paforal Bp/lad of Shenftone.
That the excellence of this poem is great can hardly be.
queftioned, fince it compelled a critic, who was never
lavifli of his praife, and who on all occafions was ready
to vilify the paftoral, to exprefs himfelf in terms of
high encomium. “ In the firft part (fays he) are two
paffages, to which if any mind denies its fympathy, it
has no acquaintance with love or nature :
I priz’d every hour that went by,
Beyond all that had pleas’d me before 5
But now they are part, and I figh,
And I grieve that I priz’d them no more.
When forc’d the fair nymph to forego,
What anguifti I felt in my heart !
Yet I thought—but it might not be fo,
’Twas with pain that fire faw me depart. ,
She
Part IT.
POETRY.
2
Paftoral. She gaz’d, as I flowly withdrew,
■y—^ jyj-y j could hardly difcern j
So fweetly the bade me adieu,
I thought that flie bade me return.
“ In the fecond (continues the fame critic) this paflage
has its prettinefs, though it be not equal to the for¬
mer
I have found out a gift for my fair $
I have found where the wood-pigeons breed :
But let me that plunder forbear,
She would fay ’twas a barbarous deed :
For he ne’er could be true, fire averr’d,
Who could rob a poor bird of its young j
And I lov’d her the more when I heard
Such tendernels fall from lier tongue.
Sect. V. Of Dida&ic or Preceptive Poetry.
146
Origin and The method of writing precepts in verfe, and embel-
ufe ofdi- lidring them with the graces of poetry, had its rife, we
a ic poe may fupp0fe) from a due confideration of the frailties and
perverfenefs of human nature j and was intended to en¬
gage the affe&ions, in order to improve the mind and
amend the heart.
Didaflic or preceptive poetry, has been ufually em¬
ployed either to illuftrate and explain our moral duties,
our philofophical inquiries-, our bufinefs and pleafures ;
or in teaching the art of criticifm or poetry itfelf. It
may be adapted, however, to any other fubjeft •, and
may in all cafes, where inftruflion is defigned, be em¬
ployed to good purpofe. Some fubjefts, indeed, are
more proper than others, as they admit of more poe¬
tical ornaments, and give a greater latitude to genius :
but whatever the fubjeft is, thofe precepts are to be
laid down that are the moft ufeful ; and they fliould
follow each other in a natural eafy method, and be de¬
livered in the moft agreeable engaging manner.. What
the profe writer tells you ought to be done, the poet
often conveys under the form of a narration, or ftiows
the necedity of in a defcription 5 and by reprefenting
the a6iion as done, or doing, conceals the precept that
Ihould enforce it. The poet likewife, intlead of tell¬
ing the whole truth, or laying down all the rules that
are requifi'te, fele&s fuch parts only as are the moft
pleading, and communicates the reft indireftly, with¬
out giving, us an open view of them j yet takes care
that nothing (hall efcape the reader’s notice with which
he ought to be acquainted. He difclofes juft enough
to lead the imagination into the parts that are conceal¬
ed ; and the mind, ever gratified with its own difco-
veries, is complimented with exploring and finding them
out ; which, though done with eafe, feems fo confide-
vable, as not to be obtained but in confequpnce of its
147 °wn adroitnefs and fagacity.
Rules to be But this is not fufficient to render didadlic poetry al-
S pleafin£ ; for where precepts are laid down one af-
fition. another, and the poem is of confiderable length, the
mind will require fome recreation and refreftiment by the
way; which is to be procured by feafonable moral reflec¬
tions, pertinent remarks, familiarlimilies, anddefcriptions
naturally introduced, by allufions to ancient hiftories or
fables, and by fliort arid pleafant digreftions and excur-
fions into more noble fubjefts, fo aptly brought in, that
they may feem to have a remote relation, and be of a
Vol. XVII. Part I.
piece with the poem. By thus varying the form of in-
ftrudlion, the poet gives life to his precepts, and awa¬
kens and fecures our attention, without permitting us to
fee by what means we are thus captivated : and his art
is the more to be admired, becaufe it is fo concealed as
to efcape the reader’s obfervation.
The ftyle, too, muft maintain a dignity fuitable to the
fubjedt, and every part be drawn in fuch lively colours,
that the things defcribed may feem as if prefented to the
reader’s view.
Didadhe.-
But all this will appear more evident from example ; .
and though entire poems of this kind are not within the
compafs of our defign, we (hall endeavour to feledt fuch
paffages as will be fufficient to illuftrate the rules we have
here laid down.
We have already obferved, that, according to the
ufual divifions, there are four kinds of didadlic poems,
viz. thofe that refpedl our moral duties, our philofophi¬
cal fpeculations, our bufinefs and pleafures, or that give
precepts for poetry and criticifm.
I. On the firft fubjedl, indeed, we have fcaree any
thing that deferves the name of poetry, except Mr
Pope’s EJfay on Man, his Ethic Epi/t/es, Blackmore’s
Creation, and part of Young’s Nig hit Thoughts ; to which
therefore we refer as examples.
II. Thofe preceptive poems that concern philofophi¬
cal fpeculations, though the fubjedl is fo pregnant with
matter, affords fuch a field of fancy, and is fo capable
of every decoration, are but few. Lucretius is the moft
confiderable among the ancients who has written in this
manner ; among the moderns we have little elfe but
fmall detached pieces, except the poem called Anti-Lu¬
cretius, which has not yet received an Englifti drefs *,
Hr Akenfide’s Pleafures of the Imagination, and Dr
Darwin’s Botanic Garden; which are all worthy of our
admiration. Some of the fmall pieces in this department
are alfo well executed ; and there is one entitled the
Vniverfe, written by Mr Baker, from which we (hall
borrow an example.
The author’s (cheme is in fome meafure coincident with
Mr Pope’s, fo far efpecially as it tends to reftrain the pride
of man, with which defign it was profefiedly written.
The paflage we have feledled is that refpedling the pla¬
netary fyftem.
Unwife I and though tie fs ! impotent ! and blind ! Ejanfples
Can wealth, or grandeur, fatisfy the mind ? in dida&ie
Of all thofe pleafures mortals moft admire, poetry.
Is there one joy fincere, that will not tire ?
Can love itfelf endure ? or beauty’s charms
Afford that blifs we fancy in its arms '—
I hen let thy foul more glorious aims purfue :
Have thy Creator and his works in view.
Be thefe thy ftudy : hence thy pleafures bring :
And drink large draughts of wifdom from its fpring ;
That fpring, whence perfeft joy, and calm repofe,
And bleft content, and peace eternal, flows.
Obferve how regular the planets run,
In dated times, their courfes round the Sun.
Different their bulk, their diitance, their career,
And different much the compafs of their year :
Yet all the fame eternal laws obey,
While God’s unerring finger points the way.
Firft Mercury, amidft full tides of light,
Rolls next the fun, through his fmall circle bright.
B All
'vv
26
Didaftic.
POE
All that dwell here mull be refin’d and pure ;
Bodies like ours fuch ardour can’t endure :
Our earth would blaze beneath fo fierce a ray,
And all its marble mountains melt away.
Fair Venus, next, fulfils her larger round,
With fofter beams, and milder glory crown’d.
Friend to mankind, fire glitters from afar,
Now the bright ev’ning, now the morning Bar.
More diftant flill, our earth comes rolling on,
And forms a wider circle round the fun :
With her the moon, companion ever dear !
Her courfe attending through the .finning year.
See, Mars, alone, runs his appointed race,
And meafures out, exaft, the deltin’d fpace :
Nor nearer does he. wind, nor farther firay,
But finds the point whence firft he roll’d away.
More yet remote from day’s all cheering fource,
Vafi: Jupiter performs his conftant courfe :
Four friendly moons, with borrow’d luftre, rite,
Bellow their beams divine, and light his Ikies.
Fartheft and laft, fcarce warm’d by Phoebus’ ray,
Through his vaft orbit Saturn wheels away.
How great the change could we be wTafied there .
How flow the feafons ! and how long the year !
One moon, on us, refle&s its cheerful light :
There, five attendants brighten up the night.
Here, the blue firmament bedeck’d with ftars ;
There, over-head, a lucid arch appears.
From hence, how large, how ftrong, the fun’s bright ball 1
But feen from thence, how languid and horv fmall 1 —
When the keen north with all its fury blows,
Congeals the Hoods, and forms the fleecy fnows,
’Tis heat intenfe to what can there be known :
Warmer our poles than is its burning zone.
• Who there inhabits mull have other pow’rs,
Juices, and veins, and fenfe, and life, than ours.
One moment’s cold, like theirs, would pierce the bone,
Freeze the heart-blood, and turn us all to flone.
Strange and amazing muft the diff’rence be
’Twixt this dull planet and bright Mercury :
Yet reafon fays,’ nor can we doubt at all,
Millions of beings dwell on either ball,
With conftitutions fitted for the fpot,
Where Providence, all wife, has fix’d their lot.
Wondrous art thou, O God, in all thy ways !
Their eyes to thee let all thy creatures raife ;
Adore thy grandeur, and thy goodnefs praife.
Ye fons of men ! with fatisfa&ion know,
God’s own right hand difpenfes all below :
Nor good nor evil does by chance befall j
He reigns fupreme, and he diretts it all..
At his command, affrighting human-kind,
Comets drag on their blazing lengths behind .
Nor, as we think, do they at random rove,.
But, in determin’d times, through long ellipfes move.
And tho’ fometimes they near approach the fun ;
Sometimes beyond our fyftem’s orbit run •,
Throughout their race they adt their Maker’s will,
His pow’r declare, his purpofes fulfil.
III. Of thofe preceptive poems that treat of the
bufinefs and pleafures of mankind, Virgil’s Georgies
claim our firft and principal attention. In thefe he
has laid down the rules of hufbandry.in.all its branches
with the utmoft exaftnefs and perfpicuity, and at the
3
TRY.
Part II ,
fame time embellifhed them with all the beauties and Didactic,
graces of poetry. Though his fubjeft was hufbandry,
he has delivered his precepts, as Mr Addifon obferves,
not with the fimplicity of a ploughman, but with the
addrefs of a poet: the meaneft of his rules are laid
down with a kind of grandeur •, atul he breaks the clods,
and tqjfes about the dung, with an air of gracefulnefs.
Of the different ways of conveying the fame truth to the
mind, he takes that which is pleafanteft ; and this chief¬
ly diftinguifhes poetry from profe, and renders Virgil’s
5ules of hufbandrv more delightful and valuable than
any other.
Thefe poems, which are efteemed the moft perfect
of the author’s works, are, perhaps, the beft that, can be
propofed for the young ftudent’s imitation in this man¬
ner of writing ; for the whole of his Georgies is wrought
up with wmnderful art, and decorated with all the flowers
of poetry.
IV. Of thofe poems which give precepts for the re¬
creations nnd pleafures of a country life, we have feve-
ral in our own language that are juftly admired. As
the moft confiderable of thofe diverfions, however, are
finely treated by Mr Gay in Ins Rural Sports, we par¬
ticularly refer to that poem.
We fhould here treat of thofe preceptive poems that
teach the art of poetry itfelf, of which there are many
that deferve particular attention •, but we have antici¬
pated our defign, and rendered any farther notice of
them in a manner ufelefs, by the obfervations we have
made in the courfe of this trealife. V e ought how¬
ever to remark, that Horace was the only poet among
the ancients who wrote precepts for poetry in verfe at
leaft his epiftle to the Pifos is the only piece of the kind
that has been handed down to us } and that is to perfect,
it feems almoft to have precluded the neceffity of any
other. Among the moderns we have feveral that are
juftly admired *, as Boileau, Pope, &c.
Poets who write in the preceptive manner fhould take
care to choofe fuch fubjedts as are worthy of their muft,
and of confequence to all mankind •, for to beftow both
parts and pains to teach people trifles that are un¬
worthy of their attention, is to the laft degree ridicu'
Among poems of the ufeful and interefting kind,.Hr
Annftrong’s Art of Prefcrving Health deferves particu¬
lar recommendation, as well in confideration of the
fubjeft, as of the elegant and mafterly manner in which
he has treated it } for he has made thofe things, which
are in their own nature dry and unentertaining, perfeft-
]y agreeable and pleafing, by adhering to the rules ob-
ferved by Virgil and others in the conduft of thefe
poems.
With regard to the ftyle or drefs of thefe p°eni3, prope-
it fhould be fo rich as to hide the nakednefs of the gyle,
fubjeft, and the barrennefs of the precepts fhould be
loft in the luftre of the language. “It ought to a- Wartcn on
bound in the moft bold and forcible metaphors, theDidaftic
moft glowing and piaurefque epithets ; it ought to be ^etry.
elevated and enlivened by pomp of numbers and ma-
jefty of words, and by every figure that can lift a lan¬
guage above the vulgar and current expreflions.”. One
may add, that in no kind of poetry (not even in the
fublime ode) is beauty of expreffion fo much to be re¬
garded as in this. For the epic writer fhould be very
cautious of indulging himfelf in too florid a manner of
expreflion,
Part II. _ POE
DidadHc. exprcflion, erpeclally in the dramatic parts of his fable,
j where he introduces dialogue : and the. writer of tra¬
gedy cannot fall into fo naufeous and unnatural an af¬
fectation, as to put laboured deferiptions, pompous epi¬
thets, ftudied phrafes, and high-flown metaphors, into
the mouths of his characters. But as the didaCtic
poet fpeaks in his own perfon, it is neceflary and pro¬
per for him to ufe a brighter colouring of flyle, and
to be more Itudious of ornament. And this is agree¬
able to an admirable precept of Ariftotle, which no
■writer fhould ever forget,—“ That diCtion ought molt
to be laboured in the unaCtive, that is, the deferip-
tive, parts of a poem, in which the opinions, manners,
and paflions of men are not reprefented } lor too gla¬
ring an expreflion obfeures the manners and the fenti-
ments.”
We have already obferved that any thing in nature
may be the fubjeCt of this poem. Some things, how¬
ever, will appear to more advantage than others, as
they give a greater latitude to genius, and admit of
more poetical ornaments. Natural hiflory and philo-
fophy are copious fubjeCls. Precepts in thefe might
be decorated with all the flowers in poetry } and, as
Dr Trapp obferves, how can poetry be better employ¬
ed, or more agreeably to its nature and dignity, than
in celebrating the Works ol the great Creator, and de-
feribing the nature and generation of animals, vege¬
tables, and minerals ; the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies *, the motions of the earth •, the flux and reflux
of the fea j the caufe of thunder, lightning, and other
^meteors ; the attraction of the magnet •, the gravitation,
cohefion, and repulfion jof matter •, the impulfive mo¬
tion of light •, the flow progreflion of founds ; and other
amazing phenomena of nature ? Moll of the arts and
fciences are alfo proper fubjeCls for this poem ; and
none are more fo than its two filler arts, painting and
mufic. In the former, particularly, there is room for
the moll entertaining precepts concerning the difpofal
of colours ; the arrangement of lights and fliades ; the
Tccret attraClives of beauty •, the various ideas which
make up the one ; the diftinguilhing between the atti¬
tudes proper to either fex-, and every paflion ; the re-
prefenting profpeCls of buildings, battles, or the coun¬
try ; and, laftly, concerning the nature of imitation,
and the powder of painting. What a boundlefs field of
invention is here ? What room for defeription, compa-
rifon, and poetical fable ? How eafy the tranfition, at
any time, from the draught to the original, from the
ihadow to the fubllance ? and from hence, what noble
excurfions may be made into hiftory, into panegyric
upon the greatelt beauties.or heroes of the pall or pre-
fent age ?
Sect. VI. Of the Bpijlle.
The cha- This fpecies of writing, if we are permitted to lay
ra&er of down rules from the examples of our belt poets, admits
the epiltle. 0f great latitude, and folicits ornament and decoration ;
yet the poet is Hill to confider, that the true charader
of the epiftle is eafe and elegance *, nothing therefore
Ihould be forced or unnatural, laboured or affeCled, but
every part of the compofition fliould breathe an eafy, po¬
lite, and unconltrained freedom.
It is fuitable to every fubjeCt •, for as the epillle takes
place of difeourfe, and is intended as a fort of diftant
T R Y,
converfation, all the aflairs of iiic and refearches into
nature may be introduced. Thofe, however, which are
fraught with compliment or condolence, that contain a
defeription of places, or are full of pertinent remarks,
and in a familiar and humorous way deferibe the man¬
ners, vices, and follies of mankind, are the belt *, be-
caufe they are molt fuitable to the true character of epi-
llolary writing, and (bufinefs fet apart) are the ufuai
fubjedts upon which our letters are employed.
All farther rules and directions are unneceflary; for
this kind of writing is better learned by example and
practice than by precept. We lhall, therelore, in con
formity to our plan, felect a few epiltles for the reader’-
imitation ; which, as this method of writing has of late
much prevailed, may be belt taken, perhaps, from our
modern poets.
The following letter from Mr Addifon to Lord Ha¬
lifax, contains an elegant defeription of the curiofitie
and places about Rome, together with fueh reflections
on the ineltimable blelfings of liberty as nuift give plea-
fure to every Briton, efpecially when he fees them thus
placed in direct oppofition to the baneful influence of
llavery and oppreflion, which are ever to be h en among
the miferable inhabitants of thofe countries.
While you, my lord, the rural fliades admire,
And from Britannia’s public polls retire,
Nor longer, her ungrateful fons to pleafe,
For their advantage facrifice your eafe :
Me into foreign realms my fate conveys,
Through nations fruitful of immortal lays,
Where the foft feafon and inviting clime
Confpire to trouble your repofe with rhime.
For w here foe’er I turn my ravifli’d eyes,
Gay gilded feenes and fhining profpeCts rife,
Poetic fields encompafs me around,
And Itill I feem to tread on claflic ground ;
For here the mule fo oft her harp has itrung,
That not a mountain rears its head unfung,
Renown’d in verfe each fliady thicket grows,
And ev’ry ftream in heav’nly numbers flowrs.
How am I pleas’d to fearch the hills and woods
For riling fprings and celebrated floods j
To view the Nar, tumultuous in his courfe,
And trace the fmooth Clitumnus to his fource y
To fee the Mincia draw its wat’ry Itore
Through the long windings of a fruitful fliore,
And hoary Albula’s infeCted tide
O’er the warm bed of fmoking fulphur glide !
Fir’d with a thoufand raptures, I furvey
Eridanus thro’ flow’ry meadoWs Itray,
The king of floods ! that, rolling o’er the plains*
The tow’ring Alps of half their moifture drains,
And, proudly fvvoln with a whole winter’s fnows,
Diftributes wealth and plenty where he flows.
Sometimes, mifguided by the tuneful throng,
I look for flreams immortaliz’d in fong,
That loft in filence and oblivion lie,
(Dumb are their fountains and their channels dry)
Yet run for ever by the mufe’s Ikill,
And in the fmooth defeription murmur Hill.
Sometimes to gentle Tiber I retire.
And the fam’d river’s empty ihores admire,
That, deftitute of ftrength, derives its courfe
From thirfty urns, and an unfruitful fource ;
D 2
151
Examples
in epilio-
lary poetry
from Addi¬
fon,
Yet
28 POE
> Epiftle, Yet fung fo often in poetic lays,
* v With fcorn the Danube and the Nile furveys ;
So high the deathlefs mufe exalts her theme!
Such was the Boyn, a poor inglorious ftream,
That in Hibernian vales obfeurely ftray’d,
And unobferv’d in wild meanders play’d j
Till, by your lines, and Naffau’s fword renown’d,
Its riling billows through the world refound,
Where’er the hero’s godlike a£ts can pierce,
Or where the fame of an immortal verfe.
Oh cou’d the mufe my ravilh’d brealt inlpire
With warmth like yours, and raife an equal fire-,
Unnumber’d beauties in my verfe fhould Ihine,
And Virgil’s Italy Ihould yield to mine !
See how the golden groves around me fmile,
That fliun the coafts of Britain’s llormy Hie,
Or when tranfplanted and preferv’d with care,
Curfe the cold clime, and flarve in northern air.
Here kindly warmth their mounting juice ferments
To nobler talles, and more exalted fcents :
Ev’n the rough rocks with tender myrtles bloom.
And trodden weeds fend out a rich perfume.
Bear me, fume god, to Baia’s gentle feats,
Or cover me in Umbria’s green retreats j
Where weftern gales eternally refide,
And all the feafons lavifh all their pride :
Bloffoms, and fruits, and flow’rs together rife,
And the whole year in gay confufion lies.
Immortal glories in my mind revive,
And in my foul a thoufand pafiions drive,
When Rome’s exalted beauties I defcry
Magnificent in piles of ruin lie..
An amphitheatre’s amazing height
Here fills my eye with terror and delight,
That on its public fhows unpeopled Rome,
And held uncrowded nations in its womb ;
Here pillars rough with fculpture pierce the Ikies j
And here the proud triumphal arches rife,
Where the old Romans deathlefs a£ts difplay’d,
Their bafe degenerate progeny upbraid :
Whole rivers here forfake the fields below,
And wond’ring at their height thro’ airy channels flow.
Still to new fcenes my wand’ring mufe retires j
And the dumb {how of breathing rocks admires ;
Where the fmooth chiflel all its force has fhown,
And foften’d intu flefli the rugged done.
In folemn filenee, a majedic band,
Heroes, and gods, and Roman confuls dand,
Stern tyrants, whom their cruelties renown,
And emperors in Parian marble frown :
While the bright dames, to whom they humbly fu’d,
Still fhow the charms that their proud hearts fubdu’d.
Fain would I Raphael’s godlike art rehearfe,
And {how th’ immortal labours in my verfe,
Where from the mingled drength of fliade and light
A new creation rifes to my fight,
Such heav’nly figures from his pencil flow,
So warm with life his blended colours glow.
From theme to theme with fecret pleafare tod,
Amidd the foft variety I’m lod.
Here pleafing airs my ravifh’d foul confound
With circling notes and labyrinths of found j
Here domes and temples rife in diflant views,
And opening palaces invite my mufe.
TRY. * Fart II.
How has kind heav’d adorn’d the happy land, Epiftle.
And fcatter’c: bleflings with a wadeful hand ! j
But what avail her unexhauded flores,
Her blooming mountains, and her funny {bores.
With all the gifts that heav’n and earth impart.
The fmiles of nature, and the charms of art,
While proud oppreflion in her valleys reigns,
And tyranny ufurps her happy plains ?
The poor inhabitant beholds in vain
The red’ning orange and the fwelling grain •
Joylefs he fees the growing oils and wines,
And in the myrtle’s fragrant flrade repines :
Starves, in the midd of nature’s bounty curfls
And in the loaded vineyard dies for third.
O liberty, thou goddefs heavenly bright,
Profufe of blifs, and pregnant with delight ?
Eternal pleafures in thy prefence reign,
And fmiling plenty leads thy wanton train j
Eas’d of her load, fubjection grows more light,.
And poverty looks cheerful in thy fight j
Thou mak’lt.the gloomy face of nature gay,
Giv’d beauty to the fun, and pleafure to the day-.
Thee, goddefs, thee, Britannia’s Hie adores j
How has die oft exhauded all her dores,
How oft in fields of death thy prefente fought,
Nor thinks the mighty prize too dearly bought!
On foreign mountain may the fun refine
The grape’s foft juice, and mellow it to wine,
With citron groves adorn a didant foil,
And the fat olive fwell with floods of oil :
We envy not the warmer clime, that lies
In ten degrees of more indulgent Ikies,
Nor at the coarfenefs of our heav’n repine,
Tho’ o’er our heads the frozen Pleiads fliine :
’Tis liberty that crowns Britannia’s Hie, [Tmiley
And makes her barren rocks and her bleak mountains
Others with tow’ring piles may pleafe the fight,
And in their proud afpiring domes delight ;
A nicer touch to the dreteh’d canvas give,
Or teach their animated rocks to live :
’Tis Britain’s care to w'ateh o’er Europe’s fate,
And hold in balance each contending date,
To threaten bold prefumptuous kings with war,
And anfwer her affliiRed neighbour’s pray’r.
The Dane and Swede, rous’d up by fierce alarms,
Blefs the wife condu£! of her pious arms :
Soon as her fleets appear, their terrors ceafe,
And all the northern world liesFulh’d' in peace.
Th’ ambitious Gaul beholds with fecret dread
Her thunder aim’d at his afpiring head,
And fain her godlike funs would difunite
By foreign gold, or by domedic fpite ;
But drives in vain to conquer or divide,
Whom Naflau’s arms defend arid eounfels guide.
Fir’d with the name, which I fo oft have found
The didant climes and diff’rent tongues refound,
I bridle in my druggling mufe with pain,
That longs to launch into a bolder drain.
But I’ve already troubled you too long,
Nor dare attempt- a more advent’rous long :
My humble verfe demands a fofter theme,
A painted meadow, or a purling dream y
Unfit for heroes j whom immortal lays,
And lines like Virgil’s, or like yours, diould praiie.
T here
Part II. * POE
Epiftle. There is a fine fpirit of freedom, and love of liberty,
‘j y—' (Jifpiayed in the following letter from Lord Lyttleton to
Mr Pope j and the meffage from the lhade of Virgil,
which is truly poetical, and jullly preceptive, may prove
an ufeful leffon to future bards.
From Rome, 1730*
IMMORTAL bard ! for whom each mufe has wove
\tt etoa. £ajrep. garlands of the Aonian grove 5
Preferv’d, our drooping genius to reftore,
When Addifon and Congreve are no more j
After fo many liars extin£l in night,
The darken’d age’s laft remaining light!
* To thee from Latian realms this verfe is writ,
Infpir’d by memory of ancient wit: «
For now no more.thefe climes their influence boall,
Fall’n is their glory, and their virtue loll;
From tyrants, and from prietls, the mufes fly,
Daughters of reafon and of liberty.
Nor Bake now nor Umbria’s plain they love,
Nor on the banks of Nar or Mincia rove j
To Thames’s flow’ry borders they retire,
And kindle in thy bread the Roman fire.
So in the lhades, where cheer’d with fummer rays
Melodious linnets warbled fprightly lays,
Soon as the faded, falling leaves complain
Of gloomy winter’s inaufpicious reign,
No tuneful voice is heard of joy or love,
But mournful filence faddens all the, grove.
Unhappy Italy ! whofe alter’d Hate
Has felt the word feverity of fate :
Not that barbarian hands her fafces broke,
And bow’d her haughty neck beneath their yoke $
Nor that her palaces to earth are thrown,
Her cities defert, and her fields unfown ;
But that her ancient fpirit is decay’d,
That facred wifdom from her bounds is fled.
That there the fource of fcience flows no more,
WFence its rich dreams fupply’d the world before.
Illudrious names! that once in Latium Ihin’d,
Born to indrudl and to command mankind;
Chiefs, by whofe virtue mighty Rome was rais’d,
And poets, who thofe chiefs fublimely prais’d !
Oft I the traces you have left explore,
Your allies vifit, and your urns adore 5
Oft kifs, with lips devout, fome mould’ring done.
With ivy’s venerable lhade o’ergrown ;
Thofe hallow’d ruins better pleas’d to fee,
Than all the pomp of modern luxury.
As late on Virgil’s tomb frelh flow’rs I flrow’d,
While with th’infpiring mufe my bofom glow’d,
Crown’d with eternal bays, my ravilh’d eyes
Beheld the poet’s awful form arife:
Stranger, he faid, whofe pious hand has paid
Thefe grateful rites to my attentive Ihade,
When thoQ lhalt breathe thy happy native air,
To Pope this meflage from his mader bear.
Great bard, whofe numbers I myfelf infpire,
To whom I gave my own harmonious lyre,
If high exalted on the throne of wit,
Near me and Homer thou afpire to fit,
No more let meaner fatire dim the rays
That flow majeflic from thy noble bays.
In all the. flow’ry paths of^Pindus dray :
But Ihun that thorny, that unpleafing way 5
TRY.
Nor, when ea©h loft engaging tnuie is thine,
Addrefs the lead attradlive of the nine.
Of thee more worthy were the talk to raife
A lading column to thy country’s praife,
To ling the land, which yet alone can boad
That liberty corrupted Rome has loll j
Where fcience in the arms of peace is laid,
And plants her palm beneath the olive’s lhade.
Such was the theme for which my lyre I drung,
Such was the people whofe exploits I fung j
Brave, yet refin’d, for arms and arts renown’d,
With diff’rent bays by Mars and Phoebus crown’d^
Dauntlefs oppofers of tyrannic fway,
But pleas’d a mild Augustus to obey.
If thefe commands fubmiflive thou receive,,
Immortal and unblam’d thy name lhall live j
Envy to black Cocytus fliall retire,
And howl with furies in tormenting fire ;
Approving time lhall confecrate thy lays,
And join the patriot’s to the poet’s praife.
The following letter from Mr Philips to the earl of
Dorfet is entirely defcriptive j but is one of thofe de-
icriptions which will be ever read with delight.
Copenhagen, March 9. 1709.
From frozen climes, and endlefs trafls of fnow, philips'*
From dreams which northern winds forbid to flow, and ’
What prefent fliall the mufe to Dorfet bring,
Or how, fo near the pole, attempt to ling ?
The hoary winter here conceals from fight
All pleating obje£ls which to verfe invite.
The hills and dales, and the delightful woods,
The flow’ry plains, and filver-dreaming floods,
By fnow difguis’d, in bright confufion lie,
And with one dazzling wade fatigue the eye.
No gentle breathing breeze prepares the fpring,
No bird within the defert region ling:
The fliips, unmov’d, the boiil’rous winds defy,
While rattling chariots o’er the ocean fly.
The vad Leviathan wants room to play.
And fpout his waters in the face of day :
The darving wolves along the main fea fprowl,
And to the moon in icy valleys howl.
O’er many a {Inning league the level main
Here fpreads itfelf into a glafiy plain: ■’
There folid billows of enormous fize,
Alps of green ice, in wild diforder rife.
And yet but lately have I feen, ev’n here.
The winter in a lovely drefs appear.
Ere yet the clouds let fall the treafur’d fnow,.
Or winds began through hazy {kies to blow,
At ev’ning a keen cadern breeze arofe,
And the defeending rain unfully’d froze j
Soon as the filent (hades of night withdrew,
The ruddy morn difclos’d at once to view
The face of nature in a rich difguife,
And brighten’d ev’ry objcfl to ray eyes :
For ev’ry flirub, and ev’ry blade of grafs,
And ev’ry pointed thorn, feem’d wrought in glafs j
In pearls and rubies rich the hawthorns (how, >■
While through the ice the crimfon berries glow.
The thick fprung reeds, which watery marflies yield,
Seem’d polifli’d lances in a hodile field.
The dag in limpid currents with furprife,
Sees cryflal branches on his forehead rife :
The
3 POE
Epiftle. The fpreading oak, the hcceh, and tow’ring pine,
Glaz’d over, in the freezing aether ihine.
The frighted birds the rattling branches fhun,
Which -wave and glitter in the diftant fun.
When if a hidden guft of wind arife,
The brittle foreft into atoms dies,
The crackling wood beneath the tempeft bends,
And in a fpangled (bower the profpe£t ends :
Or, if a fouthern gale the region warm.
And by degrees unbend the wint’ry charm,
The traveller a miry country fees,
And journeys fad beneath the dropping trees :
Like fome deluded peafant Merlin leads
Thro’ fragrant bow’rs and thro’ delicious meads,
While here enchanted gardens to him rife,
And airy fabrics there attract his eyes,
His wandering feet the magic paths purfue,
And while he thinks the fair illufion true,
The tracklefs fcenes difperfe in fluid air,
And woods, and wilds, and thorny ways appear j
A tedious road the weary wretch returns,
And, as he goes, the tranfient vifion mourns.
The great ufe of medals is properly defcribed in the
enfuing elegant epiftle from Mr Pope to Mr Addifon ;
and the extravagant paflion which fome people entertain
only for the colour of them, is very agreeably and very
juftly ridiculed.
See the wild wafte of all devouring years !
How Rome her own fad fepulchre appears !
With nodding arches, broken temples fpread !
The very tombs now vaniih like their dead !
Imperial wonders rais’d on nations fpoil’d,
Where mix’d with (laves the groaning martyr toil’d !
Huge theatres, that now unpeopled woods,
Now drain’d a diftant country of her floods !
Fanes, which admiring gods with pride furvey,
Statues of men, fcarce lefs alive than they !
Some felt the filent ftroke of mould’ring age,
Some hoftile fury, fome religious rage *,
Barbarian blindnefs, Chriftian zeal confpire,
And papal piety, and Gothic: fire.
Perhaps, by its own ruin fav’d from flame,
Some bury’d marble half preferves a name .*
That name the learn’d with fierce difputes purfue,
And give to Titus old Vefpafian’s due.
Ambition figh’d : She found it vain to truft
The faithlefs column and the crumbling buft ;
Huge moles, whofe (hadow ftretch’d from (hore to ftiore,
Their ruins perifh’d, and their place no more •,
Convinc’d, (lie, now contrails her vaft defign,
And all her triumphs (brink into a coin.
A narrow orb each crowded conqueft keeps,
Beneath her palm here fad Judaea weeps ;
Now fcantier limits the proud arch confine,
And fcarce are feen the proftrate Nile or Rhine 5
A fmall Euphrates through the piece is roll’d,
And little eagles wave their wings in gold.
The medal, faithful to its charge of fame,
Through climes and ages bears each form and name :
In one fhort view fubjedled to our eye,
Gods, emp’rors, heroes, fages, beauties, lie.
With (harpen’d fight pale antiquaries pore,
Th’ infeription value, but the ruft adore.
TRY*
This the blue varnith, that the green endears.
The facred ruft of twice ten hundred year's :
To gain Pefcennius pne employs his fchemes,
One grafps a Cecrops in ecftatic dreams.
Poor Vadius, long with learned fpleen devour’d,
Can tafte no pleafure fince his ihield was fcour’d :
And Curio, reftlefs by the fair one’s fide,
Sighs for an Otho, and ncgle<fts his bride.
Their’s is the vanity, the learning thine :
Touch’d by thy hand, again Rome’s glories (liine ^
Her gods and god-like heroes rife to view,
And all her faded garlands bloom anew.
Nor bluih thefe ftudies thy regard engage j
Thefe pleas’d the fathers of poetic rage }
The verfe and fculpture bore an equal part,
And art reflected images to art.
Oh when (hall Britain, confcious of her claim,
Stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame ?
In living medals fee her wars enroll’d,
And vanquilh’d realms fupply recording gold ?
Here, rifing bold, the patriot’s honeft face j
There, warriors frowning in hiftoric brafs ?
Then future ages with delight (hall fee
How Plato’s, Bacon’s, Newton’s looks agree ;
Or in fair feries laurell’d bards be drown,
A Virgil there, and here an Addifon.
Then (hall thy Graggs (and let me call him mine)
On the caft ore, another Pollio (bine }
With afpeft open (hall ereft his head,
And round the orb in lading notes be read,
“ Statefman, yet friend to truth ! of foul fincere,
“ In aclion faithful, and in honour clear ;
“ Who broke no promife, ferv’d no private end,
“ Who gain’d mo title, and who loft no friend }
“ Ennobled by himfelf, by all approv’d,
“ Prais’d, wept, and honour’d, by the mufe he lov’d.”
We have already obferved, that the eflential, and
indeed the true chara&eriftic of epiftolary writing, is
cafe •, and on this account, as well as others, the fol¬
lowing letter from Mr Pope to Mifs Blount is to be
admired.
To Mifs Blount, on her leaving the Town after the
Coronation.
As fome fond virgin, whom her mother’s care
Drags from the town to wholefome country air 5
Juft when (lie learns to roll a melting eye,
And hear a fpark, yet think no danger nigh,
From the dear man unwilling (he muft fever,.
Yet takes one kifs before (lie parts for ever ;
Thus from the world fair Zephalinda fle\vr,
Saw others happy, and with fighs withdrew :
Not that their pleafures caus’d her difeontent j
She figh’d, not that they ftay’d, but that (lie went.
She went, to plain-work, and to purling brooks, <
Old-fa(hion’d halls, dull aunts, and croaking rooks:
She went from op’ra, park, affembly, play,
To morning walks, and pray’rs three hours a-day ;
To part her time ’twixt reading and bohea,
To mufe, and fpill her folitary tea,
Or o’er cold coffee trifle with the fpoon,
Count the flow clock, and dine exadft at noon ;
Part IT.
Epiftle.
Divert
Part II. POE
Epiftle. Divert lief eyes with pictures in the fire,
—v~~' Hum half a tune, tell ftories to the ’fquhe ;
Up to her godly garret after feven,
There tlarve and pray, for that’s the way to heav’n. «-
Some ’fquire, perhaps, you take delight to rack *,
Whofe game is whilk, whofe treat’s a toaft in fack ;
Who vifits with a gun, prefents you birds,
Then gives a fmacking bufs, and cries,—no words !
Or with his hound comes following from the liable,
Makes love with nods, and knees beneath a table 5
Whofe laughs are hearty, tho’ his jells are coarfe,
And loves you bell of all things—but his horfc.
In feme fair ev’ning, on your elbow laid,
You dream of triumphs in the rural (hade ;
In penfive thought recal the fancy’d feene,
See coronations rife on every green ;
Before you pafs th’ imaginary fights
Of lords, and earls, and dukes, and garter’d knights,
While the fpread fan o’erlhades your doling eyes :
Then give one flirt, and all the vifion flies.
Thus vanilh feeptres, coronets, and balls,
And leave you in lone woods, or empty walls !
So when your Have, at fome dear idle time,
(Not plagu’d with headachs, or the want of rhyme)
Stands in the llreets, abltraded from the crew,
And while he feems to lludy, thinks of you :
.lull when his fancy points your fprightly eyes,
Or fees the bluSh of foft Parthenia rife,
Gay pats my Ihoulder, and you vanilh quite,
Streets, chairs, and coxcombs, rulh upon my fight j
Vex’d to be Hill in town, I knit my brow,
Look four, and hum a tune, as you may now.
Sect. VII. Of Defcriptive Poetry.
Defcnptive Descriptive poetry is of univerfal ufe, fince there
poetry. is nothing in nature but what may be deferibed. As
poems of this kind, however, are intended more to de¬
light than to inftrudt, great care Ihould be taken to
make them agreeable. Defcriptive poems are made
beautiful by fimilies properly introduced, images of
feigned perfons, and allufions to ancient fables or hillo-
rical fads ; as will appear by a perufal of the bell of
thefe poems, efpecially Milton’s VAllegro and II Penfe-
rofo, Denham’s Cooper Hill, and Pope’s Win (for Foref.
Every body being in poffeflion of Milton’s works, ive
forbear inferting the two former; and the others are
too long for our purpofe. That inimitable poem, The
Seafons, by Mr Thomfon, notwithllanding fome parts
of it are didadic, may be alfo with propriety referred to
this head.
Sect. VIII. OfHlleg or teal Poetry.
Orighfof Could truth engage the affedions of mankind in
allegorical native and fimple drefs, Hie would require no orna-
pox-try. ments or aid from the imagination 5 but her delicate
light, though lovely in itfelf, and dear to the moll dif-
cerning, does not Itrike the fenfes of the multitude fo
as to fecure their elteem and attention : the poets there¬
fore drelfed her up in the manner in which they thought
Hie would appear the moll amiable, and called in alle¬
gories and airy difguifes as her auxiliaries in the caufe
of virtue.
An allegory is a fable or llory, in which, under the
T R Y. 31
difguife of imaginary perfons or things, fome real adion Allegorical,
or inltrudive moral is conveyed to the mind. Every
allegory therefore has two fenfes, the one literal and the
other myllical j the firll has been aptly enough com¬
pared to a dream or vifion, of which the latl is the true
meaning or interpretation. T
From this definition of allegorical poetry the reader Its charac-
will perceive that it gives great latitude to genius, and ter.
affords fuch a boundlefs fcope for invention, that the
poet is allowed to foar beyond all creation 5 to give life
and adlion to virtues, vices, pallions, difeafes, and natural
and moral qualities j to raife floating iflands, enchanted
palaces, cattles, &c. and to people them with the crea¬
tures of his own imagination.
The poet’s eye, in a fine frenzy rolling,
Doth glance from heav’n to earth, from earth to heav’n y
And, as imagination bodies forth
The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen
Turns them to fliape, and gives to airy nothing
A local habitation and a name. Shakespeare.
But whatever is thus raifed by the magic of his mind
muff be vifionary and typical, and the myftical fenfe
muff appear obvious to the reader, and inculcate fome
moral or ufeful leffon in life 5 otherwife the whole will
be deemed rather the effedts of a diftempered brain, than
the productions of real wit and genius. The poet, like
Jafon, may fail to parts unexplored, but will meet with
no applaufe if he returns without a golden fleece ; for
thefe romantic reveries would be unpardonable but for
the myftical meaning and moral that is thus artfully and
agreeably conveyed with them, and on which account
only the allegory is indulged with a greater liberty than
any other fort of writing.
The ancients juftly confidered this fort of allegory a*
the moft effential part of poetry j for the power of rai¬
ling images of things not in being, giving them a fort
of life and aftion, and prefenting them as it were before
the eyes, rras thought to have fomething in it like cre¬
ation : but then, in fuch compofitions, they always ex-
peCled to find a meaning couched under them of confe-
quence ; and we may reafonably conclude, that the al¬
legories of their poets would never have been handed
down to us, had they been deficient in this refpeft. rt;g
As thefi/ole is the part immediately offered to the Effentiafr
reader’s confideration, and intended as an agreeable ve-U a juft
hide to convey the moral, it ought to be bold, lively,•
and furprifing, that it may excite curiofity and fupport
attention ; for if the fable be fpiritlefs and barren of in¬
vention, the attention will be difengaged, and the mo¬
ral, however ufeful and important in itfelf, will be little
regarded.
1 here muff likewife be a juftnefs and propriety in
the fable, that is, it muff be clofely connected with the
fubject on which it is employed ; for notwithftanding
the boundlefs compafs allowed the imagination in thefe
writings, nothing abfurd or ufelefs is to be introduced.
In epic poetry fome things may perhaps be admitted
for no other reafon but to furprife, and to raife Avhat is
called the wonderful, which is as neceffary to the epic
as the probable; but in allegories, however wild and ex¬
travagant the fable and the perfons introduced, each
muff correfpond with the fubjedl they are applied to,
and, like the members of a well-wTritten fimile, bear a
due proportion and relation to each other : for avc- are
to
32
POE
Allcgorical-td confiJer, that the allegory is a fort of extended or
~ rather multiplied iimile, and therefore, like that, (hould
never lofe the fubjeft it is intended to illuftrate. Whence
it will appear, that genius and fancy are here infufficient
without the aid of tafte and judgment : thefe firft, in¬
deed, may produce a multitude of ornaments, a wilder-
nefs of fweets ; but the laft mull be employed to accom¬
modate them to reafon, and to arrange them fo as to
produce pleafure and profit.
But it is not fufficient that the fable be correfpondent
with the fubject, and have the properties above defcri-
bed *, for it mull alfo be confiftent with itfelf. The
poet may invent what flory he pleafes, and form any
imaginary beings that his fancy {hall fuggeft ) but here,
as in dramatic writings, when perfons are once intro¬
duced, they mult be fupported to the end, and all fpeak
and aft in charafter : for notwithftanding the general
licence here allowed, fomc order muft be obferved ;
and however wild and extravagant the charafters, they
fhould not be abfurd. To this let me add, that the
whole mult be clear and intelligible *, for the “ fable
(as Mr Hughes obferves) being defigned only to clothe
and adorn the moral, but not to hide it, {hould re-
femble the draperies we admire in fome of the ancient
itatues, in which the folds are not too many nor too
thick, but fo judicioufly ordered, that the fhape and
beauty of the limbs may be feen through them.”—-
But this will more obvioufiy appear from a perufal of
the belt compofitions of this clafs *, fueh as Spenfer’s
Fairy Queen, Thomfon’s Caftle of Indolence, Addifon
and Johnfon’s beautiful allegories in the Speftator and
Rambler, &c. &c.
The word allegory has been ufed in a more extenfive
fenfe than that in which we have here applied it : for
all writings, where the moral is conveyed under the co¬
ver of borrowed characters and aftions, by which other
charafters and aftions (that are real) are reprefented,
have obtained the name of allegories.; though the fable
or ftory contains nothing that is vifionary or romantic,
but is made up of real or hiftorical perfons, and of ac¬
tions either probable or poflible. But thefe writings
(hould undoubtedly be diftinguifhed by fome other name,
becaufe the literal fenfe is confident with right reafon,
and may convey an ufeful moral, and fatisfy the reader,
without putting him under the ncceflity of feeking for
another.
Some of the ancient critics, as Mr Addilon obferves,
were fond of giving the works of their poets this fecond
or concealed meaning, though there was no apparent
neceffity for the attempt, and often but little {how of
reafon in the application. Thus the Iliad and Odyfley
of Homer are faid to be fables of this kind, and that
the gods and heroes introduced are only the affeftions of
the mind reprefented in a vifible fhape and charafter.
They tell us, fays he, that Achilles in the firft Iliad
reprefents anger, or the irafcible part of human nature :
that upon drawing his fword againlt his fuperior, in a
full affembly, Pallas (which, fay they, is another name
for reafon) checks and advifes him on the occafion, and
at her firft appearance touches him upon the head ; that
part of the man being looked upon as the feat of reafon.
In this fenfe, as Mr Hughes has well obferved, the
whole iEneis of Virgil may be faid to be ait allegory,
if you fuppofe JEneas to reprefent Auguftus Csefar,
and that his condufting the remains of his countrymen
TRY.
PllTt II.
from the ruins of Troy, to a new fettlement in Italy, is Allegorical,
an emblem of Auguftus’s forming a new government
out of the ruins of the ariftocracy, and eftabliihing the
Romans, after the conclufion of the civil Avar, in a
peaceable and flourifhing condition. However ingeni¬
ous this coincidence may appear, and whatever defign
Virgil had in view, he has avoided a particular and di-
reft application, and fo condufted his poem, that it is per¬
fect without any allegorical interpretation ; for whether
we confider /Eneas or Auguftus as the hero, the morals
contained are equally inftruftive. And indeed it feems
abfurd to fuppofe, that becaufe the epic poets have in¬
troduced fome allegories into their works, every thing
is to be underftood in a myftical manner, where the
fenfe is plain and evident without any fuch application.
Nor is the attempt that Taffo made to turn his Jeru-
falem into a myftery, any particular recommendation of
the work : for notwithftanding he tells us, in what is
called the allegory, printed with it, that the Chriftian
army reprefents man, the city of Jerufalem civil happi-
nefs, God fry the underftanding, Rinaldo and Tancred
the other poAvers of the foul, and that the body is ty¬
pified by the common foldiers and the like 3 yet the
reader will find himfelf as little delighted as edified by
the explication : for the mind has little pleafure in an
allegory that cannot be opened without a key made by
the hand of the fame artift 3 and indeed every allegory
that is fo dark, and, as it were, inexplicable, lofes its
very effence, and becomes an enigma or riddle, that is
left to be interpreted by every crude imagination. 159
This laft fpecies of Avriting, whether called an o//<?-The ancient
gory, or by any other name, is not lefs eminent and parable,
ufeful; for the introducing of real or hiftorical perfons
may not abridge or leffen either our entertainment or
inftruftion. In'thefe compofitions we often meet Avith %
an uncommon moral conveyed by the fable in a neAV
and entertaining manner 3 or with a knoAvn truth fo
artfully decorated, and placed in fuch a neAV and beau¬
tiful light, that Ave are amazed Iioav any thing fo charm¬
ing and ufeful {hould fo long have efcaped our obfer-
vation. Such, for example, are many of Johnfon’s
pieces publiftied in the Rambler under the title of
Eajlern Stories, and by Hawkefworth in the Adven¬
turer.
The ancient parables are of this fpecies of Avriting:
and it is to be obferved, that thofe in the New Tefta-
ment have a moft remarkable elegance and propriety .5
and are the moft ftriking, and the moft inftruftive, for
being drawn from objedls that are familiar.—The more
ftriking, becaufe, as the things are feen, the moral con¬
veyed becomes the objeft of our fenfes, and requires lit¬
tle or no refleftion :—the more inftruftive, beeaufe every
time they are feen, the memory is aevakened, and the
fame moral is again exhibited Avith pleafure to the mind,
and accuftoms it to re'afon and divell on the fubjeft. So
that this method of inftruftion improves nature, as it
Avere, into a book of life 3 fince every thing before us
may be fo managed, as to give leftbns for our advantage.
Our Saviour’s parables of the fewer and the feed, of the
tares, of the muftard-feed, and of the leaven (Matthew
xiii.), are all of this kind, and Avere obvioufty taken
from the harveft juft ripening before him 3 for his dif-
ciples plucked the cars of corn and did eat, rubbing them
in their hands. See the articles Allegory, and Me¬
taphor and ALegory, in the general alphabet.
Sect.
Part II.
POE
Of Fables.
160
The apo¬
logue or
fable.
l6r
Holes for
its con-
ftrudlion.
Sect. IX. Gf Fables.
No method of inftru&ion has been more ancient, more
univ^erfal, and probably none more effectual, than that by
apologue or fable. In the fir It ages, amongft a rude and
fierce people, this perhaps was the only method that would
have been borne-, and even fince the progrefs of learning
has furnifhed other helps, the fable, which atfirflwa? ufed
through neceflity, is retained from choice, on account of
the elegant happinefs of its manner, and the refined ad-
drefs with which, when well conducted, it infinuates its
moral.
As to the a£tors in this little drama, the fabulift has
authority to prefs into his fervice every kind of exift-
ence under heaven; not only beafts, birds, infefts, and
all the animal creation j but flowers, fhrubs, trees, and
all the tribe of vegetables. Even mountains, foflils, mi ¬
nerals, and the inanimate works of nature, difcourfe ar¬
ticulately at his command, and a£l the part which he
afligns them. The virtues, vices, and every property
of beings, receive from-him a local habitation and a
name. In Ihort, he may perfonify, beftow life, fpeech,
and aftion, on whatever he thinks proper.'!
It is eafy to imagine what a fource of novelty and
variety this mult open to a genius capable of concei¬
ving and of employing thefe ideal perfons in a proper
manner j what an opportunity it affords him to diver-
fify his images, and to treat the fancy with changes
of objects, while he ftrengthens the underftanding, or
regulates the paflions, by a fucceflion of truths. To
raife beings like thefe into a ftate of adtion and intel¬
ligence, gives the fabulift an undoubted claim to that
firff charafter of the poet, a creator. \
When thefe perfons are. once raifed, we muff care¬
fully enjoin them proper talks, and aflign them fenti-
ments and language fuitable to their feveral natures
and refpeftive properties. A raven fhould not be ex¬
tolled for her voice, nor a bear be reprefented with an
elegant fhape. It were a very obvious inftance of ab-
furdity, to paint a hare cruel, or a wolf compaflion-
ate. An afs were but ill qualified to be general of
an army, though he may well enough ferve, perhaps,
for one of the trumpeters. But fo long as popular
opinion allows to the lion magnanimity, rage to the
tiger, ftrength to the mule, cunning to the fox, and
buffoonery to the monkey ; why may not they fupport
the charadters of an Agamemnon, Achilles, Ajax, Ulyf-
fes, and Therfites ? The truth is, when moral adlions
are with judgment attributed to the brute creation, we
fcarce perceive that nature is at all violated by the fabu¬
lift. He appears at moft to have only tranflated their
language. His lions, wolves, and foxes, behave and ar¬
gue as thofe creatures would, had they originally been
endowed with the human faculties of fpeech and rea-
fon.
But greater art is yet required whenever we perfonify
inanimate beings. Here the copy fo far deviates from
the great lines of nature, that, without the niceft care-,
reafon will revolt againft the fidlion. However, beings
of this fort, managed ingenioufly and with addrefs, re¬
commend the fabuliff’s invention by the grace of no¬
velty and of variety. Indeed the analogy between things
natural and artificial, animate and inanimate, is often fo
very ftriking, that we can, with feeming proprietv, give
Vol. XVII. Part I.
TRY. 33
paflions and fentiments to every individual part of exift- Of Fables,
ence. Appearance favours the deception. The vine may ‘
be enamoured of the elm $ her embraces teftify her paf-
fion. The fwelling mountain may, naturally enough, be
delivered of a moufe. The gourd may reproach the pine,
and the Iky-rocket infult the ftars. The axe may folicit
a new handle of the foreft ; and the moon, in her female
character, requeft afaftiionable garment. Here is nothing
incongruous j nothing that ftiocks the reader with impro¬
priety. On the other hand, were the axe to defire a pe¬
riwig, and the moon petition for a new pair of boots, pro¬
bability would then be Violated, and the abfurdity
become too glaring.
The moft beautiful fables that ever were invented may
be disfigured by the language in which they are clothed.
Of this poor ATop, in fome of his Englifh dreffes, affords 162
a melancholy proof. The ordinary ftyle of fable fhould The pro¬
be familiar, but alfo elegant. fable*
The familiar, fays M. La Mottc, is the general tone
or accent of fable. It was thought fufficient, on its firft
appearance, to lend the animals our moft common lan¬
guage. Nor indeed have they any extraordinary preten-
fions to the fublime $ it being requifite they fhould fpeak
with the fame fimplicity that they behave.
The familiar alfo is more proper for infinuation thari
the elevated ; this being the language of refledlion,
as the former is the voice of fentiment. We guard
ourfelves againft the one, but lie open to the other;
and inftrmftion will always the moft effedlually fway
us, when it appears leaft jealous of its rights and pri¬
vileges.
The familiar ftyle, however, that is here required,
notwithftanding that appearance Y>f eafe which is its
charadler, is perhaps more difficult to w'rite than the
more elevated or fublime. A writer more readily per¬
ceives when he has rifen above the common language,
than he perceives, in fpeaking this language, whether
he has made the choice that is moft fuitable to the oc-
cafion : and it is neverthelefs, upon this happy choice
that all the charms of the familiar depend. Moreover,
the elevated ftyle deceives and feduces, although if be
not the beft chofen; whereas the familiar can procure
itfelf no fort of refpecl, if it be not eafy, natural, juft,
delicate, and unaffe&ed. A fabulift mutt therefore be¬
ftow great attention upon his ftyle; and even labour it
fo much the more, that it may appear to have coft him
no pains at all.
The authority of Fontaine juftifies thefe opinions in
regard to ftyle. His fables are perhaps the beft ex¬
amples of the genteel familiar, as Sir Roger I’Eftrange
affords the groffeft of the indelicate and low. When
we read, that “ while the frog and the moufe were dif-
puting it at fwords-point, down comes a kite powder¬
ing upon them in the interim, and gobbles up both to¬
gether to part the fray;” and “ where the fox reproaches
a bevy of jolly goflxpping wenches making merry over a
difti of pullets, that if he but peeped into a hen-rooft, \
they alvrays made a bawling with their dogs and their
baftards; while you yourfelves (fays he) can lie fluffing
your guts with your hens and capons, and not a word
of the pudding.” This may be familiar ; but it is alfo
coarfe and vulgar, and cannot fail to difguft a reader that
has the leaft degree of tafte or delicacy.
The ftyle of fable then muft be Ample and familiar ;
and it muft likewife be correct and elegant. By the
E former,
34 POE
Of Fables, former, v/e mean, that it fhould not be loaded with
v ~ figure and metaphor that the difpofition of words be
natural, the turn of fentences eafy, and their conllruftion
unembarraffed. Ry elegance, we would exclude all coarfe
and provincial terms •, all affected and puerile conceits j
all obfolete and pedantic phrafes. To this we would ad-
ioin, as the word perhaps implies, a certain finifhing po-
lilh, which gives a grace and fpirit to the whole 5 and
which, though it have always the appearance of nature,
is almoft ever the effect of art.
But notwithftanding all that has been faid, there are
fome occafions on which it is allowable, and even expe¬
dient, to change the Ityle. The language of a fable mult
rife or fall in conformity to the fubjeft. A lion, when in¬
troduced in his regal capacity, mull hold difeourfe in a
ilrain fomewhat more elevated than a country moufe.
The lionefs then becomes his queen, and the beads of the
foreft are called his fubjefts ; a method that offers at
once to the imagination both the animal and the perfon
he is defigned to reprefent. Again, the buffoon-monkey
thould avoid that pomp of phrafe, which the owl employs
as her belt pretence to wifdom. Unlefs the ftyle be thus
judicioufly varied, it will be impoffible to preferve a juft
diftinflion of character.
Defcriptions, at once concife and pertinent, add a
grace to fable •, but are then moft happy when inclu¬
ded in the aflion : whereof the fable of Boreas and the
Sun affords us an example. An epithet well chofen is
often a defeription in itfelf •, and fo much the more agree¬
able, as it the lefs retards us in our purfuit of the cata-
ftrophe.
Laftly, little ftrokes of humour when arifing natu¬
rally from the fubjedt, and incidental rtfledlions when
kept in due fubordination to the principal, add a value
to thefe compolitions. Thefe latter, however, fliould
be employed very fparingly, and with great addrefs 5
be very few, and vdry fhort : it is fcarcely enough that
they naturally fpring out of the fubject ; they Ihould
be lueh as to appear neceffary and effential parts of the
fable. And when thefe embellifhments, pleafmg in
themfelves, tend to illuftrate the main aftion, they
then afford that namelefs grace remarkable in Fontaine
and fome few others, and which perfons of the belt
difeernment will more eafiiy conceive than they can ex¬
plain.
Sect. X. Of Satire.
Origin of - This kind of poem is of very ancient date, and (if
fatire. we believe Horace) was introduced, by way of inter¬
lude, by the Greek dramatic poets in their tragedies,
to relieve the audience, and take off the force of thofe
ftrokes which they thought too deep and affefting. In
thefe fatirical interludes, the feene was laid in the coun¬
try and the perfons were rural deities,, fatyrs, country
peafants, and other ruftics.
The firft Tragedians found that ferious ftyle
Too grave for their uncultivated age,
And fo brought wild and naked fatyrs in
(Whofe motion, words, and (hape, were all a farce)
As oft as decency would give them leave ;
Becaufe the mad, ungovernable rout,
Full of confufion and the fumes of wine,
Lov’d fuch variety and antic tricks.
Roscommon"'s Horace.
TRY. Part II.
The fatire we now have is generally allowed to be of Of Satire-
Roman invention. It was firft introduced without the * !
decorations of feenes and aftion ; but written in verfes of
different meafures by Ennius, and afterwards moulded
into the form we now have it by Lucilius, whom Ho¬
race has imitated, and mentions with efteem. This is
the opinion of moft of the critics, and particularly of
Boileau, who fays,
Lucilius led the way, and bravely bold,
To Roman vices did the mirror hold j
Protected humble goodnefs from reproach,
Show’d worth on foot, and rafeals in a coach.
Horace his pleafing wit to this did add,
That none, uncenfur’d, might be fools or mad :
And Juvenal, with rhetorician’s rage,
Scourg’d the rank vices of a wicked age 5
Tho’ horrid truths thro’ all his labours fliine,
In what he writes there’s fomething of divine.
Our fatire, therefore, may be diftinguiftied into two
kinds ; the jocofe, or that which makes fport with vice
and folly, and fets them up to ridicule j and the ferious,
or that which deals in afperity, and is fevere and acri¬
monious. Horace is a perfect mafter of the firft, and
Juvenal much admired for the laft. The one is face¬
tious, and fmiles : the other is angry, and ftorms. The
foibles of mankind are the object of one •, but crimes
of a deeper dye have engaged the other. They both
agree, however, in being pungent and biting : and from
a due conlideration of the writings of thefe authors, who
are our matters in this art, we may define fatire to be,
A free, (and often jocofe), witty, and (harp poem, DefiIni^on
wherein the follies and vices of men are lathed and rr-0f
diculed in order to their reformation. Its fubjecl is
whatever deferves our contempt or abhorrence, (includ¬
ing every thing that is ridiculous and abfurd, or fcanda-
lous and repugnant to the golden precepts of religion
and virtue). Its manner is inveflive; and its end,
fhame. So that fatire may be looked upon as the phy-
fician of a diftempered mind, which it endeavours to cure
by bitteT and unfavoury, or by pleafant and falutary, ap¬
plications. ^
A good fatirift ought to be a man of wit and ad- Qualities
drefs, fagacity and eloquence. He thould alfo have a of a good
great deal of good-nature, as all the fentrments which
are beautiful in this way of writing muft proceed from
that quality in the author. It is good-nature produces
that difdain of all bafenefs, vice, and folly, which prompts
the poet taexprefs himfelf with fuch fmartnefs againft
the errors of men, but without bitternefs to their per¬
fons. It is this quality that keeps the mind even, and
never lets an offence unfeafonably throw the fatirift out
of his charadler.
In writing fatire, care ftiould be taken that it be true
and general 5 that is, levelled at abufes in which num¬
bers are concerned : for the perfonal kind of fatire, or
lampoon, which expofes particular charaflers, and af-
fedts the reputation of thofe at whom it is pointed, is
fcarcely to be diftinguiftied from fcandal and defamation.
The poet alfo, whilft he is endeavouring to corredl the
guilty, muft take care not to ufe fuch expreflions as
may corrupt the innocent : he muft therefore avoid all
obfeene words and images that tend to debafe and mif-
lead the mind. Horace and Juvenal, the chief fatirifts
Part II.
POE
166
Proper
ftyle of
fatire.
Of Satire, among the Romans, are faulty in this refpedl, and ought
to be read with caution.
The ityle proper for fatire is fometimes grave and
animated, inveighing againft vice with warmth andear-
neftnefs ; but that which is pleafant, fportive, and, with
becoming raillery, banters men out of their bad difpofi-
tions, has generally the belt effect, as it feems only to
play with their follies, though it omits no opportunity
of making them feel the lafh. The verfes fhould be
fmooth and flowing, and the language manly, juft, and
decent.
Of well-chofe words fome take not care enough,
And think they ftiould be as the fubje£t rough:
But fatire muft be more exactly made,
And ftjarpeft thoughts in fmootheft words convey’d.
Duke of Bucks’s
Satires, either of the jocofe or ferious kind, may be
written in the epiftolary manner, or by way of dialogue.
Horace, Juvenal, and Perfius, have given us examples
of both. Nay, fome of Horace’s fatires may, without
incongruity, be called epijlles, and his epiftles fatires.
But this is obvious to every reader.
Of the facetious kind, the fecond fatire of the fe-
cend book of Horace imitated by Mr Pope, and Swift’s
verfes on his own death, may be referred to as ex¬
amples.
As to thofe fatires of the ferious kind, for which Ju¬
venal is fo much diftinguilhed, the charafferiftic proper¬
ties of which are, morality, dignity,andfeverity; abet¬
ter example cannot be mentioned than the poem enti¬
tled London, written in imitation of the third iatire of Ju¬
venal, by Dr Johnfon, who has kept up to the fpiritand
force of the original.
Nor muft we omit to mention Dr Young’s Love of
Fame the Univerfal PaJJion, in feven fatires, which,
though chara£teriftieal, abound with morality and good
fenfe. The chara&ers are well felefted, the ridicule
is high, and the fatire well pointed and to the pur-
pofe.
We have already obferved, that perfonal fatire ap¬
proaches too near defamation, to deferve any counte¬
nance or encouragement. Dryden’s Mack Flechnoe is
for this reafon exceptionable, but as a compofition it is
inimitable.
Benefits of We have dwelt thus long on the prefent fubjeft, be-
well-con- caufe there is reafon to apprehend, that the benefits ari-
tkieled fa- £ng from well-condudfted fatire have not been fufficient-
ly conftdered. A fatire may often do more fervice to
the caufe of religion and virtue than a fermon j fince it
gives pleafure, at the fame time that it creates fear or
indignation, and conveys its fentiments in a manner the
xnoft likely to captivate the mind.
Of all the ways that wifeft men could find
To mend the age and mortify mankind,
Satire well writ has moft fuccefsful prov’d,
And cures, becaufe the remedy is lov’d.
Duke of Bucks’s FJfay.
But to produce the defired effeft, it muft be jocofe,
free, and impartial, though fevere. The fatirift ftiould
always preferve good humour •, and, however keen he
cuts, fhould cut with kindnefs. When he lofes temper,
his weapons will be inverted, and the ridicule he threw
at others will retort with contempt upon himfelf: for
T R V. .. .is
the reader will perceive that he is angry and hurt, and Of Satire-
confider his fatire as the eiFe6t of malice, not of judge-
ment j and that it is intended rather to wound perfons
than reform manners.
Rage you muft hide, and prejudice lay down :
A fatyr’s finile is fharper than his frown.
The beft, and indeed the only, method toexpofevice
and folly effectually, is to turn them to ridicule, and
hold them up for public contempt} and as it moft of¬
fends thefe objeCts of fatire, fo it leait hurts ourfelves.
One paftion frequently drives out another; and as we
cannot look with indifference on the bad aCtions of men
(for they muft excite either our wrath or contempt), it
is prudent to give way to that which moft offends vice
and folly, and leaft affeCts our ft Ives; and to fneer and
laugh, rather than be angry and fcold. 16S
Burlefque poetry, which is chiefly ufed by way ofBmfiefqvw
drollery and ridicule, falls properly to -be fpoken of^0®try‘T'
under the head of fatire. An excellent example ofng 
this kind is a poem in blank verfe, intitled The SplendidHudibras.
Shilling, written by Mr John Philips, which, in the opi¬
nion of one of the beft judges of the age, is the fineft
burlefque in the Englifli language. In this poem the
author has handled a low fubjeCt in the lofty ftyle and
numbers of Milton ; in which way of writing Mr Phi¬
lips has been imitated by feveral, but none have come
up to the humour and happy turn of the original. When
we read it, we are betrayed into a pleafure that we could
not expeCt} though, at the fame time, the fublimity of
the ftyle, and gravity of the phrafe, feem to chaftife that
laughter which they provoke.
There is another fort of verfe and ftyle, which is moft
frequently made ufe of in treating any fubjeCt in a lu¬
dicrous manner, viz. that which is generally called Hu-
dibrajlic, from Butler’s admirable poem intitled Hudi-
brus. Almoft every one knows, that this poem is a fa¬
tire upon the authors of our civil diffenfions in the reign
of King Charles I. wherein the poet has, with abundance
of wit and humour, expofed and ridiculed the hypocrify
or blind zeal of thofe unhappy times. In (hurt, it is a
kind of burlefque epic poem, which, for the oddity of
the rhymes, the quaintnefs of the fimilies, the novelty of
the thoughts, and that fine raillery which runs through
the whole performance, is not to be paralleled.
Sect. XI. Of the Epigram.
The epigram is a little poem, or compoftion in wrfe, char^er
treating of one thing only, and whofe di/linguifhirjg clui-0{x\\e epU
rudders are, brevity, beauty, and point. gram.
The word epigram fignifies “ infeription for epi¬
grams derive their origin from thofe inferiptions placed
by the ancients on theirftatues, temples,,pillars, triumphal
arches, and the like j which, at firft, were very fliort, be¬
ing fometimes no more than a fingle word •, but after¬
wards, increafing their length, they made them in verfe,
to be the better retained by the memory. This ftiort
way of writing came at laft to be ufed upon any occa-
fion or fubjeft •, and hence the name of epigram has been
given to any little copy of verfes, without regard to the
original application of fuch poems.
Its ufual limits are from two to 20 verfes, though
fometimes it extends to 50 •, but the ftiorter, the better
it is, and the more perfeft, as it partakes more of the
E 2 - nature
36
Epigram.
170
Of what
fubjedfs it-
admits.
i?1
Examples
of Engliih
epigrams
remarkable
for their
delicacy,
and
POE
nature and character of this kind of poem : befides,
the epigram, being only a Angle thought, ought to be
exprefled in a little compafs, or elfe it lofes its force and
llrength.
The beauty required in an epigram is an harmony
and apt agreement of all its parts, a fweet fimplicity,
and polite language.
The point is a lharp, lively, unexpected turn of wit,
with which an epigram ought to be concluded. There
are feme critics, indeed, who will not admit the point
in an epigram ; but require that the thought be equally
dilfufed through the -whole poem, which is ufually the
praCtice of Catullus, as the former is that of Martial.
It is allowed there is more delicacy in the manner of
Catullus ; but the point is more agreeable to the gene¬
ral tafte, and feems to be the chief charaCteriftic of the
epigram.
This fort of poem admits of all manner of fubjeCts,
provided that brevity, beauty, and point, are prefer-
ved •, but it is generally employed either in praife or
fatire.
Though the belt epigrams are faid to be fuch as are
comprifed in two or four verfes, we are not to underltand
it as if none can be perfect which exceed thofe limits.
Neither the ancients nor moderns have been fo fcrupu-
lous with refpeCt to the length of their epigrams ; but,
however, brevitv in general is always to be ftudied in
thefe compolitions.
For examples of good epigrams in the Englilh lan¬
guage, we fhall make choice of feveral in the different
taftes we have mentioned; fomeremarkable for their de¬
licate turn and fimplicity of expreffion ; and others for
their fait and fharpnefs, their equivocating pun, or plea-
fant allufion. In the firft place, take that of Mr Pope,
faid to be -written on a glafs with the earl of Chefter-
field’s diamond-pencil.
Accept a miracle, inftead of wit;
See two dull lines by Stanhope’s pencil writ.
The beauty of this epigram is more eafily feen than
defcribed; and it is difficult to determine, whether it
does more honour to the poet who wrote it, or to the
nobleman for whom the compliment is defigned.—The
following epigram of Mr Prior is written in the fame
tafte, being a fine encomium on the performance of an
excellent painter.
TRY. • Fart II.
’Tis Chloe’s eye, and cheek, and lip, and breaft:: t Epigram-.
Friend Howard’s genius fancy’d all the reft. ’'"Y"'
Moft of Mr Prior’s epigrams are of this delicate eaft,
and have the thought, like thofe of Catullus, diffufed
through the whole. Of this kind is his addrefs
To Chloe Weeping.
See, whilft thou weep’ft, fair Chloe, fee
The world in fympathy with thee.
The cheerful birds no longer fing,
Each drops his head, and hangs his wing.
The clouds have bent their bofom lower,
And ffied their forrow in a ffiower.
The brooks beyond their limits flow,
And louder murmurs fpeak their wo :
The nymphs and fwains adopt thy cares ;
They heave thy fighs, and weep thy tears.
Fantaftic nymph ! that grief fhould move
Thy heart obdurate againft love.
Strange tears ! whofe pow’r can foften all
But that dear breaft on which they fall.
The epigram written on the leaves of a fan by Dr
Atterbury, late bifhop of Rochefter, contains a pretty
thought, expreffed with eafe and concifenefs, and clofed
in a beautiful manner.
On a Fan.
Flavia the leaft and flighteft toy
Can with refiftlefs art employ.
This fan in meaner hands wmuld prove
An engine of fmall force in love .
Yet the, wdth graceful air and mien,
Not to be told or fafely feen,
Directs its wanton motion fo,
That it wounds more than Cupid’s bow,
Gives coolnefs to the matchlefs dame,
To ev’ry other breaft a flame.
J . • • I72
We {ball now’ feleft fome epigrams of the biting and for their
fatirical kind, and fuch as turn upon the/>«« or eyz//-point.
voque, as the French call it: in which fort the point
is more confpicuous than in thofe of the former cha¬
racter.
The following diftich is an admirable epigram, ha¬
ving all the neceffary qualities of one, efpecially point
and brevity.
On a Flower, painted by VARELST.
When fam’d Varelft this little v'onder drew.
Flora vouchfaf’d the growing work to view ;
Finding the painter’s feience at a ftand,
The goddefs fnatch’d the pencil from his hand,
And, finifhing the piece, {he foiling faid,
Behold one work of mine which ne'er Jhallfade.
Another compliment of this delicate kind he has made
Mr Howard in the following epigram.
Venus Mifaken.
When Chloe’s picture was to Venus flxown j
Surpris’d, the goddefs took it for her own.
And what, faid (he, does this bold painter mean ?
When was I bathing thus, and naked feen ?
Pleas’d Cupid heard, and check’d his mother’s pride:
A nd who’s blind now, mamma ? the urchin cry’d.
On a Company of bad DANCERS to good Mufc.
How ill the motion with the mufic fuits !
So Orpheus fiddled, and fo danc’d the brutes.
This brings to mind another epigram upon a bad
fiddler, which W'e {hall venture to infert merely for
the humour of it, and not for any real excellence it
contains.
To a bad FlDDLER.
Old Orpheus play’d fo well, he mov’d Old Nick;
But thou mov’d: nothing but thy fiddle ftick.
One of Martial’s epigrams, where he agreeably rallies
the fooliffi vanity of a man who hired people to make
verfes for him,' and publiffi them as his own, has been
thus tranflated into Engliffi.
Paul, fo fond of the name of a poet is grown,
With gold he buys verfes, and calls them his own.
Go
POE
Go on, matter Paul, nor mind what the world fays,
They are furely his own for which a man pays.
Some bad writer having taken the liberty to cenfure
Mr Prior, the poet very wittily laftied his impertinence
in this epigram:
While fatter than his coftive brain indites
Philo’s quick hand in flowing letters writes,
His cafe appears to me like honeft Teague’s
When he was run away with by his legs.
Phoebus, give Philo o’er himfelf command ;
Quicken his fenfes, or reftrain his hand :
Let him be kept from paper, pen, and ink ;
So he may ceafe to write, and learn to think.
Mr Wefley has given us a pretty epigram, alluding
to a well-known text of Scripture on the fetting up a
monument in Weftminfter Abbey, to the memory of the
ingenious Mr Butler, author of Hudibras.
While Butler, needy wretch, was yet alive,
No generous patron would a dinner give.
See him when ftarv’d to death, and turn’d to duft,
Prefented with a monumental butt !
The poet’s fate is here in emblem fhown ;
He alk’d for Bread, and he receiv’d a Stone.
We fhall clofe this fedlion with an epigram written
on the well-known ftory of Apollo and Daphne, by Mr
Smart.
When Phoebus -was am’rous and long’d to be rude,
Mifs Daphne cry’d Pilh ! and ran fwift to the wood 5
And rather than do fuch a naughty affair,
She became a fine laurel to deck the god’s hair.
The nymph was, no doubt, of a cold conftitution j
For fure, to turn tree was an odd refolution !
Yet in this flie behav’d like a true modern fpoufe,
For (he fled from his arms to diftinguifli his brows.
Sect. XII. Of the Epitaph.
Charter These compofitions generally contain fome eulogium
of the epi- of the virtues and good qualities of the deceafed, and
taph. have a turn of ferioufnefs and gravity adapted to the
nature of the fubje£t. Their elegance confifts in a
nervous and expreflive brevity 5 and fometimes they are
clofed with an epigrammatic point. In thefe compofi-
tions, no mere epithet (properly fo called) fhould be
admitted: for here illuftration would impair the
ttrength, and render the fentiment too diffufe and
languid. Words that are fynonymous are alfo to be
rejected.
Though the true charadteriftic of the epitaph is fe¬
rioufnefs and gravity, yet we may find many that are
jocofe and ludicrous: fome likewife have true metre
and rhyme j while others are between profe and verfe,
without any certain meafure, though the words are truly
poetical; and the beauty of this laft fort is generally
heightened by an apt and judicious antithefis. We
ftiall give examples of each.
The following epitaph on Sir Philip Sydney’s fitter,
the countefs of Pembroke, faid to be written by the fa¬
mous Ben Jonfon, is remarkable for the noble thought
with which it concludes.
TRY.
On MARY Countef-dowager of PEMBROKE.
Underneath this marble hearfe,
Lies the fubjedt of all verfe,
Sidney’s fitter, Pembroke’s mother :
Death, ere thou haft kill’d another
Fair, and learn’d, and good as ihe,
Time ftiall throw a dart at thee.
Take another epitaph of Ben Jonfon’s, on a beauti¬
ful and virtuous lady, which has been defervedly admir¬
ed by very good judges.
Underneath this ftone doth lie
As much virtue as could die j
Which when alive did vigour give
To as much beauty as could live.
The following epitaph by Dr Samuel Johnfon, on a,
mufician much celebrated for his performance, will bear
a comparifon with thefe, or perhaps with any thing of
the kind in the Englifli language.
Philips ! whofe touch harmonious could remove
The pangs of guilty pow’r and haplefs love,
Reft here, dittreft by poverty no more 5
Find here that calm thou gav’ft fo oft before $
Sleep undifturb’d within this peaceful Ihrine,
Till angels wake thee with a note like thine.
It is the juft obfervation of an eminent critic, that
the belt fubjeft for epitaphs is private virtue j virtue
exerted in the fame circumftances in which the bulk of
mankind are placed, and which, therefore, may admit
of many imitators. He that has delivered his country
from oppreflion, or freed the world from ignorance and
error, befides that he ftands in no need of monumental
panegyric, can excite the emulation of a very fmall
number. The bare name of fuch men anfwers every
purpofe of a long infcription, becaufe their achievements
are univerfally known, and their fame is immortal.—
But the virtues of him who has repelled the tempta¬
tions of poverty, and difdained to free himfelf from di*
ftrefs at the expence of his honour or his confcience, as
they were praftifed in private, are fit to be told, becaufe-
they may animate multitudes to the fame firmnefs of
heart and fteadinefs of refolution. On this account,
there are few epitaphs of more value than the following,
which Avas written by Pope on Mrs Corbet, who died
of a cancer in her breaft.
Here refts a ■woman, good without pretence,
Bleft with plain reafon, and with fober fenfe 5
No conqueft fhe, but o’er herfelf defir’d ;
No arts effay’d, but not to be admir’d.
Paflion and pride were to her foul unknown,
Convinc’d that virtue only is our own.
So unaffected, fo compos’d a mind,
So firm, yet foft, fo ftrong, yet fo refin’d,
Heav’n, as its pureft gold, by tortures try’d j
The faint fuftain’d it, but the woman dy’d.
This epitaph, as well as the fecond quoted from Ben
Jonfon, has indeed one fault •, the name is omitted.
The end of an epitaph is to convey fome account of the
dead 5 and to what purpofe is any thing told of him
whofe
Part II.
Epigram.
X74
Epitaphs
in verfe,
with re¬
marks up¬
on them.
POE
whofe name is concealed ? The name, it is true, may be
infcribed by itfelf upon the done 5 but fuel) a fliift of
the poet is like that of an unlkilful painter, who is obli¬
ged to make his purpofe known by adventitious help.
Amongft the epitaphs of a punning and ludicrous
eaft, w'e know of none prettier than that which is laid
to have been written by Mr Prior oti himfelf, wherein
he is pleafantly fatirical upon the folly of thofe who
value themfelves upon account of the long feries of ance-
ilors through which they can trace their pedigree.
Nobles and heralds, by your leave,
Here lie the bones of Matthew Prior,
The fon of Adam and of Eve :
Let Bourbon or Nafl'au go higher.
The following epitaph on a mifer contains a good
caution and an agreeable raillery.
Reader, bewrare immod’rate love of pelf:
Here lies the word of thieves, who robb’d himfelf.
But Dr Swift’s epitaph on the fame fubjedt is a ma-
derpiece of the kind.
Beneath this verdant hillock lies
Demer, the wealthy and the wife.
His heirs, that he might fafely reft,
Have put his carcafe in a cheft :
The very cheft, in which, they fay.
His other Self, his money, lay.
And if his heirs continue kind
To that dear felf he left behind,
I dare believe that four in five
Will think his better half alive.
We ftiall give but one example more of this kind,
which is a merry epitaph on an old fiddler, who was
remarkable (wTe may fuppofe) for beating time to his
trwn mufic.
On Stephen the Fiddler.
Stephen and time are now both even ;
Stephen beat time, now time’s beat Stephen.
Epitaphs
in profe
encomiaftic
and
We are come now to that fort of epitaph which re-
jedts rhyme, and has no certain and determinate mea-
fure •, but where the didfion muft be pure and ftrong,
every word have weight, and the antithefis be prefer-
ved in a clear and diredl oppofition. We cannot give
a better example of this fort of epitaph than that on
the tomb of Mr Pulteney in the cloilters of Weftmin-
fter-abbey.
Reader,
If thou art a Briton,
Behold this Tomb with Reverence and Regret:
Here lie the Remains of
Da.niel Pulteney,
The kindeft Relation, the trueft Friend,
The warmeft Patriot, the worthieft Man.
He exercifed Virtues in this Age,
Sufficient to have diftinguifli’d him even in the beft.
Sagacious by Nature,
Induftrious by Habit,
Inquifitive with art j
He gain’d a comvftete .Knowledge of the ftate of Britain,
Foreign and Domeftic 3
TRY.
In moft the backward Fruit of tedious Experience,
In him the early acquifition of undiffipated Youth.
He ferv’d the Court feveral Years:
Abroad, in the aufpicious reign of Queen Anne 3
At home, in thereignof that excellent prince K. George I.
He ferv’d his Country always,
At Court independent,
In the Senate unbiafs’d,
At every Age, and in every Station,
This was the bent of his generous Soul,
This the bufinefs of his laborious Life.
Public Men, and Public Things,
Fie judged by one conftant Standard,
The True Interejl of Britain :
He made no other Diftimftion of Party,
He abhorred all other.
Gentle, humane, difinterefted, beneficent,
He created no Enemies on his own Account:
Firm, determined, inflexible,
He feared none he could create in the Caufe of Britain.
Reader,
In this Misfortune of thy Country lament thy own:
For know
The Lofs of fo much private Virtue
Is a public Calamity.
. That poignant fatire, as well as extravagant praife, fatirical.
may be conveyed in this manner, will be feen by the
following epitaph written by Dr Arbuthnot on Francis
Charteris 3 which is too well known, and too much ad¬
mired, to need our commendation.
Part II.
Epitaph.
Here continueth to rot
The body of FRANCIS CHARTERIS,
Who with an inflexible Constancy,
And INIMITABLE UNIFORMITY of Life,
Persisted,
In fpite of Age and Infirmities,
In the Pradlice of every Human Vice,
Excepting Prodigality and Hypocrisy:
His infatiable Avarice exempted him from the firft.
His matchlefs Impudence from the fecond.
Nor wras he more Angular
In the undeviating Pravity of his Manners,
Than fuccefsful
In Accumulating Wealth :
For, without Trade or Profession,
Without Trust of Public Money,
And without Bribe-worthy Service,
He acquired, or more properly created,
A Ministerial Estate.
He was the only Perfon of his Time
Who could cheat without the Mafk of Honesty 3
Retain his Primaeval Meanness
When poffeffed of Ten Thousand a-year;
And having daily deferved the Gibbet for what he did.
Was at lalt condemn’d to it for what he could not do.
Oh indignant reader!
Think not his Life ufelefs to Mankind 3
Providence conniv’d at his execrable defigns,
To give to After-ages
A confpicuous Proof and Example
Of how fmall Eftimation is Exorbitant Wealth
In the Sight of GOD,
By His beftowing it on the moft UNWORTHY of ALL
Mortals.
We
Part II.* POE
Epitaph. We fhall conclude this fpecles of poetry with a droll
» and fatirical epitaph written by Mr Pope, which we
tranfcribed from a monument in Lord Cobham’s gardens
at Stow in Buckinghamflrire.
To the Memory
of
SlGNIOR FIDO,
An Italian of good extraction $
Who came into England,
Not to bite us, like moft of his Countrymen,
But to gain an honeft Livelihood.
He hunted not after Fame,
Yet acquir’d it *,
Regardlefs of the Praife of his Friends,
But moft fenfible of their Love,
Though he liv’d amongft the Great,
He neither learnt nor flatter’d any Vice.
He was no Bigot,
Though he doubted of none of the 39 Articles.
TRY. 39
And, if to follow Nature, i Epitaph. ^
And to refpeft the laws of Society, l“~"-y
Be Philofophy,
He was a perfect Philofopher,
A faithful Friend,
An agreeable Companion,
A loving Hufband
Diftinguifti’d by a numerous offspring,
All which he liv’d to fee take good Courfes.
In his old Age he retired
To the houfe of a Clergyman in the country,
Where he finiftied his earthly Race,
And died an Honour and an Example to the whole Species,
Reader,
This Stone is guiltlefs of Flattery
For he to whom it is infcrib’d
Was not a Man,
But a
Gre-hound.
PART III. ON VERSIFICATION.
On this fubjedl it is meant to confine our inquiry to
Latin or Greek hexameters, and to French and Eng-
lifti heroic verfe ; as the obfervations we fhall have oc-
cafion to make, may, with proper variations, be eafily
^ transferred to the compofition of other forts of verfe.
ElTentials Before entering upon particulars, it muft be premifed
of verfe. in general, that to verfe of every kind five things are of
importance, ift, The number of fyllables that compofe
a line. 2d, The different lengths of fyllables, i. e. the
difference of time taken in pronouncing. 3d, The
arrangement of thefe fyllables combined in words.
4th, The paufes or flops in pronouncing. 5th, Pro¬
nouncing fyllables in a high or a low tone. The three
firft mentioned are obvioufly effential to verfe : if any
of them be wanting, there cannot be that higher degree
of melody which diftinguifheth verfe from profe. To
give a juft notion of the fourth, it muft be obferved,
that paufes are neceffary for three different purpofes :
Regulation one>to feparate periods, and members of the fame period,
ef paufes. according to the fenfe : another, to improve the melody
of verfe : and the laft, to afford opportunity for drawing
breath in reading. A paufe of the firft kind is variable,
being long or Abort, frequent or lefs frequent, as the
fenfe requires. A paufe of the fecond kind, being de¬
termined by the melody, is in no degree arbitrary. The
laft fort is in a meafure arbitrary, depending on the
reader’s command of breath. But as one cannot read
with grace, unlefs, for drawing breath, opportunity be
taken of a paufe in the fenfe or in the melody, this paufe
ought never to be diftinguifhed from the others 5 and
for that reafon (hall be laid afide. With refpe£l then to
the paufes of fenfe and of melody, it may be affirmed
without hefitation, that their coincidence in verfe is a
capital beauty : but as it cannot be expelled, in a long
work efpeeially, that every line fhould be fo perfedft •, we
(hall afterward have occafion to fee, that, unlefs the
reader be uncommonly fkilful, the paufe neceffary for
the fenfe muft often, in fome degree, be facrificed to the
verfe-paufe, and the latter fometimes to the former.
The pronouncing fyllables in a high or low tone con¬
tributes alfo to melody. In reading, whether verfe or
profe, a certain tone is aflumed, which may be called the
ley-note ; and in that tone the bulk of the words are
founded. Sometimes to humour the fenfe, and fome¬
times the melody, a particular fyllable is founded in a
higher tone, and this is termed accenting a fyllable, or
gracing it with an accent. Oppofed to the accent is the
cadence, which, however, being entirely regulated by
the fenfe, hath no peculiar relation to verfe. The ca¬
dence is a falling of the voice below the key-note at the
clofe of every period •, and fo little is it effential to verfe,
that in correct reading the final fyllable of every line is
accented, that fyllable only excepted which clofes the
period, where the fenfe requires a cadence.
Though the five requifites above mentioned enter the
compofition of every fpecies of verfe, they are however
governed by different rules, peculiar to each fpecies. 179
Upon quantity only, one general obfervation may be Quantity,
premifed, becaufe it is applicable to every fpecies of verfe.
That fyllables, with refpe£l to the time taken in pro¬
nouncing, are long or fhort •, two ftiort fyllables, with
refpeft to time, being precifely equal to a long one.
Thefe two lengths are effential to verfe of all kinds ;
and to no verfe, it is believed, is a greater variety of time
neceffary in pronouncing fyllables. The voice indeed is
frequently made to reft longer than ufual upon a word
that bears an important fignification,; but this is done to
humour the fenfe, and is not neceffary for melody. A
thing not more neceffary for melody occurs with refpeft
to accenting, fimilar to that now mentioned : A word
fignifying any thing humble, low, or dejedled, is natu¬
rally, in profe as well as in verfe, pronounced in a tone
below the key-note.
We are now fufficiently prepared for particulars; be-'
ginning with Latin or Greek hexameter, which are the ■
fame. The obfervations upon this fpecies of verfe will
come under the four following heads; number,arrange¬
ment, paufe, and accent; for as to quantity, what is ob¬
ferved above may fuffice.
I. HEXAMETER
iSo
Hexameter
verfes of
the Greeks
and Ho¬
mans con-
lift of what
feet.
POE
I. HEXAMETER Limes, as to time, are all of
the fame length $ being equivalent to the time taken in
pronouncing twelve long fyllables or twenty-four Ihort.
An hexameter line may confift of feventeen fyllables ;
and when regular and not fpondaic it never has fewer
than thirteen j whence it follows, that where the fyl¬
lables are many, the plurality muft be fhort j w'here few,
the plurality muft be long.
This line is fufceptible of much variety as to the fuc-
cefffion of long and fliort fyllables. It is, however, fub-
jeffted to laws that confine its variety within certain
limits : and for afeertaining thefe limits, grammarians
have invented a rule by daftyles and fpondees, which
they denominate feet.
Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, thefe feet
regulated the pronunciation, which they are far from
doing among us j of which the reafon will be difcovered
from the explanation that we ftiall give of the Englilh
accent. We (hall at prefent content ourfelves with
pointing out the difference between our pronunciation
and that of the Romans in the firft line of Airgil’s
eclogues, where it is fcarcely credible how much we
pervert the quantity.
Tit'yre tu pat'uke rec'ubans fub teg'mine fagi.
It will be acknowledged by every reader who has an ear,
that we have placed the accentual marks upon every
fyliable, and the letter of every fyllable, that an Eng-
lithman marks with the iftus of his voice when he re¬
cites the line. But, as will be feen prefently, a fyl¬
lable which is pronounced with the ftrefs of the voice
upon a confimant is uttered in the ftiorteft time poffible.
Hence it follows, that in this verfe, as recited by us,
there are but two long fyllables, tu and fa ; though it
is certain, that, as recited by a Roman, it contained no
fewer than eight long fyllables.
TTtyre j tu patujlae recujbans fub | tegmine j fagi.
But though to pronounce it in this manner with the
voice dwelling on the vowel of each long fyllable would
undoubtedly be correft, and preferve the true movement
of the verfe, yet to an Englidi ear, prejudiced in behalf
of a different movement, it founds fo very uncouth, that
Lord Kames has pronounced the true feet of the Greek
and Roman verfes extremely artificial and complex j
and has fubftituted in their ftead the following rules,
which he thinks more fimple and of more eafy ap¬
plication. i ft, The line muft always commence wnth a
lorig fyllable, and dole with two long preceded by two
Ihort. 2d, More than two ftiort can never be found
together, nor fewer that two. And, 3d, Two long
fyiiables which have been preceded by two Ihort cannot
alfo be followed by two fhort. Thefe few rules fulfil
all the conditions of a hexameter line with relation to
order or arrangement. For thefe again a fingle rule
may be fubftituted, which has alfo the advantage of re¬
gulating more affirmatively the conftru&ion of every
¥Aem. -of Part- To put this rule into words with perfpicuity, a
itriticijm, hint is taken from the twelve long fyllables that com-
Thap. xviii. p0fe an hexameter line, to divide it into twelve equal parts
fed. 4. or p0rt;0nSj being each of them one long fyllable or two
fliort. The rule then is : “ The ift, 3d, 5th,' 7th, 9th,
nth, and I2th portions,, muft each of them be one
long fyllable j the 10th muft always be two fhort fyl¬
lables j the 2d, 4th, 6lh, and 8th, may either be one
TRY. Part III.
long or two fhort.” Or to exprefs the thing ftill more Verfifica-
fhortly, “ The 2d, 4th, 6th, and 8th portions may be , tl0n‘ ,
one long fyllable or two fhort y the 10th muft be two v
ftiort fyllables 5 all the1 reft muft confift each of one long
fyllable.” This fulfils all the conditions of an hexame¬
ter line, and comprehends all the combinations of da&yles
and fpondees that this line admits. i8r
Next in order comes the paufe. At the end of every paufes in
hexameter line, every one muft be fenfible of a complete hexameter
clofe or full paufe •, the caufe of which follows. The confidered
two long fyllables preceded by two fhort, which always
clofe an hexameter line, are a fine preparation for a ajeiotiy an4
paufe : for long fyllables, 01' fyllables pronounced flow,
refembling a flow and languid motion tending to reft,
naturally incline the mind to reft, or, which is the fame,
to paufe ; and to this inclination the two preceding fhort
fyllables contribute, which, by contraft, make the flow
pronunciation of the final fyllables the more confpicuous.
Befide this complete clofe or full paufe at the end, others
are alfo requifite for the fake of melody ; of which two
are clearly difcoverable, and perhaps there may be more.
The longeft and moft remarkable fucceeds the 5th por¬
tion : the other, which, being fhorter and more faint,
may be called the femipaufe, fucceeds the 8th portion.
So linking is the paufe firft mentioned, as to be diftin-
guifhed even by the rudeft ear : the monkifh rhymes
are evidently built upon it; in which, by an invariable
rule, the final word always chimes with that which im¬
mediately precedes the paufe :
De planftu cudo || metrum cum carmine nudo
Mingere cum bumbis [| res eft faluberrima lumbis.
The difference of time in the paufe and femipaufe oc-
cafions another difference not lefs remarkable 5 that it
is lawful to divide a word by a femipaufe, but never by
a paufe, the bad effecft of which is fenfibly felt in the
following examples :
Effufus labor, at||que inmitis rupta Tyranni
Again : 7 ^
Obfervans nido imjjplumes detraxit; at ilia
Again ;
Loricam quam Dejjmoleo detraxerat ipfe
The dividing a word by a femipaufe has not the fame
bad effefl :
Jamque pedem referens || cafus ejvaferat omnes.
Again :
Oualis populea || moerens Philo|mela fub umbra
Again :
Ludere quae vellem |[ calamo peijmifit agrefti.
'Lines, however, where words are left entire, without
being divided even by a femipaufe, run by that mean*
much the more fweetly.
Nee gemere aerea || ceflabit; turtur ab ulmo.
Again :
Quadrupedante putrem |j fonitu quatit | ungula campum.
Again :
Eurydicen toto || referebant | flumine ripae.
The reafon of thefe obfervations will be evident upon
the flighteft refleftion. Between tilings fo intimately
connecfed
Part III.
Ve’rfifica- connected in reading aloud as are fenfe and found, every
degree of difcord is unpleafant : and for that reafon it
v 'is a matter of importance to make the mufical paufes
coincide as much as poflible with thofe ef fenfe ; which
is requifite more efpecially with refpeft to the paufe, a
deviation from the rule being lefs remarkable in a femi-
paufe. Confidering the matter as to melody folely, it
is indifferent whether the paufes be at the end of words
or in the middle ; but when we carry the fenfe along,
it is difagreeable to find a word fplit into two by a paufe,
as if there were really two words : and though the dif-
agreeablenefs here be connefled with the fenfe only, it
is by an eafy tranfition of perceptions transferred to the
found; by which means we conceive a line to be harfh
and grating to the ear, when in reality it is only fo to
the underftanding.
To the rule that fixes the paufe after the 5th portion
there is one exception and no more. If the fyllable
fucceeding the 5th portion be Ihort, the paufe is fome-
times poftponed to it.
Pupillis quos dura || premit cuftodia matrum
Again :
In terras oppreffa || gravi fub religione
Again :
Et quorum pars magna || fui j quis talia fando
This contributes to diverfify the melody ; and, where the
words are fmooth and liquid, is not ungraceful 5 as in
the following examples :
Formofam refonare || doces Amaryllida fylvas
Agricolas, quibus ipfa || procul difcordibus armis
If this paufe, placed as aforefaid after the fhort fyl¬
lable', happen alfo to divide a word, the melody by thefe
circumftances is totally annihilated. Witnefs the fol¬
lowing line of Ennius, which is plain profe :
x8z
Senfe.
Romae moenia terru[|it impiger | Hannibal armis.
Hitherto the arrangement of the long and Ihort fyl-
lables of an hexameter line, and its different paufes, have
been confidered with refpeft to melody : but to have a
juft notion of hexameter verfe, thefe particulars muft al¬
fo be confidered with refped to fenfe. There is not per¬
haps in any other fort of verfe fuch latitude in the long
and fhort fyllables j a circumftance that contributes
greatly to that richnefs of melody which is remarkable
in hexameter verfe, and which made Ariftotle pronounce
^ that an epic poem in any other verfe would not fuc-
ca]x°2C6ed * 0ne defeft> hot; ever, muft not be diffembled,
1 ‘ ^ that the fame means which contribute to the richnefs of
the melody render it lefs fit than feveral other forts for a
narrative poem. There cannot be a more artful con¬
trivance, as above obferved, than to clofe an hexameter
line with two long fyllables preceded by two Ihort : but
unhappily this conftru&ion proves a great embarraffment
to the fenfe ; which will thus be evident. As in gene¬
ral there ought to be a drift concordance between the
thought and the words in which it isdreffed •, fo, in par¬
ticular, every clofe in the fenfe ought to be accompanied
willi a clofe in the found. In profe this law may be
-•ifriftly obferved, but in verfe the fame ftriftnefs would
Vol. XVII. Tart I.
POETRY. 41
occafion infuperable difficulties. Willing to facrifice to Verfifica-
the melody of verfe fome (bare of the concordance be- , tl^n' .
tween thought and expreflion, we freely excufe the fe-
paration of the mufical paufe from that of the fenle dur¬
ing the courfe of a line j but the clofe of an hexameter
line is too confpicuous to admit this liberty : for which
reafon there ought always to be fome paufe in the fenfe
at the end of every hexameter line, wTere it but fuch a
paufe as is marked by a comma ; and for the fame rea¬
fon there ought never to be a full clofe in the fenfe but
at the end of a line, becaufe there the melody is clofed.
An hexameter line, to preferve its melody, cannot well
admit any great relaxation ; and yet, in a narrative
poem, it is extremely difficult to adhere ftriftly to the
rule even with thefe indulgences. Virgil, the chief of
poets for verfification, is forced often to end a line with¬
out any clofe in the fenfe, and as often to clofe the fenfe
during the running of a line 5 though a clofe in the me¬
lody during the movement of the thought, or a clofe in
the thought during the movement of the melody, can¬
not be agreeable. 2g5
The accent, to which we proceed, is not lefs effential Obterva-
than the other circumftances above noticed. By a good t^ons on t^fe
ear it will be difcerned, that in every line there is oneaccent‘
fyllable diftinguifhable from the reft by a capital accent :
That fyllable, being the feventh portion, is invariably
long.
Nec bene promeritis || capitur nec J tangitur ira
Again :
Non fibi fed toto || genitum fe | credere mundo ,
Again :
Quails fpelunca Jj fubitd comjmota columba
In thefe examples the accent is laid upon the laft fyl¬
lable of a word ; which is favourable to the melody in
the following refpeft, that the paufe, which for the fake
of reading diftinftly muft follow every word, gives op¬
portunity to prolong the accent. And for that reafon,
a line thus accented has a more fpirited air than when
the accent is placed on any other fyllable. Compare the
foregoing lines with the following.
Alba neque Affyrio || fucatur } lana veneno
Again ;
Panditur interea ][ domus omnipojtentis Olympi *
Again :
Olli fedato || refpdndit j corde Latinus.
In lines where the paufe comes after the ihort fyllable '
fucceeding the 5th portion, the accent is difplaced, and
rendered lefs fenfible : it feems to be fplit into two, and
to be laid partly on the 5th portion, and partly on the
7th, its ufual place j as in
Nuda genu, nodoque || firms coljlefta fluentes.
Again :
Formofam refonare || doces AmarHlida fylvas.
Befide this capital accent, {lighter accents are laid
upon other portions ; particularly upon the 4th, unlefs
where it confifts of two fhort fyllables 5 upon the 9th,
which is always a long fyllable ; and upon the nth,
F where
1S4
Order and
arrange¬
ment do
not confti-
lute the
whole me¬
lody of an
hexameter
verle.
POETRY,
where the line concludes with a monofyllable. Such
conclufion, by the by, impairs the melody, and for that
reafon is not to be indulged unlefs where it is expreflive
of the fenfe. The following lines are marked with all
the accents.
Ludere quae vellem calamo permifit agrefti
Again :
Et durae quercus fudabunt rofcida mella
Again :
Parturiunt montes, nafcitur ndiculus mus.
Reflc&ing upon the melody of hexameter verfe, we
find, that order or arrangement doth not conftitute the
whole of it : for when we compare different lines,
equally regular as to the fuccefiion of long and fhort fyl-
lables, the melody is found in very different degrees of
perfection *, which is not occafioned by any particular
combination of daftyles and fpondees, or of long and
fhort fyllables, becaufe we find lines where da&yles pre¬
vail, and lines where fpondees prevail, equally melodi¬
ous. Of the former take the following inflance :
iEneadum genitrix hominum divumque voluptas.
Of the latter:
Molli paulatim flavefcet campus arifta.
What can be more different as to melody than the two
following lines, which, however, as to the fucceflion of
long and fhort fyllables, are conftruCted precifely in the
fame manner ?
Part III,
Spend. Daft. Spend. Spend. Daft. Spend.
Ad talos ftola dimiffa et circumdata palla.
Spend. Daft. Spend. Spend. Daft. Spend.
Placatumque nitet diffufo lumine coelum.
Hor.
Lucret.
in the former, the paufe falls in the middle of a word,
which is a great blemifh, and the accent is difturbed by
a barfh elifion of the vowel a upon the particle et. In
the latter, the paufes and the accent are all of them
diftind: and full : there is no elifion : and the words
are more liquid and founding. In thefe particulars con-
fifts the beauty of an hexameter line with refpeCt to me¬
lody •, and by neglcfling thefe, many lines in the fatires
and epiflles of Horace are lefs agreeable than plain
profe *, for they are neither the one nor the other in per-
feftion. To draw melody from thefe lines, they muff
be pronounced without relation to the fenfe : it muff not
be regarded that words are divided by paufes, nor that
harfh elifions are multiplied. To add to the account,
profaic low.founding words are introduced ; and, which
is flill worfe, accents are laid on them. Of fuch faulty
lines take the following inflances.
Candida reClaque fit, munda haftenus fit neque longa.
Jupiter exclamat fimul atque audirit j at in fe
Cuflodes, leClica, ciniflbnes, parafitae
Optimus eft modulator, ut Alfenus Vafer omni
r^jnc illud tantum quseram, meritone tibi fit.
Thefe obfervations on paufes and femi-paufes, and on
the ftrudure of an hexameter line, are doubtlefs ingeni¬
ous •, but it is by no means certain that a ftriCi attention Verfifica-
to them would affift any man in the writing of fuch .
verfes as would have been pleafing to a Roman ear.
Many of his lordthipV rules have no other foundation
than what refts on our improper mode of accenting La¬
tin words $ which to Virgil or Lucretius would proba¬
bly have been as offenfive as the Scotch accent is to a
native of Middlefex.
II. Next in order comes English heroic verse ;
which (hall be examined under the heads of number, ac¬
cent, quantity, movement, and paufe. Thefe have been
treated in fo clear and mafterly a manner by Sheridan
in his Art of Reading, that we fhall have little more to
do than abridge his dodlrine, and point out the few in-
ftances in which attachment to a fyftem and partiality to
his native tongue feem to have betrayed him into error,
or at leaft made him carry to an extreme what is juft
only when ufed with moderation.
“ Numbers, in the ftrift fenfe of the word *, whether * Art of-
with regard to poetry or mufic, confift in certain impref-^Jj^...
fions made on the ear at ftated and regular diftances.
The loweft fpecies of numbers is a double ftroke of the
fame note or found, repeated a certain number of times,
at equal diftances. i he repetition of the {vcaafngle note
in a continued feries, and exadlly at equal diftances, like
the ticking of a clock, has in it nothing numerous j but
the fame note, twice ftruck a certain number of times,
with a paufe between each repetition of double the time
of that between the Jlrokes, is numerous. The reafon
is, that the pleafure arifing from numbers, confifts in
the obfervation of proportion ; now the repetition of the
fame note, in exaflly the fame intervals, will admit of
no proportion. But the fame note twice ftruck, with
the paufe of one between the two ftrokes, and repeated^
again at the diftance of a paufe equal to two, admits of
the proportional meafurement in the paufes of two to one,
to which time can be beaten, and is the loweft and fim-
pleft fpecies of numbers. It may be exemplified on the
drum, as tum-tum—tum-tu m--tum-tum, &c.
“ The next progreflion of numbers is, when the fame
note is repeated, but in fuch a way as that one makes a
more fenfible impreffion on the ear than the other, by
being more forcibly ftruck, and therefore having a great¬
er degree of loudnefs •, as ti-tum—ti-tum j or, tum-ti
—tum-ti : or when two weak notes precede a more
forcible one, as ti-ti-tu m-ti-ti-tu mj or when the weak
notes follow the forcible one, tum-ti-ti—tu m-ti-ti.
“ In the firft and loweft fpecies of numbers which we
have mentioned, as the notes are exaaiy the fame in
every refpeft, there can be no proportion obferved but
in the time of the paufes: In the fecond, which rifes m
a degree juft above the other, though the notes are ftijl
the fame, yet there is a diverfity to be obferved m their
refpedlive loudnefs and foftnefs, and therefore a mea-
furable proportion of the quantity of found. In them
we muft likewifetake into confideration the order ot the
notes, whether they proceed from ftrong to weak, or
from weak to ftrong ; for this diverfity of order occa-
fions a great difference in the impreflions made upon the
ear, and in the effects produced upon the mind. To ex-
prefs the diverfity of order in the notes in all its leveral
kinds, the common term movement may be uled, as
the term meafure will properly enough exprefs the dif¬
ferent proportions of time both m the paufes and in the
notes.” For
Part III. POE
For it is to be observed, that all notes are not of the
fame length or on the fame key. In poetry, as well as
in mufic, notes may be high or low, flat or fharp •, and
fome of them may be prolonged at pleafure. “ Poetic
numbers are indeed founded upon the very fame prin¬
ciples with thofe of the muiical kind, and are governed
by fimilar laws (fee Music). Proportion and order are
the fources of the pleafure which we receive from both ;
and the beauty of each depends upon a due obfervati.on
of the laws of meafure and movement. The effential
difference between them is, that the matter of the one
is articulate, that of the other inarticulate founds : but
fyllables in the one correfpond to notes in the other ^ po¬
etic feet to mufical bars j and verfes to drains ; in a
word, they have all like properties, and are governed
by laws of the fame kind.
“ From what has been faid, it is evident, that the ef-
fence of numbers confifts in certain impreffions made on
the mind through the ear at ftated and regular diftances
of time, with an obfervation of a relative proportion in
thofe diftances •, and that the other circumftances of long
or ibort in fyllables, or diverfity of notes in uttering
them, are not effentials but only accidents of poetic num¬
bers. Should this be queftioned, the objeftor might be
filenced by having the experiment tried on a drum, on
which, although it is incapable of producing long or
Ihort, high or low notes, there is no kind oi metre which
may not be beat. That, therefore, which regulates the
feries and movement of the impreflions given to the ear
by the recitation of an Englilh verfe, muft, when pro¬
perly difpofed, conftitute the effence of Englifti poetic
numbers ; but it is the accent which particularly inl-
preffes the found of certain fyllables or letters upon the
ear 5 for in every word there is a fyllable or letter ac¬
cented. The neceflity and ufe of the accent, as well
in profe as in verfe, we fliall therefore proceed to ex¬
plain. ^
“ As words may be formed of various numbers of iyl-
lables, from one up to eight or nine *, it w’as neceffary
that there ftiould be fome peculiar mark to diftinguifli
words from disjointed fyllables, otherwife fpeech would
be nothing but a continued fucceflion of fyllables con¬
veying no ideas. I his diftmftion of one word from an¬
other might be made by a perceptible paufe at the end
of each in fpeaking, analogous to the diftance made be¬
tween them in writing and in printing. But thefe paufes
would make diicourfe difguftingly tedious j and though
they might render words fufficiently diftinfl, they would
make the meaning of fentences extremely confufed.
Words might alfo be diftinguiftied from each other, and
from a colleftion of detached fyllables, by an elevation
or deprejjion of the voice upon one fyllable of each word •,
and this, as is well known to the learned, was the prac¬
tice of the Greeks and Romans. But the Englilh tongue
has for this purpofe adopted a mark of the eafieft and
ft m pie ft kind, which is called accent. By accent is
meant, a certain ftrefs of the voice, upon a particular
letter of a fyllable, which diftinguilhes it from the reft,
and at the fame time diftinguifhes the fyllable itfelf to
which it belongs from the other fyllables which compofe
the word. Thus, in the word hab’it, the accent upon
the b diftinguilhes that letter from the others, and the
firft fyllable from the laft; add more fyllables to it, and
it will ftill do the fame, as Jiab'itab/e. In the word ac~
cfv’t, the p is the diftinguiftied letter, and the fyllable
* Art of
Reading,
voL i.
T R Y. 43
which contains it the diftinguiftied fyllable 5 but if we Verfifica-
add more fyllables to it, as in the word adceptablc, the tl<*n'
feat of the accent is changed to the firft iyliable, of
which c is the diftinguiftied letter. Every word in our
language of more fyllables than one has one of the fyl¬
lables diftinguithed from the reft in this manner, and
every monofyllable has a letter. Thus, in the word hat'
the t is accented, in hate the vowel a, in cub' the b,
and in eftbe the u: fo that as articulation is the effence
of fyllables, accent is the effence of words; which with¬
out it would be nothing more than a mere fucceflion of
fyllables.”
We have faid, that it was the pradlice of the Greeks
and Romans to elevate or deprefs their voice upon , one
fyliable of each word. In this elevation or depreffion
confifted their accent ; but the Englifti accent confifts in
the mere ftrefs of the voice, without any change of note.
“ Among the Greeks, all fyllables were pronounced ei¬
ther in a high, low, or middle note ; or elfe in a union
of the high and low by means of the intermediate. The
middle note, which was exactly at an equal diftance be¬
tween the high and ihe low, was that in which the un¬
accented fyllables were pronounced. But every word
had one letter, if a monofyllable ; or one fyllable, it it
confifted of more than one, diftinguiftied from the reft ;
either by a note of the voice perceptibly higher than the
middle note, which was called the acute accent; or by
a note perceptibly, and in an equal proportion, lower
than the middle one, which was called the grave accent ;
or by an union of the acute and grave on one f% liable,
which was done by the voice palling from the acute,
through the middle note, in continuity down to the
grave, which was called the circumflex?"1
“ Now in pronouncing Englifti words, it is true that
one fyllable is always diftinguiftied from the reft ; but
it is not by any perceptible elevation or depreflion of
the voice, anv high or low note, that it is done, but
merely by dwelling longer upon it, or by giving it a
more forcible ftroke. When the ftrefs or accent is on
the vowel, we dwell longer on that fyllable than on the
reft ; as, in the words glory, father, holy. When it is
on the confonant, the voice, paffmg rapidly over the
vowel, gives a fmarter ftroke to the confonant, which
diftinguithes that fyllable from others, as in the words
bat'tle, hah'it, badrow?'
Having treated fo largely of accent and quantity,
the next thing to be confidered in verfe will be quickly
difeuffed ; for in Englilh it depends wholly on the feat
of the accent. “ When the accent or flrefs is on tire
vowel, the fyllable is neceffarily long, becaufe the ac¬
cent cannot be made without dwelling on the vowel a
longer time, than ufual. When it is on the confonant,
the fyllable is ftiort; becaufe the accent is made by paf-
fing rapidly over the vowel, and giving a fmart ftroke
of the voice to the following confonants. Thus the
words ad'd, led', bid', cub', are all Ihort, the voice paf-
fing quickly over the vowel to the confonant; but for
the contrary reafon, the words dll, laid, bide, cube, are
long ; the accent being on the vowels, on which the
voice dwells fome time before it takes in the found of
the confonant.”
“ Obvious as this point is, it has wholly efcaped the
obfervation of many an ingenious and learned writer.
Lord Kames affirnn *, that accenting is confined in#£/>0y
Englifti heroic verfe to the long fyllables ; for a ftiort Cut. voL i\.
F 2 fyllable
44- POE
VerfiSca- fyllable (fays he) Is not capable of an accent: and Dr
tl0n‘ Forfter, •vvlio ought to have underftood the nature of
v the Englifh accent better than his Lordfhip, alks, whe¬
ther we do not ‘ employ more time in uttering the
jirjl fyllables of heavily, hajlihj, quickly, Jlovoly ; and the
fecond in folicit, miftaking, refearches, de/ujive, than in
* Art «/ the others P To this queftion Mr Sheridan replies *
Reading, that “ in fome of thefe words we certainly do as the
Doctor fuppofes j in hdjlily, Jlovoly, mijiaking, delujive,
for inrtance j where the accent being on the vowels ren¬
ders their found long ; but in all the others, heuv'ily,
quick'ly, fo/is'-it, re-fear’dies, where the accent is on
the confonant, the fyllables head, quick'. Us' fed, are
pronounced as rapidly as poflible,. and the vowels are all
fliort. In the Scotch pronunciation (continues he) they
would indeed be all reduced to an equal quantity, as
thus ; hdi-vi/y, hdis-tilq, q;teek-ly, fow-ly, fo-lee-cit, re-
fdir-ches, de-lu-Jive. But here we fee that the four fhort
fyllables are changed into four long ones of a different
found, occafioned by their placing the feat of the accent
on the vow7els inllead of the confonants : thus inftead of
lied they fay hdiv ;r for quick', quick ; for /is, leece ; and
lot fed, fair.
It appears therefore, that the quantity of Englifh
fyllables is adjufted by one eafy and Ample rule \ which
is, that when the feat of the accent is on a vowel, the
fyllable is long ; when on a consonant, fhort •, and that
all unaccented fyllables are Ihoft. Without a due ob-
fervation of quantity in reciting verfes there will be no
poetic numbers ; yet in compofing Englifh verfes the
poet need not pay the leaf! attention to the quantity of
his fyllables, as meafure and movement will refult from
the obfervation of other laws, which arc now to be ex¬
plained.
! It has been affirmed by a writer f of great authority
Karnes. among the critics, that in Englifh heroic verfe every
lind confifls of ten fyllables, five fhort and five long $
from which there are but two exceptions, both of them
rare. The firft is, where each line of a couplet is made
eleven fyllables, by an additional fhort fyllable at the
end.
There heroes wit's are kep't in pond’rous vafes,
And beaus' in fnuff-boxes and tweezer-cafes.
The other exception, he fays, concerns the fecond line
of a couplet, which is fometimes ftretched out to twelve
fyllables, termed an Alexandrine line.
A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong,
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length
along.
After what has been juft faid, it is needlefs to flop for
tire purpofe of pointing out the ingenious author’s mi-
ftake refpedting long and fhort fyllables. Every atten¬
tive reader of what has been already laid down, muft
perceive, that in the firft line of the former couplet,
though there are no fewer than fix accented fyllables
when it is properly read, yet of thefe there are but
three that are long, viz. thofe which have the accent
on the vowel. Our bufinefs at prefent is, to fhow the
falfity of the rule which reftrains the heroic line to ten
fyllables j and this we ffiall do by producing lines of a
greater number.
T R
Y.
Part III.
And the fhrill founds ran echoing through the wood. V®f;^ca'
This line, though it confifts of eleven fyllables, and has 'r"“
the laft of thofe accented, or, as Lord Karnes would fay,
long, is yet undoubtedly a heroic verfe of very fine
found. Perhaps the advocates for the rule may con¬
tend, that the vowel o in echoing ought to be ftruck
out by an apoftrophe ; but as no one reads,
And the fhrill founds ran ech’ing through the wmod,
it is furely very abfurd to omit in writing what cannot
be omitted in utterance. The two following lines have
each eleven fyllables, of which not one can be fuppreffed
in recitation.
Their glittering textures of the filmy dew,
The great hierarchal ftandard was to move.
Mr Sheridan quotes as a heroic line,
O’er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp ;
and obferves what a monftrous line it would appear, if
pronounced,
O’er man’ a frozen, manr a fi’ry Alp,
inftead of that noble verfe, which it certainly is, when
all the thirteen fyllables are diftinftly uttered. Pie then
produces a couplet, of which the former line has four,
teen,, and the latter twelve fyllables.
And many an amorous, many a humorous lay,
Which many a bard had chaunted many a day.
That this is a couplet of very fine found cannot be con¬
troverted 5 but we doubt whether the numbers of it or.
of the other quoted line of thirteen fyllables be truly he¬
roic. To our ears at leaft there appears a very percep¬
tible difference between the movement of thefe verfes
and that of the verfes of Pope or Dryden j and we
think, that, though fuch- couplets or fingle lines maw,
for the fake of variety or expreffion, be admitted into
a heroic poem, yet a poem wholly compofed of them
would not be confidered as heroic verfe. It has a much
greater refemblance to the verfe of Spenfer, which is
now broke into two lines, of which the firft has eight
and the fecond fix fyllables. Nothing, however, feems
to be more evident, from the other quoted inftances,
than that a heroic line is not confined to the fyllable*,.
and that it is not by the number of fyllables that an
Englifh verfe is to be meafured.
But if a heroic verfe in our tongue be not compoftd,
as in French, of a certain number of fyllables, how is it
formed ? We anfvver by feet, as was the hexameter line
of the ancients ; though between their feet and ours
there is at the fame time a great difference. The poetic
feet of the Greeks and Romans are formed by quantity,
thofe of the Engliffi by ftrefs or accent. “ Though
thefe terms are in continual ufe, and in the mouths of
all who treat of poetic numbers, very confufed and erro¬
neous ideas are fometimes annexed to them. Yet as the
knowledge of the peculiar genius of our language with
regard to poetic numbers and its charafleriftical differ¬
ence from others in that refpedt, depends upon our hav¬
ing clear and precife notions of thofe terms, it will be
neceffary to have them fully explained. The general
nature of them has been already fufficiently laid open,
and
2
Part III.. P O E
Verfifica- and we have now only to make fome obfervations on
. tl0n‘ their particular effefls in the formation of metre.
“ No fcholar is ignorant that quantity is a term which
relates to the length or the Ihortnefs of fyllables, and
that a long fyllable is double the length of a fhort one.
Now the plain meaning of this is, that a long fyllable
takes up double the time in founding that a fhort one
does ; a faft of which the ear alone can be the judge.
When a fyllable in Latin ends with a confonant, and
the fubfequent fyllable commences with one, every
fchool-boy knows that the former is long, to ufe the
technical term, by the law of pojition. This rule was
in pronunciation ftri&ly obferved by the Romans, who
always made fuch fyllables long by dwelling on the
vowels ; whereas the very reverfe is the cafe with us,
becaufe a quite contrary rule takes place in Englifh
words fo conftru&ed, as the accent or ftrefs of the voice
is in fuch cafes always transferred to the confonant, and
the preceding vowel being rapidly paffed over, that fyl¬
lable is of courfe fhort.
“ The Romans had another rule of profody, that
when one fyllable ending with a vowel, was followed
by another beginning with a vowel, the former fyllable
was pronounced fhort; whereas in Englifh there is ge¬
nerally an accent in that cafe on the former fyllable,
as in the word pious, which renders the fyllable long.
Pronouncing Latin therefore by our own rule, as in the
former cafe, we make thofe fyllables fhort which were
founded long by them ; fo in the latter we make thofe
fyllables long which with them were fhort. We fay
ar’ma and •virum'que, inflead of drma and virunique;
few and tuus, inftead oi fcio and tuust.
“ Having made thefe preliminary obfervations, we
proceed now to explain the nature of poetic feet. Feet
in verfe correfpond to bars in mufic : a certain number
of fyllables conne&ed form a foot in the one, as a cer¬
tain number of notes make a bar in the other. They
are called feet, becaufe it is by their aid that the voice
as it were fleps along through the verfe in a meafured
pace j and it is neceflary that the fyllables which mark
this regular movement of the voice fhould in fome
meafure be dirtinguifhed from the others. This di-
ftin&ion, as we have already obferved, was made among
the ancient Romans, by dividing their fyllables into long
and fhort, and afeertaining their quantity by an exaft
proportion of time in founding them } the long being
to the fhort as two to one 5 and the long fyllables, being
thus the more important, marked the movement of the
verfe. In Englifh, fyllables are divided into accented
and unaccented ; and the accented fyllables being as
ftrongly diftinguithed from the unaccented, by the pe¬
culiar ffrefs of the voice upon them, are as capable of
marking the movement, and pointing out the regular
TRY. 4-5
paces of the voice, as the long fyllables were by their V erfifica-
quantity among the Romans. Hence it follows, that our , .
accented fyllables correfponding to their long ones, and
our unaccented to their fhort, in the ftrudlure of poetic
feet, an accented fyllable followed by one unaccented
in the fame foot will anlwer to their trochee ; and pre¬
ceded by an unaccented one, to their iambus ; and fo
with the reft.
“ All feet ufed in poetry confift either of two or
three fyllables ; and the feet among the ancients were
denominated from the number and quantity of their
fyllables. The meafure of quantity was the fhort fyl¬
lable, and the long one in time was equal to two fhort.
A foot could not confift of lefs than two times, becaufe
it muft contain at leaft two fyllables ; and by a law re-
fpe&ing numbers, which is explained elfewhere (fee
Music), a poetic foot would admit of no more, than
four of thofe times. Confequently the poetic feet were
neceflarily reduced to eight; four of two fyllables, and
four of three. Thofe of two fyllables muft either con¬
fift of two fhort, called a pyrrhic; tw'o long, called a
fpondee ; a long and a fhort, called a trochee ; or a fhort
and a long, called an iambus. Thofe of three fyllables
were, either three fhort, a tribrach; a long and two
fhort, a daByl; a fhort, long, and fhort, an amphibrach j
or two fhort and a long, an anapeej} (y).
We are now fufficiently prepared for confidering what
feet enter into the compofition of an Englifh heroic verfe.
The Greeks and Romans made ufe of but two feet in
the ftru&ure of their hexameters j and the Englifh heroic
may be wholly compofed of one foot, viz. the iambic,
which is therefore the-foot moil congenial to that fpecies
of verfe. Our-poetry indeed abounds with verfes into
which no other foot is admitted- Such as,
The pow’rs | gave ear | and granjted half | his pray’r, ,
The reft' J the winds | difper-’d | in emp'|ty air.
Our heroic line, however, is not wholly reftrained to the
ufe of this foot. In the opinion of Mr Sheridan it ad¬
mits all the eight before enumerated ; and it certainly
excludes none, unlvfs perhaps the tribrach. It is known
to every reader of Englifh poetry, that fome of the fineft
heroic verfes in our language begin w ith a trochee ; and
that Pope, the fmootheft of all our verfifiers, was remark¬
able for his ufe of this foot, as is evident from the fol¬
lowing example, where four fuccceding lines out of fix
have a trochaic beginning.
Her lively looks a fprightly mind difclofe,
Quick as | her eyes | and as unfix’d as thofe :
Favours [ to none | to all fhe fmiles extends,
O'ft fhe | rejedls | but never once offends.
Bright as | the fun | her eyes the gazers ftrike,
And like the fun fhe fhines on all alike.
The •
(Y) ^or t*16 convenience of the lefs learned reader we fhall here fubjoin a fcheme of poetic feet, ufing the marks
). / in ufe among the Latin grammarians to denote the genuine feet by quantity j and the following marks
( u ) to denote the Englifh feet by accents, which anfwer to thofe.
Trochee
Iambus
Spondee
Pyrrhic
Roman
— y
Englifli
Roman
Da&yl —
Amphibrach y
Anapaeil y
Tribrach o
Englifh
46 POE
Verfifica- The life of tins foot, however, is not neceffarily con-
, fined to the beginning of a line. Milton frequently
introduces it into other parts of the verfe j of w'hich
take the following inftances :
That all | was lo^l, | back' to | the thick'Jet flunk—
Of EVe | whofe ey'e. j darted contajgious fire.
ThH laft line of the following couplet begins with a
pyrrkic :
She faid, | and mellting as in tears Are lay,
In a | foft siljver ftream diflolv’d away.
But this foot is introduced likewife with very good ef¬
fect into other parts of the verfe, as
Pant on J thy lip' | and to | thy heart | be preft.
The phantom flies me | as unjkind as you.
Leaps o’er the fence with eafe | into j the fold.
And the | flirill' founds | ran echoing through the wood.
In this laft line we fee that the firft foot is a pyrrhic,
and the fecond a fpondee ; but in the next the two firft
feet are fpondees.
Hill's peep | o’er hill's | and Alps | on Alps | arife.
In the following verfe a trochee is fucceeded by two fpon¬
dees, of which the former is a genuine fpondee by quan¬
tity, and the latter equivalent to a fpondee by accent.
S6e the ] bold youth j ftrain up' | the threatening fteep.
We ftiall now give fome inftances of lines containing
both the pyrrhic and the fpondee, and then proceed to
the confideration of the other four feet.
That bn | weak wings 1 from far purfues your flight.
Thro’ the | fair fcene | roll flow | the ling’ring ftreams,
On hbr J white breast' j a fparkling crofs (he wore.
Of the four trifyliable feet, the firft, of which we ftiall
give inftances in heroic lines, is the daElyl; as
Mur'muring, | and with ] him'fledjthe fliades | of night.
Hov'ering J on wing | un'der | the cape | of hell.
Tim'orous | and flothful yet he pleas’d the ear.
Of truth | in word | mightier | than they | in arms.
Of the anapafl a Angle inftance ftiall fuftice ; for except
by Milton it is not often ufed.
The great | hierarjchal ftandard was to move.
The amphibrach is employed in the four following verfes,
and in the three laft with a very fine effeft.
With wheels | yet h6ver|ing o’er the ocean brim.
Rous’d from their flumber on | that fie|ry | couch.
While the | prbmis'cii'ous crowd ftood yet aloof.
Throws his fteep flight J m many j an ai ry whirl.
Having thus fufficiently proved that the Englifli heroic
Verfe admits of all the feet except the tribrach, it may
be proper to add, that from the nature of our accent we
have duplicates of thefe feet, viz. fuch as are formed by
•quantity, and fuch as are formed by the mere iBus of the
voice; an opulence peculiar to our tongue, andw'hich may
be the fource of a boundlefs variety* But as feet formed
of fvllables which have the accent or iBus on the confon-
ant are neceflarily pronounced in lefs time than firailai
feet formed by quantity, it may be objeifted, that the
3
TRY. Part III.
meafure of a whole line, conftrufted in the former man- Verfifica-
ner, muft be ftiorter than that of another line conftruft- , tl0n'
ed in the latter j and that the intermixture of verfes of '
fuch different meafures in the fame poem muft have a
bad effeft on the melody, as being deftrudive of propor¬
tion. This objeftion would be well-founded, were not
the time of the ftiort accented fyllables compenfated by
a fmall paufe at the end of each word to which they be¬
long, as is evident in the following verfe:
Then rus'Jtling crack'jling craflijing thun'jder down.
This line is formed of iambics by accent upon confo-
nants, except the laft fyliable j and yet by means of
thefe foft paufes or refts, the meafure of the whole is
equal to that of the following, which confifts of pure
iambics by quantity.
O’er heaps | of rulin ftalk’d | the ftate ly hind.
Movement, of fo much importance in verfification, re¬
gards the order of lyllables in a toot, meafure their quan¬
tity. The order of fyllables refpe&s their progrefs from
ftiort to long or from long to ftiort, as in the Greek and
Latin languages j or from ftrong to weak or weak to
ftrong, i. e. from accented or unaccented fyllables, as in
our tongue. It has been already obferved, that an Eng-
lifli heroic verfe may be compofed wholly of iambics j
and experience {hows that fuch verfes have a. fine me¬
lody. But as the ftrefs of the voice in repeating verfes
of pure iambics, is regularly on every fecond fyllable,
fuch uniformity would difguft the ear in any long fuc-
ceflion, and therefore fuch changes were fought for as
might introduce the pleafure of variety without preju¬
dice to melody j or which might even contribute^ to its
improvement. Of this nature was the introduction of
the trochee to form the firft foot of an heroic verfe,
which experience has fliown us is fo far from fpoiling
the melody, that in many cafes it heightens it. This
foot, however, cannot well be admitted into any other
part of the verfe without prejudice to the melody, be-
caufe it interrupts and flops the ufual movement by an¬
other diredlly oppofite. But though it be excluded
with regard to pure melody, it may often be admitted
into any part of the verfe with advantage to expreflion,
as is well known to the readers of Milton.
“ The next change admitted for the fake of variety,
without prejudice to melody, is the intermixture of
pyrrhics and fpondees ; in which two impreflions in the
one foot make up for the want of one in the other 5 and
two long fyllables compenfate two ftiort, fo as to make
the fum*^ of the quantity of the tivo feet equal to two
iambics. That this may be done without prejudice to
the melody, take the following inftances :
On her ; white brSafl | a fparkling crofs ftie wore.—
Nor the j deep traft [of hell—fay firft what caufe.—
This intermixture may be employed ad libitum, in any
part of the line j and foraetimes two fpondees may be
placed together in one part of the verfe, to be compen¬
fated by two pyrrhics in another •, of which Mr Sheri¬
dan quotes the following lines as inftances:
Stood rul’d i flood vaft | irf m|iiude j confined.
She all | night iong ] her amojrbus de.'jcant fung.
That the former is a proper example, will not perhaps
be queftioned j but the third foot in the latter is certain-
Part III.
POE
Verfifica- ly no pyrrhic. As it is marked here and by him, it is
ti°n. a tribrach ) but we appeal to our Englilh readers, if it
ought not to have been marked an amphibrach by ac¬
cent, and if the fourth foot be not an iambus. To us
the feet of the line appear to be as follow :
She all | night long | her am'S|rbus des'jcant fun'g.
It is indeed a better example of the proper ufe of the
amphibrach than any which he has given, unlefs per¬
haps the two following lines.
Up to j the fie|ry conjcave tow'erjing high
Throws his ] fteep flight | m man'y | an ai;ry whirl.
That in thefe three lines the introduction of the amphi¬
brach does not hurt the melody, will be acknowledged
by every perfon who has an ear j and thofe who have
not, are not qualified to judge. But we appeal to
every man of tafte, if the two amphibrachs fucceeding
each other in the laft line do not add much to the
expreflion of the verfe. If this be queflioned, we have
only to change the movement to the common iambic,
and we ftrall difcover how feeble the line will become.
Throws his J fteep flight ] in man|y ai|ry whirls.
This is Ample defcription, inftead of that magical power
of numbers which to the imagination produces the ob-
jeCt itfelf, whirling as it were round an axis.
Having thus ftiown that the iambus, fpondee, pyr¬
rhic, and amphibrach, by accent, may be ufed in our
meafure with great latitude ; and that the trochee may
at all times begin the line, and in fome cafes with ad¬
vantage to the melody 5 it now remains only to add,
that the daftyl, having the fame movement, may be in¬
troduced in the place of the trochee •, and the anapaeft
in the place of the iambus. In proof of this, were not
the article fwelling in our hands, we could adduce many
inftances which would fliow what an inexhauftible fund
of riches, and what an immenfe variety of materials, are
prepared for us, to build the lofty rhyme.” But we
haften to the next thing to be confidered in the art of-
verfifying, which is known by the name ofpaufes.
“ Of the poetic paufes there are two forts, the ce-
Jural and the final. The cefural divides the verfe into
equal or unequal parts •, the final clofes it. In a verfe
there may be two or more cefural paufes, but it is evi¬
dent that there can be but one final. As the final paufe
concerns the reader more than the writer of verfes, it
has been feldom treated of by the critics. Yet as it is
this final paufe which in many cafes diftinguifties verfe
from profe, it cannot be improper in the prefent article
to fliow how it ought to be made. Were it indeed a
law of our verfification, that every line fhould terminate
with a flop in the fenfe, the boundaries of the meafure
would be fixed, and the nature of the final paufe could
not be miftaken. But nothing has puzzled the bulk of
readers, or divided their opinions, more than the manner
in which thofe verfes ought to be recited, where the
fenfe does not clofe with the line; and whofe laft words
have a neceffary connedlion with thofe that begin the
fubfequent verfe. “ Some (fays Mr Sheridan) rvho fee
the neceflity of pointing out the metre, pronounce the
laft word of each line in fuch a note as ufually accom¬
panies a comma, in marking the fmalleft member of a
lentence. Now this is certainly improper, becaufe it
makes that appear to be a complete member of a fen-
T R y. 47
tence which is an incomplete one j and by disjoining Vcrfifica-
the fenfe as well as the words, often confounds the , tl°n’ ,
meaning. Others again, but thefe fewer in number,
and of the more abfurd kind, drop their voice at the
end of every line, in the fame note which they ufe in
marking a full flop ; to the utter annihilation of the
fenfe. Some readers (continues our author) of a more
enthufiaftic kind, elevate their voices at the end of all
verfes to a higher note than is ever ufed in the flops
which divide the meaning. But fuch a continued re¬
petition of the fame high note becomes difgufting by its
monotony, and gives an air of chanting to fuch recita¬
tion. To avoid thefe feveral faults, the bulk of readers
have chofen what they think a fafer courfe, which is that
of running the lines one into another without the lead
paufe, where they find none in the fenfe ; but by this
mode of recitation they reduce poetry to fomething
worfe than profe, to verfe run mad.
But it may be afked, if this final paufe muft be mark¬
ed neither by an elevation nor by a depreflion of the
voice, how is it to be marked at all ? To which Mr
Sheridan replies, by making no change whatever in the
voice before it. This will fufticiently diftinguilh it from
the other paufes, the comma, femicolon, &c. becaufe
fome change of note, by raifing or deprefling the voice,
always precedes them, whilft the voice is here only fu-
fpended.
Now this paufe of fufpenfion is the very thing want¬
ing to preferve the melody at all times, without inter¬
fering with the fenfe. For it perfeftly marks the bound
of the metre : and being made only by a fufpenfion, not
by a change of note in the voice, it never can affedt the
fenfe j becaufe the fentential flops, or thofe which aflfedt
the fenfe, being all made with a change of note, where
there is no fuch change the fenfe cannot be affedted.
Nor is this the only advantage gained to numbers by
this flop of fufpenfion. It alio prevents the monotony
at the end of lines j which, however pleafing to a rude,
is difgufting to a delicate, ear. For as this flop has
no peculiar note of its own, but always takes that which
belongs to the preceding word, it changes continually
with the matter, and is as various as the fenfe.
Having faid all that is neceflary with regard to the
final, we proceed now to confider the cefural, paufe. To
thefe two paufes it will be proper to give the denomi¬
nation of mufical, to diflinguifh them from the comma,
femicolon, colon, and full flop, which may be called_/e//-
tentialpaufies ; the office of the former being to mark
the melody, as that of the latter is to point out the
fenfe. The cefural, like the final paufe, fometimes co¬
incides with the fentential j and fometimes takes place
where there is no flop in the fenfe. In this laft cafe, it
is exadtly of the fame nature, and governed by the fame
law's with the paufe of fufpenfion, which v'e have juft
deferibed.
The cefure, though not eflenlial, is however a great
ornament to verfe, as it improves and diverfifies the
melody, by a judicious management in varying its fitu-
ationj but it difeharges a ftill more important office than
this. Were there no cefure, verfe could afpire to no
higher ornament than that of fimple melody ; but by
means of this paufe there is a new fource of delight
opened in poetic numbers, correfpondent in fome fort
to harmony in mufic. This takes its rife from that a£l
of the mind which compares the relative proportions
that
T R Y. Part III.
the latter part of the verfe leaves the ftrongeft and moft Verfifica-
lafting rmpreflion on the ear, where the larger portion tion‘
belongs to the latter part of the line, the impreffion muft v
in proportion be greater ; the effeft in found being the
fame as that produced by a climax in fenfe, where one
part rifes above another.
Having Ihown in what manner the cefure improves
and diveriifies the melody of verfe, we fuall now treat of
its more important office, by which it is the chief fource
of harmony in numbers. But, fir ft, it will be neceffary
to explain what we mean by the term harmony, as ap¬
plied to verfe.
Melody in mufic regards only the effedls produced by
fucceffive founds ; and harmony, ftridlly fpeaking, the
effedls produced by different co-exifting founds, wffiich
are found to be in concord. Harmony, therefore, in
this fenfe of the word, can never be applied to poetic
numbers, of which there can be only one reciter, and
confequently the founds can only be in fucceflion. When
therefore we fpeak of the harmony of verfe, we mean
nothing more than an effedt produced by an adlion of the
mind in comparing the different members of verfe alrea¬
dy conftrufted according to the laws of melody with each
other, and perceiving a due and beautiful proportion be¬
tween them.
The firft and lowed perception of this kind of har¬
mony arifes from comparing two members of the fame
line with each other, divided in the manner to be feen
in the three inftances already given •, becaufe the beauty
of proportion in the members, according to each of thefe
divifions, is founded in nature. But there is a percep¬
tion of harmony in verfification, which arifes from the
eomparifon pf two lines, and obferving the relative pro¬
portion of their members •, whether they correfpond ex¬
actly to each other by fimilar divifions, as in the couplets
already quoted ■, or whether they are diverfified by ce-
fures in different places. As,
See the bold youth || ftrain up the threatening fteep,
Rufti thro’ the thickets || down the valleys fweep.
Where we find the cefure at the end of the fecond foot
of the firft line, and in the middle of the third foot of
the laft.
POE
that the members of a verfe thus divided bear to each
other, as well as to thofe in the adjoining lines. In or¬
der to fee this matter in a clear light, let us examine
what effecft the cefure produces in fingle lines, and
afterwards in comparing contiguous lines with each
other.
With regard to the place of the cefure, Mr Pope and
others have exprefsly declared, that no line appeared mu-
fical to their ears, where the cefure was not after the
fourth, fifth, or fixth fyllable of the verfe. Some have
enlarged its empire to the third and feventh fyllables ;
whilft others have afferted that it may be admitted into
any part of the line.
“ There needs but a little diftinguiffiing (fays Mr
Sheridan), to reconcile thefe different opinions. If me¬
lody alone is to be confidered, Mr Pope is in the right
when he fixes its feat in or as near as may be to the
middle of the verfe. To form lines of the firft melody,
the cefure muft either be at the end of the fecond or
of the third foot, or in the middle of the third between
the two. Of this movement take the'following exam¬
ples :
1. Of the cefure at the end of the fecond foot.
Our plenteous ftreams || a various race fupply •,
The bright-ey’d per'ch || with fins of Tyrian dye j
The filver eelj| in ffiining volumes roll’d ;
The yellow carp' || in fcales bedrop’d with gold.
2. At the end of the third foot.
With tender billet-doux || he lights the pyre,
And breathes three amorous sighs || to raife the fire.
3. Between the two, dividing the third foot.
The fields are ravilh’d || from the induftrious fwains,
From men their cities, || and from gods their fanes.
Thefe lines are certainly all of a fine melody, yet they
are not quite upon an equality in that refpeft. Thofe
which have the cefure in the middle are of the firft or¬
der ; thofe which have it at the end of the fecond foot
are next 5 and thofe which have the paufe at the end of
the third foot the laft. The reafon of this preference it
may not perhaps be difficult to affign.
In the pleafure arifing from comparing the proportion
which the parts of a whole bear to each other, the more
eafily and diftin&ly the mind perceives that proportion,
the greater is the pleafure. Now there is nothing which
the mind more inftantaneoully and clearly difcerns, than
the divifion of a whole into two equal parts, which alone
would give a fuperiority to lines of the firft order over
thofe of the other two. But this is not the only claim
to fuperiority which fuch lines poffefs. The cefure be¬
ing in them always on an unaccented, and the final
p3ufe on an accented fyllable, they have a mixture of
variety and equality of which neither of the other orders
can boaft, as in thefe orders the cefural and final paufes
are both on accented fyllables.
In the divifion of the other two fpecies, if we refpeft
quantity only, the proportion is exactly the fame, the
one being as two to three, and the other as three to two
but it is the order or movement which here makes the
difference. In lines where the cefure bounds the fecond
foot, the fmalier portion of the verfe is firft in order, the
greater laft •, and this order is reverfed in lines which
have the cefure a% the end of the third foot. Now, as
Hang o’er their courfers heads |j with eager fpeed,
And earth rolls back || beneath the flying fteed.
Here the cefure is at the end of the third foot in the
former, and of the fecond in the latter line. The
perception of this Ipecies of harmony is far fuperior to
the former ; becaufe, to the pleafure of comparing the
members of the fame line with each other, there is fu-
peradded that of comparing the different members of the
different lines with each other •, and the harmony is en¬
riched by having four members fif comparifon inftead of
two. The pleafure is ftill increafed in comparing a great¬
er number of lines, and obferving the relative propor¬
tion of the couplets to each other in point of fimilarity
and diverfity. As thus,
Thy forefts, Windfor, || and thy green retreats,
At once the monarch’s || and the mufe’s feats,
Invite my lays. || Be prefent fylvan maids,
Unlock your fprings |] and open all your ffiades.
Here we find that the cefure is in the middle of the
verfe in each line of the firft couplet, and at the end of
Partlll. POE
Verfifica- the fecond foot in each line of the laid } which gives a
non. fimilarity in each couplet diftin&ly confidered, and a
U-!^v diverfity when the one is compared with the other, that
has a very pleafing effeft. Nor is the pleafure lefs where
we find a diverfity in the lines of each couplet, and a
fimilarity in comparing the couplets themfelves. As in
thefe,
Not half fo fwift || the trembling doves can fly,
When the fierce eagle |] cleaves the liquid fky
Not half fo fwiftly || the fierce eagle moves,
When thro’ the clouds || he drives the trembling doves.
There is another mode of dividing lines well fuited
to the nature of the couplet, by introducing femipaufes,
Which with the cefure divide the line into four portions.
By a femipaufe, we mean a fmall reft of the voice, dur¬
ing a portion of time equal to half of that taken up by
the cefure j as will be perceived in the following fine
couplet :
Warms | in the fun || refrefhes | in the breeze,
Glows | in the ftars || and bloffoms | in the trees.
That the harmony, and of courfe the pleafure, refus¬
ing from poetic numbers, is increafed as well by the fe¬
mipaufe as by the cefure, is obvious to every ear ; be-
caufe lines fo conftrufted furnifli a greater number of
members for comparifon : but it is of more importance
to obferve, that by means of the femipaufes, lines which,
feparately coniidered, are not of the fineft harmony,
may yet produce it when oppofed to each other, and
compared in the couplet. Of the truth of this obferva-
tion, the following couplet, efpecially as it fucceeds that
immediately quoted, is a ftriking proof:
Lives | thro’ all life | extends | thro’ all extent,
Spreads | undivided | operates | unfpent.
What we have advanced upon this fpecies of verfe,
will contribute to folve a poetical problem thrown out
by Dryden as a crux to his brethren : it was to account
for the peculiar beauty of that celebrated couplet in Sir
TRY. 49
John Denham’s Cooper's Hill, where he thus defcribes Verfifica-
the Thames: . tlon” .
v——Y—
Tho’ deep | yet clear || tho’ gentle [ yet not dull.
Strong | without rage || without o’erflowing | full.
This defcription has great merit independent of the
harmony of the numbers ; but the chief beauty of the
verfification lies in the happy difpofition of the paufes
and femipaufes, fo as to make a fine harmony in each
line wrhen its portions are compared, and in the couplet
when one line is compared with the other.
Having now faid all that is neceffary upon paufes and
femipaufes, we have done the utmoft juftice to our fub-
ject which the limits aftigned us will permit. Feet and
paufes are the conftituent parts of verfe 5 and the proper
adjuftment of them depends upon the poet’s knowledge
of numbers, accent, quantity, and movement, all of
which we have endeavoured briefly to explain. In con¬
formity to the practice of fome critics, we might have
treated feparately of rhime and of blank verfe 5 but as
the effentials of all heroic verfes are the fame, fuch a
divifion of our fubjeft would have thrown no light
upon the art of Englifh verfification. It may be juft
worth while to obferve, that the paufe at the end of a
couplet ought to coincide, if poffible, with a flight paufe
in the fenfe, and that there is no neceflity for this coin¬
cidence of paufes at the end of any particular blank
verfe. We might likewife compare our heroic line with
the ancient hexameter, and endeavour to appretiate their
refpedtive merits $ but there is not a reader capable of
attending to fuch a comparifon who will not judge for
himfelf; and it may perhaps be queftioned, whether
there be two who will form precifely the fame judge¬
ment. Mr Sheridan, and all the mere Englifh critics,
give a high degree of preference to our heroic, on ac¬
count of the vaft variety of feet which it.admits: whilft
the readers of Greek and Latin poetry prefer the hexa¬
meter, on account of its more mufical notes and ma-
jeftic length.
P O G
Pogge POGGE, the Mailed or Armed Gurnard, or
II CottusCataphractus. SeeCoxxus,Ichthyology,
?°sgy P. 89.
.* a”cs' POGGIUS BracciolinuS, a man of great parts
and learning, who contributed much to the revival of
knowledge in Europe, was born at Terranuova, in the
territories of Florence, in 1380. His firft public em¬
ployment Was that of writer of the apoftolic letters,
which he held lo years, and was then made apoftolic
fecretary, in which capacity he officiated 40 years, un¬
der feven popes. In 1453) when he was 72 years of
age, he accepted the employment of fecretary to the re¬
public of Florence, to which place he removed, and died
in 1459. He vifited feveral countries, and fearched
many mon&fteries, to recover ancient authors, numbers
of which he brought to light : his own works confift of
moral pieces, orations, letters, and A Hiftory of Flo¬
rence from 1350 to 1455, which is the moft confider-
able of them.
POGGY islands, otherwife called Naffau ifltmdsj
Vol. XVII. Part I.
FOG
form part of a chain of iflands which ftretch along the Poggy
whole length of Sumatra, in the Eaft Indies, and lie at iflands.
the diftance of twenty or thirty leagues from the weft
coaft of that ifland.
The northern extremity of the northern Poggy lies
in latitude 2° 18' S. and the fouthern extremity of the
fouthern ifland in latitude 30 16' S» The two are fepa-
rated from each other by a very narrow pafiage called
the ftrait of See Cockup, in latitude 2° 40' S. and lon¬
gitude about ioo° 38' eaft from Greenwich.—The
number of inhabitants in thefe iflands amounts to no
more than 1400. Mr Crifp, who ftaid about a month
among them, carefully colledted many particulars re-
fpe&ing their language, cuftoms, and manners. He ad¬
verts to one circumftance relative to this people, which
may be confidered as a curious fa6t in hiftory :
“ From the proximity of the iflands (fays he), to Su¬
matra, which, in refpe6t to them, may be confidered as
a continent, we ftiould naturally expefl to find their in¬
habitants to be a fet of people originally derived from
G the
P O G
the Sumatra ilock, and look for fome affinity in their
language and manners j but, to our no fmall furprife,
we find a face of men, whofe language is totally differ¬
ent, and whole cuftoms and habits of life indicate a ve¬
ry diftinft origin, and bear a ftriking reiemblance to
thofe of the inhabitants of the late difcovered iflands in
the great Pacific ocean.”
There is fafe riding for (hips of any fize in the ftraits,
which have no other defeft as a harbour than the depth
of the water (25 fathoms clofe in fliore). The face of
the country, and its vegetable and animal productions,
are defqribed in the following words :
“ The mountains are covered with trees to their fum-
mits, among which are found fpecies of excellent tim¬
ber ; the tree, called by the Malays, bintangoor, and
which, in the hither India, is called pohoon, abounds
here. Of this tree are made marts, and fome are found
of fufficient dimenfions for the lower mart of a firft-rate
fhip of war. During my ftay here I did not difeover a
fingle plant which we have not on Sumatra, ihe fago
tree grows in plenty, and conftitutes the chief article
of food to the inhabitants, who do not cultivate rice ;
the cocoa-nut tree and the bamboo, two moft ufeful
plants, are found here in great plentyThey have a
variety of fruits, common in thefe climates, fuch as
mangofteens, pine-apples, plantains, buah, chupah, &c.
The woods, in their prefent ftate, are impervious to
man ; the fpecies of wild animals which inhabit them
are but few ; the large red deer, fome hogs, and feveral
kinds of monkeys are to be found here, but neither buf¬
faloes, nor goats •, nor are thefe forefts infefted, like
thofe of Sumatra, with tigers or any other heart of prey.
Of domeftic poultry, there is only the common fowl,
which probably has "been originally brought from Suma¬
tra •, but pork and fiffi conftitute the favourite animal
food of the natives. Firtt are found here in confiderable
plenty, and very good.”
The ftature of the inhabitants of thefe lilands feldom
exceeds five feet and a half ^ their colour is like that of
the Malays •, they praClife tattooing, and file their teeth
to a point *, and though of a mild difpofition, they have
fome of the filthy cuftoms of favages, particularly that
of picking vermin from their heads and eating them.
Their mode of tattooing, as well as the treatment of
their dead, is reprefented to be very fimilar to the prac¬
tices of the Otaheitans.
“ The religion of this people, (fays Mr Crifp), if it
can be faid that they have any, may truly be called the
religion of nature. A belief of the exiftence of fome
powers more than human cannot fail to be excited among
the moft uncultivated of mankind, from the obfervations
of various ftriking natural phenomena, fuch as the diur¬
nal revolution of the fun and moon j thunder and light¬
ning •, earthquakes, &c. &c. : nor will there ever be
wanting among them fome, of fuperior talents and cun¬
ning, who will acquire an influence over weak minds,
by affuming to themfelves an intereft with, or a power
of controuling thofe fuper-human agents •, and fuch no¬
tions conftitute the religion of the inhabitants of the
Poo-rys. Sometimes a fowl, and fometimes a hog, is
facrificed to avert ficknefs, to appeafe the wrath of the
offended power, or to render it propitious to fome pro-
jefted enterprife •, and Mr Beft was informed that omens
of o-ood or ill fortune were drawn from certain appear-
P O I
ances in the entrails of the viftim. But they have no ^oggy
form of religious worfhip, nor do they appear to have hhmls
the moft diftant idea of, a future ftate of rewards and pu- p0|Jlt
nifhments. They do not pra&ife circumcifion.”—— ' - »
AJiatic Rcfearches.
POGO, is the name by which the inhabitants of the
Philippine iflands diftinguifti their quail, which, though
fmaller than ours, is in every other refpe£t very like it.
POICTIERS, an ancient, large, and confiderable
town of France, capital of Poi£tou. It was a biftiop’s
fee, and contained four abbeys, a mint, an univerfity fa¬
mous for law, 22 parifties, 9 convents for men, and 12
nunneries. There are here feveral Romaji antiquities,
and particularly an amphitheatre, but partly demoliflied,
and hid by the houfes. There is alfo a triumphal arch,
which ferves as a gate to the great ftreet. It is not
peopled in proportion to its extent. Near this place
Edward the Black Prince gained a decifive viftory over
the French, taking King John and his fon Philip pri-
foners, in 1356, whom he afterwards brought over into
England. See France, N° 71, &c.—It is feated on a
hill on the river Glain, 52 miles fouth-weft of Tours,
and 120 north by eaft of Bourdeaux. E. Long. o. 25.
N. Lat. 46. 35.
PQICTOU, a province of France, bounded on the
north by Bretagne, Anjou, and part of Touraine : on
the eaft by Touraine, Berry, and Manche •, on the fouth
by Angoumois, Saintogne, and the territory of Aunis y
and on the weft by the fea of Gafcony. It is divided
into the Upper and LowTer \ and is fertile in corn and
wine, and feeds a great number of cattle, particularly
mules. It was in poffeffion of the kings of England for
a confiderable time, till it was loft by the unfortunate
Henry VI. Poi6tiers is the capital town.
Colic ofPoiCTOU. See MEDICINE, N° 303.
POINCIANA, Barbadoes Flower-fence j a
genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs; and
in the natural method ranking under the 33d order,
Lomentacecc. See Botany Index.—Of this genus there
is only one fpecies, the pulcherrima, which is a native
of both Indies, and grows to the height of 10 or 12
feet, producing flowers of a very agreeable odour. In
Barbadoes it is planted in hedges to divide the lands,
whence it has the name of Jlower-fcnce. In the Weft
Indies, its leaves are made ufe of as a purgative inftead
of fenna j and in Jamaica it is called Jenna.
POINT, a term ufed in various arts.
Point, in Grammar, a charadler ufed to mark the di-
vifions of difeourfe See Comma, Colon, &c. A point
proper is what we otherwife call a full fop or period.
See Punctuation.
Point, in Geometry, according to Euclid, is that
which has neither parts nor magnitude.
Point, in Mufc, a mark or note anciently ufed to
diftinguifti the tones or founds : hence we ftill call it
Jmple counter-point, when a note of the lower part an-
fwers exa£tly to that of an upper ; and figurative coun¬
ter-point, when any note is {yncopated, and one of the
parts makes feveral notes or inflexions of the voice, while
the other holds on one.
We ftill ufe a point, to raife the value of a note, and
prolong its time by one half, e. g. a point added to a
femibreve inftead of two minims, makes it equal to three $
and fo of the other notes. See the article Time.
Point,
[ 5° 1
P O I t 5
Point Point, in AJlronomy, a term applied to certain points
il or places marked in the heavens, and diiiinguifned by
Polnts' , proper epithets. #
Xhe four grand points or divifions of the horizon,
viz. the eaft, weif, north, and fouth, ate called the car¬
dinal points. . .
The zenith and nadir are the vertical points 5 the^
points wherein the orbits of the planets cut the plane of
the ecliptic are called the nodes ; the points wherein the
equator and ecliptic interfeft are called the equinoEhal
points : particularly, that whence the fun alcends towards
the north pole, is called the vernal point's and that by
which he defeends to the fouth pole, the autumnal point.
The points of the ecliptic, where the fun’s afeent above
the equator, and defeent below it, terminate, are called
the foljlitial points ; particularly the former of them, the
eftivaf or fummer point; the latter, the brumal or win¬
ter point.
Point is alfo ufed for a cape or headland jutting out
into the fea : thus feamen fay, two points of land are in
one another, when they are fo in a right line, again!!
each other, as that the innermolf is hindered from being
feen by the outermoft.
Point, in PerfpeBive, is ufed for various poles or
places, with regard to the perfpeftive plane. See PER¬
SPECTIVE.
Point is alfo an iron or fteel inftrument, ufed with
fome variety in feveral arts. Engravers, etchers, cut¬
ters in wood, &c. ufe points to trace their defigns on
the copper, wood, done, &c. See the articles Engra¬
ving, &c.
Point, in the Manufatfories, is a general term, ufed
for all kinds of laces wrought with the needle ; fuch are
the point de Venice, point de France, point de Genoa,
&c. which are diftinguiflred by the particular economy
and arrangement of their points.—Point is fometimes
ufed for lace woven with bobbins 5 as Englilh point,
point de Malines, point d’Havre, &c.
Point, in Poetry, denotes a lively brilk turn or con¬
ceit, ufually found or expe&ed at the clofe of an epi¬
gram. See Poetry, N0 169.
POINT-Blanh, in Gunnery, denotes the (hot of a gun
levelled horizontally, without either mounting or fink¬
ing the muzzle of the piece.—In Ihooting point-blank,
the (hot or bullet is fuppofed to go direflly forward in
a ftraight line to the mark ; and not to move in a curve,
as bombs and highly elevated random-ftiots do.—When
a piece Hands upon a level plane, and is laid level, the
diftance between the piece and the point where the (hot
touches the ground firft, is called the point-blank range
of that piece 5 but as the fame piece ranges more or lefs,
according to a greater or lefs charge, the point-blank
range is taken from that of a piece loaded with fuch a
charge as is ufed commonly in adlion. It is therefore
neceffary that thefe ranges of all pieces fhould be known,
fince the gunner judges from thence what elevation he
is to give to his piece when he is either farther from or
nearer to the objef! to be fired at; and this he can do
pretty nearly by fight, after confiderable praftice.
POINTING, in Grammar, the art of dividing a dif-
courfe by points, into periods and members of periods,
in order to fhow the proper paufes to be made in read¬
ing, and to faciliate the pronunciation and underftand-
ing thereof. See the article Punctuation.
POINTS, in Heraldry, are the feveral different parts
1 ] P o 1
of an efcutcheon, denoting the local politions of any fi- Poi'1*'
gure. See Heraldry. , Pu‘|01
Points, in Ele&ricity, are thofe acute terminations
of bodies which facilitate the paffage of the ele&ricai
fluid from or to fuch bodies. See Electricity.
Points, or Vowel Points, in the Hebrew language.
See Philology, Se£l. j. N° 31, &c.
POISON, is any fubilance which proves deftruclive
to the life of animals in a fmall quantity, either taken
by the mouth, mixed with the blood, or applied to the.
nerves. See MEDICINE, N° 261, 269, 303, 322, 408,
&c. &c.
Of poifons there are many different kinds, which are
exceedinglv various in their operations. The mineral
poifons, as arfenic and c(» rofive mercury, feem to attack
the folid parts of the ftomach, and to produce dea:h by
eroding its fubftance : the antimonials feem rather to at- .
tack the nerves, and to kill by throwing the whole fy-
ftem into convulfions 5 and in this manner alfo moft of
the vegetable poifons feem to operate. All of thefe,
however, feem to be inferior in ftrength to the poifons
of fome of the more deadly kinds of ferpents, which ope¬
rate fo fuddenly that the animal bit by them will be
dead before another that had fwallowed arfenic would
be affected.
Much has been written concerning a poifon made ufe
of by the African negroes, by the Americans, and by
the Eaft Indians. To this very ftrange effedls have
been aferibed. It has been faid, that by this poifon, a
man might be killed at any certain time ; as, for in-
flance, after the interval of a day, a week, a month, a
year, or even feveral years. Thefe wonderful effe61s,
however, do not feem worthy of credit ; as the Abbe
Fontana has given a particular account of an American
poifon called ticunas, which in all probability is the fame
with that ufed in Africa and the Eaft Indies; and from
his account it is extremely improbable that any fuch ef-
fe£!s could be produced with certainty.
With this poifon the Abbe was furnifhed by Dr He-
berden. It was clofed and fealed up in an earthen pot
inclofed in a tin-cafe. Within the tin-cafe was a note
containing the following words: “ Indian poifon,brought
from the banks of the river of the Amazons by Don
Pedro Maldonado. It is one of the forts mentioned
in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, vol. xlvii. N° 12.”
In the volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions here
quoted, mention is made of two poifons little different in
their aflivity 5 the one called the poifon of lamas, and
the other of ticunas. The poifon in the earthen vef-
fel ufed by the Abbe Fontana was that of the ticunas j
he was alfo furnifhed with a number of American ar¬
rows dipped in poifon, but whether that of the lamas or
ticunas he could not tell.
Our author begins his account of the nature of this .
poifon with dete&ing fome of the millakes which had
been propagated concerning it.—It had been afferted,
that the ticunas poifon proves noxious by the mere ef¬
fluvia, but much more by the fleam which exhales from
it in boiling or burning: that, among the Indians, it is
prepared only by women condemned to die 5 and that
the mark of its being fufficiently prepared, is when the !
attendant is killed by its fleam. All thefe affertions are
by the Abbe refuted in the cleareft manner. He ex-
pofed a young pigeon to the fmell of the poifon when
the veffel was opened, to the fteau* of it when boiling,
G 2 aod
P O I [
and to the vapour of it when burning to the fides of the
veffel, without the animal’s being the leaf! injured 5 on
which, concluding that the vapours of this poifon were
not to be dreaded, he expofed himfelf to them without
any fear.
This poifon diffolves very readily even in cold water,
and likewife in the vegetable and mineral acids. With
oil of vitroil it becomes as black as ink, but not with the
reft of the acids. In oil of vitriol it alfo diffolves more
ilowly than in any of the reft. It does not effervefce
with acids or alkalies $ neither does it alter milk, nor
tinge it, except with the natural colour of the poifon 5
nor does it tinge the vegetable juices either red or green.
When examined by the microfcope, there is no appear¬
ance of regularity or cryftallization 5 but it for the moft
part appears made up of very fmall, irregular, roundifh
bodies, like vegetable juices. It dries without making
any noife, and has an extremely bitter tafte when put
upon the tongue.
The ticunas poifon is harmlefs when put into the eyes;
nor is it fatal when taken by the mouth, unlefsthe quan¬
tity is confiderable. Six grains of the folid poifon, dif-
folved in water, killed a young pigeon which drank it
in lefs than 20 minutes. Five grains killed a fmail Gui¬
nea-pig in 25 minutes. Eight grains killed a rabbit in
an hour and eight minutes, &c. In thofe experiments
it wTas obferved, that much lefs poifon wras required to
kill an animal whole ftomach was empty than one that
had a full ftomach. Three rabbits and two pigeons were
killed in lefs than 35 minutes, by taking a dofe of three
grains each on an empty ftomach ; but when the expe¬
riment w'as repeated on live animals with full ftomachs,
only one of them died.
The moft fatal operation of this poifon is when mixed
with the blood. The fmalleft quantity, injefted into the
jugular vein, killed the animal as if by a ftroke of light¬
ning. When applied to wounds in fuch a manner that
the flowing of the blood could not Avafh it away, the ani¬
mal fell into convulfions and a train of fatal nervous
fymptoms, which put an end to its life in a few minutes.
Yet, notwithftanding thefe feeming affeftions of the
nerves, the poifon proved harrhlefs when applied to the
naked nerves themfelves, or even to the medullary fub-
ftance of them flit open.
The ftrength of this poifon feems to be diminifhed,
and even detlroyed, by mineral acids, but not at all by
alkalies or ardent fpirits; but if the frefh poifon was ap¬
plied to a wound, the application of mineral acids im¬
mediately after could not remove the pernicious effeiffs.
52 ] P o I
So far, indeed, was this from being the cafe, that the ap- Poifom..
plication of nitrous acid to the wounded mufcle of a
pigeon, killed the animal in a fhort time without any
poifon at all.—The effefts of the arrows were equally
fatal with thofe of the poifon itfelf (a).
I he poifon of the viper is analogous in its effetfts
to that of ticunas, but inferior in ftrength ; the' lat¬
ter killing more inflantaneoufly when injected into a
vein than even the poifon of the moft venomous rattle-
fnake.
The Abbe has, however, obferved a difference in the
a&ion of the two poifons upon blood taken out of the
body. He cut off the head of a pigeon, and received
its blood into warm conical glaffes, to the amount of
about 80 drops into each. Into the blood contained in
one porringer, he put four drops of water; and into the
other four drops of the poifon diffolved in water as ufual.
The event of this experiment was, that the blood, with
which the water only Avas mixed, coagulated in a fhort
time; but that in which the poifon was mixed did not
coagulate at all. The poifon of the viper alfo hinders
the blood from coagulating, but gives it a much blacker
tinge than the poifon of the ticunas. The poifon of
the viper alfo proves certainly fatal when injedled into
the veins, even in very fmall quantity ; but it produces
a kind of grumous coagulation and blacknefs in the blood
when drawTn from a vein, though it prevents the proper
coagulation of that fluid, and its feparation into craffa-
mentum and ferum as ufual.
In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 335. we have
a number of experiments which fhow the effe<EIs of ma¬
ny different poifons upon animals ; from whence it ap¬
pears, that many fubftanees which are not at all account¬
ed poifonous, yet prove as certainly fatal when mixed
with the blood as even the poifon of rattlefnakes, or the
ticunas itfelf.—An ounce of emetic wine, being injeft-
ed into the jugular vein of a large dog, produced n®
effe£t for a quarter of an hour. At the expiration of
that fpace he became fick, had a continual vomiting,
and evacuation of fome hard excrements by ftool. By
thefe evacuations he feemed to be fomewhat relieved ;
but foon grew uneafy, moved from place to place, and
vomited again. After this he laid himfelf down on the
ground pretty quietly; but his reft Avas difturbed by a
return of his vomiting, and his ftrength greatly decrea-
fed. An hour and a half after the operation he ap¬
peared half dead, but Avas greatly revived by Having
fotne Avarm broth poured doAvn his throat Avith a funnel.
This, however, proved only a temporary relief; for* in
a
(a) Mr Paterfon, in his travels in Africa, in the years 1777-8-9, fell in Avith an European Avoman Avho had been
xvounded Avith a poifoned arroAV. Great pains had been taken to cure her, but in vain ; for at different periods of
the year an inflammation came on which Avas fucceeded by a partial mortification. She told him that the Avound
was eafily healed up**; but in tAAro months afterAvards there Avas a certainty of its breaking out again, and this had
been the cafe for many years. The Hottentots poifon their arrows Avith a fpecies of euphorbia. I he amaryllis
difticha, a large bulbous plant groAving about the Cape of Good Hope, called mad poifon, is ufed for the fame pur-
pofe. The natives take the bulbs when they are putting out their leaves, cut them tranfverfely, extradl a thick
fluid, and keep it in the fun till it acquires the confiftence of gum, Avhen it is fit for ufe. With arrows poifoned
Avith this gum, they kill antelopes and other fmall animals intended for food. After they are Avounded, the animals
generally run for feveral miles, and are frequently not found till next day. When the leaves of this plant are young,
the cattle are very fond of them, though they oecafion inftant death. Mr Paterfon mentions another ftirubby plant
producing a nut, called by the Dutch woolf gift or wolf poifon, the only poifon ufeful to the European inhabitants.
The nuts are roafted like coffee, pulverized, and fluffed into fome pieces of meat or a dead dog, Avhich are thrown
into the fields. By this means the voracious hyenas are generally killed.
P O I
[ 53 1
P O I
Poifon. a fhort time the vomiting returned, he made urine in
-v—great quantity, howled miferably, and died in convul-
fions.—A dram and a half of fal ammoniac diffolved
in an ounce and a half of water, and inje&ed into the
jugular vein of a dog, killed him with colivulfions al-
molt inftantly.—The fame effect followed from injedl-
ing a dram of fait of tartar diffolved in an ounce of
warm water-, but a dram and a half of common fait
injetted into the jugular produced little other bad confe-
quence than a temporary thirft.—A dram of purified
white vitriol, injected into the crural vein of a dog,
killed him immediately.—Fifteen grains of fait of urine
diffolved in an ounce of water, and inje&ed into the
crural vein of a dog, threw him into fuch violent con-
vulfions that he feemed to be dying; neverthelefs he re¬
covered from a fecond dofe, though not without a great
deal of difficulty: but an ounce of urine made by a
man faffing produced no bad effedff. Diluted aqua¬
fortis injefted into the jugular and crural vein of a dog
killed him immediately by coagulating the blood. Oil
of fulphur (containing fome quantity of the volatile vi¬
triolic acid) did not kill a dog after repeated trials. On
the contrary, as foon as he was let go, he ran into all
the corners of the room fearching for meat; and hav¬
ing found fome bones, he fell a gnawing them with
ftrange avidity, as if the acid, by inje&ion into his veins,
had given him a better appetite.—Another dog who
had oil of tartar injected into his veins, fwelled and
died, after fuffering great torment. His blood was
found florid, and not coagulated.—A dram and a half
of fpirit of fait diluted with Avater, and inje&ed into the
jugular vein of a dog, killed him immediately. In the
ri^ht ventricle of the heart the blood was found partly
grumous and concreted into harder clots than ordinary,
and partly frothy. Warm vinegar was injedled with¬
out doing any manifeft harm.—Two drams of fugar
diffolved in an ounce of water Avere injedled into the
jugular vein of a dog Avithout any hurt.
Thefe are the refults of the experiments Avhere faline
fubftanees Avere injedled into the veins. Many acrids
proved equally fatal. A decodlion of trvo drams df
white hellebore, injedled into the jugular vein of a dog,
killed him like a ftroke of lightning. Another dog
was killed in a moment by an injeftion of an ounce of
redlified fpirit of Avine in which a dram of camphor Avas
diifolved.—Ten drams of highly redlified fpirit of Avine,
injedted into the crural vein of a dog, killed him in a
very fliort time: he died quietly, and licking his jaws
with his tongue, as if rvith pleafure. In the vena cava
and right ventricle of the heart the blood was coagula¬
ted into a great many little clots.—Three drams of recr
tiffed fpirit of Avine injedfed into the crural vein of a
fmall dog made him apoplectic, and as it Avere half dead.
In a little time he recovered from the apoplexy, and be¬
came giddy; and when he endeavoured to go, reeled
and fell doAvn. Though his ftrength increafed by de¬
grees, yet his drunkennefs continued, His eyes Avere
red and fiery; and his fight fo dull that he fcarce feem¬
ed to take notice of any thing: and Avhen he was beat,
he would Fcarce move. HoAvever, in four hours he be¬
gan to recover, and Avould eat bread when offered him;
the next day he Avas out of danger.—Five ounces of
ftrong Avbite wine injedled into the crural vein of a dog
made him very drunk for a feAV hours, but did not pro¬
duce any other confequences. An ounce of ftrong de-
5
coftion of tobacco inje&ed into a vein killed a dog in
a very fh’ort time in terrible convulfions. Ten drops of
oil of fage rubbed Avith half a dram of iugar, and thus
diffolved in Avater, did no harm by being inje&ed into
the blood.
Mercury, though feemingly Void of all acrimony,
proves alfo fatal when injefted into the blood. Soon
after the injedtion of half an ounce of this mineral into
the jugular vein of a dog, he Avas feized with a dry
fliort cough which came by intervals. About Iavo days
after, he Avas troubled with a great difficulty of breath¬
ing, and made a noife like that of a broken-vvinded
horfe. There was no tumour about the root of the
tongue or the parotid glands, nor any appearance of a
falivation. In four days he died; having been for Iavo
days before fo much troubled Avith an orthopricea, that
he could fleep only Avhen he leaned his head againft
fomething. When opened, about a pint of bloody fe-
rum Avas found in the thorax, and the cutfide of the
lungs in moft places Avas bliftered. Some of the blifters
AVere larger and others fmaller than a pea, but moft of
them contained mercurial globules. Several of them
Avere broken; and upon being preffed a little, the mer¬
cury ran out Avith a mixture of a little fanies ; but upon
ftronger preffure, a confiderable quantity of fanies iffued
out. In the right ventricle of the heart fome particles
of quickfilver Avere found in the very middle of the coa¬
gulated blood lodged there, and the fame thing alfo Avas
obferved in the pulmonary artery. Some blood alio Avas
found coagulated in a very ftrange and unufual manner
between the columnae of the right ventricle of the heart,
and in this a greater quantity of quickfilver than any-
Avhere elfe. In the left ventricle was found a very tena¬
cious blood coagulated, and flicking to the great valve,
including the tendons of it, and a little refembling a po¬
lypus. No mercury could be found in this ventricle by
the moft diligent fearch; Avhence it appears, that the
mercury had paffed no farther than the extremities of
the pulmonary artery, Avbere it had ftuck, and occafion-,
ed fatal obftru&ions.—In another dog, AA’hich had mer¬
cury injefted into the jugular, it appears to have paffed
the pulmonary artery, as part of it was found in the ca¬
vity of the abdornen, aud part alfo in fome other ca¬
vities of the body. All the glandules were very tur¬
gid and full of.Hqaor, efpecially in the ventricles of
the brain, , and all round there was a great quantity of
ferum.
In- like manner, oil of olives proves certainly fatal
when injefled into the blood. Half an ounce of this,
injefled into- the crural vrein of a dog, produced no ef-
fe£l in half a quarter of an hour: but: after that, the
animal barked, cried, looked dejecied, and fell into a
deep apoplexy; fo that his limbs Avere deprived of all
fenfe and motion, and Avere flexible any Avay at plea¬
fure. His refpiration continued very ftrong, with a
fnorting and Avheezing, and a thick humour fometimes
mixed Avith blood flowing out of his mouth- He loft
all external fenfe: the eyes, though they continued open,
Avere not fenfible of any objedts that Avere put to them;
and even the cornea could be touched and rubbed,
Avithout his being the leaft fenfible of it; his eyelids,
however, had a convulfive motion. The heaving Avas
quite loft; and in a ftiort time the feeling became fo
dull, that his claws and ears could be bored Avith red-
hot pincers without his expreffing the leaft fenfe of pain.
Sometimes
Poifoiv
P O I [ 54 ] P O I
Poifon. Som times he was feized with a convulfive motion of
—v the diaphragm and mufcles fubfervient to refpiration j
upon which he would bark flrongly, as if he had been
awake : but this waking was only in appearance ; for
all the time of this harking he continued as infenfible
as ever. In three hours he died } and on opening his
body, the bronchiae were filled with a thick froth.—
An ounce of oil of olives inje£fed into the jugular of
another dog killed him in a moment ; but a third
lived an hour after it. He was feized with great fleepi-
nefs, fnorting, and wheezing, but did not bark like the
firil. In all of them a great quantity of thick froth
was found in the lungs.
We come now to fpeak of thofe poifons which prove
mortal (b) when taken by the mouth. The principal
of thefe are, arfenic, corrofive fublimate or muriate of
mercury, glafs of antimony, and lead. What the ef-
fefls of thefe fubftances are when inje&ed into the blood,
cannot be related, as no experiments feem to have been
made with them in that way, excepting antimony, whofe
effedls have been already mentioned. The effe&s of
opium, when inje&ed into the veins, feem to be fimilar
to its effefts when taken by the mouth. Fifty grains of
opium, diflblved in an ounce of water, were injefted into
the crural vein of a cat. Immediately after the operation
(he feemed much deje&ed, but did not cry ; only made
a low, interrupted, and complaining noife. This was
fucceeded by trembling of the limbs, convulfive motions
of the eyes, ears, lips, and almoft all parts of the body,
with violent convulfions of the bread. Sometimes (he
.would raife up her head, and feem to look about her }
but her eyes wrere very dull, and looked dead. Though
(he was let loofe, and had nothing tied about her neck,
yet her mouth was fo filled with froth, that (lie was
almoft ftrangled. At laft, her convulfive motions con¬
tinuing, and being feized with ftretching of her limbs,
(lie died in a quarter of an hour. Upon opening the
body, the blood was found not to be much altered from
its natural (late. A dram and a half of opium was
diffolved in an ounce and a half of water, and then in-
jefted into the crural vein of a lufty ftrong dog. He
rtruggled violently j made a loud noife, though his
jaws were tied j had a great difficulty of breathing,
and palpitation of the heart, with convulfive motions of
almoft all parts of his body. Thefe fymptoms were
fucceeded by a profound and apopleflic deep. Having
untied him, he lay upon the ground without moving
or making any noife, though feverely beaten. About
half an hour after he began to recover fome fenfe, and
would move a little when beaten. The fleepinefs (fill
decreafed ; fo that in an hour and a half he would make
a noife, and walk a little when beat. Hoivevcr, he Poifon.
died in four days, after having voided a quantity of fe- * ~ i
tid excrements, in colour refembling the diluted opium
he had fwallowed.
The oil of tobacco has generally been reckoned a
very violent poifon when introduced into the blood j
but, from the abbe Fontana’s experiments, it appears
to be far inferior in ftrength to the poifon ot ticu-
nas, or to the bite of a viper. A drop of oil of to¬
bacco was put into a fmall incifion in the right thigh
of a pigeon, ^nd in two minutes the animal could not
(land on its right foot. The fame experiment was
repeated on another pigeon, and produced exactly the
fame effect. In another cafe, the oil was applied to a
flight wound in the bread •, three minutes after which,
the animal could not Hand on the left foot. This expe¬
riment was alfo repeated a fecond time, with the fame
fuccefs. A tooth-pick, rteeped in oil of tobacco, and
introduced into the mufcles of the bread, made the
animal fall down in a few feconds as if dead. Ap¬
plied to two others, they threw up feveral times all the
food they had eaten. Two others treated in the fame
manner, but with empty ftomachs, made many efforts
to vomit.—In general, the vomiting was found to be
a conftant effeft of this poifon : but the lofs of motion
in the part to which the poifon is applied, was found
t9 be only accidental. None of the animals died by the
application of oil of tobacco. Dr Leake, however, af-
ferts the contrary } faying, that this oil, which is ufed
by the Indians in poifoning arrows, when infufed into
a frefti wound, befides ficknefs and vomiting, occafions
convulfions and death. See Prattical Ejfai/ on Difeafes
of the Vifcera, p. 67.
The pernicious effe&s of laurel-water are taken no¬
tice of under the article Medicine, N° 261. The ac¬
count is confirmed by the experiments of the Abbe
Fontana ; who tells us, that it not only kills in a fliort
time, when taken by the mouth, but that, when given
in fmall dofes, the animal writhes fo that the head joins
the tail, and the vertebrae arch out in fuch a manner as
to ftrike with horror every one who fees it. In order
to afeertain the effedls of this water when taken into
the blood, our author opened the (kin of the lower belly
of a pretty large rabbit, and made a wound in it about
an inch long ; and having {lightly wounded the mufcles
under it in many parts, applied two or three tea fpoon-
fuls of laurel-water. The animal fell down convulfed
in lefs than three minutes, and died foon after. The
experiment was repeated with limilar fuccefs in other
animals: but was always found to aft mod powerfully,
and in the (horteft time, when taken by the mouth, or
* See Cb') Of all poifons * thofe which may be called culinary are perhaps the moft deftruftiye, beeaufe they are
Leake's generally the lead fufpefted. All copper f veffels, therefore, and veffels of bell metal which contains copper, f fee
PraElieal ^loUu fog afide. Even the common earthen ware, when they contain acids, as in pickling, become very ^
Treaiife on ^ ^ are lazed wIth lead, which in the fmalleft quantity, when diffolved, is very fatal 5 and even tin,^*
f/rr' °f the lead exceptionable of the metals for culinary purpofes except Iron, is not always quite free of poifonous quali-
e ^^‘ties it having been found to contain a fmall portion of arfenic. Muftirooms and the common laurel are alfo very
fatal. The bitter almond contains a poifon and its antidote likewife. The cordial dram ratafa, much ufed in
France is a flow poifon, its flavour being procured from the kernels of peach, black cherry (tones, &c. I he
fpirit of lauro-cerafus is peculiarly fatal. The adulteration of bread, beer, wine, porter, &.c. produces very fa al
confequences, and merits exemplary punifliment. Next to culinary poifons, the abufe of medicines deferves par¬
ticular attention.
1
P o I [ 55 1 P O I
Foifon, inje&ed by 5vay of clyfter. From thefe experiments,
—v  however, he concluded, that laurel-water would kill
by being injected into the blood : but in this he was
deceived j for two rabbits had each of them a large tea-
fpoonful injedled into the jugular vein, without any in¬
convenience, either at the time of injection or after¬
wards. It proved innocent alfo when applied to the bare
nerves, and even when introduced into the medullary
fubftance.
We ought now to give fome account of the proper
antidotes for each kind of poifon; but from what has
been related concerning the extreme activity of fome
of them, it is evident that in many cafes there can be
but very little hope. People are moft apt to be bit by
ferpents in the legs or hands j and as the poifon, from
the Abbe Fontana’s experiments, appears to a£t only
in confequence of being abforbed into the blood, it is
plain, that to prevent this abforption is the chief indi¬
cation of cure. We have recommended feveral methods
for this purpofe under the article Medicine, N°40§. 5
but the Abb6 Fontana propofes another not mentioned
there, namely, ligature. This, if properly applied be¬
tween the wounded part and the heart, muft certainly
prevent the bad effefts of the poifon j but then it tends
to produce a difeafe almoft equally fatal; namely, a gan¬
grene of the part ; and our author gives inftances of
animals being thus deftroyed after the effedls »f the
poifon were prevented •, for which reafon he prefers am¬
putation. But the good effedls of either of thefe me¬
thods, it is evident, muft depend greatly on the nature
of the part wounded, and the time when the ligature
is applied, or the amputation performed. If the teeth
of the ferpent, or the poifoned arrow, happens to ftrike
a large vein, the only poftibility of efcaping inftant death
is to comprefs the trunk of the vein above the wounded
place, and to enlarge the wound, that the blood may
flow freely, and in large quantity, in order to wafh
away the poifon, anddifcharge the infefted parts of the
blood itfelf. If this be neglefted, and the perfon falls
into the agonies of death, perhaps ftrongly ftimulating
medicines given in large dofes, and continued for a
length of time, may enable nature to counteradl the vi¬
rulence of the poifon. For this purpofe volatile alkalies
feem moft proper, as a&ing fooneft, (fee Medicine) ;
and perhaps a combination of them with ether might be
advantageous, as by the volatility of that medicine the
adiivity of the alkali would probably be increafed. In
the Philofophical Tranfadh'ons, wre have an account of
the recovery of a dog feemingly by means of the volatile
alkali, when probably he was in a dying condition.
This dog indeed feems to have had a remarkable ftrength
of conftitution. The poor creature had firft got two
ounces of the juice of nightftiade, which he bore without
any inconvenience. An equal quantity of the juice of
hemlock was then given him without effeft. He then got
a large dofe of the root of wolfsbane with the fame fuc-
cefs. Fwo drams of white hellebore root were next
given. Thefe caufed violent vomitings and purgings, but
ftill he outlived the operation. He was then made to
fwallow five roots of the colchicum, or meadow-faffron,
dug frelh out of the earth. The effect of thefe was fimi-
lar to that of the white hellebore, but ftill he did not
die. Laftly, he got two drams of opium ; and he even
outlived this dofe. He was firft caft into a deep fleep
by it y but foon awaked, and was feized with violent
vomitings and purgings, which carried oft’ the effecft of Poilon.
the opium. Seeing then that the animal had refifted the v**"“
moft violent poifons, it was refolved to try the effefts of
the bite of a viper •, and he was accordingly bit three or
four times on the belly a little below the navel by one
enraged. The immediate confequence of this ivas an in¬
cipient gangrene in the parts adjoining to the wound, as
appeared by the rifing of little black bladders filled with
a fanious matter, and a livid colour which propagated
itfelf all around. The motion of the heart became very
faint and irregular, and the animal lay without ftrength
or fenfation, as if he had been feized with a lethargy
or apoplexy. In this condition his wound was cupped
and fcarified, and Venice treacle (a famous antidote) ap¬
plied to it. In two hours after this all the fymptoms
were increafed, and he feemed to be nearly dead j upon
which half a dram of volatile fait of hartftiorn mixed
with a little broth was poured down his throat *, and the
confequence was, that in a ftiort time he was able to
ftand on his feet and walk. Another dofe entirely dif-
pelled his lethargy, and the heart began to recover its
ftrength. However, he continued very weak ; and
though he ate no folid meat for three days, yet at the
end of that time his ftrength was evidently increafed.
The firft day he drank water plentifully and greedily,
and on the fecond day he drank fome broth. On the
third day he began to eat lolid meat, and feemed out of
danger j only fome large and foul ulcers remained on
that part of the belly which was bit, and before thefe
were healed he Was killed by another dog.
From comparing this with fome other obfervations,
indeed, it would feem that volatile alkali is the beft an¬
tidote againft all poifons which fuddenly kill by a mix¬
ture with the blood, and even of fome others. Indeed
its effedls in curing the bite of fnakes feems to be put
beyond all doubt, by a paper in the 2d volume of the
Afiatic Refearches, p. 323. “ From the efifed of a
ligature applied between the bitten part and the heart
(fays Mr Williams, the author of the paper), it is evident
that the poifon diffufes itfelf over the body by the re¬
turning venous blood ; deftroying the irritability, and
rendering the fyftem paralytic. It is therefore pro¬
bable, that the volatile cauftic alkali, in reilfting the
difeafe of the poifon, does not ad fo much as a fpecific
in deftroying its quality, as by counterading the eflfed
on the fyftem, by ftimulating the fibres, and preferving
that irritability which it tends to deftroy.”
But whatever be the mode of its operation, the me¬
dicine is unqueftionably powerful. Mr Williams ufed
either the volatile cauftic alkali, or eau-de-luce ; the for¬
mer of which he feems to have preferred. Of it he
gave 60 drops as a dofe in water, and of the eau-de-luce
he gave 40, at the fame time applying fome of the me¬
dicine to the part bitten, and repeating the dofe as he
found occafion. Of feven cafes, fome of which were
apparently very defperate, only one died, and that appears
to have been occafioned by bad treatment after the cure.
Many of the patients were perfedly recovered in feven
or eight minutes, and none of them required more than
two hours : On the whole, Mr Williams fays that he
“ never knew an inftance of the volatile cauftic alkali
failing in its eflfed, where the patient has been able to
fwallow it.” Dr Mead aflferts, that the alkali counter^
ads the deadly eflfeds of laurel-water : we have feen its
effeds in curing the bite of a viper, and of fnakes j and
from.
P O I
from Dr Wolfe’s experiments on hydropliobous patients,
it may even claim fome merit there. Still, however,
there is another method of attempting a cure, in fuch
deplorable cafes ; and that is, by inje&ing into the
veins any thing which will not deftroy life, but will
deftroy the effects of the poifon. It is much to be re¬
gretted, that in thofe cruel experiments which we have
already related, the intention feems almoft always to
have been to kill the animal at all events j whereas, it
ought to have been to preferve him alive, and to afcer-
tain what medicines could be fafely injedled into the
blood, and what could not, with the effedls which fol¬
lowed the injection of different quantities, none of
which were lufficient to deftroy life. But in the way
they were managed, fcaree any conclufion can be drawn
from them. Indeed it appears that little good is to be
expected from this mode ; it is mere fpeculation, and
future experiments muft fhow whether it ever fliall be
ufed for the cure of poifons, or for any other purpofes :
its being now totally laid afide, feems to militate ftrong-
ly againft the efficacy of it j befides, the extreme cruel¬
ty of the operation will ever be a ftrong bar to its gene¬
ral introduflion. See Injection.
There flill remains another method of cure in defpe-
rate cafes, when there is a certainty that the whole mafs
of blood is infedled ; and that is, by the bold attempt
of changing the whole difeafed fluid for the blood of a
found animal. Experiments of this kind have alfo been
tried ; and the method of making them, together with
the corifequences of fuch as are recorded in the Philo-
fophical Tranfadtions, we fhall notice under the article
Transfusion.
Dr Mead, finding that many pretenders, to philofo-
phy have called the goodnefs of the Creator in queflion,
for having created fubftances whofe manifeit and obvi¬
ous qualities are noxious and deftruftive, remarks, by
way of anfwer, that they have alfo falut.ary virtues.
But, befides their phyfical effefts, they are likewife food
for animals which afford us good nourifhment, goats and
quails being fattened by hellebore, ftarlings by hemlock,
and hogs innocently eating henbane 5 befides, fome of
thofe vegetables, which were formerly thought poifo.n-
ous, are now ufed in medicine, and future difcoveries
may probably increafe the number. The poifon of
many vegetables is their only defence againft the ra¬
vages of animals *, and by means of them we are often
enabled to defend ufeful plants from.the deftroying m-
feft ; fuch as by fprinkling them with effential. oil of
turpentine y and by means of fome fubftances poifonous
to them, we are enabled to deftroy thofe infedts. which 111-
feft the human body, and the bodies of domeftic animals,
 As for poifonous minerals, arfenic for. example,
Dr Mead obferves, that it is not a perfect mineral, but
only an aftive fubftance, made ufe of by nature in pre¬
paring feveral metals in the earth, which are of great
fer-vice to mankind j and, after confirming this by fe¬
veral inftances, he concludes by faying, the cafe will be
found much the fame in all natural produdhons of this
kind. As for .poifonous animals, &c. their noxious qua¬
lities may eafily be accounted for, by reflefting that it is
their only mode of felf-defepce.
POISON of Copper. This metal, though when in an
undiffolved ftate it produces no fenfible eftea.s, becomes
exceedingly aftive when diffolved j and fuch is the faci-
lity with which the folution is effedled^ that it becomes
P O I
a matter of fome confequence to prevent the metal front Potfon.
being taken into the human body even in its proper ‘ ‘"|J
form. It doth not, however, appear that the poifon of
copper is equally pernicious with thofe of arfenic or
lead ; much lefs with fome others treated of in the laft
article. The reafon of this is, that it excites vomiting
fo fpeedily as to be expelled, even though taken in con-
fiderable quantity, before it has time to corrode the fto-
mach. Roman vitriol, which is a folution of copper in
the vitriolic acid, has been ufed as a medicine in feme
difeafes with great fuccefs. Verdigrife alfo, which is
another very adlive preparation of the metal, has been
by fome phyficians preferibed as an emetic, efpecially ift
cafes where other poifons had been fwallowed, in order
to procure the moft fpeedy evacuation of them by vomit.
Where copper is not ufed with this view, it has been
employed as a tonic and antifpafmodic, with which it
has been admitted into the Edinburgh Difpenfatory un¬
der the title of Cuprum Ammoniac ale. The effedts of
the metal, however, when taken in a pretty large quan¬
tity, and in a difiblved ftate, or when the ftomach
abounds with acid juices fufficient to diflblve it, are very
difagreeable and even dangerous; as it occafions violent
vomitings, pains in the ftomach, faintings, and fome-
times convulfions and death. The only cure for thefe
fymptoms is to expel the poifon by vomiting as foon as
poffible, and to obtund its acrimony j for which purpofe
drinking warm milk will probably be found the moft ef¬
ficacious remedy. In order to prevent the entrance of
the poifen into the body, no copper veffels ftiould be
ufed in preparing food but fuch as are either well tinned
or kept exceedingly clean. The pradtice of giving a
fine blue or green colour to pickles, by preparing them
in copper veffels, ought not to be tolerated ; for Dr
Falconer, in a treatife on this fubjedl, affures us, that
thefe are fometimes fo ftrongly impregnated by this me¬
thod of preparing them, that a fmall quantity of them
will produce a flight naufea.—Mortars of brafs or bell-
metal ought for the fame reafon to be avoided, as by
this means a confiderable quantity of the pernicious me¬
tal may be mixed with our food, or with medicines. In
other cafes, an equal caution ought to be ufed. The
cuftom of keeping pins in the mouth, of giving copper
halfpence to children to play with, &c. ought to be
avoided •, as thus a quantity of the metal may be infen-
fibly taken into the body, after which its effedts muft be
uncertain.—It is proper to obferve, however, that cop¬
per is much more eafily diffolved when cold than when
hot •, and therefore the greateft care ftiould be taken ne¬
ver to let any thing defigned for food, even common wa¬
ter, remain long in copper veffels when cold ; for it is
obferved, that though the confedtioners can fafely pre¬
pare the moft acid fyrups in clean copper veffels without
their receiving any detriment whilft hot, yet if the fame
fyrups are allowed to remain in the veffels till quite cold,
they become impregnated with the pernicious qualities of
the metal.
To what has now been faid relative to the effedls of
mineral poifons, we Ihall add an account of fome experi¬
ments, {bowing that a mineral poifon may produce fudden
and violent death, although the noxious matter cannot
be detedled by chemical tefts in the contents of the fto¬
mach. As the fubjedl of this inveftigation is of great
importance in many points of view, we {hall make rit>
apology for laying the whole detail before our readers
without
[ 56 ]
O I f 57 1 POI
The experiments were made by by the nitrate of filver, fhewing that it contained muri¬
atic acid.
Poifon. without abridgement.
-pr g0[|0C^ 0f Liverpool, and the account ®f them is
given by the author in a letter to the editor of the Edin¬
burgh Med. and Surg. Journal, v. 14.
“ In compliance with your requeft, I fend you an ac¬
count of fome of the experiments which I made to il-
luftrate the queftion, which was propofed to me at the
late memorable trial at Lancafter, whether it was pof-
fible that a mineral poifon might produce a fudden and
violent death, and yet be afterwards incapable of detec¬
tion in the contents of the ftomach ? You have already
feen, in the pamphlet that was publilhed by Drs Gerard
and Rutter, Mr Hay, and myfelf, the effeft which was
produced upon dogs by corrofive fublimate. We there
relate the refult of two experiments, in which it was
given to dogs in folution \ vomiting, purging, and
the fymptoms of violent pain enfued, which after fome
hours were terminated by death. The contents of the
ftomach, it is there ftated, were analyfed by me, but none
•f the fublimate could be detefted. In the firft experi¬
ment, ingrains of the fait were given, and in the fecond
4 grains j this latter being the larger quantity, and alfo
the one in which the procefs was conducted with the
moft accuracy, I fliall confine myfelf to relate the cir-
cumftances of this alone.
“ When the ftomach of the dog was opened, a fmall
quantity of water was added to wafti out its contents
more completely, making the whole fnmewhat lefs than
•ne ounce. It was deeply tinged with blood, and I let
it remain at reft for 30 hours, in order that the colour¬
ing matter might fubfide from it. It had then acquired
a very foetid fmell, and not being much clearer than at
firft, I added to it about an equal quantity of water,
and pafled it, firft through a linen ftrain, and afterwards
through a paper filter. It was now nearly tranfparent,
but flightly tinged with blood.
“ A folution of corrofive fublimate was prepared,
containing of its weight of the fait. Into a quan¬
tity of this folution the recently prepared muriate of tin
was dropped, which produced an immediate and very
copious precipitation. Cauftic potath alfo threw down
a precipitate, although in fmall quantity. The fame
fcefts were then added to the fluid taken from the fto-
' mach, but no effect was produced by the muriate of tin
for fome hours, when at length it became, in fome de¬
gree, opake. The effeft here, both as to time and the
nature of the appearance, was quite different from the
precipitate in the folution of corrofive fublimate, and I
oonfidered it as depending upon the a6Hon of the mu¬
riate of tin upon the mucus. In proof of this, when the
ftomach fluid had potath added to it, inftead of having
a precipitate thrown down, it was rendered more tranf¬
parent than before the experiment. The folution of
Corrofive fublimate was fubje&ed to the a6Hon of gal-
vanifm, by having a piece of gold placed in it, clafped
by zinc wire } in an hour the gold was obvioufly whi¬
tened by the precipitation of the mercury upon it. The
fluid taken from the ftomach was fubmitted to the fame
procefs for three hours, but no effefl was produced (c).
The fluid from the ftomach did not exhibit either acid
or alkaline properties; it was copioufly precipitated
Vol. XVII. Part I.
Poifon.
“ On the following day, a flight brown precipitate
had fubfided from the ftomach fluid, and the whole had
become very opake. The precipitate was diffolved by
potafli, at the fame time that the fluid was rendered more
tranfparent. It was become extremely putrid. The
putridity increafed : and, in two days more, a fcum was
formed on the furface, and the fides of the glafs were
alfo encrufted with a gray matter. The experiments
were performed between the lyth and 22d of Auguft.
“ The following experiments were then made on the
corrofive fublimate, with every poflible attention to accu¬
racy. Two grains of the fait were diffolved in 600 grains
of diftilled water. This I call folution N° 1. Ten
grains of N° 1. were then added to 90 grains of water,
forming folution N° 2. in which the fluid would con-
tain Gf its weight of the fublimate. Into 10
drops of N° 2* two drops of the muriate of tin were add¬
ed, and caufed a very obvious precipitate. Te? grains
of N° 2. were added to 90 grains of diftilled water, ma¬
king the fluid to contain -joo^o-oo- of its weight of the
fait. Into 10 drops of this folution, two drops of the
muriate of tin were added, and an immediate gray cloud
was perceptible in the fluid, although no precipitate was
thrown down. The galvanic procefs was repeated with
the folution N° 3.; it remained fix hours, and I thought
I perceived a whitenefs on one part of the gold j but it
was not very diftimftly vifible.
“ From thefe experiments, we may draw the follow¬
ing conclufions :—
“ 1. The fluid taken from the dog’s ftomach contain¬
ed muriatic acid, probably in the form of common fait,
and animal matter, probably mucus, in confiderable
quantity.
“ 2. The lefts that were employed to difcover the
corrofive fublimate, were capable of dete&ing it in a
fluid, when it compofed only -j-oo£o^<5 °f *ts weight.
“ 3. Thefe lefts did not deteti any corrofive fublimate
in the fluid taken from the dog’s ftomach j it may there¬
fore be concluded,
“ 4. That an animal may be fuddenly killed by re¬
ceiving a metallic poifon into the ftomach, and yet
that the niceft lefts may not be able to deleft any por¬
tion of the poifon after death, in the contents of the
ftomach.
“ This conclufion appears incontrovertible ; and
though fome analogous fafts had occafionally been ne-
ticed *, it is fo different from the generally received * Hofftna-
opinion upon the fubjeft, that I think it muft have con- nns de Ve-
fiderable influence on all future judicial proceedings, in^7'*<latl
which the queftion of poifoning is agitated.”
Poison of Lead. See Medicine, N° 303.
PoisON-Tree. See Rhus, Botany Index.
PoiSON-Tree of Java, called in the Malayan lan¬
guage bohun upas, is a tree which has often been de-
fcribed by naturalifts; but its exiftence has been very
generally doubted, and the defcriptions given of it, con¬
taining much of the marvellous, have been often treated
as idle fictions. N. P. Foerfch, however, in an account
of it, written in Dutch, afferts that it does exift j and
H tells
' Acckja-
tione.
(c) This experiment was performed at the fuggeftion of Dr Wollafton.
p O I [ 58 ] P O I
Poi!on- tells us, that he once doubted it as much as any perfon;
v but, determined not to truft general opinions, he made
the moil particular inquiries poflible; the refult of which
was, that he found that it is iituated in the iiland of
Java, about 27 leagues from Batavia, 14 from Soura
Charta, the emperor’s feat, and about 19 from Tinkjoe,
the refidence of the fultan of Java. It is furrounded
on all iides by hills and mountains, and the adjacent
country for 12 miles round the tree is totally barren.
Our author fays he has gone all round the fpot at about
18 miles from the centre, and on all fides he found the
country equally dreary, which he afcribes to its noxious
effluvia. The poifon procured from it is a gum, iffuing
from between the bark and the tree 5 and it is brought
by malefa£lors who have been condemned to death, but
who are allowed by this alternative to have a chance for
their life. An old ecclefiaftic, our author informs us,
dwelt on the outfide of the furrounding hills, whofe bu-
iinefs it was to prepare the criminals for their fate, if
death fnould be the confequence of their expedition.
And indeed fo fatal are its effluvia, that he acknowledged
that fcarcely two out of 20 returned from above 700
whom he had difmiffed.
Mr Foerfch farther tells us, that he had feen feveral
of the criminals who had returned, and who told him,
that the tree Hands on the borders of a rivulet, is of a
middling fize, and that five or fix young ones of the
lame kind Hand clofe to it. They could not, however,
fee any other plant or flrrub near it ; and the ground
was of brownifh fand, full of Hones and dead bodies, and
difficult to pafs. The Malayans think this trafi was
thus rendered noxious and uninhabitable by the judge¬
ment of God, at Mahomet’s defire, on account of the
fins of the inhabitants. No animal whatever is ever
feen there j and fuch as get there by any means never
return, but have been brought out dead by fuch of the
criminals as have themfelves efcaped death.
Our author relates a circumftance which happened
in the year 1775, to about 400 families (1600 fouls),
who refufed to pay fome luty to the emperor, and who
were in confequence declared rebels and banifhed ; they
petitioned for leave to fettle in the uncultivated parts
round Upas: the confequence of which was, that in
lefs than two months their number was reduced to
about 300 fouls, who begged to be reconciled to the
emperor, and wTere again received under his proteflion.
Many of thefe furvivors Mr Foeffch faw, and they had
juft the appearance of perfons tainted with an infefti-
ous diforder.
With the juice of this tree arrows, lancets, and other
offenfive weapons, are poifoned. With lancets thus poi-
foned, Mr Foerfch obferves, that he {aw 13 of the em¬
peror’s concubines executed for infidelity to his bed in
February i'776. They were lanced in the middle of
their breafts j in five minutes after which they were
feized with a tremor and fubfultus tendinumy and in
15 minutes they were dead. Their bodies were full of
livid fpots, like thofe of petcchice, their faces fwelled,
colour blue, and eyes yellow, &c. Soon after he faw
feven Malayans executed in the fame way, and faw
the fame efietts follow ; on which he refolved to try
it on other animals, and found the operation fimilar
on three puppies, a cat, and a fowl, none of which fur-
viyed more than 13 minutes. He alfo tried its. effects
internally on a dog feven months old ; the animal be- Poifen.
came delirious, was feized with convulfions, and died
in half an hour. From all which our author concludes,
that it is the moft violent of all vegetable poifons, and
that it contributes greatly, to the unhealthinefs of the
ifland in which it grows. By means of it many cruel
and treacherous murders are perpetrated. He adds,
that there exifts a fort of cajoe-upas on the coaft
of Macaflar, the poifon of which, though not near
fo violent or malignant, operates nearly in the fame
manner.
Moft of our readers will probably confider this whole
account as highly incredible’, but we have to add, that
it has been diredlly controverted in all its parts in a
memoir of Lambert Nolft, M. D. fellow of the Ba¬
tavian Experimental Society at Rotterdam, (fee Gen-
tleman’s Mag. May 1794, p. 433*)* This memoir was
procured from John Matthew a Rhyn, who had been
23 years, from 1763 to 1786, refident in the ifland, and
therefore had every opportunity of informing himfelf
on the fpot. In this memoir we are told, that Foerfch’s
account of the tree is extremely fufpicious, from a vari¬
ety of circumftances : 1. Though he had letters of in-
troduflion, he went to no confiderable houfe, and after¬
wards privately withdrew among the Engliffi. 2. When
the emperor was alked refpedling Foerfch, and the fa£ts
he relates, he anfwered, that he had never heard either
of him or of the tree. 3. The diftances given to mark
the fituation of the tree are not accurate. 4. The exe¬
cution of criminals is different from what he reprefents.
5. The circumftance of feveral criminals returning when
Foerfch was there, has a fufpicious appearance. 6. There
exifts no fuch tradition, as that the tree was placed
there by Mahomet. 7. There were no fuch difturb-
ances in 1775 as Foerfch reprefents, the traft to which
he alludes having fubmitted to the Dutch Eaft India
Company as early as 1756. 8. The ifiand is not un¬
healthy, as Foerfch aflerts; nor are violent or prema¬
ture deaths frequent. 9. The Javanefe are a curious
and intelligent people, and of courfe could not be fo
ignorant of this tree if it had any exiftence. 10. The
affertions and pretended fails of Foerfch have no col¬
lateral evidence j and every thing which we gather from
the accounts of others, or from the hiftory of the people,
invalidates them. For thefe and other reafons, Dr
Nolil concludes, that very little credit is due to the re-
prefentations of Foerfch, and that the ifland of Java
produces no fuch tree, which, if it really grew there,
wrould be the moft remarkable of all trees.
We muft notice alfo, that the account of this very re¬
markable tree has been Hill farther controverted by Sir
George Staunton, who, during his flay at Batavia,
made the moft particular inquiries concerning it, and
found, that the exiftence of fuch a tree had never been
known there. {EmbaJJy to China'). The fabulous hiftory
of this tree, however, has produced a moft beautiful de-
fcription from the mufe of Dr Darwin, whofe harmo¬
nious verfes on the fubjedl we (hall prefent to our
readers.
Where feas of glafs with gay reflexions fmile
Round the green coafts of Java’s palmy ifle,
A fpacious plain extends its upland fcene,
Rocks rife on rocks, and fountains gufti between •,
Poi ion.
II
Poland.
POL i
Soft zephyrs blow, eternal fummers reign,
And (bowers prolific blefs the foil, in vain !
—No fpicy nutmeg fcents the vernal gales,
Nor towering plantain {hades the mid-day vales;
No graffy mantle hides the fable hills,
No flowery chaplet crowns the trickling rills 5
Nor tufted mofs, nor leathery lichen creeps
In ruffet tapeftry o’er the crumbling fteeps.
 No ftep retreating, on the fand imprefs’d,
Invites the vifit of a fecond guelt j
No refluent fin the unpeopled ftream divides,
No revolant pinion cleaves the airy tides 5
Nor handed moles, nor beaked worms return,
That mining pafs the irremeable bourn.—
Fierce in dread filence on the blafted heath
Fell Upas fits, the Hydra-tree of death.
Lo ! from one root, the envenom’d foil below,
A thoufand vegetative ferpents grow *,
In fhining rays the fcaly monfter fpreads
O’er ten fquare leagues his far-diverging heads j
Or in one trunk entwifts his tangled form,
Looks o’er the clouds, and hiffes in the florin.
Steep’d in fell poifon, as his {harp teeth part,
A thoufand tongues in quick vibration dart 5
Snatch the proud eagle towering o’er the heath,
Or pounce the lion, as he ftalks beneath j
Or drew, as marfliall’d hofts contend in vain,
With human Ikeletons the whiten’d plain.
—Chain’d at his root two feion-demons dwell,
Breathe the faint hifs, or try the fhriller yell j
Rife fluttering in the air on callow wings,
And aim at infe£t-prey their little flings.
Loves of the Plants, canto iii.
POLACRE, a {hip with three marts, ufnally navi¬
gated in the Levant and other parts of the Mediterra¬
nean. Thefe veffels are generally furniflied with fquare
fails upon the mainmaft, and lateen fails upon the fore-
mart and mizenmaft. Some of them, however, carry
fquare fails upon all the three marts, particularly thofe
of Provence in France. Each of their marts is com¬
monly formed of one piece, fo that they have neither
topmaft nor top-gallant-maft j neither have they any
Aorfes to their yards, becaufe the men ftand upon the
topfail-yard to loofe or furl the top-gallant-fail, and on
the lower yard to reef to loofe, or furl, the topfail,
whofe yard is lowered fufficiently down for that pur-
pofe.
POLAND, a country of Europe, in its largeft ex¬
tent bounded by Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silefia, and
Moravia, to the weft •, and, towards the cart, by part of
Ruflia and the Leffer Tartary ; on the north, it has the
Baltic, Ruftia, the grand province of Livonia, and Sa-
mogitia ; and on the fouth, it is bounded by Beffarabia,
Tranfylvania, Moldavia, and Hungary. Geographers
generally divide it into the provinces of Poland Proper,
Lithuania, Samogitia, Courland, Pruffia, Maflbvia, Po-
lachia, Polefia, Little Ruflia, called likewife Rifjta Ru¬
bra or Red Rufjia, Podolia, and the Ukraine. Now,
however, it is very confiderably reduced in extent, as
will appear in the courfe of its hiftory. For a map of
Poland, Lithuania, and Pruflla, fee PI. CCCCXXXIV.
With regard to the hiftory of Poland, we are not to
gather the early part of it from any accounts tranfmit-
ted to us by the natives. The early hiftories of all na-
Polaird.
59 ] POL
tions indeed are involved in fable j but the Poles never _
had even a fabulous hiftory of their own nation, i he
reafon of this is, that it was not the cuftom with that
nation to entertain itinerant poets for the amufementof.
the great ; for to the fongs of thefe poets entertained
among other nations we are obliged for the early part of
their hiftory ; but this afliftance being deficient in Po¬
land, we mult have recourfe to what is recorded con¬
cerning it by the hiftorians of other nations. r
The fovereigns of Poland at firft had the title of duces, Polith fo-
dukes or generals, as if their office had been only to lead vereigns at
the armies into the field. The firft of thefe is univerfal-
ly allowed to have been Lechus or Lecht j and to ren-^kes.
der him more illuftrious, he is faid to have been a lineal 2
defeendant from Japhet the fon of Noah. According Lechus the
to fome writers, he migrated at the head of a numerous firft hake,
body of the defeendants of the ancient Sclavi from fome
of the neighbouring nations *, and, to this day, Poland
is called by the Tartars the kingdom of Lechus. Buf-
ching, however, gives a different account of the origin
of the Poles. Sarmatia, he obferves, was an extenfive
country, inhabited by a variety of nations of different
names. He fuppofes the Poles to be the defeendants of
the ancient Lazi, a people who lived in Colchis near
the Pontus Euxinus ; whence the Poles are fometimes
called Po/uzi. Crofting feveral rivers, they entered Pof-
nania, and fettled on the borders of the Warta, while
their neighbours the Zechi fettled on the Elbe, in the
550th year of Chrift. As to the name of Poland, or
Polfka, as it.is called by the natives, it comes from the 3
Sclavonic word Pole, or Poln, which fignifies a country Derivation
adapted to hunting, becaufe the whole country was for-0* t*ie
merly covered with vaft forefts, exceedingly proper f°r
that employment.
Of the tranfaflions of Lechus during the time that
he enjoyed the fovereignty, wTe have no certain ac- ^
count. His Yucceffor was named Vifcimer, who is gene-vifeimer
rally fuppofed to have been the nephew of Lechus. Hethefecoad
was a warlike and fuccefsful prince, fubduing many1*^6*
provinces of Denmark, and building the city of Wif-
mar, fo called from the name of the fovereign. But the
Danilh hiftorians take no notice of his wars with their
country ; nor do they even mention a prince of this
name, However, he is faid to have reigned for a long
time with great glory ; but to have left the people in
great diftrefs, on account of the difputes which arofe
about a fucceffor. ^
After the death of Vifcimer, the nobility were on the Form of go»
point of ele<5ling a fovereign, when the people, haraffed vernment
by the grievous burdens occafioned by the wars of Vif. enknged^n-
cimer, unanimoufly demanded another form of govern-[.racy.'
ment, that they might no longer be liable to fuffer from
ambition and tyranny. At firft the nobility pretended
to yield to this humour of the people with great reluc¬
tance ; however, they afterwards determined on fuch a
form of government as threw all the power into then-
own hands. Twelve palatines, or vaivodes, were cho*
fen ; and the Polifh dominions divided into as many
provinces. Thefe palatines exercifed a defpotic autho-
their feveral jurifdiclions, and aggravated
of the people by perpetual wars among
upon which the Poles, worn out with op-
preffion, refolved to return to their old form of govern¬
ment. Many affujnblies were held for this purpofe \
but, by reafon of the oppofition of the vaivodes, they
H 2 came
rity within
the mifery
themfelves ;
Poland, came to notliing
*v*
6
The duke.
POL [ 60 ] POL
. At laft, however, they call their and a herald proclaimed, that he who firfl arrived at Poland.
eyes upon Cracus, or Gracus, whole wealth and popula¬
rity had raifed him to the highelt honours among his
dom reftor-countrymen. The Poles fay that he was a native of
red. Poland, and one of the i 2 vaivodes j but the Bohemi¬
ans affirm that he was a native of their country : how¬
ever, both agree in maintaining, that he was defcended
from the ancient family of the Gracchi in Rome j who,
they fay, were banilhed to this country. He is faid to
have fignalized himfelf againft the Franks, whom he
overthrew in fome defperate engagements, and after¬
wards built the city of Cracow with their fpoils. He
did not enlarge his dominions, but made his fubje&s
happy by many excellent regulations. At lalt, after a
long and glorious reign, he expired, or, according to
fome, was affaffinated by a nobleman who afpired to the
crown.
Cracus left three children ; Cracus, Lechus, and a
daughter named Vanda. The firlt fucceeded to the
dukedom in virtue of his birthright; but was foon after
murdered by his brother Lechus. However, it feems
the thoughts of the crime which he had committed fo
dilturbed his confcience, that the fecret could not be
kept. When it was known that he had been the mur¬
derer of his late fovereign, he was depofed with all pof-
lible marks of ignominy and contempt, and his lifter
Vanda declared duchefs. She was a moft beautiful and
accompliffied lady j and foon after ffie had been raifed
to the fovereignty, one Rithogar, a Teutonic prince,
fent an ambaffador demanding her in marriage, and
threatening war if his propofals were refufed. Vanda
marched in perfon againft him at the head of a numer¬
ous army, and the event proved fatal both to Rithogar
and herfelf. The troops of Rithogar abandoned him
without linking a blow, upon which he killed himfelf
in defpair ; and Vanda, having become enamoured of
him, was fo much concerned for his death, that ffie
drowned herfelf in the river Viftula or Wefel. From
this unfortunate lady the country of Vandalia takes its
liihed.
Again abo- The family of Cracus having become extinft by the
death of Vanda, the Poles were again left at liberty to
choofe a new fovereign or a new form of government.
Through a natural levity, they changed the form of go¬
vernment, and reftored the vaivodes notwithftanding all
that they had formerly fuffered from them. The confe-
quences were the fame as before : the vaivodes abufed
their power ; the people were oppreffed, and the ftate
was dill rafted between foreign wars and civil conten¬
tions. At that time the Hungarians and Moravians had
invaded Poland with a numerous army, and were oppo-
fed only by a handful of men almoft ready to furrender
at diferetion, when one Premiilaus, a private fol-
dier, contrived a ftratagem by which the numerous for¬
ces of the enemy were overthrown : and for his valour
was rewarded with thfc dukedom. We are ignorant of
the other tranfaftions of his reign ; but all hiftorians
inform us that he died deeply regretted, and without
KTue ; fo that the Poles had once more to choofe a fo¬
vereign.
On the death of Premiflaus feveral candidates appear¬
ed for the throne ; and the Poles determined to prefer
him who could overcome all his competitors in a horfe-
race. A ftone pillar was erefted near the capital, on
which were laid all the enfigns of the ducal authority j
3
Iteftored
a feuond
time.
that pillar from a river at fome diftance, named Pouderic, *•
was to enjoy them. A Poliffi lord named Lechus was
refolved to fecure the viftory to himfelf by a ftratagem;
for which purpofe he caufed iron fpikes to be driven all
over the courfe, referring only a path for his own horfe.
The fraudulent defign took effeft in part, all the reft of
the competitors being difmounted, and fome feverely
hurt by their fall. Lechus, in confequence of this vic¬
tory, was about to be proclaimed duke j when, unlucki¬
ly for him, a peafant who had found out the artifice
oppofed the ceremony 5 and upon an examination of the
faft, Lechus was torn in pieces, and the ducal authority
conferred upon the peafant.
The name of the new monarch was alfo Lechus. He
attained the fovereignty in the year 774, and condufted
himfelf with great wifdom and moderation. Though he
polTeffed the qualities of a great warrior, and extended
his dominions on the fide of Moravia and Bohemia, yet
his chief delight was to make his fubjefts happy by
peace. In the decline of life he was obliged to engage
in a war with Charlemagne, and is faid by fome to have
fallen in battle with that powerful monarch ; though
others allert that he died a natural death, having lived
fo long that the fprings of life were quite worn out.
Lecbus III. was fucceeded by his fon Lechus IV.
who inherited all his father’s virtues. He fupprelTed
an infurreftion in the Poliffi provinces, by which he
acquired great reputation j after which he led his army
againft the Greek and Italian legions who had overrun
Pannonia. He gained a complete viftory over his ene¬
mies. Nor was his valour more confpicuous in the bat¬
tle than his clemency to the vanquiffied : for he difmif-
fed all his prifoners without ranfom •, demanding no
other conditions than that they Ihould never again di-
fturb the peace of Poland, or the allies of that king¬
dom. This duke is faid to have been endowed with
many virtues, and is charged only with the vice oi in¬
continence. He left 20 natural children, and only one
legitimate fon, named Popiel, to whom he left the fo¬
vereignty. Popiel was alfo a virtuous and pacific prince,
who never had recourfe to arms but through neceffity.
He removed the feat of government from Cracow to
Gnefna, and was fucceeded by his nephew Popiel II.
a minor.
The young king behaved with propriety as long as
he was under the tuition of others ; but as foon as he had
got the reins of government into his own hands the face
of affairs was altered. Lechus III. who, as hath been
already mentioned, bad 20 illegitimate children, had
promoted them to thegovernment of different provinces j
and they had difcharged the duties of their offices in
fuch a manner as {bowed that they were worthy of the
confidence repofed in them. But as foon as Po¬
piel came of age, being fedueed by ihe advice of his
wife, an artful and ambitious woman, he removed them
from their polls, treated them with the utmoft contempt,
and at laft found means lo poifon them all at. once at an
entertainment. A dreadful puniffiment, however, ac¬
cording to the hiftorians of thofe times, attended his
treachery and cruelty. The bodies of the unhappy go¬
vernors were left unburied ; and from them iffued a
fwarm of rats, who purfued Popiel, his wife, and chil¬
dren, wherever they went, and at laft; devoured them.
The nation now became a prey to civil difeord at the
fairyjt
POL
Poland.
9
Why the
fovereigns
«f Poland
are called
fia/ies.
Ohriftiani-
ty introdu¬
ced by Mi-
eczflaus I.
ii
Boleflaus
the firft
king of Po
land.
fam« time that It was haraflr d by a foreign enemy •, and,
in Ihort, the ftate feemed to be on the verge of diflblu-
tion, when Piaftus was proclaimed duke in 830, from
whom the natives of ducal or regal dignity were called
Piajles. See Piastus. This excellent monarch died
in 861, and was fucceeded by his fon Ziemovitus, who
was of a more warlike difpofition than his father, and
who firll: introduced regular difcipline among the Po-
lilh troops. He maintained a refpe6table army, and
took great pains to acquire a perfect knowledge in the
art of war. The confequence of this was, that he was
victorious in all his battles ; and retook from the Ger¬
mans and Hungarians not only all that they had gained,
but enlarged his dominions beyond what they had been.
After his death nothing remarkable happened in Poland
till the time of Mieczllaus I. who attained the ducal au¬
thority in 964. He was born blind, and continued fo
for feven years : after which he recovered his fight with¬
out ufing any medicine 5 a circumftance fo extraordina¬
ry, that in thofe times of ignorance and fuperftition it
was accounted a miracle. In his reign the Chriltian re¬
ligion was introduced into Poland. The moft probable
account of the manner in which Chrillianity was intro¬
duced is, that Mieczflaus having by ambaffadors made
his addreffes to Daborwka daughter to the duke of Bo¬
hemia, the lady rejefted his offer unlefs he would fuffer
himfelf to be baptized. To this the duke-confented,
and was baptized, after having been inftru&ed in the
principles of Chriftianity. He founded the archbilhop-
rics of Gnefna and Cracow ; and appointed St Adal¬
bert, fent by the pontiff to propagate Chriftianity in Po¬
land, primate of the whole kingdom. On the birth of
his fon Boleflaus he redoubled his zeal 5 founding feve-
ral bilhoprics and raonafteries •, ordering likewife that,
when any part of the Gofpel was read, the hearers
fhould half draw their fwords, in teftimony of their rea-
dinefs to defend the faith. But he was too fuperftitious
to attend to the duties of a fovereign •, and therefore
fuffered his dominions to be ravaged by his barbarous
neighbour the duke of Ruflia. Yet, with all his devo¬
tion, he could not obtain the title of king from the
pope, though he had warmly folicited it. That title
was afterwards conferred on his fon, who fucceeded to
all his dominions.
Boleflaus I. the firft king of Poland, furnamed Chro-
bn/, fucceeded to the fovereignty in 999. He alfo pro-
' feffed and cherilhed Chriftianity, and was a man of great
valour and prudence. However, the firft tranfa&ion of
his reign favoured very much of the ridiculous piety of
thofe times. He removed from Prague to Gnefna the
remains of a faint which he had purchafed at a confider-
able price. The emperor Otho III. made a pilgrimage,
on account of a vow, to the tomb of this faint. He was
hofpitably received by Boleflaus, whom, in return, he
invefted with the regal dignity •, an adt which was con¬
firmed by the pope. This new dignity added nothing
to the power of Boleflaus, though it increafed his con¬
fequence with his own fubjedts. He now affedted more
ftate than before : his body-guards were confiderably
augmented •, and he was conftantly attended by a nu¬
merous and fplendid retinue whenever he ftirred out of
his palace. Thus he infpired his people with an idea
of his greatnefs, and confequently of their own import¬
ance •, which no doubt was neceffary for the accomplifli-
-Kient of a defign he had formed, namely, an offenfive
Poland,
t 61 ] POL
war with Ruflia : but when he was upon the point of
fetting out on this expedition, he was prevented by the ' •T"
breaking out of a war with the Bohemians* I he ele¬
vation of Boleflaus to the regal dignity had excited the
envy of the duke of Bohemia, who' had folicited the
fame honour for himfelf, and had been refufed. His
jealoufy was further excited by the connexion between
Boleflaus and the emperor, the former having married
Rixa the emperor’s niece. Without any provocation,
therefore, or without giving the leaft intimation of his
defign, the duke of Bohemia entered Poland at the head
of a numerous army, committing everywhere dreadful 14
ravages. Boleflaus immediately marched againft him, He con-
and the Bohemians retired with precipitation. Scarcity C
of provifions, and the inclemency of the feafon, prevent¬
ed Boleflaus at that time from purfuing; but as foon as
thefe obftacles were removed, he entered Bohemia at the
head of a formidable army, with a full refolution of tak¬
ing ample revenge. The Bohemians were altogether
unable to refill j neither indeed had.they courage to
venture a battle, though Boleflaus did all in his power
to force them to it. So great indeed was the cowardice
of the duke or his army, that they fuffered Prague, the
capital of the duchy, to be taken after a fiege of two
years •, having never, during all that time, ventured to
relieve it by fighting the Polilh army. The taking of
this city was quickly followed by the reduction of all
the places of inferior note : but though Boleflaus was in
poffeflion of almoft all the fortified places in Bohemia,,
he could not believe his conquefts to be complete until
he became mailer of the duke’s perfon. This unfortu¬
nate prince had fhut himfelf up with his fon in his only
remaining fortrefs of Wiffogrod, where he imagined that
he Ihould be able to foil all the attempts of the Polilh
monarch. In this, however, he found himfelf difap-
pointed. Boleflaus invefted the place, and made his ap¬
proaches with fuch rapidity, that the garrifon, dreading
a general affault, refolved to capitulate, and perfitled in
their refolution notwithftanding all the entreaties and
promifes of the duke. The confequence was, that the
unhappy prince fell into the hands of his enemies, and
had his eyes put out by Boleflaus j after which, his Ion
Jaremir was put into perpetual and clofe confinement. r^.
From Bohemia Boleflaus marched towards Moravia 5 and Mors*
and no fooner did he arrive on the frontier than the via.
whole province fubmitted without a blow. He then re¬
fumed his intention of invading Ruflia ; for which he had
now a very fair opportunity, by reafon of a civil war
which raged with violence among the children of Duke
Volodomir. The chief competitors were Jariflaus and
Suantepolk. The latter, having been defeated by his
brother, was obliged to take refuge in Poland, where
he ufed all the arguments in his power with King Bole¬
flaus in order to induce him to revenge his caufe. Bo¬
leflaus having already an intention of invading that
country, needed but little intreaty ; and therefore mo¬
ved towards Ruflia at the head of a very numerous ar¬
my : giving out, that he bad no other defign than to
revenge the injuftice done to Suantepolk. He was met
on the banks of the river Bog by Jariflaus at the head of
an army much fuperior in number to his own ; and for
fome days the Polifli army was kept at bay by the Ruf- Gains a
fians. At laft Boleflaus, growing impatient, refolvedgieat V1C"'
to pafs the river at all events ; and therefore forming his^^j
cavalry in the beft manner for breaking the torrent, heg^,^
expofed
POL
Polnnu.
f 62
15
Places
Suantepolk
on the
throne of'
liuffia.
16
who at¬
tempts to
cut him off
with his
vvhoie ar¬
my, but is
defeated.
*7
A dreadful
battle be¬
tween the
Ruffians
and Poles.
18
Saxony
conquered
by Bole-
. flans,
expofed his own perfon to the utmofl: o£ its force. En¬
couraged by his example, the Poles advanced breaft-
high in the water to the oppofite fhore $ from whence
the enemy gave them all the annoyance in their power.
In fpite of all oppofition, however, the Poles reached
the bank, and foon gained a complete viflory, Jariflaus
being obliged to fly to Kiovia. This city was immedi¬
ately inverted •, but Jariflaus retired farther into the
country in order to recruit his army, leaving the city to
its fate. The garrifon made a brave defence, but were
at laft compelled to furrender at difcretion. A vaft trea-
fure was found in the place •, great part of which was
diftributed by Boleflaus among the foldiers.
Though the king of Poland had now become mafter
of the greateft part of Ruflia, he knew that the only
poffible means of keeping the country in fubjedlion was
by placing a natural fovereign over the inhabitants. For
this reafon he reinftated Suantepolk, though his preten-
fions were ftill difputed by Jariflaus. The latter had
formed a flying camp, and meditated a fcheme of fur-
prifing and carrying off bis rival brother ; but having
failed in this attempt, he retired to Novogorod, where
the attachment of the inhabitants enabled him to make
fome refiftance, till at laft he was attacked and defeated
by Boleflaus, which feemed to give the finifliing ftroke
to his affairs. The king of Poland, however, now met
with a more dangerous enemy in the perfidious and un¬
grateful Suantepolk than he had experienced in Jariflaus.
The Ruffian prince, imagining himfelf a dependent on
Boleflaus, formed a confpiracy againft him •, by which
he projedrted nothing lefs than the deftru&ion of him
and his whole army. The maffacre was already begun
when Boleflaus received intelligence. The urgency of
the cafe admitted of no delay : the king therefore
mounted his horfe •, and having with the utmoft hafte
affembled part of his army, fell upon the traitors with
fuch fury, that they were obliged to betake themfelves
to flight, and Boleflaus got fafe into Poland. But in
the mean time Jariflaus having affembled frefh forces,
purfued the Polifli army ; and having come Up with
them juft as one half had croffed the river Borifthenes,
attacked them with the utmoft fury. Boleflaus defend¬
ed himfelf with the greateft refolution ; but, by reafon
of his forces being divided, viftory was dubious for a
long time. At laft, when the army had wholly croffed,
the Ruffians were entirely put to the rout, and a terrible
carnage enfued. The vitlory, however, though com¬
plete, was not decifive j for which reafon Boleflaus
thought proper to continue his retreat, without attempt¬
ing to conquer a country too extenfive for him ever to
keep in fubje&ion. Still, however, his martial inclina¬
tion continued, and he led his army into Saxony. The
inhabitants of this country had hitherto refifted all at¬
tempts that had been made on their freedom, and ftill
made a violent ftruggle for liberty •, though, in fpite of
their utmoft efforts, they were obliged at laft to fubmit
to the yoke. On his withdrawing the troops from
Saxony, however, the king thought proper to leave the
people to their liberty, contenting himfelf with a rich
booty. The boundaries of his empire he now fixed at
the river Elbe ; where he erefted two iron columns,
in order to tranfmit the memory of his eonqueft to pof-
ierity.
Boleflaus, ftill unfated with vi&ory, now meditated
4
] POL
the conqueft; of Pruffia and Pomerania j the latter of Poland,
which provinces had, in the former civil wars, been dif- -v——*
membered from Poland. His arms were attended with W)tj1Ipru(-
eq.ua! fuceefs againft both : indeed the very terror of his fia ancj p0’
name feemed to anfwer all the purpofes of a formidable meiania. •
army. Thefe, however, he feems to have defigned to
be the laft of his warlike enterprifes j for he now applied
himfelf wholly to the enafling of wholefome laws for the'
benefit of his people. But in the midft of this tran¬
quillity Jariflaus affembled the moft numerous army that
had ever been heard of in Ruflia, with which he appear- 2a
ed on the frontiers of Poland. Boleftaus, though now Gains ano-
advanced in years, marched out againft his adverianes, th^r £rca^
and met them on the banks of the Borifthenes, rendered ovvi°the
famous by the vnftory he had lately gained there. The Ruffians,
Poles croffed the river by fwimming j and attacked the on which
enemy before they had time to draw up in order 0fthewl101?
battle with fuch impetuofity, that a total rout foon en-
fued. The Ruffians were feized with a panic, and Ja-
riilaus was hurried away, and almoft trampled to death
by the fugitives. Many thoufand prifoners were taken,
but Boleflaus releafed them upon very eafy conditions ;
contenting himfelf with an inconfiderable tribute, and
endeavouring to engage the affeftions of the people by
his kindnefs. This well-timed clemency produced fuch
a happy effesft, that the Ruffians voluntarily fubmitted 2y
to his jurifdi£uon, and again became bis fubje&s. Soon Boleflaus
after this he died in the year 1025, after having great-‘A*54
ly extended his dominions, and rendered his fubjedts
happy.
Boleflaus was fucceeded by his fon Mieczflaus II.
but he poffefl’ed none of the great qualities of his father,
being indolent and debauched in his behaviour. In
the very beginning of his reign, the Ruffians, Bohe¬
mians, and Moravians, revolted. However, as the fpirit
and difeipline introduced by Boleflaus ftill remained in
the Polifh army, Mieczflaus found no great difficulty
in reducing them again to obedience : after which, de¬
voting himfelf entirely to voluptuoufnefi, he was feized
with a frenzy, which put an end to his life in the year 22
1034. The bad qualities of this prince proved very a ^
detrimental to the intereft of his fon Cafimir ; though
the latter had received an excellent education, and was ^fver'out
poffeffed of many virtues. Inftead of elefting him king, with her
they chofe Rixa his mother queen-regent. She proved fon Cafimir.
tyrannical, and fo partial to h«r countrymen the Ger¬
mans, that a rebellion enfued, and fhe was forced to fty
to Germany •, where fhe obtained the proteftion of the
emperor by means of the immenfe treafures of Boleflaus,
which fhe had caufed to be tranfported thither before
her. Her bad behaviour and expulfion proved ftill more
fatal to the affairs of Cafimir than even that of his fa¬
ther. He was immediately driven out of the kingdom ;
and a civil war taking place, a great many pretenders to 23
the crown appeared at once. To the miferies occafioned Poland di-
by this were added thofe of a foreign war *, for the Bo-
hemians and Ruffians invaded the kingdom in different domeftic
places, committing the moft dreadful ravages. Ihewars^
confequence of thefe accumulated diftreffes was, that the
nobility came at laft to the refolution of recalling Cafi¬
mir, and eletting him fovereign. However, before they
took this meafure, it was thought proper to fend to
Rome to complain of the behaviour of the duke of Bo¬
hemia. The deputies were at firft received favourably :
but
Poland.
24
Cafimir re¬
called and
elected
king.
25
Poland fub
jedbed to
the tax cal¬
led Peter-
£cnce.
26
BoleflausII,
a valiant
and fuccefs-
(ill prince.
but the influence of the duke’s gold prevailing, no re-
drefs was obtained j fo that at laft, without farther ftrug-
gle, it was refolved to recal Cafimir.
The only difficulty was where to find the fugitive
prince ; for he had been gone five years from the king¬
dom, and nobody knew the place of his retreat. At
laft, by fending an embafly to his mother, it was found
out that he had retired into France, where he applied
clofely to liudy at the univerfity of Paris. Afterwards
he went to Italy $ where, for the fake of fubfiftence, he
took upon him the monaftic habit. At that time he
had returned to France, and obtained fome preferment
in the abbey of Clugni. Nothing now obftrucled the
prince’s return but the facred function with which he
was invefted. However, a difpenfation was obtained
from the pope, by which he was releafed from his ec-
clefiaftieal engagements, on condition that he and all
the kingdom ffiould become fubjedt to the capitation tax
•called Peter-pence. Some other conditions of lefs con-
fequence were added ; fuch as, that the Poles fliould
ffiave their heads and beards, and wear a white linen
robe at feftivals, like other profeffors of the Catholic
religion. Great preparations were made for the recep¬
tion of the young prince : and he was met on the
frontier by the nobility, clergy, and forces of the nation j
by whom he was conducted to Gnefna, and crowned by
the primate with more than ufual folemnity. He proved
a virtuous and pacific prince, as indeed the diftradted
iituation of the kingdom .would not admit of the carry¬
ing on of wars. However, Cafimir proved his courage
in fubduing the banditti by which the country was over¬
run ; and by marrying the princefs Mary, filler to the
duke of Ruffia, all quarrels w'ith that nation were for
the prefent extinguilhed. Upon the whole, the king¬
dom flourilhed during his reign ; and became more re-
fpeftable from the wifdom and liability of the admini-
llration than it could have been by many vitlories.
After a happy reign of 16 years, he died beloved and
regretted by all his fubjedls.
By the happy adminillration of Cafimir the kingdom
recovered fufficient ftrength to carry on fuccefsful wars
againll its foreign enemies. Bolellaus II. the fon of
Cafimir, an enterprifing and valiant prince, fucceeded to
the throne ; and foon made himfelf fo famous, that three
27 _
Entertains
three un¬
fortunate
|rinces.
28
Affords
effectual
fuecour to
lacomiv
prir ce of
Bphemia,
unfortunate princes all took refuge at his court at once,
having been expelled from their own dominions by their
rebellious fubjedls. Thefe tvere, Jacomir, fon of Brite-
flaus duke of Bohemia ; Bela, brother to the king of
Hungary *, and Zaflaus duke of Kiovia, eldelt fon to
Jariflaus duke of Ruffia, and coufin to the king of Po¬
land. Bolellaus determined to redrefs all their grievances j
but while he deliberated upon the molt proper means
for fo doing, the duke of Bohemia, dreading the confe-
quence of Jacomir’s efcape, affembled an army, and,
without any declaration of war, marched through the
Hercynian foreft, defolated Silefia, and laid walte the
frontiers of Poland with fire and fword. Bolellaus
marched againft him with a force greatly inferior ; and,
by mere dint of fuperior capacity, cooped up his adver-
fary in a wood, where he reduced him to the greateft
ditlrefs. In this extremity the duke lent propofals for
accommodation 5 but they were rejected with difdain by
ioleflans j upon which the former, ordering fires to be
kindled in bis camp, as if he defigned to continue there,
removed with the utmoft filence ia the night-time y aud
marching through narrow defiles, had advanced feveral Toland. ^
leagues before Bolellaus received advice of his retreat.
The king purfued him, but in vain •, for which reafon
he returned, after having ravaged the frontiers of Mo¬
ravia. The next year he entered Bohemia with a nu¬
merous army ; but the duke, being unwilling to en¬
counter fuch a formidable adveriary, fubmitted to luch
terms as Bolellaus thought proper to impofe. In thefe
the king of Poland llipulated for certain conditions in
favour of Jacomir, which he took care to fee punctually
executed 5 after which he determined to inarch towards
Hungary, to affilt the fugitive prince Bela.
This prince had been for fome time folicited by a and to Bela
party of difaffefted nobility to return, as his brother,
the reigning king, had alienated the hearts of his fub- un°‘ir-
je&s by his tyrannical behaviour : as foon therefore as
Bolellaus had finilhed the war in Bohemia, he was fo.-
licited by Bela to embrace fo favourable an opportunity,
and put him in poffelfion of the kingdom of Hungary*,
This the king readily complied with, as being agreeable
to his own inclinations •, and both princes entered Hun¬
gary by different routes, each at the head ol a numer¬
ous body. The king of that country, however, was
not difconcerted by fuch a formidable invalion j and be¬
ing largely aliiiled by the emperor, advanced againit his
antagonifts with a vail army ; among whom was a nu-.
merous body of Bohemians, who had come to his affilt-
ance, though in direCt violation of the treaty lubfifting
between the duke and the king of Poland. At lalt a
decifive battle was fought, in which the Germans be¬
haved with the greateil valour, but were entirely de¬
feated through the treachery of the Hungarians, who in
the heat of the battle deferted and went over to Bela.
Almolt all the foreign auxiliaries were killed on the
fpot *, the king himfelf was feized, and treated with
fuch infolence by his perfidious fubje&s, that he died in
a ffiort time of a broken heart ;*fo that Bela was placed
on the throne without further oppofition, except from a
revolt of the peafants, which was foon quelled by the
Polifti army. -0
Bolellaus, having fucceeded fo happily in thefe twoHe projedjs
enterprifes, began to look upon himfelf as invincible j ^ fcon^
and, inllead of dofigning only to affitl Zaflaus, as he.^^0
had firlt intended, now proje&ed no lels than the fub-
jeftion of the whole country. He had indeed a claim N
to the fovereignty by virtue of his defeent from Mary,
queen of Poland, filter to Jariflaus ; and this he endea¬
voured to ffrengthen by marrying a Ruffian princefs-
himtelf. Having therefore affembled a very numerous
and well-difciplined army, he entered the duchy of
Kiovia, where he was oppofed by Wiffeflaus, who had
ufurped the fovereignty, with a vail multitude of forces. 5r
Boleflaus, however, continued to advance ; and the Meets witfi’
Ruffian prince being intimidated by the number andfurpnfmg
good order of his enemies, deferted his own troops, andfuccefs*
fled away privately with a flender retinue ; upon which
his force difperfed themfelves for want of a leader. The
inhabitants of the city of Kiovia now called to their
affiilance Suantoflaus and Wfzevold two brothers of
Wiffeflaus j but thefe princes ailing the part of media¬
tors, procured pardon for the inhabitants from Zaflaus
their natural fovereign. With the fame facility the two
princes recovered all the other dominions belonging to
Zaflaus *, only one city venturing to Hand a fiege, and
that was foon reduced. . But in the mean time the king
of. i
O L [<4 3 POL
a revolt enfued, and tlie two Tons with whom he intended to take equal vengeance on the
Poland, of Hungary dying, 
J » ” 1 * of Bela were on the point of being deprived of their
paternal dominions. This Boleflaus no fooner heard of
than he marched dire&ly into Hungary ; where by the
terror of his name only, he re-eftablilhed tranquillity,
and confirmed the princes in the enjoyment of their
kingdom. In the time that this was doing, Zaflaus
■was again driven from his territories, all the conquefts
that had been formerly made were loft, and Suantoflaus
and Wfzevold more powerful than ever. The king’s
vigour, however, foon difconcerted all their meafures.
He ravaged all thofe territories which compofed the
palatinates of Lufac and Chelm, reduced the ftrong city
of Wolyn, and tranfported the booty to Poland. T-he
campaign was finiftied by a battle with Wfzevold •, which
proved fo bloody, that though Boleflaus was victorious,
his army was weakened in fuch a manner that he could
not purfue his conquefts. In the winter he made nu¬
merous levies j and returning in the fpring to Kiovia,
reduced it, after feveral defperate attacks, by famine.
On this oceafion, inftead of treating the inhabitants
with cruelty, he commended their valour, and ftridtly
prohibited his troops from pillaging or infulting them^
diftributing provifions among them with the utmoft li-
berality.
deduces This clemency procured the higheft honour to the
Kiovia, bulking of Poland *, but his ftay here produced a moft ter-
    rible difafter. Kiovia was the moft diffolute, as well as
the richeft city, in the north j the king and all his fol- <
diers gave themfelves up to the pleafures of the place.
Boleflaus himfelf affe&ed all the imperious ftate of an
eaftern monarch, and contracted an inclination for the
grofleft debaucheries. The confequence had almoft
proved fatal to Poland. The Hungarian and Ruflian
wars had continued for feven years, during all which
time the king had never been at home excepting once
for the (hort fpace of three months. In the mean time
the Polifti women, exafperated at hearing that their
hulbands had negleCted them and conneCted themfelves
with the women of Kiovia, raifed their flaves to the
beds of their maflers •, and in (hort the whole fex
confpired in one general fcheme of proftitution, in or¬
der to be revenged of the infidelity of their hufbands,
excepting one (ingle woman, namely, Margaret, the
wife of Count Nicholas of Demboifin, who preferved her
fidelity in fpite of all felicitation. Advice of this ftrange
revolution was foon received at Kiovia, where it excited
terrible commotions. The foldiers blamed the king for
their di(honour; forgetting how much they had to ae-
cufe their own conduft in giving their wives fuch ex¬
treme provocation. Thp effea of thefe difeontents was
a general defertion, and Boleflaus faw hirofelf fuddenly
left almoft alone in the heart of Rufliaj the foldiers ha¬
ving unanimoufly refolved to return home to take ven-
geance of their wives and their gallants.
A dreadful kind of war now enfued. The women
knew that thev were to expeCt no mercy from their
enraged hufbands, and therefore perfuaded their lovers
to take arms in their defence. They themfllves fought
by the fide of their gallants with the utmoft fury; and
fought out their huibands in the heat of battle, m or-
deAo fecure themfelves from all danger of pumftunent
by their death. Ttiey were, however, on the point of
being fubdued, when BolefW arrived with the few re¬
maining Poles, but aflifted by a vaft army of Ruffians,
Poland;
enervates
himfelf
there.
. 33
Univerlal
defection
of the Po-
lifli wo¬
men.
34
A terrible
civil war
enfues.
women, their gallants, and his own foldiers whu had *
deferted him. This produced a carnage more dieacxul
than ever. The foldiers united with their former wives
and their gallants againtt the common enemy, and
fought againft Boleflaus and his Ruffians with the fury
of lions. At laft, however, the fortune of the king
prevailed , the rebels were totally fubdued, and the few
who efcaped the fword were tortured to death, or died
in prifon. 35
To add to the calamities of this unhappy kingdom, Religious
the fchifms which for fome time had prevailed in theC0R en lor"'
church of Rome found their way alfo into Poland ; and
the animofity of parties became aggravated in propor¬
tion to the frivoloufnefs of their differences. By per-
verfe accident the matter came at laft to be a contention
for wealth and power between the king and clergy. ^6
This foon gave1 occafion to bloodfhed j and the bifhop Boleflaus
of Cracow was maffacred in the cathedral while he was depofed by
performing the duties of his office. This and fome other ^ ’
enormous crimes in a ftiort time brought on the moft w})0it. king,
fignal vengeance of the clergy. Gregory VII. the pope dom put uu-
at that time, thundered out the moft dreadful anathe- der in*
mas againft the king, releafed his.fubjefts from their*6™1"'
allegiance, deprived him of the titles of fovereignty,
and laid the kingdom under a general interdict, which
the archbifhop of Gnefna faw pun&ually enforced. To
this terrible fentence Boleflaus in vain oppofed his au¬
thority, and recalled the fpirit which had formerly ren- .
dered him fo formidable to the neighbouring ftates. The
minds of the people were blinded by fuperftition, fo that
they deemed it a lefs heinous crime to rife in rebellion
againft their fovereign than to oppofe the tyranny of the
holy fee. Confpiracies were daily formed againft the per-
fon and government of Boleflaus. The whole kingdom
became a feene of confufion, fo that the king could no
longer continue with fafety in his own dominions. He
fled5therefore with his fon Mieczflaus, and took refuge
in Hungary; but here alfo the holy vengeance of the
clergv purfued him, nor did they ceafe perfecuting Jiim ^ -
till he was brought to a miferable end. Authors differ The king’s,
widely with refpeft to the manner of his death. Some extreme
fay that he was murdered by the clergy as he was hunt-
ing j others, that he killed himfelf in a fit of dt fpair j
and one author tells us, that he wandered about in the
woods of Hungary, lived like a favage upon wild beads,
and was at laft killed and devoured by dogs. The great-
eft number, however, tell us, that being driven from place
to place by the perfecutions of the clergy, he was at laft
obliged to become a cook in a monaftery at Carinthia, in
which mean occupation he ended his days. . 38
The deftruttion of Boleflaus was not fufficient to al- The inter,
lay the papal refentment. It extended to the whole king- di<* re®£
dom' of Poland. Mieczflaus, the fon of Boleflaiis, was ^ * ce0f
not fuffered to afeend the throne-, and the kingdom grievous
continued under the moft fevere interdid, which could tnipofitioU?.
be removed only by the force of gold, and the moft ab-
jeft conceffions. Befides the tax called Peter-fjence, new
impofitions were added of the moft oppreffive nature }
till at length the pontiff, having fatiated his avarice,
and impoverifhed the country, eonfented that the bro¬
ther of the deceafed monarch fhwuld be raifed to the
fovereignty, but only with the title of duke. ’I.his
prince, named Ulacftjflaus, being of a meek difpofirion,
with little ambition, thought it his duty to acquiefce
implicitly
POL
[
39
tliadiflaus
becomes
fovereign,
but is al¬
lowed on-
Poland. implicitly in the will of the pope ; and therefore accept¬
ed the terms offered, fending at the fame time an embaf-
fy to Rome, earneftly intreating the removal of the in¬
terdict. The requeft was granted ; but all his endea¬
vours to recover the regal dignity proved fruitlefs, the
pope having, in conjunction with the emperor of Ger-
l” the title many> conferred that honour on the duke of Bohemia,
of duke." This was extremely mortifying to Uladiflaus, but it was
abforbed in confiderations of the utmoft confequence to
himfelf and his dominions. Ruffia took the opportunity
of the late civil difturbances to throw off the yoke j and
this revolt drewT after it the revolt of Pruflia, Pomerania,
and other provinces. The fmaller provinces, however,
were foon reduced ; but the duke had no fooner returned
to Poland, than thev again rebelled, and hid their fami¬
lies in impenetrable forefts. Uladiflaus marched againft
them with a confiderable army •, but was entirely defeat¬
ed, and obliged to return back with difgrace. Next
year, however, he had better fortune ; and, having led
againft them a. more numerous army than before, they
were content to fubmit and deliver up the ringleaders of
the revolt to be punifhed as the duke thought proper.
No fooner were the Pomeranian* reduced, than civil
diffenfions took place. Sbigneus, the fon of Uladiflaus
by a concubine, was placed at the head of an army by
the difcontented nobility, in order to fubvert his father’s
government, and difpute the title of Boleflaus, the legi¬
timate fon of Uladiflaus, to the fucceflion. The war was
terminated by the defeat and captivity of Sbigneus; who
was at firft confined, but afterwards releafed on condition
that he fhould join his father in puniftiing the palatine of
Cracow. But before this could be done, the palatine
found means to effefl a reconciliation with the duke j
with which the young princes being difpleafed, a war
took place between them and their father. The end of
all was, that the palatine of Cracow was banifhed, and
the princes fubmitted ; after which, Uladiflaus, having
chaftifed the Pruftians and Pomeranians who had again
revolted, died in the year 1103, the 59th of his age.
Boleflaas Uladiflaus was fuceeeded by his fon Boleflaus III.
III. divides who divided his dominions equally betwixt his brother
BiSns°be* ^’Sneus and himfelf. The former beingdiffatisfied with
twixt Sbig- ftiare, raifed cabals againft; his brother. A civil war
neus his was f°r fome time prevented by the good offices of the
illegitimate primate : but at lafl Sbigneus, having privately ftirred
L.ViOUf ^ UP t^ie Ghermans, Saxons, and Moravians, againft his
brother, made fuch formidable preparations as threatened
the conqueft of all Poland. Boleflaus, being unprovided
with forces to oppofe fuch a formidable power, had re-
courfe to the Ruffians and Hungarians ; who readily em¬
braced his caufe, in expeftation of turning it to their own
advantage. The event was, that Sbigneus was entirely
defeated ; and might eafily have been obliged to furren-
Generofity der himfelf at difcretion, had not Boleflaus generoufly
of Boleflaus, left him in quiet poffeffion of the duchy of Mazovia, in
tude^f™11" orc^er to himfelf fuitably to the dignity of his
SWgneus, birth. This kindnefs the ungrateful Sbigneus repaid by
entering into another confpiracy ; but the plot being dif-
covered, he was feized, banifhed, and declared a traitor
if ever he fet foot again in Poland. Even this feverity
did not produce the defired effeft : Sbigneus perfuaded
the Pomeranians to arm in his behalf; but he was de¬
feated, taken p ifoner, and again banifhed. Almoft all
the nobility folicited the king to put filch an ungrateful
traitor to death ; however, that generous prince could
Vol. XVII. Part I.
himfelf.
4i
A civil
war.
4a
Poland.
43
■ who is at
65 ] P O L
not think of polluting his hands with the death of his
brother, notwithftanding all he had yet done. Nay, he
even took him back to Poland, and appointed him a
maintenance fuitable to his rank : but he foon had rea-
fon to repent of his kindnefs ; for his unnatural brother
m a fhort time began to raife frefh difturbances, in con-,
fequence of which he foon met with the death which he laft put to
deferved. death.
Boleflaus was fcarcely freed from the intrigues of his
brother, when he found himfelf in greater danger than ^
ever from the ambition of the emperor Henry IV. The War with
emperor had attacked the king of Hungary, with whom the empe-
Boleflaus was in clofe alliance, and from whom he had ^ ^enr-v
received affiftance when in great diltrefs himfelf. The1
king of Poland determined to affift his friend ; and there¬
fore made a powerful diverfion in Bohemia, where he re¬
peatedly defeated the Imperialifts : upon which, the em¬
peror colleffting all his forces, ravaged Silefia, and even
entered Poland, where he laid fiege to the ftrong town
of Lubufz ; but was at laft obliged to abandon the en-
terprife, after having fuftained much lofs. However,
Henry was not difcouraged, but penetrated ftill farther
into Poland, and was laying wafte all before him, when
the fuperior fkill of Boleflaus compelled him to retire,
after having almoft deftroyed his army with fatigue and
famine, without once coming to a&ion. Enraged at this
difappointment, Henry laid fiege to Glogaw, in hopes
of drawing the Poles to an engagement before he Ihould
be obliged to evacuate the country. The fortifications
of the place were weak ; but the fpirit of the inhabitants
fupplied their deficiencies, and they gave the Imperialifts
a moft unexpected and vigorous reception. At laft, how¬
ever, they were on the point of furrendering to fuperior
force; and actually agreed to give up the place, provi¬
ded they did not receive any fuccours during that time,
Boleflaus determined, however, not to let fuch a brave
garrifon fall a facrifice to their loyalty ; and therefore
prevailed on the befieged to break the capitulation ra¬
ther than furrender when they were on the point of be¬
ing delivered. All this was tranfaCIed with the utmofl:
fecrecy ; fo that the emperor advanced, without thoughts
of meeting with any refiftance, to take poffeffion of the
city ; but, being received by a furious difcharge of ar¬
rows and javelins, he was fo incenfed, that he refolved
to ftorm the place, and give no quarter. On the ap¬
proach of the army, the Imperialifts were aftoniftied to
fee not only the breaches filled up, but new walls, fe-
cured by a wet ditch, reared behind the old, and ereft-
ed during the fufpenfion of hoftilities by the induftry of
the befieged. The attack, however, went on ; but the 4-
inhabitants, animated by defpair, defended themfelves Who is
with incredible valour, and at lafl; obliged the Imperia-worfteci
lifts to break up the fiege with precipitation. Next day
Boleflaus arrived, and purfued the emperor with fuch
vigour, that he obliged him to fly with difgrace into his
own country. This foon brought on a peace, which was
confirmed by a marriage between Boleflaus and the em¬
peror’s After.
Hitherto the glory of Boleflaus had equalled, or even Boleflaus
eclipfed, that of his namefake and predeceffor Boleflaus !jrous!l5;.
the Great; but about the year 1135 he was brought
into difficulties and difgrace by his own credulity. He his own "
was impofed upon by an artful ftory patched up by a credulity
certain Hungarian ; who infinuated himfelf fo far intoaiul g^*-
his affe&ions, that he gave him the government of Wi-r<ifity'
I flica.
Poland.
47 .
Poland di¬
vided a-
mong the
children of
Boleflaus.
48
A civil
war.
49
Ulad-flaus
drives out
all the red
POL [66
fliea, a ftrong town on the river Nida. But the trai¬
tor gave up the place to the Ruffians, who pillaged and
burnt it ) carrying the inhabitants at the fame tune
into flavery. Boleflaus was incenfed, and entered im¬
mediately upon a war with Ruffia, by which means he
only heaped one calamity upon another. He received
a deputation from the inhabitants of Halitz, to implore
his affiftance in favour of a young prince, who had been
banifhed into Poland. Boleflaus marched to their re¬
lief with a choice body of troops j but as he was pie¬
paring to enter the town, he was attacked by the whole
Ruffian army, and, after a mofl: violent conflict, entirely
defeated. By this difgrace the duke wras fo much, af-
fliaed, that he died in a ftiort time, after having reign¬
ed 36 years. .
Boleflaus, by his will, left his dominions equally di¬
vided among his four fons. Uladiflaus,. the eldeft, had
the provinces of Cracow, Sirad, Lencici, Silefla, and
Pomerania. Boleflaus, the fecund fon, had lor his (hare
the palatinates of Culm and Cujavia, with the duchy of
Mazovia. The palatinates of Kalefzh and Pofnama
fell to Mieczflaus the third fon ; and1 to Henry, the
fourth fon, were affigned thofe of Lublin, and Sando-
mir. Cafimir the youngeft child, then an infant in the
cradle, was entirely forgotten, and no provifion made tor
him. There have been but very few inftanees where
dominions were thus divided, that the princes remain¬
ed fatisfied with their refpedive {hares ; neither did the
fons of Boleflaus long continue at peace with one ano¬
ther. By the will of the late duke, all the brothers
were obliged to own the fupremacy of Uladiflaus, who
was declared duke of all Poland : they were reftrained
from forming alliances, declaring war, or concluding
peace, without his approbation : they were obliged to
take the field with a certain number of troops, whenever
the duke required it 5 and they were forbid to meddle
with the guardianihip of the infant prince Cafimir, his
education being left entirely to the fovereign. The
harmony of the princes was firft diflurbed by the am-
biiion of Chriftina, the wife of Uladiflaus, who formed
a fcheme to get pofleffion of all Poland, and deniive
the younger children of the benefit of their fat aer s
will. Having obtained her hufband’s concurrence, (he
affembled the ftates of Poland, and made a long fpeech,
ihowing the dangers which might arife from a parti¬
tion of the ducal dominions among fo many •, and con¬
cluded with attempting to (how the neceffity of revoking
the ratification of the late duke’s will, in order to en-
fure the obedience of the princes and the tranquillity
of the republic. Many of the nobility expreffed their
refentment againft this fpeech, and fully refuted eveiy
article in it ■, but they were all afterwards gained over,
or intimidated by Uladiflaus ; fo that none appeared to
take the part of the young princes except a noble Dane,
who loft his life for fo doing.
Uladiftaus now having got the nobility on his hde,
firft drove Boleflaus out of his territories; next, he
marched againft Henry, and difpoffeffed him alfo, for¬
cing both to take refuge with Mieczflaus in Pofnama,
where all the three brothers were befieged. Several of
the nobility interpofed, and ufed all their influence to
eflfefi a reconciliation, hut in vain ; for Uladiflaus was
as inexorable as if he had received an injury ; and there¬
fore infilled that the befieged princes ffiould furrender
at diferetiorx, and fubmit to the will of the conqueror.
Tolarfl.
] POL
Thus driven to defpair, the brothers fallied out, and   a
attacked the duke’s army with fuch impetuofity, that J
they obtained a complete victory, and took all his bag¬
gage and valuable effetts. The brothers improved their
vidlory, and laid liege to Cracow. 1 he Ruffians, who
had affifted Uladiflaus at firtt, now entirely abandoned
him, and evacuated Poland, which obliged him to ihut
himfelf up in Cracow ; but, finding the inhabitants little
difpofed to Hand a fiege, he retired into Germany in or¬
der to folicit affiftance from his wire’s friends. But here
he found himfelf miflaken, and that thefe friends were
attached to him only in bis prolperity ; while in the
mean time the city of Cracow furrendered, the unfor- ^
tunate Uladiflaus was formally depoled, and his brother and is de*.
Boleflaus railed to the fupreme authority. . P-ofed*
The new duke began his adminittration with an act
of generofity to his brother Uladiflaus, to whom he gave
the duchy of Silefia, which thus was leparated trom
Poland, and has never fince been re-annexed to it. 1 his
had no other effeft upon Uladiflaus than the putting
him in a condition to raife frelh difturbances ; tor he
now found means to perfuade the emperor C.nrade to
invade Poland : but Boleflaus fo baraffed and fatigued
his army by perpetual marches, ambufeades, and Ikir-
milhes, that he was obliged in a Ihort time to return to
his own country ; and for feme years Poland enjoyed
profound tranquillity.
During this interval Henry entered on a crulade ;
and, though he loft almoft all his army in that enthu-
fiaftic undertaking, he is celebrated by the fuperftitious
writers of that age, as the bulwark of the church, and
one of the greateft Chriftian heroes : however, in all
probability, the reafon of this extraordinary fame is,
that he made large donations to the knights of St John ^
of Jerufalt m. Soon after tne return ot Henry, Po* poi^d jn.
land was invaded by the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa, vaded by
who was perfuaded to this by the felicitations of Ula-the erope-
diflaus and his wife Chriftina. The number of the I m.™r^iDa-
perialifts was fo great, that Boleflaus and his brothers
did not think proper to oppofe them in the field ; they
contented themfelves with cutting oft the convoys, pla¬
cing ambufeades, haraffing them on their march, and
keeping them in perpetual alarms by falfe attacks and
Ikir mi flies. With this view the three brothers divided
their forces, defolated the country before the enemy,
and burnt all the towns and cities which were in no
condition to Hand a fiege. Thus the emperor advan¬
cing into the heart of a defolated country where he
could not fubfift, was at laft reduced to fuch a fituation
that he could neither go forward nor retreat, and was
obliged to folicit a conference with Boleflaus. 1 he lat-who is ofc.
ter was too prudent to'irritate him by an unfeafonable Hged to
haughtinefs, and therefore went to the German caiiip"
attended only by his brothers and a flight guard. 1 bis
inftanee of confidence was fo agreeable to.the emperor,
that a treaty was feon entered upon, which was con¬
firmed by a marriage between Adelaide, niece to the
emperor, and Mieczflaus duke of Pofnama.
Boleflaus having thus happily efcaped from fo great
a danger, took it'into his head to attempt the conqueft
of Pruffia, for no other reafon but becaufe the inhabi¬
tants were heathens. Having unexpeftedly invaded the
country with a very numerous army, he Succeeded m
his enferprife; great numbers of infidels were converted^
and many churches fet up : but no fooner was Boleflau3
gone.
POL
t 67 1
POL
Poland.
S3
A civil
■war.
54
Cafimir, an
excellent
prince,
gone, tlian the inhabitants returned to their old religion.
Upon this Boleflaus again came againft them with a
formidable power •, but being betrayed by fome Pruf-
fians whom he had taken into his fervice and raifed to
polls of honour, his army was led into defiles and almoft
entirely cut off, Duke Henry was killed, and Boleflaus
and Mieczflaus efcaped with great difficulty.
This misfortune was quickly followed by another ;
for now the children of Uladiflaus laid claim to all the
Poliffi dominions which had been poffeffed by their fa¬
ther, molt-of which had been bellowed upon young Ca¬
fimir. They were fupported in their pretenfions by a
great number of difcontented Poles, and a confiderable
body of German auxiliaries. Boleflaus, finding him-
felf unable to withftand his enemies by force, had re-
courfe to negotiation, by which means he gained time
to recruit his army and repair his Ioffes. An affembly
of the Hates was held, before which the duke fo fully
refuted the claims of the children of Uladiflaus, that it
was almult unanimoufly voted that they had kindled an
unjuft war-, and Intake away every pretence for renew--
ing the civil difcords of Poland, they were a fecond time
invefled with the duchy of Silefia, which for the prefent
put an end to all difputes. After this, Boleflaus appli¬
ed himfelf to promote, by all means, the happinefs of his
fubje&s, till his death, which happened in the year x x 74.
On the death of Boleflaus, the ftates raifed his bro¬
ther Mieczflaus to the ducal throne, on account of the
great opinion they had of him. But the moment that
Mieczflaus cealed to be a fubjefl, he became a tyrant,
and a flave to almoft every kind of vice 5 the confe-
quence of which was, that in a very flxort time he was
depofed, and his brother Cafimir elefted in his ftead.
Cafimir was a prince of the greatefl juftice and bene¬
volence, infomuch that he fcrupled to accept of the ho¬
nour which the ftates had conferred upon him, left it
fhould be a trefpafs againtl the laws of equity. How-
ever, this fcruple being foon got over, he let himfelf a-
bout fecuring peace and tranquillity in all parts of his
dominions. He redreffed all grievances, fuppreffed ex¬
orbitant impofts, and affembled a general diet, in which
it was propofed to refcue the peafants from the tyranny
of the nobility an affair of fuch confequence, that the
duke could not enter upon it by his own authority, even
though fupported by the clergy. Yet it proved lefs
difficult than had been imagined, to perfuade the nobi¬
lity to relinquiffi certain privileges extremely detrimen¬
tal to natural/ight. They wmre influenced by the ex¬
ample of their virtuous fovereign, and immediately
granted all that he required ; and to fecure this decla¬
ration in favour of the peafants, the archbiffiop of Gnef-
na thundered out anathemas againft thofe who ffiould
endeavour to regain the unjuft privileges which they had
now renounced ; and to give ftill greater weight to this
decifion, the a£ts of the diet were tranfmitted to Rome,
and were confirmed by the pope.
But though the nobility in general confented to have
their power fomewhat retrenched, it proved matter of
difcontent to fome, who for this reafon immediately be¬
came the partifans of the depofed Mieczflaus. This un¬
fortunate prince was now reduced to fuch indigence,
that he wrote an account of his filuation to his brother
Cafimir which fo much affected him, that in an af-
'fembly cf the diet he propofed to refign the fovereignty
in favour of his brother. To this the Hates replied in
Poland.
the moft peremptory manner: they defired him never
more to mention the fubjedt to them, left they ftxould
be under the neceffity of depofing him and excluding
his brother, who, they were determined, ftiould never
more have the dominion of Poland. Cafimir, however,
was fo much concerned at the account of his brother’s
misfortunes, that he tried every method to relieve him,
and even connived at the arts pra6tifed by fome dilcon-
tented noblemen to reftore him. By a very Angular
generofity, he facilitated the reduction of Gnefna and
Lower Poland, where Mieczflaus might have lived in
peace and fplendour, had not his heart been to corrupt¬
ed that it could not.be fubdued by kindnefs. The con¬
fequence was, that he ufed all his art to wreft from his
brother the whole of his dominions, and actually con¬
quered the provinces of Mazovia and Cujavia 5 but of
thefe he was foon difpoffeffed, and only fome places in
Lower Poland were left him. Alter this he made an¬
other attempt, on occafion ot a report that Cafimir had
been poifoned in an expedition into Ruflia. He lur-
prifed the city of Cracow ; but the citadel refufed to
furrender, and his hopes were entirely blafted by the re¬
turn of Cafimir himfelf-, who, with an unparalleled ge¬
nerofity and magnanimity, alkeji peace of his brother
whom he had vanquiihed and had in a manner at his ^
mercy.—The laft adion of this amiable prince was the conquers
conqueft of Ruflia, which he effe&ed rather by the re- K-uflia.
putation of his wifdom and generofity than by the force
of his arms. Thofe barbarians voluntarily fubmitted to
a prince fo famed for his benevolence, juftice, and hu¬
manity. Soon after his return, he died at Cracow, la¬
mented as the beft prince in every refpeft who had ever
filled the throne of Poland.
Cafimir left one fon, named Lec/ius, an infant; and
the ftates, dreading the confequences of a long mino¬
rity, hefitated at appointing him fovereign, coniidering
how many competitors he mull necefiarily have, and
how dubious it muft be whether he might be fit for the
fovereignty after he had obtained it. At laft, however, Civil war
Lechus was nominated, chiefly through the intereft he between
had obtained on account of the reputation of his father’s ^
virtues. The confequence of his nomination was pre- Miecallauit
cifely what might have been expected. Mieczflaus
formed an alliance againft him with the dukes of Op-
pelen, Pomerania, and Breflau; and having raifed all
the men in Lower Poland fit to bear arms, took the
road to Cracow with a very numerous army. A bloody
battle was fought on the banks of the river Mozgarva;
in which both tides were fo much weakened, that they
were unable to keep the field, and conlequently were
forced to retire for fome time in order to repair their
forces. Mieczflaus was firft ready for a£Hon, and there¬
fore had the advantage : however, he thought proper to
employ artifice rather than open force ; and therefore
having attempted in vain to corrupt the guardians of
Lechus, he entered into a treaty with the duchefs-dow-
ager his mother. To her he reprefcnted in the ftiong-
eft manner the miferies which would enfue from her re-
fufal of the conditions he propofed. He ftipulated to
adopt Lechus and Conrade, her funs, for his own j to
furrender the province of Cujavia for their prefent fup-
port ; and to declare them heirs to all his dominions.
The principal nobility oppofed this accommodation, but ^
it was accepted by the duchefs in fpite of all their re- Mieczflausr
monftrances j and Mieczflaus was once more put in pof- reftoreL
I 2 feffios*
Poland.
58
Poland ra¬
vaged by
the Tar¬
tars.
POL [ 68 ] POL
feffion of the capital, after having taken a folemn oath
to execute punctually every article of the treaty.
It is not to be fuppofed that a prince of fuch a per¬
fidious difpofition as Mieczflaus would pay much regard
to the obligations of a fimple contract. It was a ma¬
xim with him, that a fovereign is no longer obliged to
keep his oath than while it is neither fafe nor beneficial
to break it. Having therefore got all the power into
his hands, he behaved in the very fame manner as if no
treaty with the duchefs had fubfifted. The duchefs,
perceiving herfelf duped, formed a ftrong party, and
excited a general infurreftion. The rebellion could not
be withftood : Mieczflaus was driven out of Cracow,
and on the point of being reduced to his former circum-
flances, when he found means to produce a variance be¬
tween the duchefs and palatine of Cracow ; and thus
once more turned the fcale in his favour. The forces
of Mieczflaus now became fuperior, and he, in confe-
quence, regained poffeflion of Cracow, but did not long
enjoy his profperity, falling a viCtim to his intempe¬
rance 5 fo that Lechus was reftored to the fovereignty
in the year 1206.
The government of Lechus was the molt unfortunate
of any of the fovereigns of Poland. In his time the
Tartars made an irruption, and committed everywhere
the moft cruel ravages. At laft they came to an en¬
gagement with the Poles, affifted by the Ruflians 5 and
after an obftinate and dreadful conflidl, obtained a com¬
plete victory. This incurfion, however, terminated as
precipitately as it commenced j for without any appa¬
rent reafon they retired, juft as the whole kingdom was
ready to fubmit ) but the devaftations they had com¬
mitted produced a famine, which was foon followed by
a plague that depopulated one of the rcoft populous
countries of the north. In this unhappy fituation of
affairs, death ended the misfortunes of Lechus, who was
murdered by his own fubjefls as he was bathing. A
civil war took place after his death ; and the hiftory
for fome time is fo confufed, that it is difficult to fay
with certainty who was his fucceffor. During this un¬
fortunate ft ate of the country, the Tartars made a fe-
cond irruption, laid all defolate before them, and were
advancing to the capital, when they were attacked and
defeated with great flaughter by the palatine of Cra¬
cow with only a handful of men. The power of the
enemy, however, was not broken by this vi&ory ; for,
next year, the Tartars returned, and committed fuch
barbarities as can fcaree be imagined. Whole provinces
were defeated, and every one of the inhabitants maf-
facred. They were returning, laden with fpoil, when
the palatine fell upon them a fecond time, but not with
the fame fuccefs as before : for, after an obftinate en¬
gagement^ he was defeated, and thus all Poland was
laid open to the ravages of the barbarians ; the nobility
fled into Hungary, and the peafants fought an afylum
among rocks and impenetrable forefts. Cracow, being
left entirely defencelefs, was foon taken, pillaged, and
burnt; after which the barbarians, penetrating into Si-
lefia and Moravia, defolated thefe countries, deftroying
Breflau and other cities. Nor did Hungary efcape the
fury of their barbarity : the king gave battle to the
Tartars, but was defeated with vaft flaughter, and had
the mortification to fee his capital laid in allies, and
above 100,000 of his fubje&s perifli by fire and fword.
The arms of the Tartars were invincible j nothing
l
could withftand the prodigious number of forces which Poland,
they brought into the field, and the fury with which ~ v
they fought. They fixed their head-quarters on the
frontiers of Hungary j and fpread their devaftations on
every fide with a celerity and fuccefs that threatened
the deftrudlion of the whole empire, as well as of the
neighbouring kingdoms.
In this dreadful fituation was Poland when Boltflaus,
furnamed the Chajle, was raifed to the fovereignty j
but this, fo far from putting an end to the troubles,
only fuperadded a civil war to the reft of the calamities.
Boleflaus was oppofed by his uncle Conrade the bro¬
ther of Lechus, who was provoked at becoming the
fubjeft of his own nephew. Having affembled a power¬
ful army, he gained poffeffion of Cracow 5 affumed the
title of duke of Poland i and might pofllbly have kept
poffeffion of the fovereignty, had not his avarice and
pride equally offended the nobility and peafants. In
confequence of their difcontents, they unanimoufly in¬
vited Boleflaus, who had fled into Hungary, to come
and head the infurre&ion which now took place in every
quarter. On his arrival, he was joyfully received into^. f
the capital : but Conrade ftill headed a powerful party } th^Teuto'.
and it is reported that on this occafion the knights ofn;corcier
the Teutonic order were firft called into Poland, to firft called
difpute the pretenfions of Boleflaus. All the endea-int° Po*
vours of Conrade, however, proved unfuccefsful : heian
was defeated in two pitched battles, and forced to live
in a private fituation 5 though he never ceafed to ha-
rafs his nephew, and make frefti attempts to recover the
crown. However, of the reign of Boleflaus we have
little account, except that he made a vow of perpetual
continency, and impofed the fame on his wife 5 that he
founded near 40 monafteries ; and that he died after a
long reign in 1279, a^ter having adopted Lechus duke
of Cujavia, and procured a confirmation of his choice
by the free eleftion of the people.
The reign of this laft prince was one continued ^cene p0]an^°
of foreign and domeftic trouble. On his firft acceffionoverrun by
he was attacked by the united forces of Ruffia and Li- the P.uf-
thuania aflifted by the Tartars : whom, however, he hadfians, Tar-
the good fortune to defeat in a pitched battle. By this
victory the enemy were obliged to quit the kingdom : ^
but Leehus was fo much weakened, that civil diffen-
fions took place immediately after. Thefe increafed to
fuch a degree, that Lechus was obliged to fly to Hun¬
gary, the common refource of diftreffed Poliflr princes.
The inhabitants of Cracow alone remained firm in their
duty ; and thefe brave citizens flood all the fatigue and
danger of a tedious fiege, till they were, at laft relieved
by Lechus at the head of a Hungarian army, who de¬
feated the rebels, and reftored to his kingdom a legiti¬
mate government. He had fcarce reafeended the throne
when the united forces of the Ruffians, Tartars, and
Lithuanians, made a fecond irruption into Poland, and
defolated the country with the moft lavage barbarity.
Their forces were now rendered more terrible than ever
by their having along with them a vaft number of large
dogs trained to the art of war. Lechus, however, with
an army much inferior, obtained a complete vidlory 5
the Poles being animated by defpair, as perceiving, that,
if they were conquered, they muft alfo be devoured.
Soon after this, Lechus died with the reputation of a
warlike, wife, but unfortunate prince. As he died
without iffue, his crown was contefted, a civil v.Tar again
enfued 5.
POL
[ 69 ]
POL
6l
War with
the Teuto
Poland, enfued j and the affairs of the ftate continued in a very
declining way till the year 1296, when Premiflaus, the
duke at that time, refumed the title of king. However,
they did not revive in any confiderable degree till the
year 1305, when Uladiflaus Lofticus, who had feized
the throne in 1300, and afterwards been driven out, was
again reftored to it. The firft tranfatffion of his reign
was a war with the Teutonic knights, who had ufurped
*ie kmghts. greater part of Pomerania during the late difturb-
ances. They had been fettled in the territory of Culm
by Conrade duke of Mazovia •, but foon extended their
dominion over the neighbouring provinces, and had
even got poffeflion of the city of Dantzic, where they
maffacred a number of Pomeranian gentlemen in cold
blood ; which fo much terrified the neighbouring towns,
that they fubmitted without a ftroke. The knights
were commanded by the Pope himfelf to renounce
their conquefts ; but they fet at nought all his thunders,
and even fuffered themfelves to be excommunicated
rather than part with them. As foon as this happened,
the king marched into the territories of the marquis of
Brandenburg, becaufe he had pretended to fell a right
to the Teutonic knights to thofe countries, when he had
none to them himfelf. Uladiflaus next entered the ter¬
ritory of Culm, where he laid every thing wafte with
fire and fword 5 and, being oppofed by the joint forces
of the marquis, the knights, and the duke of Mazovia,
he obtained a complete victory after a defperate and
bloody engagement. Without purfuing the blow, lie
returned to Poland, recruited his army, and being rein¬
forced by a body of auxiliaries from Hungary and Li¬
thuania, he difperfed the enemy’s forces, and ravaged a
fecond time all the dominions of the Teutonic order.
Had he improved this advantage, he might eafily have
exterminated the whole order, or at leaf! reduced them
fo low, that they could never have occafioned any more
diflurbances in the ftate ; but he fuffered himfelf to be
foothed and cajoled by the promifes which they made
without any defign of keeping them, and concluded a
treaty under the mediation of the kings of Hungary
and Bohemia. In a few months he was convinced of
the perfidy of the knights; for they not only refufed to
evacuate Pomerania as had been ftipulated in the treaty,
but endeavoured to extend their ufurpations, for which
purpofe they had affembled a very confiderable army.
Uladiflaus, enraged at their treachery, took the field
a third time, and gave them battle with fuch fuccefs,
that 4000 knights were left dead on the fpot, and
30,000 auxiliaries killed or taken prifoners. Yet,
though the king had it once more in his power to de-
ftroy the whole Teutonic order, he fatisfied himfelf with
obtaining the territories which had occafioned the war j
after which he fpent the remainder of his life in peace
and tranquillity.
Uladiflaus was fucceeded by his fon Cafimir III. fur-
named the Great. He fubdued the province called Ruf-
Jia Nigra in a Angle campaign. Next he turned his
arms againft Mazovia ; and with the utmoft rapidity
overran the duchy, and annexed it as a province to the
crown; after which he applied himfelf to domeftic af¬
fairs, and was the firft who introduced a written code of
laws into Poland. He was the moft impartial judge,
the moft rigid obferver of juftice, and the moft fubmif-
five to the laws, of any potentate mentioned in the hif-
tory of Europe. The only vice with which he is char-
Poland.
til
Ruffia Ni¬
gra con¬
quered by
t'afimir
she Great.
ged is that of incontinency } but even this the clergy
declared to be a venial fin, and amply compenfated by ^ *
his other virtues, particularly the great liberality which
he fhowed to the clerical order. 63
Cafimir was fucceeded in 1370 by his nephew Louis Unhappy-
king of Hungary ; but, as the Poles looked upon him
to be a foreign prince, they were not happy under hisu
adminiftration. Indeed a coldnefs between this monarch
and his people took place even before he afcended the
throne ; for in the pafla conventa, to which the Folifti
monarchs were obliged to fwear, a great number of un-
ufual articles were inferted. ■ This probably was the
reafon why he left Poland almoft as foon as his corona¬
tion was over, carrying with him the crown, fceptre,
globe, and fword of ftate, to prevent the Poles from
elefting another prince during his abfence. He left the
government in the hands of his mother Elizabeth ; and
fhe would have been agreeable to the people, had her
capacity for government been equal to the talk. At
that time, however, the ftate of Poland was too much
diftradled to be governed by a woman. The country
was overrun with bold robbers and gangs of villains,
who committed the moft horrid diforders; the king¬
dom W'as likewife invaded by the Lithuanians 5 the
whole province of Ruflia Nigra revolted 5 and the king¬
dom wras univerfally filled with diffenfion. The Poles
could not bear to fee their towns filled with Hungarian
garrifons ; and therefore fent a mefiage to the king,
telling him that they thought he had been fufticiently
honoured in being elefted king of Poland himfelf, with¬
out fuffering the kingdom to be governed by a woman
and his Hungarian fubjefts. On this Louis immediate¬
ly raifed a numerous army, with a defign fully to con¬
quer the fpirit of his fubjefts. His firft operations were
direfted againft the Ruffians ; whom he defeated, and
again reduced to fubjedtion. Then he turned his arms
againft the Lithuanians, drove them out of the king¬
dom, and re-eftablilhed public tranquillity. However,
inftead of being fatisfied with this, and removing the
Hungarian garrifons, he introduced many more, and
raifed Hungarians to all the chief polls of government.
His credit and authority even wrent fo far as to get a
fucceffor nominated wTho was difagreeable to the whole
nation, namely Sigifmund marquis of Brandenburg. Af¬
ter the death of Louis, however, this election was fet
afide ; and Hedwiga, daughter of Cafimir the Great,
was proclaimed queen. ^
This princefs married Jagello duke of Lithuania, who Hedwiga
was now converted to Chriftianity, and baptized by the marries the
name of U/flrfY/7mzr. In confequence of this marriage, of Li-
the duchy of Lithuania, as well as the vaft provinces °f thereby
Samogitia and Ruflia Nigra, became annexed to the uniting that
crown of Poland. Such a formidable acceflion of power duchy, to-
excited the jealoufy of the Teutonic knights, who were
fenfible that Uladiflaus was now bound to undertake the
reduction or Pomerania, and revenge all the injuries ]sjigra? to
which Poland had fuftained from them for a great num-Poland,
ber of years. From his firft acceflion, therefore, they
conlidered this monarch as their greateft enemy, and en¬
deavoured to prevent his defigns againft them by effeft-
ing a revolution in Lithuania in favour of his brother
Andrew. The profpefl of fuccefs wras the greater
here, as moft of the nobility were difcontented with the
late alliance, and Uladiflaus had propofed to effeft a re¬
volution in religion, which was highly difagreeable,,
On
POL [ ?o ] POL
Poland. Qn a fudden, therefore, two armies marched towards
v the frontiers of the duchy, which they as fuddenly pe¬
netrated, laying walte the whole country, and feizing
upon fome important fortreffes, before the king of Po¬
land had any notice of the matter. As foon as he re¬
ceived advice of thefe ravages,' Uladifiaus raifed fome
forces' with the utmoft celerity, which he committed to
the care of his brother Skirgello, who defeated the
Teutonic knights, and foon obliged them to abandon all
their conqueits. In the mean time Uladillaus marched
in perfon into the Higher Poland, which was fubjedted
to a variety of petty tyrants, who oppreffed the peo¬
ple, and governed with intolerable defpotilm. i he pa¬
latine of Pofnia, in particular, had diftinguilhed himfelf
by his rebellious pra&ices ; but he was completely de¬
feated by Uladiflaus, and the whole country reduced to
g. obedience.
Troubles in Having fecured the tranquillity of Poland, Uladiflaus
■Lithuania, vifited Lithuania, attended by a great number of tbe
clergy, in order to convert his fubjects. I his he ef¬
fected without great difficulty ; but left the care of the
duchy to his brother Skirgello, a man of a cruel, haugh¬
ty, and debauched turn, and who immediately began to
abufe his power. With him the king fent his coufm
Vitovvda, a prince of a generous, brave, and amiable
difpoiition, to be a check upon his condudt 5 but the
barbarity of Skirgello foon obliged this prince to take
refuge among the Teutonic knights, who were now be¬
come the afylum of the oppreffed and difcontented. For
fome time, however, he did not affift the knights in
their defigns againft his country 5 but having applied
for protedHon to the king, and finding him remifs in
affording the neceffary affiftance, he at laft joined in the
fchemes formed by the knights for the deftruCHon of
Poland. Entering Lithuania at the head of a nume¬
rous army, he took the capital, burnt part of it, and
deftroyed 14,000 perfons in the flames, befides a great
number who were maffacred in attempting to make their
efcape. The upper part of the city, however, was vi-
goroufly defended, fo that the befiegers were at laft
obliged to abandon all thoughts of making themfelves
mafters of it, and to content themfelves with defolating
the adjacent country. The next year Vitowda renewed
his attempts upon this city, but with the fame ill fuc-
cefs •, though he got poffeffion of lome places of lefs
note. As foon, however, as an opportunity offered, he
came to an accommodation with the king, who bellow¬
ed on him the government of Lithuania. During the
firfi: years of his government, he bellowed the moll dili¬
gent attention upon domeftic affairs, endeavouring to re¬
pair the calamities which the late wars had occalkmed •,
but his impetuous valour had prompted him at laft to en¬
cage in a war with Tamerlane the Great, after his vic¬
tory over Bajazet the Turkilh emperor. For fome time
before, Vitowda had been at war with the neighbour¬
ing Tartars, and had been conftantly victorious, tranf-
porting whole hordes of that barbarous people into Po¬
land and Lithuania, where to this day they form a co¬
lony diftinCt in manners and drefs from the other inha¬
bitants. Uladillaus, however, diffuaded him from at¬
tacking the whole ftrength of the nation under fuch a
65 celebrated commander as Tamerlane: but Vitowda was
Terrible _ obftinate ; he encountered an army of 400,000 Tar-
battle with targ under Ediga, Tamerlane’s lieutenant, with only a
tars.1^" tenth part of their number. The battle continued for
a whole day ; but at laft Vitowda was furrounded Poland,
by the numbers of his enemy, and in the utmoft danger u' v ,mt
of being cut in pieces. However, he broke his way
through with prodigious flaughter on both ftdes •, and
came off at laft without a total defeat, having killed
a number of the enemy equal to the whole of his own
army. ^7
During the abfenee of Vitowda, the Teutonic knights Wars with
had penetrated into Lithuania, committing every where nic kniffhtS(
the moft dreadful ravages. On his return he attacked
and defeated them, making an irruption into Livonia,
to punilh the inhabitants of that country for the aflift-
ance they had given to the I eutonic order. 1 his was
fucceeded by a long lenes of wars between Poland and
Pruffia, in which it became neceffary for Uladiflaus him¬
felf to take the field. The knights had now one way
or other got poffeffion of Samogitia, Mazovia, Culm,
Silefia, and Pomerania j fo that Uladifiaus refolved to
punifh them before they became too powerful With
this view he affembled an army compofed oi feveral dif¬
ferent nations, with which be penetrated into Pruffia,
took feveral towns, and was advancing to Marienburg,
the capital of Pomerania, when he was met by the army
of the Pruffian knights, who determined to hazard a
battle. When the engagement began, the Poles were
deferted by all their auxiliaries, and obliged to ftand
the brunt of the battle by themfelves. But the cou¬
rage and conduft of their king fo animated them, that
after a moft defperate battle they obtained a complete
victory 5 near 40,000 of the enemy being killed in the
field, and 30,000 taken piifoners. This terrible over¬
throw, however, was lefs fatal to the affairs of the Pruf¬
fian knights than might have been expeCted 5 as Uladi¬
flaus did not improve his victory, and a peace was con¬
cluded upon eafier terms than his adverfaries had any
reafon to expeCt.—Some infraction of the treaty ocea-
fioned a renewal of hoftilities; and Uladiflaus w'as fo
much elated with victory that he would hearken to no
terms, by which means the enemy were driven to the
defperate refolution of burying themfelves in the ruins
of their capital. The fiege was accordingly commen¬
ced, and both fides behaved with the greateft vigour •,
but at laft, through the good eonduCt and valour of the
grand matter of the knights, named Plawen, the Polifli
monarch found himfelf obliged to grant them an advan¬
tageous peace, at a time when it was univerfally ex¬
peCted that the whole order would have been extermi¬
nated.
Uladiflaus V. died in 1435, and was fucceeded by
his fon Uladiflaus VI. at that time only nine years of
age. He had fcarce afcended the throne, when the
kingdom was invaded by tbe Tartars, who defeated
Buccarius the general of the Poliftr forces •, and com-
mittino' everywhere dreadful ravages, returned to their
own country loaded with booty. A few vears after,
the nation was involved in a w7ar with Amurath the
emperor of the 1 urks, who threatened to break into
Hungary 5 and it was thought by the diet to be good
policy to affift the Hungarians at this junCture, be-
caufe* it was impoffible to know where the ftorm might
fall after Hungary was conquered. But before all
things w'ere prepared for the young king to take the
field, a ftrorig body of auxiliaries was difpatched un¬
der the celebrated John Hunniades vaivode of ran-
fylvania, to oppofe the TLurks, and likewife to iuppoit
Foland.
68
Uladiflaus
defeated
and killed
by the
Turks.
69
Teutonic
knights
fubdued.
7° „
Crowns of
Bohemia
and Hun
gary united
So Foland.
POL [7
the eleaion of UladMaus to the crown of Hungary. This
detachment furprifed the Turkilh army near the river
Morava, and defeated Amurath with the lofs of 30,000
men ; after which Hunniades retook all the places which
had been conquered by Amurath, the proud fultan was
forced to fue for peace, and Uladiilaus was raifed without
oppoiition to the crown of Hungary. A treaty was
concluded, by which the Turks promifed to relinquitb
their defigns upon Hungary, to acknowledge the king’s
right to that crown, and to give up all their conquefts
in Rafcia and Servia. This treaty was fealed by mutual
oaths : but Uladillaus broke it at the perfuafion of the
pope’s legate ; who infilled, that now was the time for
humbling the power of the infidels ; and produced a fpe-
cial commiflion from the pope, abiolving him from the
oath he had taken at the late treaty. The confequence
of this perfidy was, that Uladillaus was entirely defeated
and killed at Varna, and the greateft part of his attny
cut in pieces.
Uladiflaus VI. was fucceeded by Cafimir IV. in whofe
reign the Teutonic knights were lubdued, and obliged
to vield up the territories ot Culm, Michlow, and the
whole duchy of Pomerania, together with the towns of
Elbing, Marienburg, Talkmith, Schut, and Chrift-
burgh, to the crown of Poland. On the other hand,
the king reftored to them ill the other conquefts he had
made in Pruilia, granted a feat in the Polith fenate to
the gi-and-mafter, and endowed him with other privi¬
leges, on condition that, fix months after his acceflion,
he ihould do homage for Pruftia, and take an oath of
fidelity to the king and republic.
This fuccefs raifed the fpirits of the Polilh nation,
which had drooped ever fince the battle of Varna. 1 he
diet did not, however, think proper to renew the war
againft the Turks, but took under their protection the
hofpodar of Moldavia ; as thinking that this province
would make a convenient barrier to the Polilh domi¬
nions on one fide. The requeft of the prince who alked
this protection was therefore readily granted, an oath of
fidelity exaCted from him and the inhabitants, and a tri¬
bute required •, regular payment of which was made for
a great number of years afterwards.
About this time alfo the crown of Bohemia beco¬
ming vacant, the people were extremely defirous of
being governed by one of the princes of Poland ; upon
which the barons were induced to beftow the crown
upon Uladifiaus, eldeft fon of Cafimir, in oppofition to
the intrigues of the king of Hungary. Not latisfied
with this acquifition, Uladiflaus took advantage of the
diflenfions in Hungary, in order to unite that crown to
his own : and this he alfo effeCted 5 by which means his
power was greatly augmented, though not the felicity
of his people. So many foreign expeditions had ex-
haufted the treafury, and oppreffed the peafants ivith
taxes } the gentry were greatly dimimthed by a number
of bloodv engagements ; agriculture was neglected, and
the country almoft depopulated. Before a proper reme¬
dy could be applied for th fe evils, Cafirr.ir died in
1492 •, much more admired, than beloved or regretted,
by his fubjeCK It is related by the hiftorians of this
period, that in the reign of Cafirair IV. the deputies of
the provinces firft appeared at the diet, and aflumed
to themfelves the legiflative power all laws before
this time having been framed by the king in conjunc¬
tion with the fenate. It is obferved allb, that before
1 ] POL
Cafimir’s time, the Latin language was underftood on- Poland;
ly by the clergy of Poland j in proof of which, it is al- 1,“
leged, that at an interview between this prince and the
king of Sweden at Dantzic, his Poliih majefty was
forced to make ufe of the afliftance of a monk to in¬
terpret between him and the Swedilh monarch. Ca¬
fimir, alhamed of the ignorance ihown by himfelf and
court, publiflied an edidt, enjoining the diligent ftudy
of the Latin, which in our days is fpoken as vernacu¬
lar by every Poll lb gentleman, though very unclafli-
cally.
During the fucceeding reigns of John, Albert, and
Alexander, the Polilh affairs fell into decline 5 the
kingdom being haraffed by continual wars with the
Turks and Tartars. However, they were retrieved
by Sigifmund I. who afcended the throne in 1507. ^
This monarch, having reformed fome internal abules, Exploits of
next fet about rendering the kingdom as formidable as^gdmund
it had formerly been. He firft quelled a rebellion1,
which broke out in Lithuania ; after which, he drove
the Walachians and Moldavians out of Ruliia Nigra, and
defeated the Ruffians in a pitched battle, with the lofs
of 30,000 men. In this engagement he was obliged to
caufe his cavalry to fwim acrofs the Borifthenes in order
to begin the attack, while a bridge was preparing for
the infantry. Thefe orders were executed with afto-
niihing celerity, notwithftanding the rapidity of the-
ft ream, the fteepnefs of the banks, and the enemy’s op¬
pofition. The onfet was led by the Lithuanians, who
were direfted to retreat gradually, with a view of draw¬
ing the enemy within reach of the cannon. This the
Ruffians miftook for a real flight; and as they were pur-
fuing with eagernefs, Sigifmund opened his line to the
right and left, pouring in grape-ffiot from the artillery
with dreadful fuccefs. The Ruffian general, and feve-
ral noblemen of the firft diftindlion, were taken prifoners,
while the whole lofs of the royal army did not amount
to 300 men.
After this complete vi&ory, the king turned his
arms againft the Teutonic knights, who had elected
the marquis of Brandenburg their grand-mafter ; and
this prince not only ref'ufed to acknowledge the fove-
reignty of the crown of Poland, but even invaded the
Polifh territories. Sigifmund marched againft him,
and gained pofl’effion of feveral important places in
Brandenburg ; but as he was purfuing his conquefts,
the marquis was reinforced by 14,000 Germans, led
by the duke of Sehonenburg, who ventured to lay
fiege to Dantzic, after having ravaged all the neigh¬
bouring country. The Dantzickers, however, defend¬
ed themfelves with fo much fpirit, that the befiegers
were foon obliged to relinquilh their enterpriie. In
their retreat they were attacked by a ftrong detachment
of Polifh cavalry, who made prodigious havock among
them, and compelled the wretched remains to take (bel¬
ter in Pomerania, win re they were inhumanly butchered
by the peafants. Soon after thh the marquis was ob¬
liged to fubmit to the clemency of the conqueror 5.
from whom, however, he obtained better conditions
than could have been expected, or indeed than he would-
have got, had he not abandoned the intereft of the J eu-
tonic order, and refigned the dignity of grand-mafter.
In order to fecure him in his intereft, therefore, Sigif¬
mund granted him half the province ot Pruffia as a fe-
cular duke, and dependent on the crotvn of Poland y
POL
[ 72 1
POL
Poland, by winch means he entirely deprived that order of the
“■“v " beil part of their dominions, and put it quite out
of their power to diiturb the tranquillity of Poland any
more.
The power of Sigifmund had now excited the jealou-
fy of the Houfe of Aul'tria •, for which reafon they took
every method in their power to flir up enemies againit
him. By their means, the Ruffians, Moldavians, and
Tartars, were all excited to fall upon the Poliffi territo¬
ries at once. 'The vaivode of alachia, with 50,000
men, made an irruption into the fmall province of Po-
katior, but was entirely defeated by Count J aro at the
head of no more than 6000. This vi&ory is wholly
afcribed to the good conduft of the commander, who
poffeffed himfelf of fome eminences on the flanks of the
enemy. On thefe he eretled batteries, which played
with fuch fury as foon put their ranks in diforder : up¬
on which the Poles attacked them fword in hand, and
entirely difperfed them with the lofs ot io^ooo killed or
taken. The count having then augmented his army
with a ftrong body of Lithuanians, attacked the Muf-
eovites and Tartars, drove them entirely out of the
duchy, purfned them into Ruffia, reduced feveral towns,
and at lafl laid fiege to the ftrong fortrefs of Straradub ;
in which the regent, together with fome of the bell
troops of Ruffia, were inrlofed. The garrifon made a
gallant defence ; and the fortifications were compofed
of beams joined together, and fupported by a bulwark
of earth, upon which the cannon-lhot made no impref-
fion : but the count contrived a method of fetting the
wood on fire •, by which means the regent and nobility
were obliged to furrender at diferetion, and Taro car¬
ried off upwards of 60,000 prifoners, with an immenfe
booty.
In the reign of Sigifmund, we may look upon the
kingdom of Poland to have been at its greateft pitch
of glory. This monarch poffefled, in his own perfon,
the republic of Poland, the great duchies of Lithua¬
nia, Smqlenlko, and Saveria, befides vaft territories
lying beyond the Euxine and Baltic 5 while his ne¬
phew Louis poffeffed the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hun¬
gary, and Silefia. But this glory received a fudden
check in 1548, by the defeat and death of Louis,
who periflied in a battle fought with Solyman the
Great, emperor of the Turks. The daughter of this
prince married Ferdinand of Auftria j whereby the
dominions of Hungary, Bohemia, and Silefia, became
infeparably connefted with the hereditary dominions of
the Auftrian family. This misfortune is thought to
have haftened the death of Sigifmund ; though, being
then in his 84th year, he could not have lived long by
the ordinary courfe of nature. He did not, however,
furvive the news many months, but died of a lingering
diforder, leaving behind him the chara&er of the com-
pleteft general, the ableft politician, the beft prince, and
the ftrongeft man, in the north; of which laft, indeed,
fome inftances are related by hiftorians that are almoft
incredible.
Sigifmund Auguftus, who fucceeded his father Sigif-
. 72 ,
Sigifmund
Auguftus, amund I. proved alfo a very great and happy prince.
wife and
valiant
prince.
At that time the moft violent and bloody wars were
carrying on in Germany, and indeed through other
parts of Europe, on account of religion •, but Sigif¬
mund wifely avoided interfering in thefe difputes. He
would; not admit into his dominions any of thofe di¬
vines who were taxed with holding heterodox opinions, Poland,
nor even allow his people the liberty of correfponding
with them ; yet he never perfecuted, or employed any
other means for the ‘prefervation of the ftate than thofe
of a well conducted and regular policy. Inftead of dif-
puting with his fubjedls about fpeculative opinions, Si¬
gifmund applied himlelf diligently to the reforming of
abufes, enforcing the laws, enriching the treafury, pro¬
moting induftry, and redeeming the crown-lands where
the titles of the poffefiors appeared illegal. Out of the
revenue recovered in this manner he obtained a for¬
midable Handing army, without laying any additional
tax upon the fubjedls $ and though he preferred peace
to war, he was always able to punifti thofe that offer- ^
ed indignities to his crown or perfon. His knowledge War witk
in the art of war was foon tried in a conteft with the Ruffia.
Ruffians, who had made an irruption into Livonia, en¬
couraged by the difputes which had fubfifted between
the Teutonic knights and the archbiffiop of Riga, eou-
fin to Sigifmund. The province was at that time di¬
vided between the knights and the prelate $ and the
Ruffians, under pretence of affifting the former, had
feized great part of the dominions of the latter. The
archbiffiop had recourfe to his kinfman the king of Po¬
land j who, after fruitlefs efforts to accommodate mat¬
ters, marched towards the frontiers of Livonia with an
army of 100,000 men. The knights were by no means
able to refift fuch a formidable power ; and therefore,
deferting their late allies, put themfelves under the pro-
teflion of the king of Poland. The czar, John Bafi-
lides, though deferted by the knights, did not lofe his
courage 5 nay, he even infolently refufed to return any
anfw’er to the propofals of peace made by Sigifmund.
His army confifted of 300,000 men, with whom he
imagined himfelf able to reduce all Livonia, in fpite
of the utmoft efforts of the king of Poland : however,
having met with fome checks on that quarter, he di-
reftly invaded Poland with his whole army. At firft
he carried every thing before him ; but the Poles foon
made a vigorous oppofition. Yet the Ruffians, though
everywhere defeated, ftill continued their incurfions,
which Sigifmund at laft revenged by invading Ruffia in
his turn. Thefe mutual defolations and ravages at laft
made both parties defirous of peace, and a truce for
three years was agreed on ; during the continuance of
.which the king of Poland died, and with him was ex- ^
tinguiffied the houfe of Jagellon, which had governed Extindtioe
Poland for near 200 years. of the houfe
On the death of Sigifmund, Poland became a prey of JageJion*
to inteftine divifions; and a vaft number of intrigues
were fet on foot at the courts of Vienna, France, Sax¬
ony, Sweden, and Brandenburg j each endeavouring
to eftabliffi a prince of their own nation on the throne
of Poland. The-confequence of all this was, that the
kingdom became one univerfal feene of corruption,
faftion, and confufion ; the members of the diet con-ftate 0f p0.
fulted only their own intereft, and were ready on every land,
occafion to fell themfelves to the beft bidder. The
Proteftants had by this time got a confiderable footing
in the kingdom, and thus religious difputes were in¬
termingled with political ones. One good effect, how¬
ever, flowed from this confufion : for a law was paffed,
by which it was enafted, that no difference in religious
opinions Ihould make any contention among the fub-
jefts of the kingdom j and that all the Poles, without
diferimination,
POL [ 73 ] POL
' Poland, difcnmination, ftiould be capable of holding public of-
'-“-'Y-"—' fices and trufts under the government *, and it was alfo
refolved, that the future kings fhould fwear exprefsly
to cultivate the internal tranquillity of the realm, and
cherifh without didiniftion their fubjeds of all perfua-
fions.
While the candidates for the throne were feverally
attempting to fupport their own intereft in the beft
manner they could, John Crafolki, a Polifh gentleman
of great merit, but diminutive ifature, had juit returned
from France, whither he had travelled for improve¬
ment. His humour, wit, and diverting fize, had ren¬
dered him univerfally agreeable at the court of France,
and in a particular manner engaged the efteern of Ca¬
tharine de Medicis, which the little Pole had the ad-
drefs to make ufe of for his own advantage. He owed
many obligations to the duke of Anjou ; whom, out of
gratitude, he reprefented in fuch favourable terms, that
the Poles began to entertain thoughts of making him
their king. Thefe fentiments were confirmed and en¬
couraged by Crafofki, who, returned into France by
order of feveral leading men in Poland, and acquainted
the king and Queen Catharine that nothing was want¬
ing befides the formality of an embaffy to procure the
crown for the duke of Anjou, almofi: without oppoli-
tion. Charles IX. king of France, at that time alfo
promoted the fcheme, being jealous of the duke of An¬
jou’s popularity, and willing to have him removed to
as great a diftance as poffibie. Accordingly the par¬
ties came to an agreement 5 and it was ftipulated that
Duke of ^ie ^u^-e Anjou (hould maintain the law's, liberties,
Anjou cho- an^ cufioms of the kingdom of Poland, and of the
fen king of grand duchy of Lithuania 5 that he {hould tranfport all
Poiand. effefts and annual revenues in France into Poland :
that the French monarch {hould pay the late king Si-
gifmund’s debts 5 that he {hould maintain ico young
Poliflr gentlemen at bis court, and 50 in other places ;
that he {hould fend a fleet to the Baltic, to aflift Po¬
land againfl; the Ruflians j and laftly, that Henry fliould
marry the princefs Anne, filler to the late king Sigif-
mund £ but this article Henry would not ratify till his
return to Poland.
Every thing being thus fettled, the young king quit¬
ted France, attended by a fplendid retinue, and was
accompanied by the queen-mother as far as Lorrain.
He was received by his fubjefts on the frontiers of Po¬
land, and condufled to Cracow, where he was foon af¬
ter crowned. The affedlions of the Poles were foon
engaged by the youth and accomplifliments of Henry ;
but fcarce was he feated on the throne, when, by the
death of Charles IX. he became heir to the crown of
France. Of this he was informed by repeated mef-
fages from Queen Catharine $ he repented his having
accepted the crown of Poland, and refolved to leave it
^ for that of France. But being fenfible that the Poles
Runs away would oppofe his departure, he kept his intentions fe-
from his cret, and watched an opportunity of Healing out of the
kingdom, palace in difguife in the night-time. The Poles, as
might well have been expefted, were irritated at being
thus abandoned, from the mere motive of intereft:, by
a prince whom they had loved and honoured fo much.
Parties were difpatched after him by different roads ;
and Zamolki, a nobleman who headed one of thefe
parties, overtook him fome leagues diftant from Cra¬
cow. All the prayers and tears of that nobleman, how-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
ever, could not prevail on Henry to return j he rode Poland,
poll to Vienna, and then paffed into France by the way 1’" “ —
of Italy.
In the mean time, the Poles were fo much exafpera-
ted againft Henry and his whole nation, that all the
French in Cracow would have been maffacred if the
magiftrates had not placed guards in the ftreets. Henry,
however, had forefeen the confequences of his flight,
and therefore endeavoured to apologife for his behaviour.
One Danzai undertook his caufe in full fenate; and with
great eloquence explained the king’s motives for his ab¬
rupt departure. Henry alfo wrote to the chief nobilitv
and clergy with his own hand. But nothing could fa-
tisfy the Poles •, who now acquainted their king, that if
he did not immediately return, they would be obliged
to diveft him of the royal dignity, and to choofe another
fovereign. Henry began to excufe himfelf on account
of the wars in which he was engaged, and promifed to
fend men of unexceptionable integrity to govern Poland
till he Ihould return ; but no excufes could be accepted ; -s
and, on the 15th of July 1575* he was folemnly diveft-and is de¬
ed of the regal dignity in full diet, and the threne de-Poled’
dared vacant.
After the depofition of Henry, commotions and fac¬
tions again took place. However, the contending
parties were now reduced to two j one who fupported-
the intereft of Maximilian emperor of Germanv 5 the
other, who were for elefling the princeis Anne, and
marrying her to Stephen Batori prince of Tranfylva-
nia. The latter prevailed through the courage of oneste)henBa
gentleman, who, in imitation of the power affumed by ton chofen
the Roman tribunes, ftood up in the full fenate, and king,
oppofed the proclamation of Maximilian, declaring
that his ele&ion was violent and illegal. In this fitua-
tion of affairs, it was obvious that ftrength and cele¬
rity muft determine which ele&ion was legitimate :
both parties wrote to the princes whofe caufe they had
efpoufed, intreating them to come with all poftible ex¬
pedition to take poffeflion of the throne. Batori pro¬
ved the more alert 5 for while Maximilian wasdifputing
about certain conditions which the Poles required for
the fecurity of their privileges, he entered Poland, mar¬
ried the princefs, and was crowned on the firft of May
I576' • So
No oppofition was made to the authority of Batori Dantzic
except by the inhabitants of Dantzic. Thefe adhe-revolts."
red to the rntereft of Maximilian even after he was
dead, and had the prefumption to demand from the
king an oath acknowledging their abfolute freedom
and independence. Batori referred them to the fenate,
declaring that he had no right to give up the privileges
of the republic ; but admoniflied the citizens to avoid
all occafion of a civil war, which muft neceffarily termi¬
nate in their difadvantage. But the obftinate citizens,
conftruing the king’s lenity into fear, {hut the gates
againft the ambaffador, feized upon the fortrefs of
Grebin, and publilhed a manifefto reftmbling a libel
upon the king and the republic. The king, incenfed
at thefe proceedings, marched againft Grebin, re¬
took the caftle, and ravaged certain territories be¬
longing to the Dantzickers ; who retaliated by burning
to the ground a monaftery named Oliva, to prevent
the Poles from taking poffeflion of fo important a fitua-
tion.
Notwithftanding thefe outrages, Batori renewed his
K overture^
Voknd.
Si
Poland in¬
vaded by
the Ruf¬
fians.
Sz
Dantzic
’submits.
83
Cruelty
the Ruf¬
fians*.
[ 7+ 1 POL
the Dantzickers to both parties, and who tvere fearcely inferior In cruel- Poland.
ty to the Ruffians themfelves. The king, however, was v v *
not daunted by the number of his adveriaries •, but hav¬
ing made great preparations, and called to his affitlance
Chriftopher prince of Tranlylvania, with all the Hand¬
ing forces of that country, he took the field in perfon
againlt the Mufcovites, and laid liege to Polocz, a town
of great importance lituated on the river Dwina. 1 hesie^e 0f
Ruffians no fooner heard of the approach of the Polifhpolocz.
army, than they refolved to put all the citizens to death,
thinking by this means to Hi ike terror into the enemy.
When Batori came near the town, the moft (hocking
fpeftacle prefented itfelf ; the river appeared dyed with
blood, and a vaft number of human bodies faftened to
planks, and terribly mangled, were carried down its
itream. This barbarity, inltead of intimidating the
Poles, irritated them to fuch a degree, that nothing
could refill them. Finding that their cannon made lit¬
tle impreffion upon the walls of the city, which were
conltrufted of wood, they advanced to the affault with
burning torches in their hands *, and would foon have
reduced the fortifications to alhes, had not a violent
(form of rain prevented them. The defign, however,
was put in execution as foon as the rain flackened; and
the barbarous Ruffians were obliged to furrender at di~
cretion. It reflefts the higheft honour on Batori, that,
notwithftanding the dreadful inllances of cruelty which
he had before his eyes, he would not fuffer his foldiers to
retaliate. Indeed the cruelties committed by the Ruf¬
fians on this occafion, feem almoll to have authorifed 8-
any revenge that could poffibly have been taken. AMonltrous
number of Germans were found in the city, fome expir-barbarities
they had obtained a promife from the eleftor of Saxony ing under the moll dreadful tortures, and others dead
P O L
overtures for an accommodation : but
were deaf to thefe falutary propofals; fo that he was
obliged to declare them rebels, and ^nid againfl them a
body of troops under one Zborowlki.’ As the number
of the Polilh army, however, was not confiderable, the
Dantziekers marched out to give him battle. They
were affilled by a corps of Germans, and a refolution
was formed of attacking the Poles in their camp by fur-
prife } but the project cvas difeoncertcd by a hidden
ftorm, accompanied with dreadful thunder and light¬
ning, which fpread a panic through the army, as if it
had been a judgment from heaven, and obliged the
commander, John de Collen, to retire into the city. In
a ihort time, however, they recovered their fpirits, and
came to an a£licn with the Poles $ but were defeated
with the lofs of 8000 men killed on the fpot, a great
many taken prifoners, and the lofs of feveral pieces of
cannon. But this check, inflead of abating the cou¬
rage of the Dantzickers, only animated them the more,
-and they refolved to hold out to the hall extremity. In
the mean time, the czar of Mufeovy, thinking the pre-
fent opportunity favourable forextending his dominions,
laid fiege to Revel} but, not being able to make him-
felf mailer of that place, he was obliged to content him-
felf with ravaging Livonia, which he did in a dreadful
manner. This did not, however, hinder Batori from
laying fiege to Dantzic in perfon, and purfuing the ope¬
rations with the utmoll vigour. Collen made many vi¬
gorous failles, in feveral of which he defeated the Poles;
but, happening at lafl to be killed, nobody was found
capable of (applying his place, and the citizens were at
lalt obliged to furrender at diferetion ; though not till
they had obtained a promile rrom tne elector or oaxuny ing unuci  — the
and landgrave of Pleffe of interpofing as mediators in pains which nature could no longer luppoit. Several ofbans
their behalf. The only terms which the king demand¬
ed of them were, that they ffiould alk his pardon, dif-
mifs their troops, and rebuild the monallery of Oliva
which they had deftroyed ; while his majefty, on the
other hand, confirmed all their privileges, and granted
them full liberty of adhering to the confeffion of Augf-
burg, for which they had for fome time been ftrenuous
advocates.
The war with Dantzic was no fooner ended, than the
king directed his -whole flrength againft the czar of
Mufcovy, who had made himfelf matter of feveral im¬
portant cities in Livonia. The czar behaved every-
Avhere with the greatell cruelty, flaughtering all without
diftinction who were able to bear arms, and abandoning
the women and children to the (hocking brutality of the
Tartars who ferved in his army. Such ivas the horror
infpired by the perfidy and cruelty of the czar’s con-
duift, that the inhabitants of Wender chofe rather to bu¬
ry themfelves in the ruins of their town than to fubmit
to fuch an inhuman enemy. For a confiderable time
the Ruffians were allowed to proceed in this manner,
till the -whole province of Livonia, excepting Riga and
Revel, had fuffered the barbarities of this infulting con¬
queror ; but at lad, in 1578, a body of forces was dif-
patched into the province, the towns of Wender and
Dunnenburg were furprifed, and an army fent by the
czar to furprife the former was defeated.
At this time the Mufcovites were not the only ene¬
mies who oppofed the king of Poland, and oppreffed Li¬
vonia. That unhappy province was alfo invaded by the
Swedes, who profelfed tfremfelves to be enemies equally
the officers had been dipped in cauldrons of boiling oil, that city,
with a cord drawn under the fkin of the umbilical re¬
gion, which faftened their hands behind ; in which fi-
tuation their eyes had been torn out from their fockets,
or burnt .with red-hot irons, and their fac.es otherwife
terribly mangled. The disfigured carcafes, indeed,
plainly (bowed the barbarous treatment they had met
with ; and the dreadful tale was confirmed by the tetti-*
mony of the few who furvived. The Poliih foldiers
were exafperated almoft to madnefs ; fo that fcarce all
the authority of Batori could reftrain them from cutting
in pieces the wretches who had been the authors of fuch
a dreadful tragedy. . .
After the reduction of Polocz, Batori continued the Ruffia rava»
Avar with great fuccefs. Tavo detachments from the gec} by 2a'
army penetrated the enemy’s country by different roads,ton*
watted all before them to the gates of Smolenfko, and
returned Avith thefpoilsof 2CC0 villages Avhieh they had
pillaged and deftroyed. In the mean time the SAvedes
and Poles thought proper to come to an accommoda¬
tion : and though John king of Sweden Avas at that time
prevented from bearing his (hare of the war, yet Batori
reduced fuch a number of cities, and committed fuch
deyaftations in the Ruffian territories, that the czar Avas §7
obliged to fue for peace ; Avhich he obtained on condi-The czas
tion of relinquiftnng Livonia, after having throAvn aAvay fLies f°r
the lives of more than 400,000 of his fubje&s in attempt-fcace‘
ing to conquer it.
Batori, being thus freed from a moft deftruflAe and
cruel Avar, applied himfelf to the internal government of
his kingdom. He regulated the.Polifl) cav&lry in fuch,
a
POL [
Poland, a manner as made them become formidable to the Turns
l—“’•v—”' and other neighbouring nations : and this is the military
eftabliOiment to which the Poles have given the name
of quartienne; becaule a fourth part of the revenue is
employed in fnpporting them. Baton lent this body ot
cavalry towards the frontiers of Tartary, to check the
incurfions of thofe barbarians 5 by which means the Uk¬
raine, a vaft traft of defert country, was filled with tlou-
SS rilhing towns and villages, and became a ftrong barrier
Baton civi-again It the Turks, Tartars, and Ruffians. L he la t
lizes the niemorable aflion of Batori was his attaching tue Lo -
Coffacks. facks tQ polanci? civilizing and inftru6ting them in the
arts of war and peace. His firft endeavour was to gam
their affe&ions by bis liberality ; for which purpofe, he
prefented them with the city of Techtemeravia, fittiated
on the Borifthenes, which they formed into a magazine,
and made the refidence of their chieftains. He gave
them officers of all degrees, eftabliffied difciplme among
them, altered their arms, and formed them into a regu¬
lar militia, which afterwards performed eminent fervices
to the ilate. All kinds of manufa&ures at that time
known in Poland were likewife eftabliffied among the
CoiTacks; the women were employed in fpinning and
Weaving woollen cloths, while the men were taught
agriculture, and other arts proper for their lex.
While Batori was employed in this manner, the
Swedes broke the convention into which they had en¬
tered with Poland, and were 011 the point of getting
poffeffion of Riga. To this, indeed, Batori himfelf had
given occafion, by attempting to impofe the Romiffi re¬
ligion upon the inhabitants, after having promifed them
entire liberty of confcience. This fo irritated them,
that they revolted, and were on the point of admitting
a Swedifli garrifon into the city, when the king was
informed of what was going forward. Upon this he
refolved to take a moft exemplary vengeance on the in¬
habitants of Riga •, but before he could execute bis in-
ten'ion, he died in the year 1586, the 541 h of his age,
89. and IOth of his reign.
His death. The death of Bat iri involved Poland in frefti troubles.
Pour candidates appeared for the crown, viz. the princes
Erneft and Maximilian of the houfe of Auftria, Sigif-
mund prince of Sweden, and l heodore czar of IMufcovy,
Each of thefe had a feparate party; but Sigifmund and
Maximilian managed matters fo well, that in 1587 froth
of them were elected. The confequence of this was a
civil war; in which Maximilian was defeated and taken
prifoner: and thus Sigifmund III. furnamed De Vufa,
became matter of the throne of Poland witnout oppo-
lition. He waged a fuccefsful Avar Avith the 1 artars,
and was otherwife profperous; but though he iucceeded
to the croAvn of SAveden, be found it impoffible for him
to retain both kingdoms, and he Avas formally depofed
from the Swediffi throne. In 1610, he conquered
Ruffia, and placed his fon on the throne; but the Poliffi
conquefts of that country have always been but for a
ffiort time. Accordingly the young prince Avas foon
after depofed ; and the Ruffians not only regained their
liberty, but began to make encroachments on Poland
r0 itfelf. A very unfortunate Avar alfo took place with
War with Sweden, which was now governed by the great Gufta-
Guftavus vus Adolphus; the particulars of which, Avith the other
Adolphus. eXp]0itg of that renowned warrior, are related under the
article Swedkn. At laft Sigifmund, tvorn out with
cares and misfortunes, died in 1629.
75] P O Tj
After Sigifmund’s death the affairs of Poland feemed roHn’
to revive a little under Uladiftaus VII.; for he obliged '
the Ruffians to fue for peace, and Sweden to reft ore
feme of her conquefts : but having attempted to abridge
the liberty of the Coflacks, they revolted, and gave the
Poles feveral terrible defeats. Nor Avas the war termi¬
nated in the lifetime of Uladiflaus, Avho died in 1648.
His lucceffor, John Cafimir, concluded a peace with
thefe dangerous enemies : but the war was foon after re-
neAved; and while the kingdom was di ft rafted between
thefe enemies and the difeontents of its own inhabitants,
the Ruffians took the opportunity of invading and pilla¬
ging Lithuania. In a little after the whole kingdom 9X
was fubdued by Charles Guftavus, fucceffor to ChriftinaPoland fub-
queen of Sweden. dued by
Happily for Poland, however, a rupture took piace ^hartes^
between the courts of Sweden and Copenhagen ; by ° -1'
which means the Poles Avere enabled to drive out the
Swedes in 1657. This Avas fucceeded by civil wars
and contefts Avith Ruffia, Avhich fo much vexed the king,
that he refigned the crown in 1668..
For two years after the refignation of Cafimir, tlm
kingdom Avas filled with confufion ; but on the 1 7th of
September 1760, one Michael Coribut WiefnoAvilki,
collaterally defeended from the houfe of Jageilo, but in
a verv mean fituation at that time, Avas chofen king.
His reign continued but for three years ; during Avhich
time John Sobielki, a celebrated Poliffi general, gave
the Turks a dreadful overlhroAV, though their army con¬
fided of more than 300,000 men ; and had this blow
been purfued, the Coflacks Avould have been entirely
fubdued, and very advantageous terms might have been
obtained from the fultan. Of that vaft multitude of
Turks no more than 15,000 made their efcape, the reft
being all either killed or taken : hoAvever, the Polifh
foldiers, being bound by the laws of their country only
to flay a certain time in the field, they refufed to purfuq
this fignal viftory, and fuffered the king to make peace
on any terms he could procure.
WitfnoAvifki died before the news of this tranfaftion
reached CracoAV ; and after his death a new feene «>f
'confufion enfued, till at laft the fortune of John Sobielki j0h.. So-
prevailed, and he Avas elefted king of Poland in 1674.re-
He was a moft magnanimous and heroic prince ; who,'
by his valour and good conduct, retrieved the affairs of 1
Poland, and entirely cheeked the progrefs of the Turks
weft ward. Thefe barbarians were everywhere defeated,
as is particularly related under the article Turkey ; but
notwithftanding his great qualities, Poland Avas now fo
thoroughly corrupted, and pervaded by a fpirit of dif-
affeftion, that the latter part of this monarch’s reign
Avas involved in troubles, through the ambition and con¬
tention of fome powerful noblemen.
Sobielki died in 1696; and Avith him fell the glory
of Poland. Moft violent contefts took place about the,
fucceflion; the recital of Avhich would far exceed our
limits. At laft Frederic Auguftus, eleftor of Saxony,
prevailed; but yet, as fome of the moft effential ceremo¬
nies were wanting in his coronation, becaufe the pri¬
mate, who yvas in an oppolite intereft, Avould not per¬
form them, lie found it extremely difficult to keep his
fubjefts in proper obedience, i. o add to his misfortunes,
having engaged in a league with Denmark and- Ruffia
again!! SAveden, he was attacked with irrefirtible fury by
Charles XII. Though Auguftus had not been betrayed,
Poland.
93
Poland
conquered
by Charles
xir.
94
Degene¬
racy of the
Poles.
95.
Elevation
of Ponia-
towiki, by
the name
of Stanif-
laus Auguf-
tus, to the
throne.
»p6
Interfe¬
rence of fo¬
reign
powers in
behalf of
the difli-
dents.
POL [ ] POL
as indeed he almoft always was, he was by no means a
match for the ferocious Swede. The particulars of this
war, however, as they make great part of the exploits
of that northern hero, more properly fall to be related
under the article Sweden. Here, therefore, tve (hall
only obferve, that Auguftus was reduced to the humi¬
liating neceffity of renouncing the crown of Poland on
oath,.and even of congratulating his rival Staniflaus up¬
on his acceflion to the throne : but when the power of
Charles was broken by his defeat at Pultowa, the for¬
tune of Auguftus again prevailed *, Staniflaus was driven
out; and the former being abfolved from his oath by
the pope, refumed the throne of Poland.
Since that time the Polifh nation has never made any
figure. Surrounded by great and ambitious powers, it has
funk under the degeneracy of its inhabitants ; fo that it
nowfcarcely exiftsasa nation. Thiscataftrophe took place
in the following manner: On the 5th of O (Sober 1763,
died Auguftus III. eleftor of Saxony, and king of Poland.
He was fucceeded by Count Poniatowfki, a Polifh gran¬
dee, who was proclaimed September 7th 1764, by the
name of Staniflaus Augujlus, and crowned on the 25th
of November the fame year.— During the interregnum
which took place between the death of Auguftus III.
and the election of Staniflaus, a decree had been made
by the convocation-diet of Poland, with regard to the
(tijjidents, as the^ were called, or difienters from the
Polifli religion. By this decree they were prohibited
from the free exercife of their religion, much more than
they had formerly been, and totally excluded from all
ports and places under the government. On this feveral
of the European powers interpofed, at the application of
the diflidents for their good offices. The courts of Ruf-
fia, Pruftia, Great Britain, and Denmark, made remon-
ftrances to the diet; but notwithftanding thefe remon-
ftrances, the decree was confirmed by the coronation-
diet held after the king’s eleftion. •
October 6. 1766, an ordinary diet was affembled.
Here declarations from the courts above mentioned were
prefented to his Polifh majefty, requiring the re-eftab-
lifhment of the diftidents in their civil rights and privi¬
leges, and the peaceable enjoyment of their modes of
worfhip fecured to them by the laws of the kingdom,
which had been obferved for two centuries. Thefe pri¬
vileges, it was alleged, bad been confirmed by the treaty
of Oliva, concluded by all the northern powers, which
could not be altered but by the confent of all the con-
traCling parties. The Popilh party contended ftrongly
for a confirmation of fome decrees made againft the dif-
fidents in 1717, T723, and 1736. The deputies from
the foreign powers replied, that thofe decrees had parted
in the midft of inteftine troubles, and were contradicted
by the formal proteftations and exprefs declarations of
foreign powers. At laft, after violent contefts, the mat¬
ter was referred to the bifhops and fenators for their
opinion. Upon a report from them, the diet came to a
refolution, That they would fully maintain the difli¬
dents in all the rights and prerogatives to which they
were entitled by the laws of their country, particularly
by the conftitutions of the year 1717, &c. and by trea¬
ties ; and that as to their complaints with regard to the
exercife of their religion, the college of archbifliops and
bifliops, under the dire&ion of the prince primate, would
endeavour to remove thofe difficulties in a manner con¬
formable to juftiee and neighbourly love.—By this time,
however, the court of Ruffia feemed determined to make Poland,
her remonilrances more effectual, and a fmall body of 'J
Ruffian troops marched to within two miles of the ca¬
pital of Poland.
Thefe refolutions of the diet were by no means agree¬
able to the diffidents. They dated,.the beginning of their
fufferings from the year 1717. The referring their griev¬
ances to the. archbiftiops and bilhops was looked upon as
a mealure the moft unreafonable that could be imagined,
as that body of men had always been their oppofers, and
in faCt the authors of all the evils which had befallen
them.—Shortly after matters were confidered in this
view, an additional body of Ruffians, to the number of
about 15,000, entered Poland. ^
The diffidents, being now pretty fare of the protec- Conftquen-
tion of foreign powers, entered, on the 20th of March ces of this,
1767, into two confederacies, at Thorn and Slack.
One of them was figned by the diffidents of Great and
Little Poland, and the other by thofe of the Great
Duchy of Lithuania. The purport of thefe confede¬
racies was, an engagement to exert themfelves in the
defence of their ancient privileges, and the free exercife
of their religion ; profeffing at the fame time, however,
the utmoft loyalty to the king, and refolving to fend a
deputation to him to implore his protection. They even
invited thofe of the Catholic communion, and all true
patriots, to unite with them in maintaining the funda¬
mental laws of the kingdom, the peace of religion, and
the right of each one jointly with themfelves. They
claimed, by virtue of public treaties, the protection of
the powers who were guarantees of their rights and li¬
berties •, namely, the emprefs of Ruffia, and the kings
of Sweden, Great Britain, Denmark, and Pruffia. Laft-
ly, they protefted, that they had no intention of aCting
to the detriment of the Roman Catholic religion, which
they duly refpeCted : and only afked the liberty of their
own, and the re-eftabliffiment of their ancient rights.
The three cities of Thorn, Elbing, and Dantzic, acced¬
ed to the confederacy of Thorn on the 10th of April; as
did the duke and nobles of Courland to that of Sluck on
the 15th of May.
The emprefs of Ruffia and king of Pruffia, in the
mean time, continued to iffue forth new declarations in
favour of the diffidents j and the Ruffian troops in Po¬
land were gradually augmented to 30,000 men. Great
numbers of other confederacies were alfo formed in dif¬
ferent parts of the kingdom. Thefe at firft took little
part in the affairs of the diffidents : they complained
only of the adminiftration of public affairs, into which
they alleged that innovations had been introduced, and
were therefore for fome time called confederations of
malcontents. All thefe confederacies publiflied mani-
feftoes, in which they recommended to the inhabitants
to quarter and treat the Ruffian troops as the defenders
of the Polifli liberties.
The different confederacies of malcontents formed in General
the 24 diftriCls of Lithuania united at Wilna on the confedera-
22d of June ; and that general confederacy re-eftabliflied cy-
Prince Radzivil, who had married the king’s lifter, in
his liberty, eftates, and honour, of which he had been
deprived in 1764 by the ftates of that duchy. On the
23d of June Prince Radzivil was chofen grand marffial
of the general confederacy of all Poland, which then be¬
gan to be called the national confederacy, and was faid
to be compofed of 72,000 noblemen and gentlemen.
POL
[ 77 ]
POL
Poland. The general confederacy took fuch meafures as ap¬
peared mod proper fur ftrengthening their party. They
fent to the feveral way wodes of the kingdom, requiring
their compliance with the following articles : J. That
all the gentlemen who had not figned the confederacy
(hould do it immediately y 2. That all the courts of
juftice fhould fubfift as formerly, but not judge any of
the confederates 5 3. That the marfhals of the crown
ftiould not pafs any fentence without the participation
of at lead four of the confederates •, and, 4. That the
mardials of the crown and the treafurers drould be im¬
mediately redored to the podeffion of their refpe&ive
rights. The Catholic party in the mean time were not
idle. The bidiop of Cracow' fent a very pathetic and
zealous letter to the dietines adembled at Warfaw on
the 13th of Augud, in which he exhorted them to arm
their nuncios with courage, by giving them orthodox
and patriotic indruftions, that they might not grant the
diffidents new advantages beyond thofe which were fe-
cured to them by the conditutions of the country, and
treaties with foreign powers, &.c. The pope alfo fent
briefs to the king, the great chancellor, the nobleffe,
bilhops of the kingdom, and to the prince primate,
with fuch arguments and exhortations as were thought
mod proper to ward off the impending danger. Coun¬
cils in the mean time were frequently held at the bilhop
of Cracow’s palace, where all the prelates at Warfaw
affembled.
On the 26th of September 1767 the confederacy of
dididents wTas united with the general confederacy of
malcontents in the palace of Prince Radzivil, who on that
occadon expreffed great friendfhip for the dididents. In
a few days after, the Ruffian troops in the capital wrere
reinforced, and a condderable body of them was poded
at about five miles didance.
On the 5th of O&ober an extraordinary diet wTas
in the diet, held : but the affair of the diffidents met with fuch op-
pofition, that it was thought neceffary to adjourn the
meeting till the 12th ; during which interval, every ex¬
pedient was ufcd to gain over thofe who oppofed Prince
Radzivil’s plan. This was, to appoint a commiffion,
furnilhed with full power to enter into conference with
Prince Repnin, the Ruffian ambaffador, concerning the
affairs of the diffidents. ‘ Notwithdanding all the pains
taken, however, the meeting of the 1 2th proved exceed¬
ingly tumultuous. The biffiops of Cracow and Kiow,
with fome other prelates, and feveral magnats, declared,
that they w-ould never confent to the edablidiment of
fuch a commiffion 5 and at the fame time fpoke with
more vehemence than ever againd the pretenfions of the
diffidents. Some of the deputies anfwered w'ith great
warmth 5 which occafioned fuch animofities, that the
i00 meeting was again adjourned till the 16th.
Violent On the 13th the bifhops of Cracow and Kiow, the
proceedings palatine of Cracow, and the darode of Domlki, were
hans* carr*ed off by Ruffian detachments. The crime alleged
againd them, in a declaration publidied next day by
Prince Repnin, was, that they had been wanting in
refpeft to the dignity of the emprefs of Ruffia, by at¬
tacking the purity of her intentions towards the repu¬
blic ; though die was refolved to continue her protec¬
tion and affidance to the general confederacy united
for preferving the liberties of Poland, and corre&ing
all the abufes which had been introduced into the go¬
vernment, &c.
5
99
Tumult.
It was probably owing to this violent proceeding of Poland,
the Ruffians, that Prince Radzivil’s plan was at lad adop- u—^
ted, and feveral new regulations were made in favour of
the diffidents. Thefe innovations, however, foon pro¬
duced a civil Avar, which at lad ended in the ruin of the
kingdom. In the beginning of the year 1768, a new
confederacy was formed in Podolia, a province border- 101
ing on Turkey, which Avas afterwards called the co«/£>-Confedera-
deracy of Bar. The intention of it Avas, to aboliffi, bycy °f ^ar’
force of arms, the neiv conditutions, particularly thofe
in favour of the diffidents. The members of the nerv
confederacy likeivife expreffed great refentment againd
the carrying away the bidiops of Cracow, &c. and dill
detaining them in cudody.
Podolia Avas reckoned the fitted place for the purpofe
of the confederates, as they imagined the Ruffians could
not attack them there without giving umbrage to the Ot¬
toman court. Similar confederacies, hoAvever,Avere quick¬
ly entered into throughout the kingdom : the clergy ex¬
cited all ranks of men to exert themfelves in defence of
their religion j and fo much were their exhortations re¬
garded, that even the king’s troops could not be truded
to a<d againd thefe confederates. The emprefs of Ruf¬
fia threatened the neAv confederates as didurbers of the
public tranquillity, and declared that hertroops Avould aft
againd them if they perfided. It was, hoAvever, fome
time before the Ruffian troops were confiderably reinfor¬
ced 5 nor did they at fird feem inclined to aft Avith the
vigour Avhich they might have exerted. A good many
Ikirmidies foon happened betAveen thefe Iavo contending
parties, in which the confederates wrere generally defeat¬
ed. In one of thefe the latter being Avorded, and hardly
preffed, a number of them paffed the Nieder, and took
refuge in Moldavia. This province, had formerly belong¬
ed to Poland, but Avas noAv fubjeft to the Grand Signior :
the Ruffians, however, purfued their enemies into Mol¬
davia j but in order to prevent any offence being taken
by the Porte, Prince Repnin Avrote to the Ruffian refi-
dent at Condantinople, to intimate there, that the con-
duft of the Ruffian colonel Avho commanded the party
Avas quite contrary to the orders of his court, and that
therefore he Avould be turned out of his pod.
Great cruelty in the mean time was exercifed againd
the diffidents where there Avere no Ruffian troops to pro-
teft them. ToAvards the end of Oftober 1769, Prince
Martin Lubomirfki, one of the fouthern confederates,
Avho had been driven out of Poland, and had taken diel-
ter Avith fome of bis adherents among the mountains of
Hungary, got a manifedo polled up on fevcral of the
churches of CracoAv, in Avhich he invited the nation to
a general revolt, and affuring them of the affidance of
the Ottoman Porte, Avith Avhom he pretended to have
concluded a treaty. This Avas the beginning of hoilili-
ties betAveen the Turks and Ruffians, Avbich Avere not
terminated but by a vad effufion of blood on both
fides.
The unhappy kingdom of Poland Avas the fird fcene
of this Avar, and in a diort time was reduced to the mod
deplorable fituation. In the end of the year 1768, the
peafants of the Greek religion in the Polidr Ukraine,
and province of Kiow, took up arms, and committed the 102
greated ravages, having, as they pretended, been threat-War be-
ened Avith death by the confederates unlefs they wouldtween ^
turn Roman Catholics. Againd thefe infurgents the an/tbe™07
Ruffians employed their arms, and made great numbers Ruffians.
of
Poland.
103
New confe-
POL
of them pnfoners. The reft tool
HaiuaiPacks-, bv whom they were loon joined, and in
the beginning of 1769 entered the Ukraine in conjunc¬
tion with them, committing everywhere the mcft horrid
maffacres. Here, however, they were at laft defeated
by the Polifh troops, at the fame time that feveral of
the confederacies in Poland were feverely chaftifed.
Soon after, the chan of the Crim Tartars, having been
repulfed with lofsin an attempt on New Servia, entered
the Polifh territories, where he left frightful maiks of
his inhumanity upon feme innocent and defencelefs per-
fons. This latter piece of conduct, with the cruelties
exercifed by the confederates, induced the Polifh Cof-
facks of Braclau and Kiovia, amounting to near 30,000
effective men, to join the Ruffians, in order to defend
their country againft thefe deftroyers., Matters conti¬
nued much in the fame way during the reft of the year
1769*, and in 1770, fkirmifhes frequently happened be¬
tween the Ruffians and confederates, in which the lat¬
ter were almoft always worded; but they took care to
revenge themfelves by the mod barbarous cruelties on
the. diffidents, wherever they could find them. In 1 770,
a confiderable number of the confederates of Jsar, who
had joined the Turks, and been exceffively ill ufed by
them, came to an accommodation with the Ruffians, who
took them under their protection on very moderate terms.
 Agriculture in the mean time had been fo much ne-
glefted, that the crop of 1770 was very deficient. This
encouraged a number of defperadoes to aflociate under
the denomination of confederates, who were guilty of
ftill greater exceffes than thofe who had been under fume
kind of regulation. Thus a great part of the country
was at laft reduced to a mere defert, the inhabitants be¬
ing either exterminated, or carried of to flock the re¬
mote Ruffian plantations, from whence they never could
return. .
In the year 177U the confederacies, which teemed to
Po’antf.
[ 78 ]• POL
refuse among the for that purpofe^by Pulaflvi? who in the town of CzetL-
chokow in Great Poland obliged them to fwear in the
moft folemn manner, by placing their hands between
his, either to deliver the king alive into his bands,
or, in cafe that was impoffiblc, to put him to death. The
three chiefs clmfe 37 perfons to accompany them. On
the fecond of November, about a month after they had
quilted Czetfchokow, they obtained admiffion into W'ar-
1 aw, unfufpected or undxfcovered, by the following ftra-
tapem. They difguifed themftlves as peafants who
came to fell hay, and artfully concealed their faddles,
arms, and clothes, under the loads of hay which they
brought in waggons, the more effcClually to efcape de¬
tection.
“ On Sunday night, the third of September 1771, a
few of thefe confpirators remained in the Ikirts of the
town ; and the others repaired to the place of ren¬
dezvous, the ftreet of the Capuchins, where his maje-
fty was expelled to pafs by about his ufual hour ot re¬
turning to the palace. The king had been to vifit his
uncle Prince Czartorifki, grandchancellor of Lithuania,
and was on his return from thence to the palace be¬
tween nine and ten o’clock. He was in a coach, ac¬
companied by at lead 15 or 16 attendants, befide an
aid de-camp in the carriage: fearce was he at the di-who is ta-
fiance of 200 paces from Prince Czartorilki’s palace,
when he was attacked by the confpirators, who com- ’
rnanded the coachman to flop on pain of inftant death.
They fired feveral fhot into the carrage, one of which
palled through the body of a heyduc, who endeavoured
to defend his mailer from the violence of the afiaffins.
Almoft all the other perfons who preceded and accom¬
panied his majefty were difperfed; the aid-de-camp
abandoned him, and attempted to conceal himfelf by
flight. Meanwhile the king had opened the door of
his carrriage with the defign of effedting Ids efcape un¬
der flicker of the night, which was extremely dark.
105
have been extinguilhed, fprang up afrelli, and increafed
to a prodigious degree. Phis xvas occafloned oy thtir
having been fecretly encouraged and fupplied with mo¬
ney by France. A great number of French officers en¬
gaged as volunteers in their fervicewho having intro¬
duced difeipline among their troops, they adled with
much greater vigour than formerly, and fometimes piov-
ed too hard for their enemies. Thefe gleams of fuccefs
proved at laft their total ruin. The Ruffians were rein¬
forced and properly fupported. The Auftrian and Pruf-
fian troops entered the country, and advanced on dif¬
ferent fides ; and the confederates found themfelves
in a ftiort time entirely furrounded .by their enemies,
who feemed to have nothing lefs in view than-an abfo-
lute conqueft of the country, and lharing it among them-
* I04 Before matters came to this crifis, however, the
SSSe confederates formed a delign of affairmating the kmK,
the king, 0n account of his fuppofed attachmen 0
dents. Of this Angular occurrence we have the fol¬
lowing account in the travels of Mr Coxe, communi¬
cated to the author by Mr Wraxall.— A Polifti noble¬
man, named Pulajki, a general in the army of the con¬
federates, was the perfon who planned the atrocious
enterprife; and the confpiraters who carried it into
execution were about 40 in number, and were headed
by three chiefs, named Luhawjh, Strawenjh, and Ao-
ftnfki. Thefe three chiefs had been engaged and hired
106
He had even alighted, when the affaffins feized him by
the hair, exclaiming in Polifli, with horrible execrations,
‘ We have thee now; thy hour is come.’ One of them
difeharged a piftol at him fo very near, that he felt the
heat of the flafli; while another cut him acrofs the
w with his fabre, which penetrated to the bone. ^ ^
They then laid hold of his majefty by the collar, and, ^
mounting on horfeback, dragged him along the ground
between their horfes at full gallop for near 500 paces
through the ftreets of Warfaw.
“ Soon finding, however, that he was incapable of
following them on foot, and that he had.already almoft
loft his reipiration from the violence with which they
had dragged him, they fet him on horfeback; and then
redoubled their fpeedfor fear of being overtaken. When
they came to the ditch which furrounds Warfaw, they
obliged him to leap his horfe over. In the attempt the
horfe fell twice, and at the fecond fall broke its leg.
They then mounted his majefty upon another, all cover¬
ed as he was with dirt.
“ The confpirators had no fooner croffed the ditch,;
than they began to rifle the king, tearing off the order
of the Black Eagle of Pruffia which he wore round his
neck, and the diamond crofs hanging to it. He requefl¬
ed them to leave his handkerchief,.which they confented
to: hi- tablets efeaped their rapacity. A great number
of the affaffins retired after having thus plundered him,
probably with intent to notify to their refpeaive leaders
ic7
.nd rilled*
igS
His pre¬
fence of
mind re¬
markable.
POL [7
Poland, the fucctfs uf their enterprife ; and the king’s anival as
—r * a prifoner. Only feven remained with him, of whom
Kofinlki was the chief. The night was exceedingly
dark $ they were abfolutely ignorant of the way ; and,
as the horfes could not keep their legs, they obliged his
majefty to follow them on foot, with only one Ihoe, the
other being loft in the dirt.'
“ They continued to wander through the open mea¬
dows, without following any certain path, and with¬
out getting to any diftance. from Warfaw. They again
mounted the king on horfeback, two of them holding
him on each fide by the hand, and a third leading his
horfe by the bridle. In this manner they were, pro¬
ceeding, when his majefty, finding they had taken the
road which led to a village called Burakow, warned
them not to enter it, becaufe there were feme Ruffians
ftationed in that place who might probably attempt to
refeu'e him (a). Finding himfelf, however, incapable
of accompanying the affaffms in the painful poflure
in which they held him kept down on the. faddle, he re-
quefted them, fince they were determined to oblige him
to proceed, at leaft to give him another horfe and a
boot. This requeft they complied with ; and conti¬
nuing their progrefs through almoft impaffable lands,
without any road, and ignorant of their way, they at
length found themfeives in the wood of Bielany, only
a league diftant from Warfaw. From the time they
had paffed the ditch they repeatedly demanded of Ko¬
finlki their chief, if it was not yet time to put the
king to death •, and thefe demands were reiterated in
proportion to the obftacles and difficulties they encoun¬
tered, till they were fuddenly alarmed by a Ruffian pa-
trole or detachment. Inftantly holding council, four
of them difappeared, leaving him with the other three,
who compelled him to walk on. Scarce a quarter of an
hour after, a fecond Ruffian guard challenged them
anew. Two of the affaffms then fled, and the king
remained alone with Kofinlki the chief, both on foot.
His majefty, exhaufted with all the fatigue which he
had undergone, implored his conductor to ftop, and
fuffer him to take a moment’s repofe. Kofinlki refu-
fed it, menacing him with his naked fabre ; and at the
fame time informed him, that beyond the wood they
ihould find a carriage. They continued their walk, till
they came to the door of the convent of Bielany. Ko¬
finlki appeared loft in thought, and fo much agitated by
Ids reflexions, that the king perceiving his diforder, and
obferving that he wandered without knowing the road,
faid to him, ‘ I fee you are at a lots which way to pro-
teed. Let me enter the convent of Bielany, and do you
provide for your own fafety.’ ‘ No (replied Kofinfki),
I have fworn.’
“ They proceeded till they came to Mariemont, a
fmall palace belonging to the boufe of Saxony, not
above half a league from Warfaw : here Kofiniki be-
9 1 . k o 1.
trayed fume fatisfaXion at finding where he was, and the Poland.,
king ftill demanding an inftant’s repofe, he cohfented v
at length. They fat down together on the ground, He g^s
and the king employed thefe moments in endeavouring over his
to foften his conduXor, and induce him to favour orcordudtor,
permit his efcane. His maiefty reprefented the atro-e^e(as ^1S,
city of the crime he had committed in attempting to 1 ’
murder his fovereign, and the invalidity of an oath ta¬
ken to perpetrate fo heinous an aXion : Kofinlki lent
attention to this difeourie, and began to betray fome
marks of remorfe. But (faid he), if I fhould confentand.
reconduX you to Warfaw, what will be the confe-
quence ? I ftiall be taken and {Executed ! I give you my
word (anfwered his majefty), that you fliall fuffer no
barm •, but if you doubt my promife, efcape while there
is yet time. I can find my way to fome place of fecu-
rity ; and I will certainly direX your purfuers to take
the contrary road to that which you have chofen. Ko¬
finlki could not any longer contain himfelf, but, throw¬
ing himfelf at the king’s feet, implored forgivenefs for
the crime he had committed ; and fwore to proteX him
againft every7 enemy, rely ing totally on his generofity
for pardon and prefervation. His majefty reiterated to
him his affurances of fafety. Judging, however, that
it was prudent to gain fome afylum without delay, and
recolltXing that there was a mill at fome confiderable
diftance, he immediately made towards it. Kofinlki
knocked, but in vain ; no anfwer was given : he then
broke a pane of glafs in the window, and intreated
for Ihelter to a nobleman who bad been plundered by
robbers. The miller refufed, fuppofing them to be
banditti, and continued for more than half an hour to
peril ft in his denial. At length the king approached,
and fpeaking through the broken pane, endeavoured to
perfuade him to admit them under his roof, adding, ‘ If
we were robbers, as you fuppofe, it would be very eafy
for us to break the whole window, inftead of one pane
of glafs.’ This argument prevailed. They at length
opened the door, and admitted his majefty. He im- ;
.mediately wrote a note to General Coccei, colonel of <
the foot-guards, informing him of his danger and mi¬
raculous efcape.
“ When the meffenger arrived with the note, the
aftonilhment and joy was incredible. Coccei inftantly
rode to the mill, followed by a detachment of the guards.
He met Kofinlki at the door with his fabre drawn,
who admitted him as foon as he,knew him. The king
had funk into a lleep, caufed by bis fatigue ; and was
ftretched on the ground, covered with the miller’s
cloak. Coccei immediately threw himfelf at his majef-
ty’s feet, calling him his lovereign, and killing his hand.
It is not eafy to paint or deferibe the aftoniftiment of the
miller and his family, who inftantly imitated Coccei’s
example, by throwing themfeives on their knees (b). -
The king returned to Warfaw in General Coccei’s car¬
riage.
(a) “ This intimation, which the king gave to his affaffms, may at firft fight appear extraordinary and un¬
accountable, but was really diXated by the greateft addrefs and judgment. He apprehended with reafon,
that, on the fight of a Ruffian guard, they would inftantly put him to death with their fabres, and fly ; where¬
as by informing them of the danger they incurred, he in fome meafure gained their confidence : in effeX, this
behaviour of the king feemed to foften them a little, and made them believe he did not mean to efcape froxru
them.”
“ I have been (fays Mr Wraxall) at this mill, rendered memorable by fo deplorable an event. It is a
wretched,-
POL
[ So ]
POL
Poland, riage, and reached the palace about five in the morning.
l" "v His wound was found not to be dangerous; and he foon
recovered from the bruifes and injuries which he had
fuffered during this memorable night. So extraordinary
an efcape is fcarce to be paralleled in hiftory, and affords
ample matter of wonder and furprife.
“ It is natural to inquire what is become of Kofinfki,
the man who faved his majefty’s life, and the other con-
fpirators. He was born in the palatinate of Cracow, and
of mean extraftion ; having affumed the name of Ko¬
finfki (c), which is that of a noble family, to give him-
felf credit. He had been created an officer in the troops
of the confederates under Pulafki. It would feem as if
Kofinfki began to entertain the idea of preferving the
king’s life from the time when Lukawfki and Stra-
wenfki abandoned him ; yet he had great ftruggles with
himfelf before he could refolve on this conduct, after the
folemn engagements into which he had entered. Even
after he had condudted the king back to Warfaw, he
expreffed more than once his doubts of the propriety of
what he had done, and fome remorfe for having decei¬
ved his employers. He was detained under a very ftritl
confinement, and obliged to give evidence againft his
two companions Lukawfki and Strawenfki, who were
beheaded, his majefty having obtained for them from
the diet a mitigation of the horrible punifhment which
the laws of Poland infli£t upon regicides. About a week
after the execution of thefe confpirators, Kofinfki was
lent out of Peland, after the king had fettled upon him
an annual penfion, which he enjoyed at Semigallia, in
1IO’ the papal territories.”
Is received Upon the king’s return to Warfaw he was received
at Warfaw wJtq) the utmoft demonftrations of joy. Every one ex-
monftra" with rapture, “ The king is alive!” and all ftrug-
tions of joy. to get near him, to kifs his hand, or even to touch
his clothes. But neither the virtues nor the popularity
of the fovereign could allay the fa£Hous fpirit of the
1IT Poles, nor prevent the difmemberment of his kingdom.
Partition of “ The partition of Poland was firft projedted by the
Poland pro- king of Pruffia. Polifh or Weftern Pruffia had long
jedled by fceen an 0bjedl of his ambition : exclufive of its fertility,
commerce, and population, its local fituation rendered
it highly valuable to that monarch ; it lay between his
German dominions and Eaftern Pruffia, and while pof-
feffed by the Poles, cut off at their will all communi¬
cation between them.” The period was now arrived
when the fituation of Poland feemed to promife the eafy
acquifition of this valuable province. Frederic pur-
fued it, however, with all the caution of an able poli¬
tician. On the commencement of the troubles, he
(bowed no eagernefs to interfere in the affairs of this
country; and although he had concurred Avith the em¬
press of Ruffia in raifing Stanifiaus Auguftus to the
throne of Poland, yet he declined taking any aftive
part in his favour againft the confederates. Afterwards,
when the whole kingdom became convulfed throughout
Avith civil commotions (1769), and defolated likewife
by the plague, he, under pretence of forming lines to
prevent the fpreading of the infection, advanced his
the king of
Pruffia,
troops into Polifti Pruffia, and occupied that whole di- Poland,
ftridt. ’ -v——^
Though now completely matter of the country, and , 112-
by no means apprehenfive of any formidable refiftance over
from the difunited and diftracted Poles, yet, as he tvas emperor
Avell aware that the fecurity of his new acquifition demand the
pended upon the acquiefcence of Ruffia and Auftria, he t0
planned the partition of Poland. He communicated fureSt
the project to the emperor, either upon their intervietv
at Niefs in Silefia in 1769, or in that of the following
year at NeAvftadt in Auftria ; from Avhom the overture
met with a ready concurrence. To induce the emprefs
of Ruffia to aequiefee in the fame project, he dilpatch-
ed his brother Henry to Peterfburg, who fuggetted to
the emprefs that the houfe of Aultria Avas forming an
alliance Avith the Porte, with Avhich fhe was then at
war ; that if fuch alliance took place, it would create a
moft formidable combination againft her; that, never-
thelefs the friendffiip of that houfe Avas to be purchafed
by acceding to the partition; that, upon this condition,
the emperor Avas Aviiling to renounce his connexion
Avith the Grand Signior, and Avould fuffer the Ruffians
to profecute the Avar Avithout interruption. Catharine,
anxious to puffi her conquefts againft the Turks, and
dreading the interpofition of the emperor in that quar¬
ter; perceiving likeAvife, from the intimate union be¬
tween the courts of Vienna and Berlin, that it would
not be in her power, at the prefent juncture, to preA'ent
the intended partition—elofed Avith the propofal, and
felefted no inconfiderable portion of the Polifh territo¬
ries for herfelf. The treaty Avas figned at Peterfburg
in the beginning of February 1772, by the-Ruffian,
Auftrian, and Pruffian plenipotentiaries. It Avould be
tedious to enter into a detail of the pleas urged by the
three powers in favour of their feveral demands ; it
Avould be no lefs uninterefting to lay before the reader
the anfwers and remonftrances of the king and fenate, as
Avell as the appeals to the other ftates Avhich had guaran- II3
teed the poffeflions of Poland. The courts of London, Poland dif-
Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, remonftrated againft membered.
the ufurpations ; but remonftrances Avithout affiftance
could be of no effeft. Poland fubmitted to the difmem¬
berment not without the moft violent ftruggles ; and
now for the firft time felt and lamented the fatal effefts
of fadtion and difeord.
A diet being demanded by the partitioning poAvers,
in order to ratify the ceflion of the provinces, it met on
the 19th of April 1773 ; and fuch Avas the fpirit of the
members, that, notAvithftand'.ng the deplorable fituation
of their country, the threats and bribes of the three
powers, the partition-treaty Avas not carried through
without much difficulty. For fome time the majo¬
rity of the nuncios appeared determined to oppofe the
difmemberment, and the king firmly perfifted in the
fame refolution. The ambaffadors of the three courts
enforced their requifitions by the moft alarming menaces,
and threatened the king with depofidon and imprifon-
ment. They alfo gave out by their emiffaries, that in
cafe the diet continued refraftory, WarfaAV ffiould be
pillaged.
Avretched Poliffi hovel, at a diftance from any houfe. The king has reAvarded the miller to the extent of his
withes, in building him a mill upon the Viftula, and alloAving him a fmall penfion.”
(c) His real name was John Kutfma.
Poland.
u 4
Provinces
feized by
the three
partition¬
ing powers
IIS
i'he kings
)f Poland
u-iginally
rerecTitary
116
ifterwards
ledlive.
Tniverfal
Jijlory.
POL [
pillaged. This report was induftrioufly circulated, and
made a fenfible impreffion upon the inhabitants. By
menaces of this fort, by corrupting the tnarlhal of the
diet, who was accompanied with a Ruffian guard j in a
word, by bribes, promifes, and threats, the members of
the diet were at length prevailed on to ratify the dif-
memberment.
Of the difmemhered countries, the Ruffian province
is the larged, the Auftrian the mod populous, and the
Pruffian the mod commercial. The population of the
whole amounts to near 5,000,000 fouls ; the fird con¬
taining 1,500,000, the fecond 2,500,000, and the third
860,000. Wedern Prudia was the greated lofs to Po¬
land, as by the difmemberment of that province the na¬
vigation of the Vidula entirely depends upon the king
of Pruffia : by the lofs confequently of this didriift a fa-
■tal blow ivas given to the trade of Poland •, for his Pruf-
iian majedy has laid fuch heavy duties upon the mer-
chandife paffing to Dantzic, as greatly to diminiffi the
commerce of that town, and to transfer a confiderable
portion of it to Memel and Koniglhurg.
The partitioning powers, however, did lefs injury to
the republic by difmembering its faired provinces, than
in perpetuating the principles of anarchy and confu-
fion, and edabliffiing on a permanent footing that exor¬
bitant liberty which is the parent «f faction, and has
proved the decline of the republic. Under pretence of
amending the conditution, they have confirmed all its
defeds, and have taken effedual precautions to render
this unhappy country incapable of emerging from its
prefent deplorable date, as has been lately feen in the
failure of the mod patriotic attempt that was perhaps
ever made by a king to reform the conditution of his
kingdom.
The kings of Poland were anciently hereditary and
abfolute ; but afterwards became eledive and limited,
as we find them at this day. In the reign of Louis, to¬
wards the end of the 14th century, feveral limitations
were laid on the royal prerogative. In that of Cafi-
mir IV. ivho afcended the throne in 1446, reprefenta-
tives from the feveral palatinates were fird called to the
diet ; the legiflative power till then having been lodged
in the dates, and the executive in the king and fenate.
On the deceaie of Sigifmund Augudus, it was enaded
by law, “ I hat the. choice of a king for the future
ffiould perpetually remain free and open to all the nobles
of the kingdom which law has accordingly been hi¬
therto obferved.
“ As foon as the throne Is vacant, all the courts of
judice, and other ordinary fprings of the machine of go¬
vernment, remain in a date of inadion, and all the au¬
thority is transferred to the primate, who, in quality of
interrex, has in fome refpeds more power than the king
himfelf ^ and yet the republic takes no umbrage at it,
becaufe. he has not time to make himfelf formidable.
He notifies the vacancy of the throne to foreign prin¬
ces, which is in effed proclaiming that a crown is to be
difpofed of; he ilTues the unwerfa/ia, or circular letters
for the eledion ; gives orders to the darods (a fort of
military officers who have great authority, and whofe
proper bufinefs it is to levy the revenue) to keep a drid
■guard upon the fortified places, and to the grand-gene¬
rals to do the fame upon the frontiers, towards which
“the army marches.
“ The place of eledion is the field ofWola, at the
Vol. XVII. Part I.
81 ] P O L
gates of Warfaw. All the nobles of the kingdom have Poland,
a right of voting. The Poles encamp on the left fide ~
of the Vidula, and the Lithuanians on the right,- each pi^.^nd
under the banners of their refpedive palatinates, which manner of
makes a fort of civil army ; confiding of between a bun- tte elec-
dred and fifty and two hundred thouiand men, atiem-1'00-
bled to exercife the higheft ad of freedom. Thofe who
are not able to provide a horfe and a labr< dand behind
on foot, armed with fcythes, and do not item at all lefs
proud than the red, as they have the fame right 01 vo-
ting-f
“ The field of eledion is furrounded by a ditch with
three gates, in order to avoid confufion, one to the
ead for Great Poland, another to the fouth for Little
Poland, and a third to the wed for Lithuania. In the
middle of the field, which is called Ko/au, is ereded a
great building of wood, named the fzopa or hall for
the fenate, at whofe debates the deputies are prefent,
and carry the refult of them to the feveral palatinates.
1 he part which the marlhal ads upon this ocaafion is
very important ; for, being the mouth of the nobility,
he has it in his power to do great fervifce to the candi¬
dates; he is alio to draw up the indrument of eledion,
and the king eled mud take it only from his hand.
“ It is prohibited, upon pain of being declared a pu¬
blic enemy, to appear at the eledion with regular
troops, in order to avoid all violence. But the nobles,
who are always armed with pidols and fabres, commit
violence againd one another, at the time that they cry
out ‘ liberty !’
“ All who afpire openly to the crown are exprefsly
excluded from the field of eledion, that their prefence
may not condrain the voters. The king mud be eled-
ed nemine contradicente, by all the fuffrages without ex¬
ception. The law is founded upon this principle, that
when a great family adopts a father, all the children
have a right to be pleafed. The idea is plaufiblein fpe-
culation ; but if it was rigoroufly kept to, Poland could
have no fuch thing as a lawful king. X hey therefore
give up a real unanimity, and content themfelves with
the appearance of it ; or rather, if the law, which pre-
feribes it, cannot be fulfilled by means of money, they
call in the affidance of the fabre.
“ Before they come to this extremity, no eledion
can pouibly be carried on with more order, decency,
and appearance of freedom. Xhe primate in few words
recapitulates to the nobles on horieback the re'fpedive
merits of the candidates ; he exhorts them to choofe
the mod worthy, invokes heaven, gives his bleffing to
the aflembly, and remains alone with the marfhal of
the diet, while the fenators difperfe themfelves into the
feveral palatinates, to promote an unanimity of fenti-
ments. If they fucceed, the primate goes himfelf to
coiled the votes, naming once more all the candidates.
‘ Szoda (anfwer the nobles), that is the man we choofe j’
and indantly the air refounded with his name, with cries
of mvat', and the noife of pidols. If all the palatines
agreed in their nominations, the primate got on horfe-
back ; and then the profoundeft filence fucceeding to the
greated noife, he atked three times if all were fatisfied ?
and after a general approbation, three times proclaim¬
ed the king ; and the grand-mardial of the crown re¬
peated the proclamation three times at the three nates
of the camp. How glorious a king this, if endued with
royal qualities ! and how incontedable his title in the
fuffrages
POL [8
Poland, fuftrages of a whole people ! But this Iketch of a free
Poland.
118
The pachz
convent a.
iUUiayrJB UJ. tl . 
and peaceable eledion is by no means a repreientation
of what ufually happened. The corruption of the great,
the fury of the people, intrigues and fadions, the gold
and the arms of foreign powers, frequently filled the
fcene with violence and blood.”
Before the king was proclaimed, the paBa conventa
was read aloud to him, which on his knees at the altar
he fwore to obferve. As this contrail, which was drawn
up, methodized, and approved, by the fenate and no¬
bility, was deemed the great charter of Poland, we 1 hall
enumerate the principal articles of which it confined.
Thefe are, that the king fliould not attempt to en¬
croach on the liberty of the people, by rendering the
crown hereditary in his family •, but that he Ihould pre-
ferve all the cuftoms, laws, and ordonnances, relpectxng
the freedom of ekaion: that he Ihould ratify all treaties
fubfifting with foreign powers which were approved by
the diet : that it Ihould be his chief ftudy to cultivate
peace, preferve the public tranquillity, and promote the
interell of the realm : that he Ihould not coin money
except in the name of the republic, or appropriate to
himfelf the advantages arifing from coinage : that n
declaring war, concluding peace, making levies, hiring
auxiliaries, or admitting foreign troops upon any Pr«-
text within the Polifii dominions, the conlent ot the
diet and fenate fliould be neceffary : that all offices and
preferments ftiould be given to the natives of Poland and
Lithuania-, and that no pretence ftiould excufe or palli¬
ate the crime of introducing foreigners into the king s
council or the departments of the republic : that the ot-
ficers of his majefty’s guards fliould be Poles or Lithu¬
anians : and that the colonel fliould abfolutely be a na¬
tive of Poland, and of the order of nobility : that all
the officers ftiould be fubordinate to the authority ot the
marefchal: that no individual ftiould be verted with
more employments than the law allows : that the king
fliould not marry without the approbation of the ienate ;
and that the houfehold of the queen fliould be determin¬
ed and regulated by the republic : that the fovereign
ftiould never apply his private fignet to a^s and papers
of a public nature : that the king ftiould dilpofe of the
offices both of the court and of the republic 5 and re¬
gulate with the fenate the number of forces neceflary
ffir the defence of the kingdom: that he fhould ad-
minifter iuftice by the advice of the fenate and his coun¬
cil : that the expences of his civil lift fhould be the
fame with thofe of his predeceffors : that he ffiould fill
up all vacancies in the fpace of fix weeks : that this
ffiould be his firft bufmefs in the diet, _ obliging the
ehancellor to publifti his appointments in due form :
that the king fliould not dimimffi the treafure kept at
Cracow but, on the contrary, endeavour to augment
that and the number of the crown-jewels : that he
ffiould borrow no money without the confent of the
diet • that he ffiould not equip a naval force without
the confent and full approbation of the republic : that
he ffiould profefs the Roman Catholic faith, promote,
maintain, and defend it, through all the Pohffi do¬
minions : and finally that all their
rights, and privileges, ffiould be Fefervf t0^et^oladn.'
ders and Lithuanians in general, and to a11 the d'-
ftrias and provinces contained within each of thefe
great divifions, without change, alteration, 01 the fmal-
eit violation, except bf the conlent of the republic. I
2 ] POL
thefe articles a variety of others were added,^ accord-
fficr to circumftances and the humour of the diet but v—'
what we have recited formed the Handing conditions,
which were fcarcely ever altered or omitted. ^ tJ9
The diet of Poland was compofed ol the king, the The diet of
fenate, bifhops, and the deputies of the nobility or gen-Poland, and
try of every palatinate, called, in their colledive capa¬
city, comitia togata, that is, when the ftates affembled
in the city without arms and horfes ; or comiiia paluda-
ta when they met in the fields armed, as during an in¬
terregnum, at the diet of ekaion. It was a prerogative
of the crown to affemble the diet at any particular place,
except on occafion of a coronation, which the cuftom
of the country required ffiould be celebrated at the ca¬
pital. For a number of years, indeed, the diet regu¬
larly affenffikd at Warfaw 5 but, on complaint made by
the Lithuanians, it was agreed, that every third diet
rtiould be held at Grodno. “ When it is propofed to
hold a general diet, the king, or, in cafe of an inter¬
regnum, the primate, iffued writs to the palatines ol the
feveral provinces, fpecifying the time and place of the
meeting: A Iketch likewiie was fent of the bufinels to
be deliberated on by the affembly J the fenate was con-
fulted in this particular, and fix weeks were allowed the
members to prepare themfelves for the intended lefliom
It is remarkable, that the diet never fat more than fix
weeks in the moft critical conjunaures and preffing
emergencies: they have been known to break up in the
middle of an important debate, and to leave the bufineis
to a future meeting. This cuftom has been juftly ef-
teemed one of the greateft dekas of the Poliffi confti-
tution, which probably owed its origin to convenience,
but was afterwards fuperftitioufly obferved from whim
and caprice. On receipt of the king’s writ, the pala¬
tine communicated the meeting of the diet to all the
caftellans, ftaroftas, and other inferior officers and gen¬
try within his jurifdiaion, requiring the into affemble on
a certain day to eka deputies, and take into confidera-
tion the bufinefs fpecified in the royal fummons. 1 hek ffietmes.
meetings were called petty diets, dietines, or lantage, \\\
the language of the country every gentleman pofldfing
three acres of land having a vote, and matters being de¬
termined by a majority whereas in the general diet de¬
crees were only valid when the whole body was unani¬
mous. Every palatinate had three reprefentatives,
though the bufinefs devolved on one called a nuncio,
who was ekded for his ability and experience j and the
other two were added only to give weight to this leading-
member, and do honour by their magnificent appearance
to the palatinate they reprefented. As thefe deputies,
fince the reign of Cafimir III. had feats in the diet it
naturally divided the general affembly into two bodies,
the upper and lower the one being compofed of he
fenate, the fuperior clergy, and the great officers ; the
other of the reprefentatives of the palatinates, who pre¬
pared all bufinefs for the fuperior body.
1 The firft bufinefs of the affembly was to choole a
marefchal j upon which occafion the debates and tu¬
mults ran fo high, that the whole time for the feffion
of the diet was often confumed in altercation and wrang-
line about the ekaion of a fpeaker, who had now no¬
thing farther to do than return quietly to his own home.
After his ekaion, he kiffed the king’s hand ; and the
chancellor, as the royal reprefentative, reported the mat¬
ters to be deliberated by the diet. Then the marefchal
Poland.
ferved in
the diet.
121
The lihe-
ruin veto.
POL [
acquainted the king with the inftrunions of the deputies
from their conftituents, the grievances which they would
have redreffed, and the abufes they required to be reme¬
died. He likewife requefted of his majelty to fill up the
vacant offices and benefices, according to law •, and he
was anfwered by a fet fpeech from the chancellor, who
reported the king’s inclination to fatisfy his people, as
I2I foon as he had eonfulted his faithful fenate. There was
Abfurd cuf-fomething very peculiarly abfurd in lome of the cuftoms
toms ob- obferved by the Poliffi diet: one in particular merits at¬
tention. Not only an unanimity of voices was neceffary
to pafs any bill, and conftitute a decree of the diet, but
every bill mutt likewile be allented to uuanimoufly, or
none can take effect. Thus, if out of twenty bills one
happened to be oppofed by a fingle voice, called /i-
bcrum veto, all the rett were thrown out, and the diet
met, deliberated, and debated, for fix weeks, to no pur-
pofe.
“ To add to the other inconveniences that attended
the conttitution of the diet of Poland, a fpirit of venali¬
ty in the deputies, and a general corruption, had feized
all ranks and degrees in that afTembly. ihere, as in
fome other countries, the cry of liberty was kept up for
the fake of private intereft. Deputies came with a full
refolution of profiting by their patriotifm, and not
lowering their voice without a gratification. Deter¬
mined to oppofe the moft falutary meafures of the court,
they either withdrew from the afiembly, protefted againft
all that ftiould be tranfa&ed in their abfence, or elfe ex¬
cited fucb a clamour as rendered it necellary for the
court to filence them by fome lucrative penfion, dona¬
tion, or employment. Thus not only the bufinefs of
the affembly was obftru&ed by its own members, but
frequently by largeffes from neighbouring powers, and
fometimes by the liberality of an open enemy, who had
the art of dittributing his money with diferetion.
“ Perhaps the moft refpeftable department of the
Polifh government rvas the fenate, compofed of the bi-
fhops, palatines, caftellans, and ten officers of ft ate, who
derived a right from their dignities of fitting in that af¬
fembly j in all amounting to 144 members, who w’ere
ftyled fenators of the kingdom or counfellors of the fate,
and had the title of excellency, a dignity fupported by
no penfion or emoluments neceffarily annexed. The fe¬
nate prefided over the laws, was the guardian of liberty,
the judge of right, and the protedlor of juftice and
oquity. All the members, except the biffi ps, who
were fenators ex officio, w'ere nominated by the king, and
they took an oath to the republic before they were per¬
mitted to enter upon their fumftions. Their honours
eontinued for life : at the general diet they fat on the
right and left of the fovereign, according to their dig¬
nity, without regard to feniority. They were the me¬
diators between the monarch and the fubjeft, and, in
♦onjunftion with the king, ratified all the laws patted by
the nobility. As a fenator was bound by oath to main¬
tain the liberties of the republic, it was thought no dif-
refpeft to majefty that they reminded the prince of his
duty. They were his counfellors, and this freedom of
fpeech was an infeparable prerogative of their office.”
Such was the conftitution of Poland before it was
new-modelled by the partitioning powers. That it ■was
a very bad conftitution needs no proof; but thofe fo¬
reign reformers did not improve it. For two centuries
a£ leaftj the Poles had with great propriety denomina-
Poiancl.
123
The fenate
of Poland.
83 ] POL
ted their government a republic, becauie the king was
fo exceedingly limited in his prerogative, that he refem- v
bled more the chief of a commonwealth than the fove- I24
reign of a powerful monarchy. That prerogative, al-The perma-
ready too confined to afford protection to the peafants, r‘ent coub-
groaning under the ariftucratic tyranny of the nobles, ol‘
was, after the partition treaty, ftill further reftrained by
the eftabliffiment of the permanent council, which was
veiled with the whole executive authority, leaving to
the fovereign nothing but the name. L he permanent
council confifted of 36 perfons, elected by the diet out
of the different orders of nobility ; and though the king,
when prefent, prefided in it, he could not exert a fingle
a£t of power but with theconfent of the majority of per¬
fons, who might well be called his colleagues.
That the virtuous and accomplilhed Staniflaus ffiould
labour to extricate himfelf and the great body of the
people from fuch unparalleled oppreffion, and that the
more refpedlable part of the nation Ihould wilh to give
to themfelves and their pofterity a better form of go¬
vernment, was furely very natural and very meritorious.
The influence of the partitioning powers was indeed ex¬
erted to make the king contented with his fituation.
His revenues, which before did not exceed 100,000!.
were now increafed to three times that fum. I he re¬
public likewife agreed to pay his debts, amounting to
upwards of 400,000!. It bellowed on him alfo, in
hereditary pofl'effion, four ftarofties, or governments of
caftles, with the diftri61s belonging to them ; and re-
imburfed him of the money he had laid out for the ftate.
It was alfo agreed, that the revenues of the republic
Ihould be enhanced to 33 millions of florins (near two
millions fterling), and the army Ihould confift of 30,000
men. Soon after the conclufion of the peace with Tur¬
key, the emprefs of Ruffia alfo made the king a prefent
of 2<[0,000 rubies, as a compenfation for that part of
his dominions which fell into her hands. 125
Thefe bribes, however, were not lufficient to blind ne^v C01Ti!!
the eyes of Stanillaus, or to cool the ardour of his Pa" ertablifliecl
triotifm. He laboured for pofterity, and with fuch ap-;n j^pj.
parent fuccefs, that on the 3d of May I791* a new con¬
ftitution of the government of Poland was eftablilhed
by the king, together with the confederate Hates af-
fembled in double number to reprefent the Pnlilh nation.
That this was a perfefl conftitution, we are far from
thinking *, but it was probably as perfuft as the invete¬
rate prejudices of the nobles would admit of. It devi¬
ated as little as poffible from the old forms, and was
drawn up in 11 articles, refpefting the government of
the republic; to which were added 21 fe£Hons, regula¬
ting the dietines or primary affemblies of Polar d. j2'6
Of this conftitution, the firft article t ftabliffied the Subftance
Roman Catholic faith, with all its privileges and immu
nities, as the dominant national religion; g,ailting
all other people, of whatever perfuafion, peace in mat¬
ters of faith, and the proteflion of government. '1 he
feeond article guaranteed to the nobility or the equeftri-
an order, all the privileges which it enjoyed under the
kings of the houfe of Jsgellon. The third and fourth
articles granted to the free royal towns internal jurisdic¬
tions of their own ; and exempted the peafants from fla-
very, declaring every man free as foon as he fet his foot
on the territory of the republic.. The fifth article, after
declaring, that in civil fociety all pov er flieuld be deriv¬
ed from the will of the people, enacled that the govern-
L 2 raent
Potanc!.
127
The diet to
confift of
two houfes,
viz. the
houfe of
nuncios,
128
and the
houfe of
fenate.
POL [84
ment of the Poliih nation fhould be compofed of three
diftinft powers, the legislative, in the dates affembled ;
the executive, in the king and the council of infpeftion *,
and the judicial power, in the jurifdi&ions exiiling, or
to be eftabliflied. The fixth and feventh articles, as be¬
ing of more importance, we fhall give in the words of
the conftitution itfelf.
VI. The Diet, or the legijlativepower, (hall be divid¬
ed into two houfes, viz, the houfe of nuncios, or deputies,
and the houfe of fenate, where the king is to prefide.
The former being the reprefentative and central point
of fupreme national authority, fhall poiTefs the pre-emi¬
nence in the legiflature •, therefore all bills are to be
decided firft in this houfe.
1. All General Laws, viz. conftitutional, civil, cri¬
minal, and perpetual taxes ■, concerning which matters,
the king is to iiliie his propofitions by the circular let¬
ters fent before the dietines to every palatinate and
to every dill rift for deliberation, which coming before
the houfe with the opinion expreffed in the initruftions
given to their reprefentatives, (hall be taken the firft
for decifion.
2. Particular Laws, viz. temporal taxes; regulations
of the mint; contrafting public debts ; creating nobles,
and other cafual recompenfes ; reparation ®f public ex-
pences, both ordinary and extraordinary •, concerning
war 5 peace 5 ratification of treaties, both political and
commercial ■, all diplomatic afts and conventions rela¬
tive to the laws of nations •, examining and acquitting
different executive departments, and fimilar fubjefts ari-
fing from the accidental exigencies and circumftances of
the ftate ; in which the propofitions, coming direftly
from the throne into the houfe of nuncios, are to have
preference in difcuftion before the private bills.
In regard to the houfe of fenate, it is to confift of
bifhops, palatines, eaftellans, and minifters, under the
prefidency of the king, who (hall have but one vote, and
the calling voice in cafe of parity, which he may give
either perfonally, or by a meffage to the houfe. Its
power and duty fhall be,
1. Every general law that paffes formally through
the houfe of nuncios, is to be fent immediately to this,
which is either accepted, or fufpended till further nation¬
al deliberation, by a majority of votes, as prefcribed by
law. If accepted, it becomes a law in all its force ; if
fufpended, it (ball be refumed at the next diet •, and if it
is then agreed to again by the houfe of nuncios, the fe¬
nate muft fubmit to it.
2. Every particular law or ftatute of the diet in mat¬
ters above fpecified, as foon as it has been determined
by the houfe of nuncios, and fent up to the fenate, the
votes of both hnufes fhall be jointly computed, and the
majority, as defcribed by law, (hall be confidered as a
decree and the will of the nation. Thofe fenators and
minifters who, from their (hare in executive power, are
accountable to the republic, cannot have an aftive voice
in the diet, but may be prefent, in order to give necef-
fary explanations to the dates.
Thefe ordinary legiflative diets fhall have their unin¬
terrupted exiftence, and be alwa's ready to meet ; re¬
newable every two years. The I n ■ of (efimns (lia’l
be determined bv the law conc< ruing d^ef''. If con en
ed >ut of ordinary fe lion up. ; iomt urgent occa-'on.
they fhall only deliberate on the (ubjeft which occafion-
] POL
ed fuch a call, or on circumftances which may arife out Poland;
No law or ftatute enafted by fuch ordinary diet can
be altered or annulled by the fame. The complement
of the diet (hall be compofed of the number of perfons
in both houies to be determined hereafter.
The law concerning the dietines or primary eleftions,
as eftabliflied by the prefent diet, (hall be regarded as a
moft effential foundation of civil liberty. 129
The majority of votes fhall decide every thing, and The iibe~
everywhere j therefore we abolifh, and utterly annihi-
late, liberum veto, all forts of confederacies and confede- a ) eu*
rate diets, as contrary to the fpirit of the prefent con¬
ftitution, as undermining the government, and as being
ruinous to fociety.
Willing to prevent, on one hand, violent and fre¬
quent changes in the national conftitution, yet, confider-
ing on the other, the neceffity of perfefting it, after
experiencing its effefts on public profperity, we, deter- I^Q
mine the period of every 25 years for an extraordinary £xtr;ionii.
conftitutional diet, to be held purpofely for the revifion nary diet
and fuch alterations of the conftitution as may be found for revifing,
requifite : which diet (hall be circumferibed by a fepa- thf.conftl*
rate law hereafter.
VII. The moft perfeft government cannot exift or
laft without an efft-ftual executive power. The happi-
nefs of the nation depends on juft laws, but the good
effefts of laws flow only from their execution. Ex¬
perience has taught us, that the neglefting this effen¬
tial part of government has overwhelmed Poland with
difafters.
Having, therefore, feeured to the free Polifh nation
the right of enafting laws for themfelves, the fupreme 1~1
infpeftion over the executive power, and the choice of Powers of
their magiftrates, we entruft to the king and his coun d'‘e klllg
cil the higheft power of executing the laws. This
council (hail be called Jlraz, or the council of infpec- t,;on_
tion.
The duty of fuch executive power fhall be to watch
over the laws, and to fee them ftriftly executed accor¬
ding to their import, even by the means of public force,
fhould it be neceffary. All departments and magiftra-
cies are bound to obey its direftions. To this power
we leave the right of controlling fuch as are refraftory,
or of pun:thing fuch as are negligent in the execution
of their refpeftive office's.
This executive power cannot affume the right of ma¬
king laws, or of their interpretation. It is exprefsly
forbidden to contraft public debts to alter the repar¬
tition of the national income, as fixed by the diet ; to
declare war ; to conclude definitively any treaty, or any
diplomatic aft ; it is only allowed to carry on negocia-
tions with foreign courts, and facilitate temporary oc¬
currences, always with reference to the diet.
The crown of Poland we declare to be eleftive in re- .. J'L
gard to families, and xt is fettled (o for ever. iedtive in
Having experienced the fatal effefts of interregna-, n-gard to
periodically fubverting government, and being defirous families;
of preventing for ever all foreign influence, as well as of ^
infuring to every citizen a perfeft tranquillity, we have, ^ut }Hre.
from prudent motives, refolved to adopt hereditary (ue- ditary in _
ceffion to our throne : therefore we enaft and declare-, each tanmy
that, after the expiration of our life, according to the^1^^'
gracious will of the Almighty, the prefent eleftor of ‘
Saxony
Poland.
134.
Coronation
oath.
I3S
King’s per-
POL [85
Saxony (liall reign over Poland, and in his perfon (hall
the dynafty of future kings of Poland begin. We re-
ferve to the nation, however, the right of electing to
the throne any other houfe or family, after the extinc¬
tion of the firft.
Every king, on his acceflion to the throne, fhali take
a folemn oath to God and the nation, to fupport the
prefent conftitution, to fulfil the paBa conventa, which
will be fettled with the prefent eleftor of Saxony, as ap¬
pointed to the crown, and which fhall bind him in the
fame manner as former ones.
The king’s perfon is facred and inviolable; as no aft
ton kicred; can proceed immediately from him, he cannot be in any
manner refponfible to the nation 5 he is not an abfolute
monarch, but the father and the head of the people ; his
revenues, as fixed by the paBa conventa, fhall be facred-
ly preferved. All public afts, the afts of magiftracies,
I^(j and the coin of the kingdom, fhall bear his name.
His partial- The king, who ought to poffefs every power of doing
lar powers, good, fhall have the right of pardoning thofe that are
condemned to death, except the crimes be againft the
flate. In time of war, he fhall have the fupreme com¬
mand of the national forces : he may appoint the com¬
manders of the army, however, by the will of the dates.
It fhall be his province to patentee officers in the army,
and other dignitaries, confonant to the regulations here¬
after to be expreffed, to appoint biffiops, fenators, and
minifters, as members of the executive power.
Members of ^ ^in8,s council of infpeftion is to confift, 1. Of
the council the primate, as the head of the clergy, and the prefident
infpec- of the commiffion of education, or the firft biffiop in or-
dine. 2. Of five minifters, viz. the minifter of police,
minifter of juftice, minifter of war, minifter of finances,
and minifter for the foreign affairs. 3. Of two fecreta-
ries to keep the protocols, one for the council, another
for the foreign department \ both, however, without de-
cifive vote. The hereditary prince coming of age, and
having taken the oath to preferve the conftitution, may
affift at all feffions of the council, but fhall have no vote
therein. The marfhal of the diet, being chofen for two
themarflral. years, has alfo a right to fit in this council, without ta¬
king any fhare in its refolves j for the end only to call
together the diet, always exifting, in the following cafe :
fhould he deem, from the emergencies hereunder fpeci-
fied, the convocation of the diet abfolutely neceffary,
and the king refufing to do it, the marfhal is bound to
iflue his circular letters to all nuncios and fenators, ad¬
ducing real motives for fuch meeting.
The cafes demanding fuch convocation of the diet are
the following : 1. In a preffing neceffity concerning the
law of nations, and particularly in cafe of a neighbour¬
ing war. 2. In cafe of an internal commotion, mena¬
cing with the revolution of the country, or of a collifion
between magiftrates. 3. In an evident danger of gene¬
ral famine. 4. In the orphan ftate of the country, by
demife of the king, or in cafe of the king’s dangerous
illnefs. All the refolutions of the council of infpeftion
are to be examined by the rules above mentioned. The
king’s opinion, after that of every member in the coun¬
cil has been heard, fhall decifively prevail. Every re-
folution of this council fhall be iflued under the king’s
fignature, counterfigned by one of the minifters fitting
therein ; and thus figned, ifliall be obeyed by all execu¬
tive departments, except in cafes exprefsly exempted by
the prefent conftitution^
Po'and.
tion.
I38
Power-, of
] POL
Should all the members refufe their counterfign h
any refolution, the king is obliged to forego his opinion ;
but if he fhould perfift in it, the marfhal of the diet may
demand the convocation of the diet; and if the king
will not, the marfhal himfelf fhall fend his circular let¬
ters as above. Minifters compofing this council cannot
be employed at the fame time in any other commiffion
or department.
If it fhould happen that two-thirds of fecret votes in
both houfes demand the changing of any perfon, either
in the council, or any executive department, the king
is bound to nominate another. Willing that the coun¬
cil of infpeftion fhould be refponfible to the nation for
their aftions, we decree, that when thefe minifters are
denounced and accufed before the diet (by the fpecial
committee appointed for examining their proceedings)
of any tranfgreffion of pofitive law, they are anfwerable
with their perfons and fortunes. Such impeachments be¬
ing determined by a fimple majority of votes, collefted
jointly from both houfes, fhall be tried immediately by
the comitial tribunal, where the accufed are to receive
their final judgment and punifhment, if found guilty j
or to be honourably acquitted on fufficient proof of in¬
nocence.
In order to form a neceffary organization of the exe- Comrmf-
cutive power, we eftablifh hereby feparate eommiffions, fions of e-
connefted with the above council, andfubjefted to obey ducation,
its ordinations. Thefe commiffions are, J. Of educa-Polke’^
tion ; 2. Of police ; 3. Of war ; 4. Of treafury. It is
through the medium of thefe four departments that all
the particular orderly commiffions, as eftablifhed by the
prefent diet, in every palatinate and diftrift, fhall depend
on, and receive all orders from, the council of infpeftion,
in their refpedlive duties and occurrences.
The eighth article regulates the adminiftration of juf- Admmi-
tice, beginning with a very fenfible declaration, that the ftration of '
judicial power is incompatible with the legiflative, and j11 ft ice.
that it cannot be adminiftered by the king. It there¬
fore conftitutes primary courts of juftice for each palati¬
nate or diftrift, compofed of judges chofen at the dife-
tine ; and appoints higher tribunals, ereftedone in eaoh
of the three provinces into which the kingdom is di¬
vided, with which appeals may be lodged from the pri¬
mary courts. It appoints likewife for the trial of per¬
fons accufed of crimes againft the ftate, one fupreme ge¬
neral tribunal for all claffes, called a comitial tribunal
or court, compofed of perfons chofen at the opening
of every diet. The ninth article provides a regency p f141
during the king’s minority, in cafe of his fettled alie- tertab ot”*
nation of reafon, or upon the emergency of his being cations,
made a prifoner of war. This regency was to be com¬
pofed of the council of infpeftion, with the queen at
their head, or, in her abfenee, the primate of the king¬
dom. The tenth article enjoins, that the education of
the king’s fons ffiall be entrufted to the king with the
council, and a tutor appointed by the ftates j and the
eleventh regulates the army in fuch a manner, as to
prevent it from being employed to overturn the confti¬
tution.
The regulation of the dietines contains nothing that
can be interefting to a Britifti reader, except what re¬
lates to the eleftion and duties of nuncios or reprefenta- 1st
tives to the general diet. And here it is enafted, that f
perfons having a right to vote are all nobles of t1'?
equeftrian order ; i. e. I. All hereditary proprietoi
la-
p ° L t
Poland, landed property, or poffeffed of eftates by adjudication
v  for a debt, paying territorial tax to government: ions
alfo of inch proprietors during the life of their parents,
before the ex-divifion of patrimony. 2. Brothers inhe¬
riting eftates before they have (hared their fucceflion.
3. All mortgages who pay 100 florins (50 (hillings) of
territorial tax per year from their pofleflions. 4. All
life-holders of lands paying territorial tax to the lame
amount. 5. All nobles in the army poffeffed of fuch
qualifying eftates have a vote in their refpedhve diftndts
in time of peace, and properly turloughed by their com¬
manders. 6. Legal poffeflion is underftood to be quali¬
fying when it has been formerly acquired and aflually
enjoyed for twelve calendar months previoufly.^
Perfons who have no right to vote are, 1. -Thole of
the equeftrian order that are not a&ually poffeffed of a
property, as defcribed in the foregoing article. 2. Such
as hold royal, eccleliaftical, or noble lands, even with
right of inheritance, but on condition of fome duty or
payment to their principals, confequently dependent
thereon. 3. Gentry poffefling eftates on feudal tenure,
called orch/nackie, as being bound to certain perfonal fer-
vice thereby. 4. All renters of eftates that have no
other qualifying property. 5. Thofe that have not ac-
compliftied 18 years of age. 6. Cnmine notati, and
thofe that are under a decree paffed in default, even
in the firft inftance, for having difobeyed any judicial
court. , , . .
'Perfome- Every perfon of the equeftrian order that pays tern-
ligible and torial tax to government for his freehold, let it be ever
not eligi- f0 fmall, is eligible to all ele&ive offices in his reipettive
diftridf. „ n- r
Gentlemen adlually ferving in the army, even poilei-
fed of landed hereditary eftate, mutt have ferved fix com¬
plete years before they are eligible t@ the office (ft a
nuncio only. But this condition is difpenfed with m
favour of thofe that have filled before fome public
fundtion. 1 j- *•
Whoever is not perfonally prefent at the dietme *,
whoever has nut completed 23 years of age j whoever
has not been in any public funaion, nor paffed the bien¬
nial office of a commiffary in the orderly commithon *,
thofe that are not exempted by law from obligations of
[carta bellatus, which fubjefts all newly-nobilitated per-
fons to certain civil reftriaions until the next genera¬
tion j and, laftly, all thofe againft whom may be ob-
jeaed a decree in contumaciam in a civil caufe } are not
IDuring the bufinefs of eleaion, the prefident who
opened the meeting, with the reft of the committee,
except thofe who are affeffors, (hall prepare inftruaions
for procedure •, and in regard to the proportions fent by
the king and the council of infpeaion, thefe inftruaions
Tnftvuctions flian be worded thus : “ Our nuncios (hall vote affirma-
tothe nun- tiv£ to tlie article A7';1’ or, “ Our nuncios (liall vote ne-
Ci0S’ ?alive to the article A7,’’ in cafe 5t is found contrfy to
the opinion of the dietine : and fliould any amendment
or addition be deemed neceffary and agreed on, it may
be inferted in the inftruaions at the end of the relative
Poland.
146
We
144
86 ] POL
latinate or diftria recommended to them by the inftruc-
tions.
It is at thefe dietines that nuncios, after they have
rendered to their conftituents a clear account of their
proceedings and of the diet, may be either confirmed
or changed, and new ones eleaed in their (lead till the
general eledlion for the following ordinary diet.
^ New nuncios are chofen, 1. In the room of the de-
ceafed. 2. In the room of thole that are become fena-
tors or miniiters of (late. 3. In cafe of refignation.
4. In the room of fuch as are disqualified by the diet.
5. When any of the affembly defircs a new eleaion, to
fubftitute another nuncio in the room of one exprefsly
pointed out which requeft muft be made in Ayritmg,
fio-ned by 12 members befides, and ‘be delivered to the
mar dial of the dietine. In this laft cafe, the marftial is
to read the name of the nuncio objeaed to, and to make
the following propofition : 44 Shall the nuncio, N be
confirmed in his funaion ? or, (hall there be a new
eleaion made in his (lead ?” The opinion of the meet¬
ing being taken by a divifion, the majority (hall decide
the queftion, and be declared by the marffial. If the
majority approves the condua of the nuncio, the mar-
(hal and the affeffors (hall certify this confirmation on
the diploma •, and in cafe of difapprobation, the marfhal
(hall declare the vacancy, and begin the form of a new'
eleaion. . .~t-
Such are the outlines of the Polifh conflitution efta- This con-
blifhed by the king and the confederates in 179' • 11
will not bear a comparifon with that under which Bn- to
tons have the happinefs to live ; but it is furely infinite- ^ former,
ly fuperior to that motley form of government which, protefted
for a century pad, rendered Poland a perpetual fcene of agamft by
war, tumult, tyranny, and rebellion. Many of the ^
corrupt nobles, however, perceiving that it would curb
their ambition, deprive them of the bafe means which
they had long enjoyed of gratifying their avarice by fet-
ting the crown to fale, and render it impoffible for them
to continue with impunity their tyrannical oppreffion of
the peafants, protefted againft it, and withdrew from
the confederates. 1 his was nothing more than what
might have been expedled, or than what the king and
his friends undoubtedly did expeft. But the malcon¬
tents were not fatisfied with a Ample proteft ; they pre¬
ferred their complaints to the emprefs of Ruffia, who,
ready on all occafions, and on the flighted pretence, to
invade Poland, poured her armies into the republic,
and furrounding the king and the diet with ferocious
foldiers, compelled them, by the mod furious and inc e‘aiici oppofeft
cent menaces, to undo their glorious labour of love, and by the Ruf-
to-reftore the conftitution as fettled after the partition fians.
Of the progrefs of the Ruffians in this work of dark-
nefs, our readers will be pleafed with the following
manly and indignant narrative, taken from a periodical
work * of acknowledged merit. * New At-
“ It was on the 2lft of April 1792, that the diet re-meal Reg,-
ceived the firft notification from the king, of the immi-/f7» 7? *
cal and unjuft intentions of Ruffia. He informed them
L-cll alivJ unjvm — —
be mlerteo in me   -  that^ without the fhadow of pretence, this avowed ene-
propofition. r . tcp W fat mv of the rights of mankind had determined to invade
At the meeting of the dietines, after the diet has (a , my §of ^ b]ic with an arniy of 60,000
-wWe the nuncios are bound to appear e oie ^*3 This formidable banditti, commanded by gene-
accountable ents, and to the afls oncgiflaturf; rals SolUkotv, Michelfon, and Kofakowflci, fas afer-
! 3
seats.
Poland.
POL [ 87 ]
troops then a6Hng in Moldavia, amounting to 70,000. of cannon.
The king, however, profeffed that he was not difcoura-
ged, and declared his readinefs to put himfelf at the
head of the national troops, and to terminate his exift-
enee in a glorious conteft for the liberties of his country.
Then, and not before, the diet decreed the organization
of the army, and its augmentation to 100,000. The
king and the council of infpedtion were inverted with
unlimited authority in every thing that regarded the de¬
fence of the kingdom. Magazines were ordered to be
conftrufted when it was too late, and quarters to be pro¬
vided for the army.
“ The diet and the nation rofe as one man to main¬
tain their independence. All private animofities were
POL
Poland.
14*
The nation
rifes to   , t
TOaintain its obliterated, all private interefts were facnficed ; the
independ- greateft encouragements were held forth to volunteers
enCe‘ to enroll themfelves under the national ftandard, and it
was unanimoufly decreed by the diet, that all private
Ioffes rtiould be compenfated out of the public trea-
fury.
“ On the 18th of May, the Ruffian ambaffador deli¬
vered a declaration, which was worthy of fuch a caufe.
It was a tiffue of falfehood and hypocrify. It afferted,
that this wanton invarton, which was evidently againft
the fenfe of almort every individual Polander, was meant
entirely for the good of the republic. It cenfured the
precipitancy with which the new conftitution was adopt¬
ed, and afcribed the ready confent of the diet to the in¬
fluence of the Warfaw mob. It reprefented the confti¬
tution as a violation of the principles on which the Po-
lifli republic was founded—complained of the licen-
tioufnefs with which the facred name of the emprefs was
treated in fome fpeeches of the members 5 and con¬
cluded by profefling, that on thefe accounts, and in be¬
half of the emigrant Poles, her imperial majefty had
ordered her troops to enter the territories of the re¬
public.
“ At the moment this declaration was delivered to the
diet, the Ruffian troops, accompanied by Counts Po-
tocki, Rzewulki, Branicki, and a few Polifh apoftates,
appeared upon the frontiers, and entered the territories
of the republic in feveral columns, before the clofe of
Spirit^of the the month. The fpirit manifefted by the nobility was
nobles. truly honourable. Some of them delivered in their plate
to the mint. Prince Radzvil engaged voluntarily to
furnilh 10,000 ftand of arms, and another a train of ar¬
tillery. The courage of the new and haftily embodied
foldiers correfponded with the patriotifm of their nobles.
Prince Poniatowlki, nephew to the king, was appointed
commander in chief*, and though his force was greatly
inferior to the enemy, it muft be confeffed that he made
a noble ftand. On the 24th of May, the enemy’s Cof-
facks were repulfed, and purfued by the patroles of the
republic to the very entrenchments. On the 26th,
about one o’clock, the piquets of the republic difcover-
ed a large body of Don Coffacks approaching the out-
pofts *, and a fquadron of cavalry, commanded by Lieu¬
tenant Kwafniewfki, fupported by Lieutenant Golejow-
Iki with two fquadrons more, in all about 300, march¬
ed out to meet them. They attacked the Coffacks with
fuccefs, but purfued them with more valour than pru¬
dence to the fide of a wood, where they found them¬
felves drawn into an ambufcade, and furrounded by
2000 horfe, two battalions of chaffeurs, and fix pieces
The intrepid Poles bravely fought their t
way through the Ruffian line, and killed upwards of " » 1 *
200 of the enemy. The Poles in this engagement loft
100 men and two officers j one of whom, Lieutenant
Kwafniewfki, was wounded and made prifoner. The
remainder of the detachment reached their quarters in
fafety. _ 150
“ Perhaps the hiftory of man can fcarcely furnifh an Condoift of
inftance of perfidy, meannefs, and duplicity, equal to the court of
that which was manifefted by Pruffia on this occafion. rlin*
By the treaty of defenfive alliance, folemnly contra&ed-
between the republic of Poland and the king of Pruffia,
and ratified on the 23d of April 1790, it is exprefsly
ftipulated, * That the contracting parties fliall do all in
their power to guarantee and preferve to each other re¬
ciprocally the whole of the territories which they re-
fpedtively poffefs : That, in cafe of menace or invafion
from any foreign power, the} {hall affift each other with
their whole force, if neceflary :’—and by the fixth arti¬
cle, it is further ftipulated, ‘ that if any foreign pow'er
whatever fhall prefume to interfere in the internal af¬
fairs of Poland, his Pruffian majefty fliall confider this
as a cafe falling within the meaning of the alliance,
and fliall affift the republic according to the tenor of
the fourth article,” that is, with his whole force. What
then is the pretext for abandoning this treaty ? It is,
that the emprefs ofRuJJia has fhown a decided oppoftion
to the order of things ejlahlifhed in Poland on the third
of May 1791, and is provoked by Poland prefuming to
put herfelf into a pojlure to defend it.—It is known,
however, by the moft authentic documents, that no¬
thing was effe&ed on the third of May 1791, to which
Pruffia had not previoufly affented, and which file did
not afterwards fan&ion ; and that Pruffia, according to
the affertion of her own king, did not intimate a Angle
doubt refpe<fting the revolution till one month (and ac¬
cording to the Pruffian minifter till fix months) after it
had taken place 5 in ftiort, to ufe the monarch’s own
words as fully explanatory of his double politics, ‘ not
till the general tranquillity of Europe permitted him to
explain himfelf.’—Inftead, therefore, of affifting Po¬
land, Pruffia infultingly recommended to Poland to re¬
trace her fteps; in which cafe, fhe faid that (he would
be ready to attempt an accommodation in her favour.
This attempt was never made, and probably never in¬
tended ; for the emprefs purfued her meafures. 151.
The duchy of Lithuania was the great fcene of a&ion War with
in the beginning of the war; but the Ruffians had made Ruffia*
little progrefs before the middle of the month of June.
On the 10th of that month, General Judycki, who com¬
manded a detachment of the Polifh troops, between
Mire and Swierzna, was attacked by the Ruffians; but,
after a combat of fome hours, he obliged them to re¬
tire with the lofs of 500 men dead on the field.—The
general was defirous of profiting by this advantage, by
purfuing the enemy, but was prevented by a moft vio¬
lent fall of rain. On the fucceeding day, the Ruffians
rallied again to the attack ; and it then too fatally ap¬
peared, that the Poles were too young and undifciplined
to contend with an inferior force againft experienced
troops and able generals. By a mafterly manoeuvre, the
Ruffians contrived to furround their antagonifts, at a mo¬
ment when the Polirti general fuppofed that 1m had
obliged the enemy to retreat; and though the field was
contefted
POL [ 88 1 POL
Poland, contefted with the utmoft valour by the troops of the
republic, they were at length compelled to give way,
and to retire towards Niefwiefz.
On the 14th another engagement took place near
Lubar, on the banks of the river Sluez, between a de¬
tachment of the Ruffian grand army and a party of
Polifh cavalry difpatched by Prince Jofeph Poniatow-
Iki, to intercept the enemy. The patriotic bravery of
the Poles was victorious in this conteft 5 but upon re¬
connoitring the force of the enemy, the prince found
himfelf incapable of making a fuccefsful Hand againtt
fuch fuperior numbers. He therefore gave orders to
ilrike the camp at Lubar, and commenced a precipi¬
tate retreat. During their march, the Poliflx rear was
haraffed by a body of 4000 Ruffians, till arriving at
Borulkowee, the wooden bridge unfortunately gave
way, under the weight of the cavalry. The enemy, in
the mean time, brought their artillery to play upon the
rear of the fugitives, who loft upwards of 250 men.
The Polifli army next direfted its courfe towards Zieli-
me, where meeting, on the 17th, with a reinforcement
from Zaflow, it halted to give battle to the enemy.
The Ruffians were upwards of 17,000 ftrong, with 24
pieces of cannon, and the force of the republic much
inferior. After a furious conteft from feven in the
morning till five in the afternoon, the Ruffians were at
length obliged to retreat, and leave the field of battle
in pofteffion of the patriots. The Ruffians were com¬
puted to have loft 4000 men in this engagement, and
the Poles about 1100.
Notwithftanding thefe exertions, the Poles were obli¬
ged gradually to retire before their numerous and difci-
plined enemies. Niefwez, Wilna, Minflc, and feveral
other places of lefs confcquence, fell into their hands
one after another. On a truce being propofed to the
Ruffian general Kochowfki, the propofal was haughtily
rejeCted *, while the defertion of Vice-brigadier Rud-
nicki and fome others, who preferred difhonour to per-
fonal danger, proclaimed a tottering caufe. The pro-
grefs of the armies of Catharine was marked with de-
vaftation and cruelty, while, fuch was the averfion of
the people both to the caufe and the manner of conduc¬
ting it, that, as they approached, the country all around
became a wildernefs, and fcarcely a human being was to
be feen.
In the mean time, a feries of little defeats, to which
the inexperience of the commanders, and the intempe¬
rate valour of new raifed troops appear to have greatly
contributed, fcrved at once to diftrefs and to difpirit
thefe defenders of their country. Prince Poniatowfki
continued to retreat, and on the 17th of July, his rear
being attacked by a very fuperior force, it fuffered a
confiderable lofs, though the Ikill and courage of Gene¬
ral Kofciufko enabled him to make a moft refpeftable
defence. On the 18th, a general engagement took
place between the two armies. The Ruffian line ex¬
pended oppofite Dubienka, along the river Bog, as far as
Opalin. The principal column, confifting of 14,000
rnen, was chiefly dire&ed againft the divifion of Gene¬
ral Kofciufko, which confifted of 5000 men only. Af¬
ter a moft vigorous refiftance, in which the Ruffians loft
upwards of 4000 men, and the troops of the republic
only fome hundreds, the latter was compelled to give
way before the fuperior numbers of the enemy, and to
retire further into the. country.
This unequal conteft was at laft prematurely termi- Poland,
nated. The king, whofe benevolent intentions were, v *
perhaps, overpowered by his mental imbecility, and £•
whofe age and infirmities, probably, rendered him un-ptop0fes
equal to the difficulties and dangers which muft attend fubmiffion.
a protracted war, inftead of putting himfelf, according
to his refolve, at the head of his army, determined
at once to furrender at difcretion. On the 23d of
July, he fummoned a council of all the deputies at
that moment in Warfaw. He laid before them the laft
difpatehes from the emprefs, which infilled upon total
and unreferved fubmiffion. Pie pointed out the dan¬
ger of a dilmemberment of the republic, fliould they
delay to throw themfelves upon the clemency of the
emprefs, and to entreat her prote&ion. He mentioned
the fatal union of Auitria and Pruffia with Ruffia •, and
the difgraceful fupinenefs manifefted by every other
court in Europe.
Four citizens, the intrepid and patriotic Malaehow-
fki, the princes Sapieha, Radzvil, and Soltan, vehement¬
ly protefted againft thefe daftardly proceedings; and the
following evening a company of gentlemen from the
different provinces attended for the fame purpofe. The
affembly waited immediately on thefe four diftinguiffied
patriots, and returned them their acknowledgments for
the fpirit and firmnefs with which they had refifted the
ufurpations of defpotifm. The fubmiffion of the king to
the defigns of Ruffia was no fooner made known, than
Poland was bereft of all her beft and moft refpeftable
citizens. Malachowfki as marfhal of the diet, and
Prince Sapieha, grand marffial of Lithuania, entered
ftrong protefts on the journals of the diet againft thefe
hoftile proceedings, and declared folemnly that the diet
legally affembled in 1788 was not diffolved. It.^
On the fecond of Auguft a confederation was form- Confedera.
ed at Warfaw, of which the grand apoftate, Potocki, tion at
was chofen marfhal. The afts of this confederation
were evidently the defpotic dictates of Ruffia, and were Ru^a re_
calculated only to reftore the ancient abufes, and to ftores the
place the country under the aggravated oppreffion of a former con-
foreign yoke. ftitution.
It is remarkable, that at the very moment when Po¬
land was furrendering its liberties to its defpotic inva¬
ders, the generous fympathy of Great Britain was evin¬
ced by a liberal fubfcription, fupported by all the moft
refpeClable characters in the nation, of every party and
of every feCt, for the purpofe of affifting the king and
the republic to maintain their independence. Though
the benevolent defign was fruftrated, the fa£t remains on
record as a noble teftimony of the fpirit of Britons in
the caufe of freedom, of the indignation which fills every
Britifh heart at the commiffion of injuftice, and of the
liberality with which they are difpofed to affift thofe
who fuffer from the oppreffion of tyrants.
Not fatisfied with reftoring the old wretched confti-Theem-
tution, the emprefs of Ruffia feized upon part of the prefs feizes
territory which, at the laft partition, ffie and her coad-
jutors had left to the republic ; and her ambaffador en-lifll terrj.
tering into the diet with a crowd of armed ruffians, com- tory.
pelled the king and that afiembly to grant the form of
legality to her ufurpations. The nation, however, did
not fubmit. General Kofciufko kept together a few
retainers, whom he was foon enabled to augment to the
number of an army ; and feizing on the perfon of the
king, he for fome time waged againft Ruffia a war, of
which,
POL [
Poland, which, itmuft be confeffed, the objecl feemed doubtful.
v His enemies accufe him of cherifhing in the republic the
Deplorable principles of the French Jacobins ; and fome late occur-
ftate of the rences give a countenance to the accufation. Yet it is
country. known he protefted at firll that his aim reached no far¬
ther than to reflore the conftitution of 1791 ; and if
public report may be credited, an infurre£Hon has lately
taken place in Great Poland, or Soutt. Pruflia, in fa¬
vour of that conftitution. If other Poles have been dri¬
ven to democracy, they have only, with the common
weaknefs of human nature, run from one extreme to
another ; and in dying from the tyranny of their inva¬
ders, have falleh into the horrors of anarchy. That
Kofciulko will fucceed againft the powerful empire
of Ruftxa, there is not the fmalleft probability ; and if
there were, the court of Berlin, to complete its charadler,
has withdrawn from the moft honourable alliance in which
it was ever engaged, and feems to have employed the fub-
fidy which it received from Great Britain for the main¬
tenance of that alliance, to co operate with the emprefs
in annihilating the kingdom and republic of Poland.
What will be the ultimate fate of that unhappy country,
and its amiable fovereign, it isimpoflible to fay; but ap¬
pearances at prefent (1794) indicate a divifion of the
whole territory among the three hoftile powers who for¬
merly robbed it of fome of its moft valuable provinces ;
and when that divifion is made, the virtuous Staniflaus
may be removed to a better world by violent means.
. Some part of the above prediction was unfortunately
for Poland fully verified. The patriotic exertions of
Kofciulko failed ; his army was defeated, and he was
himfelf taken prifoner by the Ruffians. In 1795 the
king entered into a formal refignation of the crown, and
was afterwards removed to Peterlhurg, where he remain¬
ed a kind of ftate prifoner till his death in 1798. The
whole kingdom was divided among the partitioning
powers. Auftria took pofleffion of Little Poland and
Red Ruffia, which latter was afterwards called Galicia ;
Pruffia obtained Great Poland, Poliffi Pruffia, part of
Lithuania, Mafovia, Polachia, and the cities of Dantzic
and Thorn; and Samogitia, the remainder of Lithuania,
Polefia, Volhynia, and Podolia, fell into the hands of Ruf¬
fia. But fince the Pruffian monarchy was nearly anni¬
hilated by the power of Bonaparte, and this unfortunate
country was overrun by his numerous armies, confider-
able changes have taken place; for an account of which
fee Prussia.
Air, cli- The air of this country is cold in the north, but tem-
Perate t^e ot^er parts both in fummer and winter, and
0 an , the weather in both more fettled than in many other coun¬
tries. The face of the country is for the moft part level,
and the hills are but few. The Crapack or Carpathian
mountains fep^rate it from Hungary on the fouth. The
foil is very fruitful both in corn and pafturage, hemp and
flax. Such is the luxuriance of the paftures in Podolia,
that it is faid one can hardly fee the cattle that are graz¬
ing in the meadows. Vaft quantities of corn are yearly
lent down the Viftula to Dantzic, from all parts of Po¬
land, and bought up chiefly by the Dutch. The eaftern
part of the country is full of woods, forefts, lakes, mar-
ffies, and rivers; of the laft of which, the moft confider-
able in Poland are the Viftula, Nieper, Niefter, Duna,
Bog, Warta, and Memel. The metals found in this
country are iron and lead, with fome tin, gold and fil-
ver ; but there are no mines of the two laft wrou&ht at
Vol. XVII. Part I.
89 ]
POL
prefent. The other produ6ls of Poland are moft forts of PfLi.a.-
precious ftones, ochre of all kinds, fine rock-cryftal, "■ v~*~^
Mufcovy glafs, talc, alum, faltpetre, amber, pitcoal,
quickfilver, fpar, fal-gem, lapis calaminaris, and vitriol.
In Leffer Poland are falt-mines, which are the chief
riches of the country, and bring moft money into the
exchequer. In the woods, which confift motily of oak,
beech, pine, and fir-trees, befides the more common
wild beafts, are elks, wild afies, wild oxen or uri, lynxes,
wild horfes, wild ftreep with one horn, bifons, hyaenas,
wild goats, and buffaloes. In the meadows and fenny
ground is gathered a kind of manna ; and the kermes-
berrics produced in this country are ufed both in dyeing
and medicine.
I he inhabitants confift of nobles, citizens, and pea- Different
fants. 1 he firft poftefs great privileges, which they en- ciafles of
joy partly by the indulgence of their kings, and partl.y ^habitants,
by ancient cuftdm and prefcription. Some of them have
the title of prince, count, or baron $ but no fuperionty or
pre-eminence on that account over the reft, which is only
to be obtained by fome public poll or dignity. They
have the power of life and death over their vaifals ; pay
no taxes; are fubjea to none but the king; have a right
to all mines and falt-works on their eftates; to all offices
and employments,civil, military, and ecclefiaftic ; can¬
not be cited or tried out of the kingdom ; may choofe
whom they will for their king, and lay him under what
reftraints they pleafc by the Pa61a Conventa ; and none
but they and the burghers of fome particular towns can
purchafe lands. In ffiort, they are almoft entirely in¬
dependent, enjoying many other privileges and preroga¬
tives befides thofe wre have fpecified ; but if they en¬
gage in trade, they forfeit their nobility. r
The Poliffi tongue is a dialett of the Sclavonic: (fee Language.
Philoi.ogy, N° 222.). It is neither copious nor harmo¬
nious. Many of the words, as they are written, have not
a Angle vowel in them; but the High Dutch and Latin
are underftood, and fpoken pretty commonly, though
incorrfcdtly. 1 he language in Lithuania differs much
from that of the other provinces. True learning, and
the ftudy of the arts and fciences, have been little at¬
tended to in Poland, till of late they began to be re¬
garded with a more favourable eye, and to be not only
patronized, but cultivated, by feveral of the nobles and
others, both laymen and ecclefiaftics.
There are two archbiffiops in the kingdom, viz. thofe Archbhho.
of Gnefna and Laopol, and about a dozen biffiops. ThePrics»
archbiffiop of Gnefna is always a cardinal, and primate
of the kingdom. The prevailing religion is Popery ; but
there are great numbers of Lutherans, Calvinifts, and
Greek*, who are called difuJenK, and by the laws of the
kingdom were entitled to toleration, but were much
opprefled till very lately. The Jews are indulged with
great privileges, and are very numerous in Poland ; and
in Lithuania, it is faid there is a multitude of Mahome¬
tan Tartars. We may judge of the numbers of Jews in
this country by the produce of their annual poll-tax,
which amounts to near 57,000 rixdollars. 160
I here are few or no manufaftures in the kingdom, ifManufac-
we except fome linen and woollen cloths and hardwares;tures-
and the whole trade is confined to the city of Dantzic,
and other towns on the Viftula or Baltic." l6x
Before the troubles the king’s revenue was all clear Revenue*
to himfelf; for he paid no troops, not even his own
guards ; but all the forces, as well as the officers of ftate,
M were
Pe';vr;d
H
Pole.
\6*
Order of
knight¬
hood.
163
Forces.
1^4
^haradler
of the
people.
POL [ 9° 1
were paid by the republic. The public revenues arofe dean of Exeter,
chiefly from the crown-lands, the falt-mines in the pala¬
tinate of Cracow, from the rents of Marienburg, Dir-
fhau, and Regenhus, from the government of Cracow
and diftria of Niepolomiez, and from ancient tolls and
cuftoms, particularly thofe of Elbing and Dantzm.
From what fources thofe revenues now arife, it is diffi¬
cult to fay, but Pruffia has got poffefiion of the molt
lucrative cuftoms. .
The order of the White Eagle was inftituted by Au-
guftus II. in the year 1705. Its enfign is a crois ot
gold enamelled with red, and appendant to a blue rib¬
bon. The motto, Pro fide, rege, et lege.
The Handing forces of Poland were divided into the
crown-army, and that of Lithuania, confiftmg ofhorfeand
foot, and amounting to between 20,000 and 30,000 men.
Thefe troops were moftly cantoned on the crown-lands,
and in Poland were paid by a capitation or poll-tax j but in
Lithuania other taxes were levied for this purpofe. Mo t
of the foot were Germans. On any hidden and imminent
danger, the whole body of the nobility, with their vat-
fals, was obliged to appear in the field on horfeback ; and
the cities and towns furniflied a certain number of foot-
foldiers, with carriages, and military ftores: but for want
of proper arms, provifions, fubordination, and difcip me,
and by being at liberty after a few weeks to return home,
this body proved but of little advantage to the republic
Dantzic is the only place in the Pohfti dominions that
deferves the name of a fortrefs, and it fell to the poffef-
fion of Pruffia. Foreign auxiliaries were not to be brought
into the kingdom, nor the national troops to march out
of it, without the confent of the ftates. Such was the mi¬
litary eftabliftiment of Poland before the partition treaty.
The Poles are perfonable men, and have good com¬
plexions. They are efteemed a brave, h°nfft people,
without diffimulation, and exceedingly hofpitable. 1 hey
clothe themfelves in furs in winter, and over all they
throw a ftiort cloak. No people keep grander equipages
than the gentry. They look upon jhemfelves as fo
many fovereign prince and have their guards, bands
of mufic, and keep open houfes : but the iower fort of
people are poor abjeft wretches, in the loweft_ ftate of
ftavery. The exercifes of the gentry are hunting, rid¬
ing, dancing, vaulting, &c. They refide moftly upon
their eftates in the country ; and maintain themfelves and
families by agriculture, breeding of bees, and grazing.
POLAR, in general, fomething relating to the poles
of the world, or the poles of artificial globes
POLAR Regions, thofe parts of the world which lie
near the north and fouth poles. See the article Pole.
POLARITY, the quality of a thing coniidered as
bavins poles, or a tendency to turn itfelf into one certain
pofition •, but chiefly ufed in fpeaking of the magnet.
* POLE, Reginald, cardinal, and archbilhop or Can¬
terbury, a younger fon of Sir Rich. Pole, Lord Mon¬
tague, was born at Stoverton caftle, in Staffordshire in
the year 1500. At feven years of age he was fent to a
Carthufian monaftery at Shene, near Richmond m Surry:
Uartliunan     j
and thence, when he was about 12 years old removed
to Magdalen college in Oxford, where, by the inftruc-
tions of the celebrated Lmacre and Latimer, he made
confiderable progrefs in learning. In 1515 J16 took the
degree of bachelor of arts, and was admitted to deacon s
orders fome time after : in 1517, ^ ^s made preben¬
dary of Salilbury, and in 1519 dean of Wimborne and
POL
   We are not furprifed at this young
nobleman’s early preferments, when we confider him as u“
the kinfman of Henry VIII. and that he was bred to
the church by the king’s fpecial command.
Being now about the age of 19, he was fent, accord¬
ing to the fafhion of the times, to finifti his ftudies at
Padua in Italy, where he refided fome time in great
fplendour, having a hand fome penfion from the king.
He returned to England in 1525, where he was moft
gracioufly received at court, and univerfally admired for
his talents and addrefs •, but preferring ftudy and fequef-
tration to the pleafures of a court, he retired to the Car¬
thufian convent at Shene, where he had continued about
two years, when the pious king began to divulge his
fcruples of confcience concerning his marriage with Ca¬
tharine of Spain. Pole forefaw that this affair would
neceffarily involve him in difficulties j he therefore de¬
termined to quit the kingdom, and accordingly obtain¬
ed leave to vifit Paris. Having thus avoided the ftorm
for the prefent, he returned once more to his convent at
Shene 5 but his tranquillity was again interrupted by
the king’s refolution to ffiake off the pope’s fupremacy,
of which Pole’s approbation was thought indifpenfably
neceffary. How he managed in this aftair, is not very
clear. However, he obtained leave to revifit Italy, and
his penfion was continued for fome time.
The king, having now divorced Queen Catharine,
married Anne Boleyn, and being refolved to throw off
the papal yoke, ordered Dr Richard Sampfon to wnte
a book in juftification of his proceedings, which he fent
to Pole for his opinion. To this Pole, fecure in the
pope’s proteftiom, wrote a fcurrilous anfwer, entitled
Pro Unitate Ecclefiajlica, and fent it to the king 5 who
was fo offended with the contents, that he withdrew
his penfion, ftripped him of all his preferments, and pro¬
cured an a£t of attainder to be paffed againft him. In
the mean time, Pole was created a cardinal, and fent
nuncio to different parts of Europe. King Henry made
feveral attempts to have him fecured and brought to
England, but without effea. At length the pope fix¬
ed him as legate at Viterbo, where he continued till
the year 1543, when he was appointed legate at the
council of Trent, and was afterwards employed by the
pope as his chief counfellor.
Pope Paul III. dying in 1540, Pole was twice ele&-
ed his fucceffor, and, we are told, twice r*fufed the pa¬
pal dignity : firft, becaufe the eleftion was made in too
great hafte ; and the fecond time, becaufe it was done
in the night. This delicacy in a cardinal is truly won¬
derful : but the intrigues of the French party feem to
have been the real caufe of his mifearriage } they ftarted
many objeftions to Pole, and by that means gained time
to procure a majority againft him. Cardinal Maria de
Monte obtained the triple crown j and Pole, having
kiffed his flipper, retired to the convent of Magazune
near Verona, where he continued till the death of Ed¬
ward VI. in the year 1553. On the acceffion of Queen
Mary, Pole was fent legate to England, where he was
Pole.
received by her mfijefty with great veneration? and con-*
du&ed to the archbiffiop’s palace at Lambeth, poor
Cranmer being at that time prifoner in the Tower. He
immediately appeared in the Houfe of Lords, where he
made a long fpeech ; which being reported to the com¬
mons by their fpeaker, both thefe obfequious houfes
concurred in an humble Application to be reconciled to
the
pol r
Pole, the fee of Rome. They prefented it on their knees to
L- i ' ■' her majelfy, who interceded with the cardinal, and he
qracioufly condefcended to give them abfolution. This
bufinefs being over, the legate made his public entry in¬
to London, and immediately fet about the extirpation
of herefy. The day after the execution of Cranmer,
which he is faid, though we believe falfely, to have ad-
vifed, he was confecrated archbiftiop of Canterbury. In
the fame year, 1556, he was eledted chancellor of the
univerfity of Oxford, and foon after of Cambridge $
both which he vifited, by his commiffioners. He died
of a double quartan ague in the year 1558, about 16
hours after the death of the queen 5 and was buried in
the cathedral of Canterbury.
As to his charafter, the Romilh writers afcribe to
him every virtue under heaven : even Bilhop Burnet is
extremely lavilhdn his praife, and attributes the cruel¬
ties of Mary’s reign to the advice of Gardiner. In this
Mr Hume agrees with the bilhop, and reprefents Pole
as the advocate of toleration. By every impartial ac¬
count, he feems to have been a man of mild manners, and
of real worth, though undoubtedly a zealous member of
the church of Rome.—He wrote, Pro imitate ecclejiajli-
ca, De ejufdem potejlate, A treatife on Juftilieation, and
various other tradls.
Mr Philips publilhed a very well written, though a
very partial account, of Pole’s life, to which Glocefter
Ridley replied. This laft work, which is entitled a
Review of Mr Philips'1 s Life of Reginald Pole, was pub-
lifhed in 1766. It is a complete confutation of the for¬
mer, and is a very learned and temperate vindication of
the doflrines of the Reformation.
Polk, in Ajlronomy, that point in the heavens round
which the whole fphere feems to turn. It is alfo ufed
for a point diredlly perpendicular to the centre of any
circle’s plane, and diftant from it by the length of a ra¬
dius.
Pole, in Geography, one of the points on which the
terraqueous globe turns *, each of them being 90 de¬
grees diftant from the equator, and, in confequence of
their fituation, the inclination of the earth’s axis, and
its parallelifm during the annual motion of our globe
round the fun, having only one day and one night
throughout the year.
It is remarkable, that though the north in Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and French, derives its name from gloom,
x obfcurity, and darknefs, the poles enjoy more light than
The poles any other part of the world. The ancients believed the
north to be covered with thick darknefs •, Strabo tells
us, that Homer, by the word which properly fig-
nifies obfcurity or darknefs, meant the north ; and thus
Tibullus, fpeaking of the north, fays,
IIlie et denfa tellus abfeonditur umbra,
Paneg. ad Miftel.
The Arabians call the northern ocean the dark fea ; the
Latins gave the name of Aquilo to the north wind, be-
caufe aquilus fignifies black ; and the French call it la
bife, from bis, “ black.” According to the ancients, the
Cimmerians lived in darknefs, becaufe they were placed
near the north. But all this is mere prejudice \ for there
are no places in the world that enjoy light longer than
2 the ardftic and antardtic poles ; and this is accounted
And why. for by confidering the nature of twilight. In tire tor¬
rid zone, and under the line, night immediately follows
91 ] p o L
the fetting of the fun, without any fenfible> twilight 5 Po^e-
whereas the twilight begins and continues increaiing in v
proportion as places are diftant from the equator, or ap¬
proach the pole. To this long twilight we muft add
the aurora borealis, which appears in the northern re¬
gions, Greenland, &c. in clear nights, at the beginning
of the new moon, calling a light equal to that of full
moon. See Gaffendi, in the Life of Peyrefc, book iii.
and La Perere in his Account of Greenland. There
is alfo long moonlight at the poles during winter.
See Astronomy. But though there is really more
light in the polar regions than elfewhere, yet owing to
the obliquity with which the rays of the fun fall upon
them, and the great length of winter night, the cold is
fo intenfe, that thofe parts of the globe which lie near
the poles have never been fully explored, though the at¬
tempt has been repeatedly made by the moll celebrated
navigators. Indeed their attempts have chiefly been
confined to the northern regions ; for with regard to
the fouth pole, there is not the fame incitement to at¬
tempt it. The great obje6t for which navigators have
ventured themfelves in thefe frozen feas, was to find out
a more quick and more ready paffage to the Eaft In¬
dies* $ and this hath been attempted three feveral ways : * See Cooh,
one by coafting along the northern parts of Europe and life oh
Afia, called the north-eqjl paffage ; another, by failing
round the northern part of the American continent,
called the north-wefl paffage ; and the third, by failing
direftly over the pole itfelf.
We have already given a ftiort account of feveral un-
fuccefsful attempts which have been made from Eng¬
land to difeover the firft two of thefe. See NORTH-
Wefl Paffage, and NORTH-Eaf Paffage. But before we
proceed to the third, Ave (hall make a few further obftr-
vations on them, and mention the attempts of fome other
nations. . 3
During the laft century, X'arious navigators, Dutch-
men particularly, attempted to find out the north-eafl^Jf^™^
paffage, with great fortitude and perfeverance. They eap. pal_
always found it impoflible, however, to furmount the fage.
obftacles which nature had thrown in the way. Sub-
fequent attempts are thought by many to have demon-
llrated the impoflibility of ever failing eaft ward along
the northern coaft of Afia ; and this impoflibility is ac¬
counted for by the increafe of cold in proportion to the
extent of land. See America, N° 3—5. This L in¬
deed the cafe in temperate climates ; but much more fo
in thofe frozen regions where the influence of the fun,
even in fummer, is but fmall. Hence, a» the continent
of Afia extends a vaft way from weft to eaft, and has
befides the continent of Europe joined to it on the weft,
it follows, that about the middle part of that tradl of
land the cold ftiould be greater than anywhere elfe. 4
Experience has determined this to be fadl j and it now it i&
appears that about the middle part of the northern
coaft of Afia the ice never thaws ; neither have even iong tile
the hardy Ruffians and Siberians themfelves been able north-eaft
to overcome the difficulties they met with in that part coaft
of their voyage. In order to make this the more plain, A^ia'
and the following accounts more intelligible, we fhail
obferve, that from the north-weftern extremity of Eu¬
rope, called the North Cape, to the north-eaftern extre- * sec
mity of Afia, called the Promontory of the Tfchutfki*, is Cook%
a fpace including about 160 degrees of longitude, viz. btfeow-
from 40 to 200 eaft from Ferro : the port of Archan- r!esp ‘‘ 010-?
Ma gdu',d,l!-
POL [ 02 1 POL
Pole. gel lies in about 57 degrees call; longitude. Nova Zem-
bla between 70 and 95 j which laft is alfo the fituation
of the mouth of the great river Oby. Still farther eaft-
ward are the mouths of the rivers Jenifey in ioo° j Pi-
afida in 105°; Chatanga in 124°^ Lena, which has
many mouths, between 1340 and 1420; Indigirka in
162°; and the Kovyma in 1750. The coldeil place in
all this tracl, therefore, ought to be that between the
mouths of the .fenifey and the Chatanga j and indeed
here the unfurmountable difficulty has always been, as
will appear from the following accounts of the voyages
made by the Ruffians with a view to difeover the north-
5 eaft paflage.
Voyage of In 1734, Lieutenant Morzovieff failed from Arch-
Morzo- angel towards the river Oby, but could fcarce advance
vieft, &c. 20 degrees of longitude during that feafon. The next
fummer he paffed through the ftraits of Wyegatz into
the lea of Kara ; but he did not double the promontory
which feparates the fea of Kara from the bay or mouth
of Oby. In 1738, the lieutenants Malygin and Shura-
koff doubled that promontory with great difficulty, and
entered the bay of Oby. Several unfuccefsful attempts
were made to pafs from the bay of Oby to the Jenifey j
which was at lait effected, in 1738, by two veffels com¬
manded by lieutenants Offzin and Kolkeleff. The fame
year the pilot Feodor Menin failed eaft wards from the
Jenifey to the mouth of the Piafida : but here he was
flopped by the ice ; and finding it impoffible to force a
6 paffage, he returned to the Jenifey.
Of Front- In July 1735, Lieutenant Prontfhiftcheff failed down
thiftcheff. t]}e rlver"Lena, in order to pafs by fea to the mouth of
the Jenifey. Tbe weftern mouths of the Lena were fo
choked up with ipe, that he was obliged to pafs through
the moft eafterly one ; and was prevented by Contrary
winds from getting out till the 13th of Auguft. Ha¬
ving fteered north-weft along the iflands which lie fcat-
tered before the mouths of the Lena, he found himfelf
> in lat. 70. 4. 1 yet even here he faw pieces of ice from
24 to 60 feet in height, and in no place was there a
free channel left of greater breadth than 100 or 200
yards. His veflel being much damaged, he entered the
mouth of the Olenek, a fmall river near the weftern
mouth of the Lena ; and here he continued till the
enfuing feafon, when he got out in the beginning of
Auguft. But before he could reach the mouth of the
Chatanga, he was fo entirely furrounded and hemmed
in with ice, that it was with the utmoft difficulty he
could get loofe. Obferving then a large field of ice
ftretching into the fea, he was obliged to fail up the
Chatanga. Getting free once more, he proceeded north¬
ward, doubled the cape called Taimura, and reached the
bay of that name, lying in about xij°eaft from Ferro j
from thence he attempted to proceed weftward along
the coaft. Near the ffiore were feveral fmall iflands,
between which and the fliore the ice was immoveably
fixed. He then dire&ed his courfe towards the fea, in
order to pafs round the chain of iflands. At firft he
found the fea more free to the north of thefe iflands,
but obferved much ice lying between them. At laft he
arrived at what he took to be the laft of the iflands
lying in lat. 77. 25. Between this ifland and the ffiore,
as well as on the other fide of the iftand which lay moft
to the north, the. ice was firm and immoveable. He
attempted, however, to fleer ftill more to the north j
and having advanced about fix miles, lie was prevented
5
by a thick fog from proceeding : this fog being dif- Pole^
perfed, he faw nothing everywhere but ice, which at ——“v"—**'
laft drove him eaftward, and with much danger and dif¬
ficulty he got to the mouth of the Olenek on the 29th
of Auguft. . ^
Another attempt to pafs by fea from the Lena to the of Chari-
Jenifey was made in 1739 by Chariton Laptieff, buGpn Lap-
Avith no better fuccefs than that juft mentioned. This1*0^*
voyager relates, that between the river Piafida and Tai¬
mura, a promontory ftretches into the fea, which he
could not double, the fea being entirely frozen up before
he could pafs round. g
Befides the Ruffians, it is certain that fome Englifti Mr Coxe's
and Dutch veffels have paffed the ifland of Nova Zem-0}316^'
bla into the fea of Kara : “ But (fays Mr Cqxe in his^on5“
Account of the Ruffian voyages) no veffel of any na¬
tion has ever pafied round that cape which extends to
the north of the Piafida, and is laid doAvn in the Ruffian
charts in about 78° lat. We have already feen that no
Ruffian veffel has ever got from the Piafida to the Cha¬
tanga, or from the Chatanga to the Piafida *, and yet
fome authors have pofitively afferted that this promon¬
tory has been failed round. In order therefore to elude
the Ruffian accounts, which clearly affert the contrary,
it is pretended that Gmelin and Muller have purpofely
concealed fome part of the Ruffian journals, and have
impofed on the world by a mifreprefentation of fadls.
But Avithout entering into any difpute upon this head,
I can venture to affirm, that no fufficient proof has
been as yet advanced in fupport of this affertion ; and
therefore, until fome pofitive information (hall be pro¬
duced, AAre cannot deny plain fadls, or give the preference
to hearfay evidence over circumftantial and Avell attefted
accounts.” 9
The other part of tills north-eaft paffage, viz. from Of th* na-
the Lena to Kamtfchatka, though fufficiently difficult vtgafion
and dangerous, is yet prafticable ; as having been once ^en^to*
performed, if Ave may believe the accounts of the Ruf- Kamtfchat-
fians. According to fome authors indeed, fays Mr Coxe,ka.
this navigation has been open a century and a half j
and feveral veffels at different times hare paffed round
the north-eaftern extremity of Afia. But if we eonfiilt
the Ruffian accounts, avc {hall find that frequent expe¬
ditions have been unqueftionably made from the Lena,
to the Kovyma, but that the voyage from the Kovyma
round Tfchutfkoi Nofs into the Eaftern ocean has been
performed but once. According to Mr Muller, this
formidable cape was doubled in the year 1648. The
material incidents of this remarkable voyage are as fol¬
low. (
“ In 1648 feven kotches, or A'effels, failed from the Voyage of
mouth of the river Kovyma, in order to penetrate into
the Eaftern ocean. Of thefe, four Avere never more
heard of: the remaining three Avere commanded by Si¬
mon Defhneff, Gerafim Ankudinoff, and Fedot Alex-
eeff. Defhneff and Ankudinoff quarrelled before their
departure concerning the divifion of profits and honours
to be acquired by their voyage ; Avhich, hoAvever, Avas
not fo eafily accomplilhed as they had imagined. Yet
Deftmeff in his memorials makes no mention of obftruc-
tions from the ice, nor probably did he meet Avith any j
for he takes notice that the fea is not every year fo free
from ice as it Avas at that time. The veffels failed from
the Kovyma on the 20th of June, and in September
they reached the promontory of the TfchutJki, where
Ankudinoff’s
POL
Pole.
# See
Cook’s
sbftacles
in the
:iorth-eaft
jafl'age.
Ankudinoff’s veffel was wrecked, and the crew diftri-
buted among the other two. Soon after this the two
veffels loft fight of each other, and never joined again.
Deftineff was driven about by tempeftuous winds till
October, when he was fhipwrecked confiderably to the
louth of the Anadyr. Having at laft reached that ri¬
ver, he formed a fcheme of returning by the fame way
that he had come, but never made the attempt. As
for Alexeeff, after being alfo {hipwrecked, he had died
of the fcurvy, together with AnkudinofF $ part of the
crew were killed by the favages, and a few efcaped to
Kamtfchatka, where they fettled.
From Captain * Cook’s voyage towards the north-
eaftern parts of Afia, it appears that it is poftible to
W™*; . double the promontory of Tfchutfki without any great
Wj’DOi ^‘difficulty; and it now appears, that the continents of
Afia and Amsrica are feparated from one another but
by a narrow ftrait, which is free from ice ; but, to the
northwards, that experienced navigator was everywhere
flopped by the ice in the month of Auguit, fo that he
could neither trace the American continent farther than
to the latitude of 70°, nor reach the mouth of the river
Kovyma on the Afiatie continent; though it is pro¬
bable that this might have been done at another time,
when the fituation of the ice was altered either by winds
tl or currents.
fnfur- On the whole, therefore, it appears that the infur-
mountable njountable obftacle in the north-eaft pafiage lies between
the rivers Piafida and Chatanga; and unlefs there be in
that fpace a connexion between the Afiatic and Ame¬
rican continents, there is not in any other part. Ice,
however, is as effeftual an obftruftion as land : and
though the voyage were to be made by accident for
once, it never could be efteemfid a paffage calculated
for the rsrpofes of trade, or any other beneficial pur-
pofe whatever.
With regard to the north-weft paffage, the fame dif¬
ficulties occur as in the other. Captain Cook’s voyage
has now aflured us, that if there is any ftrait which di¬
vides the continent of America into two, it muft lie in
a higher latitude than 70°, and confequently be perpe¬
tually frozen up. If a north-weft paflage can be found
then, it muft be by failing round the whole American
continent, inftead of feeking a paflage through it, which
fome have fuppofed to exift at the bottom of Baffin’s
bay. But the extent of the American continent to the
northward is yet unknown ; and there is a poffibility of
its being joined to that part of Afia between the Piafida
and Chatanga, which has never yet been circumnavi¬
gated *. It remains therefore to confider, whether there
is any poftibility of attaining the wiftied-for paflage by
ies dire61 ly north, between the eaftern and weftern
’j, continents.
■arring- Of the pra6licability of this method, the Honourable
m’s argil- Daines Barrington is very confident, as appears by fe-
'vour of vera^ tra<^s which he publifhed in'the years 1775 and
potfihility 177ha confequence of the unfuccefsful attempts made
t reaching by Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave. See
18 pole. NORTH-EaJt Pajjbge.—ln the trads now alluded to
he inftances a great number of navigators who have
reached very high northern latitudes ; nay, fome who
have been at the pole itfelf, or gone beyond it. 
Thefe inftances are, 1. One Captain Thomas Robertfon
aflured our author, that he had been in latitude 824,
that the fea was open, and he was certain that he could
[ 93 1
POL
the.
lorth-weft
>alTage.
; See
Book’s
i 'iifco've-
have reached the latitude of 83°.—2. From the tefti-
mony of Captain Cheyne, who gave anfwers to certain '
queries drawn up by Mr Dairymple concerning the po¬
lar feas,_ it appears that he had been in the latitude of
82°.—3. One Mr Watt informed our author, that when
he was 17 years of age, at that time making his firft
voyage with Captain M‘Callam, a bold and fkilful na¬
vigator, who commanded a Scotch whale-filhing fhip, as
during the time that the whales are fuppofed to copu¬
late no fifiling can be carried on, the captain refolved
to employ that interval in attempting to reach the north
pole. He accordingly proceeded without the leaft ob-
ftru6lion to 83 i, when the fea was not only open to
the northward, but they had feen no ice for the laft
three degrees ; but while he ftill advanced, the mate
complained that the compafs was not fteady, and the
captain wras obliged with refinance to give over his
attempt—4. Dr Campbell, the continuator of Harris’s
voyages, informed Mr Barrington, that Dr Dallie, a na¬
tive of Holland, being in his youth on Board a Dutch
ftiip of war which at that time was ufually fent to fu-
perintend the Greenland fiftiery, the captain determined,
like the Scotchman above mentioned, to make an attempt-
to reach the pole during the interval between the firft
and fecond fiftieries. He penetrated, according to the
beft of Dr Campbell’s recolledtion, as far as 88° ; when
the weather was warm, the fea free from ice, and rolling
like the bay of Bifcay. Dallie now prefled the captain
to proceed : but he anfwered, that he had already gone
too far, and ftiould be blamed in Holland for negle«fting
his ftation ; upon which account he would fuffer no
journal to be kept, but returned as foon as poflible to
Spitfbergen.-—5. In the year 1662-3, Mr Oldenburg,
then fecretary of the Royal Society, was ordered to re-
gifter a paper, entitled “ Several Inquiries concerning
Greenland, anfwered by Mr Gray, who had vifited
thefe parts.” The 19th of thefe queries is the follow¬
ing : How near hath any one been known to approach
the pole ?—The anfwer is, “ I once met upon the coaft
of Greenland a Hollander that fwore he had been half
a degree from the pole, ftiowing me his journal, which
was alfo attefted by his mate ; where they had fcen no
ice or land, but all water.”—6. In Captain Wood’s ac¬
count of a voyage in queft of the north-eaft paflage,
we have the following account of a Dutch ftiip which
reached the latitude of 89°. “ Captain Goulden, who
had made'above 30 voyages to Greenland, did relate to
his majefty, that being at Greenland fome 20 years be¬
fore, he was in company with two Hollanders to the
eaftward of Edge’s iftand ; and that the whales not ap¬
pearing on the fhore, the Hollanders were determined to
go farther northward ; and in a fortnight’s time return¬
ed, and gave it out that they had failed into the lati¬
tude 89°, and that they did not meet with any ice, but
a free and open fea, and that there run a very hollow
grown fea like that of the bay of Bifcay. Mr Goul¬
den being not fatisfied with the bare relation, they pro¬
duced him four journals out of the two ftiips, which
teftified the fame, and that they all agreed within four
minutes.”—7. In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for
1675 we have the following paflage : “ For it is well
known to all that fail northward, that moft of tire north¬
ern coafts are frozen up for many leagues, though in the
open fea it is not fo, no nor under the pole itfelf unlefs by
accident.” In which paflage the having reached the
pole
Pole.
POL [91
Pole. pole is alluded to as a known fatt, and as fuch dated to
  the Royal Society.—8. Mr Miller, in his Gardener’s
Dictionary, mentions the voyage of one Captain John-
fon, who reached 88 degrees of latitude. Mr Barring¬
ton was at pains to find a full account of this voyage ;
but met only with the following paffage in Buffon’s
Natural Hiftory, which he takes to be a confirmation
of it. “ I have been affured by perfons of credit, that
an Englilh captain, whofe name was Monfon, inftead of
feeking a paffage to China between the northern coun¬
tries, had direCted his courfe to the pole, and had ap¬
proached it within two degrees, where there was an
open fea, without any ice.” Here he thinks that M.
Buffon has miftaken Johnfon for Monfon.—9. A map
of the northern hemifphere, publilhed at Berlin (under
the direction of the Academy of Sciences and Belles
Lettres), places a (hip at the pole, as having arrived
there according to the Dutch accounts.—10. Moxon,
hydrographer to Charles II. gives an account of a Dutch
fhip having been two degrees beyond the pole, which
was much relied on by Wood. This veffel found the
weather as warm there as at Amfterdam.
Befides thefe, there are a great number of other tef-
timonies of (hips which have reached the lat. of 81, 82,
83, 84 (a), &c.; from all which our author concludes,
that if the voyage is attempted at a proper time of the
year, there would not be any great difficulty of reaching
the pole. Thofe vaft pieces of ice which commonly
obfirudl the navigators, he thinks, proceed from the
mouths of the great Afiatic rivers which run northward
into the frozen ocean, and are driven eaftward and weft-
ward by the currents. But though we (liould fuppofe
them to come direftly from the pole, ftill our author
thinks that this affords an undeniable proof that, the
pole itfelf is free from ice *, becaufe, when the pieces
leave it, and come to the fouthward, it is impoffible
14 that they can at the fame time accumulate at the pole.
Why we Xhe extreme cold of the winter air on the continents
cannot fup- q£ Apia and America has afforded room for fufpicion,
fea^all 6 that at the Po1e Itrelf’ and f°r feveral degrees to the
round the fouthward of it, the fea muft be frozen to a vaft depth
pole to be in one folid cake of ice ; but this Mr Barrington refutes
frozen. from feverai confiderations. In the firft place, he fays,
. ] POL
that on fuch a fuppofition, by the continual intenfity Pole,
of the cold, and the accumulation of fnow and frozen
vapour, this cake of ice muft have been increafing in
thicknefs fince the creation, or at lead fince the deluge j
fo that now it muft be equal in height to the higheft:
mountains in the world, and be vifible at a great dif-
tance. Befides, the pieces broken off from the fides of
fuch an immenfe mountain muft be much thicker than
any ice that is met with in the northern ocean ; none
of which is above two yards in height above the furface
of the water, thofe immenfe pieces called ice mountains
being always formed on land.
Again, the fyftem of nature is fo formed, that all parts
of the earth are expofed for the fame length of time, or
nearly fo, throughout the year to the rays of the fun.
But, by reafon of the fpheroidal figure of the terraque¬
ous globe, the poles and polar regions enjoy the fun
fomewhat longer than others; and hence the Dutch
who wintered in Nova Zembla in 1672 faw the fun a
fortnight fooner than they ought to have done by aftro-
nomical calculations. By reafon of this flatnefs about
the poles, too, the fun not only ftiines for a greater fpace
of time on thefe inhofpitable regions, but with lefs ob¬
liquity in the fummer-time, and hence the effedl of his
rays muft be the greater. Now Mr Barrington confiders
it as an abfurd fuppofition, that this glorious luminary
ftiould Ihine for fix months on a cake of barren ice where
there is neither animal nor vegetable. He fays that the
polar feas are affigned by nature as the habitation of the
whales, the largeft animals in the creation j but if the
greateft part of the polar feas are for ever covered with
an impenetrable cake of ice, thefe huge animals will be
confined within very narrow bounds j for they cannot
fubfift without frequently coming to the top of the wa¬
ter to breathe.
Laftly, the quantity of water frozen by different de-Quantity 0
grees of cold is by no means direftly in proportion to ice formed
the intenfity of the cold, but likewife to the duration151101.al*
of it. Thus, large bodies of water are never frozen in ^portion
any temperature of (hurt duration, though (hallow bo-10 the de¬
dies often are. Our author obferves, that as much ofgreeof
a given mafs of water was frozen in five hours of a tern-cold-
perature 12° below the freezing point, as was frozen in
one
(a) See M. Bauche's Obfervations on the North or Ice Sea, where he gives an account of various attempts
made to reach the pole, from which he is convinced that the fea is there open, and that the thing is practicable.
M. de Pages, in his Travels, vol. iii. informs us, that he wiftied to take a voyage to the north leas, for the pur-
pofe of bringing under one view the various obftacles from the ice, which have impeded the researches of nayi-
o-ators in thofe feas; and for this purpofe he was prepared to continue his voyage to as high a latitude as poftible,
and that he might be able to fay whether any land actually exifts north from the coaft of Greenland.. He tailed
without any encouragement from his court (France) on the 16th of April 1776 from the lexel, in a Dutch
veffel bound to Spitffiergen. On the 16th of May (he was a little way north of 81 , the higheft latitude (he
“ Bein<* now (fays the author) lefs than 180 leagues from the pole, the idea of fo fmall a diftance ferved ef-
fe&ually to awaken my curiofity. Had I been able to infpire my fellow-voyagers with fentiments fimilar to my
own the winds and currents which at this moment carried us fall towards the pole, a region hitherto deemed in-
acceffible to the eye of mortals, would have been fainted with acclamations of joy. This quarter, however, is. not
the moft eligible for fuch an enterprife : here the fea lying in the vicinity of thofe banks of ice, fo frequent a
farther to tfie weft Is much too confined. Neverthelefs, when I confider the very changeable nature of the (hoals
under whatever form, even in their moft crowded and compaa ftate 5 their conftant changes and concuffions which
break and detach them from one another, and the various expedients that may be employed for freeing the (hip
from confinement, as well as for obviating impending danger—I am far from viewing a voyage to the pole as a
chimerical idea.”
\
\
\
l6r
Mr Fos¬
ter’s argu¬
ments a-
gainft the
poffibility
of reach¬
ing the
pole*.
POL [ 95 ]
one Lour of tlie temperature 50° below it 5 and that at all
long duration of the temperature between 20 and 32
is, with regard to the congelation of water, equivalent
to intenlity of cold fuch as is marked o and below o in
Fahrenheit, but of fhort duration. See Cold and Con¬
gelation.
On the other hand, Mr Forfter, in his Obfervations,
takes the contrary fide of the queftion with no little
vehemence. “ I know (fays he) that M. de Buffon,
Lomonofof, and Crantz, were of opinion, that the ice
found in the ocean is formed near the lands only, from
the frefh water and ice carried down into the fea by the
many rivers in Siberia, Hudfon’s bay, See. 5 and there¬
fore, when we fell in with fuch quantities of ice in De¬
cember 1772, I expedted we fhould foon meet with the
land from whence thefe ice mafies had been detached.
But being difappointed in the difeovery of this land,
though we penetrated beyond the 67° twice, and once
beyond 710, fouth latitude, and having befides fome
other doubts concerning the exiftence of the pretended
fouthern continent, I thought it neceffary to inquire
what reafons chiefly induced the above authors to form
the opinion that the ice floating in the ocean muft be
formed near land, or that an auftral land is abfolutely
requifite for that purpofe ; and having looked for their
arguments, I find they amount chiefly to this : ‘ That
the ice floating in the ocean is all frefli . that fait water
does not freeze at all •, or if it does, it contains briny
particles. They infer from thence, that the ice in the
ocean cannot be formed in the fea far from any land :
there muft therefore exift auftral lands becaufe, in or¬
der to form an idea of the original of the great ice maflbs
agreeably to what is obferved in the northern hemifphere,
they find that the firft point for fixing the high ice-
iflands is the land ; and, fecondly, that the great quan¬
tity of flat ice is brought down the rivers.’ I have im¬
partially and carefully confidered and examined thefe
arguments, and compared every circumftance with what
we faw in the high fouthern latitude, and with other
known faffs 5 and will here infert the refult of all my
inquiries on this fubjeff.
“ Firft, they obferve the ice floating in the ocean to
yield, by melting, frefti water : which I believe to be
true. Hmvever, hitherto it has by no means been ge¬
nerally allowed to be frefti : for Crantz fays exprefsly,
that ‘ the flat pieces (forming what they call the /ce-
fields) are fait, becaufe they were congealed from fea-
water.’ The ice taken up by us for watering the ftiip
was of all kinds, and neverthelefs we found it conftant-
ly frefti: Which proves, either that the principle of
analogy cannot be applied indiferiminately in both
hemifpheres 5 and that one thing may be true in the
northern hemifphere which is quite otherwife in the
fouthern, from reafons not yet known or difeovered by
us •, or we muft think that Crantz and others are miftaken,
who fuppofe the ice floating in the ocean to be fait.
“ The next remark is, That fait water does not freeze
POL
or if it does, it contains briny particles. M. de
Buffbn tells us, ‘ that the fea between Nova Zembla and
Spitzbergen, under the 790 north latitude, does not
freeze, as it is there confiderably broad : and that it is
not to be apprehended to find the fea frozen not even
under the pole itfelf; for indeed there is no example of
having ever found a fea wholly frozen over, and at a
confiderable diftance from the fliores j that the only in-
ftance of a fea entirely frozen is that of the Black fea,
which is narrow and not very fait, and receives a great
many river's coming from northern regions, and bring¬
ing down ice : that this fea therefore fometimes freezes
to fuch a degree, that its whole furface is congealed to
a confiderable thicknefs ; and, if the hiftorians are to be
credited, was frozen, in the reign of the emperor Con-
ftantine Copronymus, 30 ells thick, not including 20
ells of fnow which was lying on the ice. This faft,
continues M. de Buffbn, feems to be exaggerated : but
it is true, however, that it freezes almoft every winter;
whilft the high feas which are 1000 leagues nearer to¬
wards the pole do not freeze $ which can have no other
caufe than the difference in faltnefs, and the little quan¬
tity of ice carried out by rivers, if compared to the'
enormous-quantity of ice which the rivers convey into
the Black fea.’ M. de Buffbn is not miftaken when he
mentions that the Black fea frequently freezes. Strabo
informs us, that the people near the Bofphorus Gimme-
rius pafs this fea in carts from Panticapeeum to Phana-
gorea ; and that Neoptolemus, a general of Mithridates
Eupator, won a battle w'ith his cavalry on the ice ou¬
tlie very fpot where he gained a naval viflory in the
fummer. Marcellinus Comes relates, that under the
confulfhip of Vincentius and Fravita, in the year 401
after Chrift, the whole furface of the Pontus was cover¬
ed with ice, and that the ice in fpring was carried
through the Propontis, during 30 days, like mountains.
Zonaras mentions the fea betw'een Conftantinople and
Scutari frozen to fuch a degree in the reign of Conftan-
tine Copronymus, that even loaded carts pafled over it.
The prince Demetrius Cantemir obferves, that in the
year 1620-1 there happened fo intenfe a froft, that the
people walked over the ice from Conftantinople to Ilko-
dar. All thefe inftances confirm M. Be Buffon’s afler-
tion. But as this great natural hiftorian fays that the
Black fea is the only inftance of a fea being entirely
frozen (b), I muft beg leave to diflent from him 3 for it
is equally well attefted that the Baltic is fometimes en¬
tirely frozen, according to Cafpar Schutz’s account. In
the year 1426, the winter was fo fevere, that people
travelled over the ice acrofs the Baltic from Dantzic to
Lubeck j and the fea was likewife paflable from Den¬
mark to Mecklenburg: and in the year 1459 the
whole Baltic was entirely frozen, fo that perfons travel¬
led both on foot and on horfeback, over iee, from Den¬
mark to the Venedick Hans-towns, called Lubeck, Wif-
?mr, Rojiock, and Stra/fund, which had never happened
before 3 people likewife travelled acrofs the Baltic over
(b) In the year 860 the Mediterranean was covered with ice, fo that people travelled in carts and horfes acrofs
the Ionian fea to Venice 3 (Hermcennus ContraBus ap. Pi/lor. Script, tom. ii. p. 236.). And in 1234 the Medi¬
terranean was again thus frozen, that the Venetian merchants travelled over the ice with their merchandife to
what place they chofe 3 Matt. Paris, p. 78.
Pole.
P O L
ice from Revel in Eftland to Denmark and to Sweden,
and back again, without theleSft danger (c). But, ac¬
cording to Saeniund Frode, even the great German
ocean between Denmark and Norway was frozen in the
year 1048, fo that the wolves frequently ran over the
ice from one country to the other. The great northern
ocean is likewife mofi: certainly fometimes frozen to a
great diflance from any land: for Muller relates, that
in the year 1715 a Coffack called Markoff', with fome
other perfons, was fent by the Ruffian government to
explore the north fea 5 but finding it next to impoffible
to make any progrefs during fummer on account of the
vaft quantities of ice commonly filling this ocean, he at
laft determined to try the experiment during winter.
He therefore took feveral fledges drawn according to
the cuftom of the country by dogs, which commonly go
about 80 or 100 verits per day, 105 of which make a
degree 5 and on March the 15th, old flyle, with this
caravan of nine perfons, he left the Ihores of Siberia at
the mouth of the river Yana, under the 710 of north
latitude, and proceeded for feven days together north¬
ward, fo that he had reached at leaft the 77* or 78°
north latitude, when he was flopped by the ice, which
there began to appear in the fliape of prodigious moun¬
tains. He climbed up to the top of fome of thefe ice-
mountains : but feeing from thence no land, nor any
thing except ice as far as the eye could reach, and hav¬
ing befides no more food for his dogs left-, he thought it
very neceffary to return.} which he with great difficulty
performed, on April the 3d, as feveral of the dogs,
which had perifhed for want, were employed to fup-
port thofe that remained alive. Thefe fafts, I believe,
will convince the unprejudiced reader, that there are
other feas befides the Black fea which really do freeze
in winter, and that the ice carried down the rivers could
not at leaft freeze the German ocean between Norway
and Denmark, becaufe the rivers there are fo fmall, and
bear a very inconfiderable proportion to the immenfe
ocean, wlpch, according to experiments made by Mr
Wilke, is very fait, though near the land, in the Swe-
dilh harbour of Landfcrona.
“ Now, if fix or feven degrees of latitude, containing
POL
from 360 to 420 fea-mlies, are not to be reckoned a
great diftance from the land, I do not know in what
manner to argue, becaufe no diftance whatfoever will be
reckoned far from any land. Nay, if tire Coffack Mar-
koff, being mounted on one of the higheft ice-moun¬
tains, may be allowed to fee at leaft to the diftance of
20 leagues, the extent alluded to above muft then be
increafed to 480 Englifti fea-miles} which certainly is
very confiderable, and makes it more than probable that
the ocean is frozen in winter, in high northern latitudes,
even as far as the pole. Befides, it invalidates the ar¬
gument w'hich thefe gentlemen wifh to inferfrom thence,
that the ocean doer not freeze in high latitudes, efpecially
where there is a conjiderably broad fea ; for wTe have
ftiown inflances to the contrary.
^ “ But M. de Buffon fpeaks of ice carried down the
rivers into the northern ocean, and forming there thefe
immenfe quantities of ice. “ And in cafe, fays he, we
would fuppofe, againft all probability, that at the pole
it could be fo colcLas to congeal the furface of the fea,
it would remain equally incomprehenfible how theffi
enormous floating ice-maffes could be formed, if they
had not land for a point to fix on, and from whenca
they are fevered by the heat of the fun. The two (hips
which the India Company fent in 1739 upon the difeo-
very of the auftral lands, found ice in 470 or 48° fouth
latitude, but at no great diftance from land} which they
difeovered, without being able to approach it. This
ice, therefore, muft have come from the interior parts of
the lands near the fouth pole} and we muft conjecture,
that it follows thecourfe of feveral large rivers, walking
thefe unknown lands, in the fame manner as the rivers
Oby, the Yenifea, and the other great rivers which fall
into the northern fea, carry the iee-maffes, which flop
up the ftraits of Waigats for the greater part of the
year, and render the Tartarian fea inacceffible upon this
courfe.’ Before we can allow the analogy between the
rivers Oby, Yenifea, and the reft which fall into the
northern ocean, and thofe coming from the interior
parts of the auftral lands, let us compare the fituation of
both countries, fuppofing the auftral lands really to ex~
ift. The Oby, Yenifea, and the reft of the Siberian
rivers.
[ 96 1
(c) In 1296 the Baltic was frozen from Gothland to Sweden. Incerti uuEtoris Annales Denor. in Wejlphalit
monument. Cimbr. tom. i. p. 1392.
In 1306 the Baltic was, during fourteen weeks, covered with ice between all the Daniffi and Swedifli iflands.
(Ludwig, reliquice, MSS. tom. ix. p. 170.).
In 1323 there was a road for foot paffengers and horfemen over the ice on the Baltic during fix weeks.
fid. ibid.)
In 1349 people walked over the ice from Stralfund to Denmark. (Incerti aubl. at. ap. Ludzvig. tom. ix.
^p. 181.).
In 1408 the whole fea between Gothland and Oeland, and likewife between Roftock and Gezoer, was frozen.
Id. ibid.)
In J423 the ice bore riding from Pruffia to Lubee. (Crant%ii Vandal, lib. x. c. 40.). The whole fea was
covered with ice from Mecklenburg to Denmark. (Incert. au£l. cit. ap. Ludwig, tom. ix. p. 125.).
In 1461 (fays Nicol. Marfchallus in Annul. Herul. ap. Wejlphal. tom. i. p. 261.), “ tanta erat hyems, ut con¬
crete gelu oceano, plauftris millia paffuum fupra CCC merces ad ultimam Thylen (Iceland) et Orcades veherentur
e Germania tota pene bruma.”
In 1 545 the fea between Roftock and Denmark, and likewife between Fionia and Sealand, was thus frozen,
that the people travelled over the ice on foot, with fledges to which horfes and oxen were put. (Anonym, ap.
Ludwig, tom. ix. p. 176.).
In 1294 the Cattegat or fea between Norway and Denmark was frozen} that from Oxflo in Norway, they
could travel on it to Jutland. (Strelow Chron. Juthiland. p. 148.).
POL [ 97 ] POL
Pole.
Of the
freezing
of falt-
water.
rivers, falling down into the northern ocean, have their
^ fources in 48° and 50° north latitude, where the cli¬
mate is mild and capable of producing corn of all kinds.
All the rivers of this great continent increasing thefe
great rivers have likewife their fources in mild and tem¬
perate climates, and the main direftion of their courfe is
from fouth to north •, and the coalt of the northern
ocean, not reckoning its finuofities, runs in general weft
and eaft. The fmall rivers which are formed in high la¬
titudes have, properly fpeaking, no fources, no fprings,
but carry off only the waters generated by the melting
of fnow in fpring, and by the fall of rain in the fliort
fummer, and are for the greateft part dry in autumn.
And the reafon of this phenomenon is obvious, after
Oonfidering the conftitution of the earth in thofe high
northern climates. At Yakutlk, in about 62° north la¬
titude, the foil is eternally frozen, even in the height of
fummer, at the depth of three feet from the furface. In
the years 1685 and 1686, an attempt was made to dig
a well *, and a man, by great and indefatigable labour,
continued during two fumtner-feafons, and fucceeded fo
far in this laborious talk, that he at laft reached the
depth of 91 feet; but the -whole earth at this depth was
frozen, and he met with no water ; which forced him
to delift from fo fruitlefs an attempt. And it is eafy to
infer from hence how impoffible it is that fprings fhould
be formed in the womb of an eternally frozen foil.
“ The argument, therefore, is now reduced to this,
T/iat fait water does not freeze at all; or, if it does, the
ice contains briny particles. But wre have already pro¬
duced numberlefs inftances, that the fea does freeze j
nay, Crantz allow's, that the flat pieces of ice are fait, be-
caufe they were congealed fror?i fea-water. We beg
leave to add a few decitive fa£ts relative to the freezing
of the fea. Barentz obferves in the year 1596, Septem¬
ber the 16th, the fea froze two fingers thick, and next
night the ice was as thick again. This happened in the
middle of September*, what effeft then muft the intenfe
froft of a night in January not produce ? When Captain
James wintered in Charleton’s ifle, the fea froze in the
middle of December 1631. It remains, therefore, only
to examine, whether the ice formed in the fea muft ne-
ceflarily contain briny particles. And here I find my-
felf in a very difagreeable dilemma ; for during the in¬
tenfe froft of the winter in 1776, two fets of experi¬
ments were made on the freezing of fea-wrater, and pub-
lilhed, contradidHng one another almoft in every mate¬
rial point. The one by Mr Edw'ard Nairne, F. R. S.
an ingenious and accurate obferver ; the other by Dr
Higgins, who reads leftures on chemiftry and natural
philofophy, and confequently muft be fuppofed to be
well acquainted with the fubjeft. I will therefore ftill
venture to confider the queftion as undecided bv thefe
experiments, and content myfelf with making a few ob-
fervations on them : but previouflv I beg leave to make
this general remark, that thofe who are well acquainted
with mechanics, chemiftry, natural philofophy, and the
Various arts which require a nice obfervation of minute
circumftances, need not be informed, that an experiment
or machine fucceeds often very well when made upon a
fmaller fcale, but will not anfwer if undertaken at large:
Vol. XVII. Part I.
and, wee verfa, machines and experiments executed up- Pol«.
on a fmall Icale will not produce the effetft which they —v*'"^
certainly have when made in a more enlarged manner.
A few years ago an experiment made on the dyeing of
Icarlet, did not fucceed when undertaken or^ a fmall
fcale, whereas it produced the defired effeft when tried
at a dyer’s houfe with the large apparatus j and it evi¬
dently confirms the above affertion, which I think I
have a right to apply to the freezing of fait water. It
is therefore probable, that the ice formed in the ocean
at large, in a higher latitude, and in a more intenfe de¬
gree of cold, whereof we have no idea here, may be¬
come folid, and free from any briny particles, though a
few experiments made by Dr Higgins, in his houfe, on
the freezing of fait water, produced only a loofe fpongy
ice filled with briny particles. ^
“ The ice formed of fea-water by Mr Nairne was gefult of
very hard, three inches and a half long, and two inches MrNairne’tf
in diameter : it follows from thence, that the walhing exPeri-
the outfide of this ice in frelh water, could not affeft the
infide of a hard piece of ice. This ice when melted1uo-jee''
yielded frelh water, which was fpecifically lighter than
water which was a mixture of rain and fnow water, and
next in lightnefs to diftilled water. Had the ice thus
obtained not been frelh, the refiduum of the fea-water,
after this ice had been taken out, could not have been
fpecifically heavier than fea-water, which, however, was
the cafe in Mr Nairne’s experiment. It feems, there¬
fore, in my opinion, evident from hence, that fait water
does freeze, and has no other briny particles than what
adhere to its outfide. All this perfeftly agrees with the
curious faift related by Mr Adanfon (d), who had
brought to France two bottles of fea water, taken up in
different parts of the ocean, in order to examine it, and
to compare its faltnefs, when more at leifure 4 but both
the bottles containing the fait water were burft by being
frozen, and the water produced from melting the ice
proved perfetftly frelh. This fa<ft is fo fairly ftated, and
fo very natural, that I cannot conceive it is neceffary to
fuppofe, without the leaft foundation for it, that the bot¬
tles were changed, or that Mr Adanfon does not mention
the circumftance by which the fea water was thus altered
upon its being diffblved: for as he exprefsly obferves the
bottles to have been burft, it is obvious that the con¬
centrated briny parts ran out, and were entirely drain¬
ed from the ice, which was formed of the frefli water
only.
“ The ice formed by Dr Higgins from fea water, con-
fffed of thin lamince, adhering to each other weakly. Dr
Higgins took out the frozen ice from the veffels wherein
he-expofed the fea water, and continued to do fo till the
remaining concentrated fea water began to form cryftals
of fea fait. Both thefe experiments, therefore, by no
means prove what the Doctor intended to infer from
thence ; for it was wrong to take out fuch ice, which
only conffled of thin lamince, adhering to each other
weakly. Had he waited with patience, he Would have
obtained a hard ice as well as Mr Nairne, which, by a
mo*-e perfeft congelation, would have excluded the briny
particles intercepted between the thin lamince, adhering
to each other weakly $ and would have connected the la-
N minae,
(b) Second Supplement to the Probability of reaching the North Pole, p. 119.
Pole.
POL
mince, bv others formed by frefh water
found afterwards, it is true, thicker and fomewhat more
folid ice : but the fea water had already been fo much
concentrated by repeated congelations, that it is no won¬
der the ice formed in it became at laft brackiih : it fhould
feem, then, that no conclufive arguments can be drawn
from thefe experiments.
“ There are two other obje&ions againft the for¬
mation of the ice in the great ocean. The jirjl is taken
from the immenfe bulk and fize of the ice maiTes form¬
ed in the ocean, which is the deepejl tnofs of water we
know of. But it has been experimentally proved,^ that
in the midft of fummer, in the latitudes of 550, 550 26',
and 64° fouth, at 100 fathoms depth, the thermometer
flood at 340, 344° and 320; and that in all inftances,
the difference between the temperature at top and 100
fathoms depth never exceeded four degrees of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer, or that the temperature of the air
did not differ five degrees from that of the ocean at
joc fathoms deep. If we now add to this, that be¬
yond the 710 fouth the temperature of the air and
ocean muft be {till colder, and that the rigours of an ant-
ar£Hc winter are certainly more than fufficient to cool
the ocean to 284°, which is requifite for congealing
the aqueous particles in it; if we moreover confider,
that thefe fevere frofts are continued during fix or eight
months of the year, we may eafily conceive that there
is time enough to congeal large and extenfive manes of
ice. But it is likewife certain, that there is more than
one way by which thofe immenfe ice maffes are formed.
We fuppofe very juftly, that the ocean does freeze, ha¬
ving produced fo many inftances of it; we allow like¬
wife, that the ice thus formed in a calm, perhaps does
not exceed three or four yards in thicknefs ; a ftorm
probably often breaks fuch an ice-field, which Crantz
allows to be 200 leagues one way and 80 the other ;
the preffure of the broken fragments againft one an¬
other frequently fets one upon the other piece, and they
freeze in that manner together ; feveral fuch double
pieces, thrown by another preflure upon one another,
form at laft large maffes of miles extent, and of 20,
40, 60, and more fathoms thicknefs, or of a great
bulk or height. Martens, in his defcription of Spitz-
bergen, remarks, that the pieces of ice caufe fo great
a noife’by their (hock, that the navigators in thofe re¬
gions can only with difficulty hear the words of thofe
that fpeak ; and as the ice-pieces are thrown one upon
another, ice-mountains are formed by it. And I ob-
ferved very frequently, in the years 1772 and 1773,
when we were among the ice, maffes which had the
moft evident marks of fuch a formation, being compo-
fed of ftrata of fome feet in thicknefs. This is in feme
meafure confirmed by the ftate in which the Coffack
Markoff found the ice at the diftance of 420 miles north
from the Siberian coafts. The high maffes were not
found formed, as is fufpe&ed in the Secondfupplement to
the probability of reaching the north pole, p.
near the land, under the high cliffs, bat far out at fea ;
and when thefe ice mountains were climbed by IVlarkott,
nothing but ice, and no veftiges of knd, appeared as
far as the eye could reach. The high climates near
the poles are likwife fubjeft to heavy falls of Inow,
of feveral yards in thicknefs, which grow more and
sj.org compaft, and by thaws and rain are formed into
[ 98 ] pol
The Doflor folid ice, which increafe the ftupendous fize of the float¬
ing ice mountains.
The ykontf objection againft the freezing of the
ocean into fuch ice as is found floating in it, is taken
from the opacity of ice formed in fait water ; becaufe
the largeft maffes are commonly tranfparent like cry-
ftal, with a fine blue tint, eauftd by the refledlion of
the fea. This argument is very fpecious, and might
be deemed unanfwerable by thofe who are not ufed to
cold winters and their effedts. But whofoever has
fpent feveral winters in countries which are fubjedl to
intenfe frofts, will find nothing extraordinary or diffi¬
cult in this argument: for it is a well-known fad in
cold countries, that the ice which covers their lakes
and rivers is often opaque, efpecially when the froft
fets in accompanied by a fall of fnow ; for, in thofe
inftances, the ice looks, before it hardens, like a dough
or pafte, and when congealed it is opaque and W’hite ;
howrever, in fpring, a rain and the thaw, followed by
frofty nights, change the opacity and colour of the ice,
and make it quite tranfparent and colourlefs like a cry-
ftal : but, in cafe the thaw continues, and it ceafes
entirely to freeze, the fame tranfparen,t ice becomes
foft and porous, and turns again entirely opaque. This
I believe may be applicable to the ice feen by us in
the ocean. The field-ice was commonly opaque ; fome
of the large maffes, probably drenched by rain, and fro¬
zen again, Avere tranfparent and pellucid ; but the fmall
fragments of loofe ice, formed by the decay of the large
maffes, and foaked by long-continued rains, avc found to
be porous, foft, and opaque.
“ It is likeAvife urged as an argument againft the
formation of ice in the ocean, that it always requires
land, in order to have a point upon Avhich it may be
fixed. Firft, I obferve, that in Mr Nairne’s experi¬
ments, the ice was generated on the furface, and Avas
feen (hooting eryftals doAvnwards : Avhich evidently
evinces, in my opinion, that ice is there formed or ge¬
nerated Avhere the intenfeft cold is ; as the air fooner
cools the furface than the depth of the ocean, the ice
ftioots naturally downwards, and cools the ocean more
and more, by which it is prepared for further conge¬
lation. I fuppofe, however, that this happens always
during calms, Avhich are not uncommon m.high lati¬
tudes, as avc experienced in the late expedition. Nor
does land feem abfelutely neceffary in order to fix the
ice ; for this may be done Avith as much eafe and pro¬
priety to the large ice mountains which remain undif-
folved floating in the ocean in high latitudes ; or it may,
perhaps, not be improper to fuppofe, that the Avhole
polar region, from 8o° and upwards, in the fouthern
hemifphere, remains a folid ice for feveral years toge¬
ther, to Avhich yearly a neAV circle of ice is added, and
of Avhich, however, part is broken off by the winds
and the return of the mild feafon. Wherever the ice
floats in large maffes, and fometimes in compaft bo¬
dies formed of an infinite number of fmall pieces, there
it is by no means difficult to freeze the whole into one
niece ; fur amongft the ice the wind has not a power
of railing high and great Avaves, I his circumftance
Avas not entirely unknoAvn to the ancients ; and it is.
probable they acquired this information from the natives
of ancient Gaul, and from the Britons and other north¬
ern nations, Avho fornetimes undertook long voyages.
The
Pole.
Pole.
^ Se called
by the
Qimbri-
*9
Obfervu-
tions on
Mr Fos¬
ter’s rea-
foning.
POL [ 99 ] POL
The northern ocean was called by the ancients theyho-
■zcn, the dead, the la%y, and immoveable fea : fometimes
they give it the name mare cranium, the concrete fea,
and morimorufam *, the dead fea. And, what is very
remarkable, in all the northern cold countries the froft
fometimes is fo intenfe, that all the waters become fud-
denly coagulated into a kind of pafte or dough, and
thus at once congeal.”
On this reafoning of Mr Forfter’s, however, we muft
obferve, that it cannot potTibly invalidate any faft which
Mr Barrington has advanced. The belt concerted and
moft plaufible theory in the world mult yield to expe¬
rience ; for this is in fadt what mull judge all theories.
Now, from what we have already related, it is demon-
ftrated, that in the fpace between the mouths of the
rivers Piafida and Chatanga more ice muft be formed,
and more intenfe colds generated, than in any other
part of the world j confequently, for a confiderable
fpace both on the eaft and weft fide of that, the fea
muft be more full of ice than anywhere elfe. Now,
between thefe two rivers there is the promontory of
Taimura, which runs out to the latitude of 78°, or near
it, and which of neceflity muft obftrudt the difperfion
of the ice •, and that it adtually does fo is in fome de¬
gree probable, becaufe in one of the Ruffian voyages
above mentioned the eaftern mouth of the Lena was
quite free, when the weftern ones were entirely choked
up with ice. Now the mouth of the Yana lies feveral
degrees to the eaftward of the Lena : confequently, when
the ice comes eaftward from the cape of Taimura, it
muft neceffarily fill all that fea to the latitude of 78°
and upwards; but the Coflack Markoff, if he proceeded
dire&ly north, could not be farther than the promonto¬
ry of Taimura, and confequently ftill enveloped among
the ice. Befides, we are certain, that the fea in 78° is
not at all frozen into a folid cake in fome places, fince
Lord Mulgrave, in 1773, reached 8i°. Mr Forfter’s
argument, therefore, either proves nothing, or it proves
too much. If it proves, that about the middle of the
eaftern continent the cold is fo intenfe that a fufficient
quantity of ice is formed to obftrudt the navigation for
feveral hundred miles round, this proves nothing ; be¬
caufe we knew before that this muft be the cafe : But
if it proves, that the fea muft be unnavigable by reafon
of ice all round the globe at 78° north latitude, this is
too much ; becaufe we certainly know, that in 1773
Lord Mulgrave reached the latitude of 8 i°. However,
though it fhould be allowed that the fea is quite clear
all the way to the pole, it muft be a very great uncer¬
tainty whether any fhip could by that way reach the
Eaft Indies ; becaufe we know that it muft fail down
between the continents of Afia and America, through
that ftrait whofe mouth muft often be blocked up with
ice driving eaftward along the continent of Afia.
The fouth pole is ftill more inacceflible than the north
pole; for the ice is found in much lower fouthern than
northern latitudes. Upon this fubjedt M. Pages fpeaks
thus : “ Having in former voyages (fays he) vifited
many parts of the terraqueous globe in different lati¬
tudes, I had opportunities of acquiring a confiderable
knowledge of climate in the torrid as well as in the tem¬
perate divifions of the earth. In a fubfequent voyage
I made it my bufinefs to be equally well informed re-
fpe&ing the reputed inhofpitable genius of the South
i?as; and upon my return from that expedition I en-
Pole
Polemo.
tertained not the fmalleft doubt that there exifts a pe¬
culiar and perpetual rigour in the fouthern hemifphere.”
(See his Travels round the World, vol. iii. tranllated
from the French, and printed at London, 1792, for
Murray). This fuperior degree of cold has by many
been fuppofed to proceed from a greater quantity of
land about the fouth than the north pole * ; and the * See A-
notion of a vaft continent in thefe regions pi evaded al- MERICA>
moft univerfally, infomuch that many have fiiught for ^°1 3' 5*
it, but hitherto in vain. See the articles COOK'S Dif Dfcove.
coveries, N° 38—49, and N° 68, and 69. SOUTH Sea,
and TER HA Aujiralis. hi0 38, &c5
Magnetic Pole. See Magnetism.
North Pole. See Pole.
POLE-Axe, a fort of hatchet nearly refembling a
battle-axe, having an handle about 15 inches in length,
and being furnilhed with a (harp point or claw, bend¬
ing downwards from the back of its head ; the blade
whereof is formed like that of any other hatchet. It
is principally employed in fea-fights to cut away and
deftroy the rigging of any adverfary who endeavours to
board.
Pole-axes are alfo Taid to have been fuccefsfully ufed
on fome occafions in boarding an enemy, whofe fides
were above thofe of the boarder. This is executed by
detaching feveral gangs to enter at different parts of the
fhip’s length, at which time the pole-axes are forcibly
driven into her fide, one above another, fo as to form
a fort of fcaling-ladders.
Pole Cat. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Pole Star. See AsxRONOMy, N° 3, 17, and 39.
POLEIN, in Englilh antiquity, is a fort of (hoe,
fliarp or piked at the point. This fafhion took its
rife in the time of King William Rufus; and the pikes
were fo long, that they were tied up to the knees with
filver or golden chains. They were forbidden by Itat.
an. 4. Edw. IV. cap. 7. Tunc jluxus crinium, tunc
luxus vcjlium, tunc ufus calceorum cum arcuatis aculeis
inventus eft. Malmetb. in Will. ii.
POLEMARCHUS was a magiftrate at Athens,who
had under bis care all the ftrangers and fojourners in the
city, over whom he had the fame authority that the ar-
chon had over the citizens. It was his duty to offer a Potter's
folemn facrifice to Enyalus (faid to be the fame with Grecian
Mars, though others will have it that he was only one ^ntiqui-*
of his attendants), and another to Diana, furnamed*^*
Ay^er£g«, in honour of the famous patriot Harmodius.
It was alfo his bufinefs to take care that the children
of thofe that had loft their lives in the fervice of their
country Ihould be provided for out of the public trea-
fury.
POLEMICAL, in matters of literature, an appella¬
tion given to books of controverfy, efpecially thofe in
divinity.
POLEMO, who fucceeded Xenocrates in the direc¬
tion of the academy, V'as an Athenian of diftinguifhed
birth, and in the earlier part of his life a man of loofe
morals. The manner in which he was reclaimed from
the purfuit of infamous pleafures, and brought under the
difcipline of philofophy, affords a memorable example of
the power of eloquence employed in the caufe of virtue.
His hiftory is thus related by Dr Enfield : “ As he
was, one morning about the rifing of the fun, returning
home from the revels of the night, dad in a loofe robe,
crowned with garlands, ftrongly perfumed, and intoxi-
N 2 cated
P O L [ 100 ] POL
Pulemo cated with wine, he pafled by the fchool of Xenocrates,
} II, and faw him furrounded with his difciples. Unable to
, 0 f0 fortunate an opportunity of indulging his fpor-
tive humour, he rufhed without ceremony into the
fchool, and took his place among the philofophers.
The whole aflembly was allonifhed at this rude and in¬
decent intriafion, and all but Xenocrates difcovered figns
of refentment. Xenocrates, however, preferved the per-
fe£l command of his countenance *, and with great pre¬
fence of mind turned his difcourfe from the fubjedt on
which he was treating to the topics of temperance and
modefty, which he recommended with fuch ftrength of
argument, and energy of language, that Polemo wras
conllrained to yield to the force of conviction. Inltead
of turning the philofopher and his dodtrine to ridicule,
as he at firlt intended, he became fenfible of the folly of
his former conduCt ; was heartily alhamed of the con¬
temptible figure which he had made in fo refpeCtable an
aflcmbly ■, took his garland from his head ; concealed
his naked arm under his cloak ; afiumed a fedate and
thoughtful afpeft ; and, in fiiort, refolved from that
hour to relinquilh his licentious pleafures, and devote
himfelf to the purfuit of wifdom. Thus was this young
man, by the powerful energy of truth and eloquence, in
an inftant converted from an infamous libertine to a re-
fpe&able philofopher. In fuch a hidden change of cha-
raCIer it is difficult to avoid pafling from one extreme
to another. Polemo, after his reformation, in order to
brace up his mind to the tone of rigid virtue, conftantly
praftifed the fevereft auflerity and molt hardy fortitude.
From the thirtieth year of his age to his death, he
drank nothing but water. When he fuffered violent
pain, he (bowed no external fign of anguiffi. In order
to preferve his mind undifturbed by paffion, he habituat¬
ed himfelf to fpeak in an uitiform tone of voice, without
elevation or depreffion. The aufterity of his manners
was, however, tempered with urbanity and generofity.
He was fond of folitude, and palled much of his time
in a garden near his fchool. He died, at an advanced
age, of a confumption. Of his tenets little is faid by
the ancients, becaufe he ftriCtly adhered to the doCIrine
bf Plato.”
POLEMONIUM, Greek Valerian, or Jacob's
Ladder ; a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria
elafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the
29th order, Campanacece. See Botany Index.
POLEMOSCOPE, in Optics, the fame with Ope¬
ra-glass. See Dioptrics.
POLENBURG, Cornelius, an excellent painter
of fmall landfcapes and figures, was born at Utrecht in
11;86, and educated under Blomaert, whom he foon
quitted to travel into Italy ; and ftudied for a long time
in Rome and Florence, where he formed a ftyle en¬
tirely new, which, though preferable to the Flemilh, is
unlike any Italian, except in his having adorned his
landfcapes with ruins. There is a varnifhed fmoothnefs
and fini(liing in his pictures, that render them, always
pleafing, though fimple and too nearly refembling one
•another. The Roman cardinals were charmed with
the neatnefs of his works, as was alfo the great duke j
but could not retain him. He returned to Utrecht,
and pleafed Rubens, who had feveral of his performances.
King Charles I. invited him to London, where he ge¬
nerally painted the figures in Steenwyck’s perfpeftives :
but the king could not prevail on him to fix here j for
3
after (laying only four years, and being handlomely re- Polcnburg
warded by his majefty for feveral pieces which he per- .11
formed for him, he returned to Utrecht, and died;0 la^11: fS‘
there* at the age of 74. His works are very fcarce and
valuable.
POLERON, one of the Banda or Nutmeg ifiands
in the Eaft Indies. This was one of thofe fpice iflands
which put themfelves under the protection of the Eng-
li(h, and voluntarily acknowledged James I. king of
England for their fovereign 5 for which reafon the na¬
tives of this and the reft of the ifiands were murdered
or driven thence by the Dutch, together with the Eng-
lifti.
POLESIA, a province of Poland, bounded by Po-
lachia and Proper Lithuania on the north, and by Vol-
hinia on the fouth. It is one of the palatinates of Li¬
thuania, and is commonly called Brefcia, and its capital
is of this name. It is full of forefts and lakes.
POLES1NO DE Rovigo, a province of Italy, in
the republic of Venice, lying to the north of the river
Po •, and bounded on that fide by the Paduan, on the
fouth by the Ferrarefe, on the eaft by Degado, and on
the weft by the Veronefe. It is 45 miles in length, and
17 in breadth, and is a fertile country. Rovigo is the
capital.
POLET7E were ten magiftrates of Athens, who,
with three that had the management of money allowed
for public (hows, were empowered to let out the tribute-
money and other public revenues, and to fell confifcated
eftates j all which bargains were ratified by their pre-
fident, or in his name. They were by their office alfo
bound to conviCt fuch as had not paid the tribute called
MeWi<»v, and fell them in the market by auftion. The
market where thefe wretches ivere fold was called
TraMlvgfov rn pdewm.
POLIANTHES, the Tuberose ; a genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 10th order, Coronarice. See
Botany Index. The varieties are the common tube-
rofe, with (ingle flowers,—double-flowered,—dwarf-
ftalked,—variegated leaved. They all flower here in
June, July, and Auguft.
All the varieties being exotics from warm countries,
although they are made to flower in great perfection in
our gardens by afliftance of hot-beds, they will not
profper in the open ground, and do not increafe freely
in England ; fo that a fupply of the roots is imported
hither annually from Genoa, and other parts of Italy,
by moft of the eminent nurfery and feedfmen, and the
Italian warehoufe-keepers ; generally arriving in Febru¬
ary or March, time enough for the enfuing fummer’s
bloom } and are fold commonly at the rate of twelve or
fifteen {hillings per hundred, being careful always to
procure as large roots as poflible, for on this depends
the fuccefs of having a complete blow. Requiring artifi¬
cial heat to blow them in this country, they are planted
in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed, under a deep frame
furniftied with glafs lights ; or placed in a hot-houfe,
where they may be blowed to great perfection with
little trouble. The principal feafon for planting them
is March and April : obferving, however, that in order
to continue a long fucceffion of the bloom, it is proper
to make two or three different plantings, at about a
month interval} one in March, another in April, and a
third the beginning of May, whereby the blow may be
continued
POL [ ioi ] POL
Polianthes continued from June until September j obferving, as
.11 above mentioned, they may be flowered either by aid of
Polidoro. a common dang or bark hot-bed, or in a hot-houfe.
With refpeft to the propagation of thefe plants, it
is principally by offsets of the roots. The blowing
roots that are brought annually from abroad for fale are
often furniflied with offsets, which ought to be feparated
previous to planting. Thofe alfo that are planted here
in our gardens frequently furnifh offsets fit for feparation
in autumn when the leaves decay : they muft then be
preferved in fand all winter in a dry fheltered place ;
and in the beginning of March, plant them either in
a bed of light dry earth in the full ground 5 or, to for¬
ward them as much as poflible, allow them a moderate
hot-bed } and in either method indulge them with a
fhelter in cold weather, either of a frame and lights, or
arched with hoops and occafionally matted ; but let
them enjoy the full air in all mild weather, giving alfo
plenty of water in dry weather during the feafon of
their growth in fpring and fummer. Thus let them
grow till their leaves again decay in autumn : then take
them up, clean them from earth, and lay them in
fand till fpring ; at which time fuch roc4s as are large
enough to blow may be planted and managed as al¬
ready diredfed, and the fmall roots planted again in a
nurfery-bed, to have another year’s growth j afterwards
plant them for flowering. The Egyptians put the
flowers of tuberofe into fweet oil j and by this means
give it a moft excellent flavour, fcarce inferior to oil of
jafmine.
POLIC ANDRO, a fmall ifland in the Archipelago,
feated between Milo and Morgo. It has no harbour,
but has a town about three miles from the fhore near a
huge rock. It is a ragged ftony ifland, but yields as
much corn as is fufficient for the inhabitants, who con-
fift of about 120 Greek families, all Chriflians. The
only commodity is cotton : of which they make napkins,
a dozen of which are fold for a crown. E. Long. 35. 25,
N. Lat. 36. 36.
POLICASTRO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Principato 5 but
now almoft in ruins, for which reafon the bifliop refides
in another town. E. Long. 15. 46. N. Lat. 40. 26.
POLICY, or Polity, in matters of government.
See Polity.
POLICT of Infurance, or Ajfurnnce, of fliips, is a con-
traft or convention, whereby a perfon takes upon him-
felf the rilks of a fea-voyage j obliging himfelf to make
good the Ioffes and damages that may befal the veffel,
its equipage, tackle, vidlualling, lading, &c. either from
tempefts, (hipwrecks, pirates, fire, war, reprifals, in part
or in whole ; in confideration of a certain fum of feven,
eight, or ten per cent, more or lefs according to the rifle
run j which fum is paid down to the affurer by the af-
luree upon his figning the policy. See Insurance.
POLIDORO da Caravaggio, an eminent painter,
born at Caravaggio in the Milanefe in 1492. He went
young to Rome, where he worked as a labourer in
preparing ftucco for the painters $ and was fo animated
by feeing them at work in the Vatican, that he folicited
fome of them to teach him the rules of defigning. He
attached himfelf particularly to Maturino, a young Flo¬
rentine } and a fimilarity in talents and tafte producing
a difinterefted affection, they affociated like brothers,
laboured together, and lived on one common purfe, un¬
til the death of Maturino. He underftood and praftifed
the chiaro-fcuro in a degree fuperior to any in the Ro¬
man fchool: and finiflied an incredible number of pic¬
tures both in frefco and in oil, few of the public build¬
ings at Rome being without fome of his paintings. Be¬
ing obliged to fly from Rome when it was ftormed and
pillaged, he retired to Meflina, where he obtained a
large fum of money with great reputation, by painting
the triumphal arches for the reception of Charles V. af¬
ter his vidtory at Tunis : and when he was preparing to
return to Rome, he was murdered, for the fake of his
riches, by his Sicilian valet with other affaflins, in the
year 1543.
POL1FOLIA. See Andromeda, Botany In-
Polidoro
.11.
Polifhing,
dex.
POLIGNAC, Melchier de, an excellent French
genius and a cardinal, was born of an ancient and noble
family at Puy, the capital of Velay, in 1662. He
was lent by Louis XlV. ambaffador extraordinary to
Poland, where, on the death of Sobielki, he formed a
projedt of procuring the eledtion of the prince of Conti.
But failing, he returned home under fome difgrace 5
but when reftored to favour, he was fent to Rome as
auditor of the Rota. He was plenipotentiary during
the congrefs at Utrecht, at which time Clement I.
created him a cardinal; and upon the acceflion of Louis
XV. he was appointed to refide at Rome as minifter of
France. He remained there till the year 1732, and
died in the year 1741. He left behind him a MS. poem
entitled Anti-Lucretius, feu De Deo et Natura ; the plan
of which he is faid to have formed in Holland in a con-
verfation with Mr Bayle. This celebrated poem was
firft publilhed in the year 1749, and has fince been feve-
ral times printed in other countries befides France. He
had been received into the French Academy in 1704,
into the Academy of Sciences in 1715, into that of the
Belles Lettres in 1717 : and he would have been an or¬
nament to any fociety, having all the accomplifliments
of a man of parts and learning.
POLISHER, or Burnisher, among mechanics, an
inftrument for polilhing and burniflung things proper to
take a polilh. The gilders ufe an iron-poliftier to pre¬
pare their metals before gilding, and the blood-ftone to
give them the bright polilh after gilding.
The polifliers, among cutlers, are a kind of wooden
wheels made of walnut-tree, about an inch thick, and
of a diameter at pleafure, which are turned round by a
great wheel; upon thefe they fmooth and polilh their
work with emery and putty.
The polilhers for glafs confift of two pieces of wood 5
the one flat, covered with old hat j the other long and
half-round, faftened on the former, whofe edge it ex¬
ceeds on both fides by fome inches, which ferves the
workmen to take hold of, and to vrork backwards and
forwards by.
The polilhers ufed by fpeftacle-makers are pieces of
wood a foot long, feven or eight inches broad, and an
inch and a half thick, covered with old beaver hat,.,
whereon they polilh the Ihell and horn frames their
fpe£facle-glaffes are to be fet in.
POLISHING, in general, the operation of giving
a glofs or luftre to certain fubftances, as metals, glafs,
marble, &c.
The
POL T 102 ] POL
Volitiling, The operation of polifhing optic-glafTes, after being
Politcnels. pr0per[y ground, is one of the mod difficult points of
v the whole procefs. See Telescope.
POLITENESS means elegance of manners or good
breeding: Lord Chefterfield calls it the art of pleafing.
It has alfo been called an artificial good nature; and in¬
deed good nature is the foundation of true politenefs;
■without which art will make but a very indifferent fi¬
gure, and will generally defeat its own ends. “ Where
compliance and affent, caution and candour, fays an
'* Kaox. elegant effayift *, arife from a natural tendernefs of dif-
pofition and foftnefs of nature, as they fometimes do,
they are almoll: amiable and certainly excufable; but
as the effedts of artifice, they muff be defpifed. The
perfons who poffefs them are, indeed, often themfelves
dupes of their own deceit, when they imagine others
are deluded by it. For exceffive art always betrays
itfelf; and many, who do not openly take notice of the
deceiver, from motives of delicacy and tendernefs for his
character, fecretly deride and warmly refent his ineffec¬
tual fubtilty.”
t Beauties “ True polltenefs (fays another author f) is that con-
of Hijiory. tinual attention which humanity infpires us with, both to
pleafe others, and to avoid giving them offence. The
furly plain-dealer exclaims loudly againft this virtue, and
prefers his own (hocking bluntnefs and Gothic freedom.
The courtier and fawning flatterer, on the contrary, fub-
ftitute in its place infipid compliments, cringings, and a
jargon of unmeaning fentences. The one blames polite-
neis, becaufehe takes it for a vice; and the other is the
occafion of this, becaufe that which he pra&ifes is really
fo.”
Both thefe charaflers a£l from motives equally abfurd,
though not equally criminal. The conduct of the art¬
ful flatterer is guided by felf-love, while that of the
plain-dealer is the effect of ignorance: for nothing is
more certain, than that the defire of pleafing is found¬
ed on the mutual wants and the mutual wiffies of man¬
kind; on the pleafure which we with to derive from fo-
ciety, and the character which we with to acquire. Men
having difcovered that it was neceffary and agreeable to
unite for their common interefts, they have made laws
to reprefs the wicked, they have fettled the duties of fo-
cial life, and connected the idea of refpeflability with
the pra&ice of thofe duties; and after having prefcribed
the regulations neceffary to their common fafety, they
have endeavoured to render their commerce with one
another agreeable, by eftablilhing the rules of politenefs
and good breeding. Indeed, as an elegant author al¬
ready quoted remarks, the philofopher who in the au-
flerity of his virtue, (hould condemn the art of pleafing
as unworthy cultivation, would deferve little attention
from mankind, and might be difmiffed to his folitary
tub, like his brother Diogenes. It is the dictate of hu¬
manity, that we (hould endeavour to render ourfelves
agreeable to thofe in whofe company we are deftined to
travel in the journey of life. It is our intereft, it is the
fource of perpetual fatisfaftion; it is one of our moft im¬
portant duties as men, and particularly required in the
profeffor of Chriftianity.”
It is needlefs to particularize the motives which have
induced men to pra&ife the agreeable virtues ; for,
from whatever fource the defire of pleafing proceeds, it
has always increafed in proportion to the general civili¬
zation of mankind. In a rude Hate of fociety, pleafure
4
is limited in its fources and its operation. When the Politeneft,<
wants of mankind, and the means ot attaining them, are ——y—
few, perlbnal application is neceffary to gratify them,
and it is generally fufficient; by which means an indivi¬
dual becomes more independent that can poffibly be the
cafe in civilized life, and of courfe lefs difpofed to give
or receive affiftance. Confined to the folitary wi(h of
furniffiing means for his own happinefs, he is little in¬
tent on the pleafures of converfation and fociety. His
defire of communication is equal to the extent of his
knowledge. But as foon as the natural wants of life are
filled up, we find unoccupied time, and we labour hard
to make it pafs in an agreeable manner. It is then we
perceive the advantage of poffeffing a rational nature,
and the delights of mutual intercourfe. When we con-
fider fociety in that (fate of perfection which enables a
great part of the members of it to purfue at leifure the
pleafures of converfation, we (hould expeft, both from
the eafeof acquitting ourfelves to the fatisfadlion of our
affociates, and from the advantages ariiing from this
condubt, that the art of pleafing might be reduced to a
few plain and fimple rules, and that thefe might be de»
rived from a flight attention to general manners.
The art of pleafing, in our intercourfe with mankind,
is indeed fo fimple, that it requires nothing more than
the eonlf ant defire to pleafe in all our words and abtions;
and the practice of it can neither wound a man’s felf-
love, nor be prejudicial to his intereif in any poffible
fituation.
But though this be certain, it isdoubtlefs lefs attend¬
ed to than in reafon it ought to be. Each particular
man is fo zealous to promote his own ends or his own
pleafure, as to forget that his neighbour has claims
equal to his own; that every man that enters into com¬
pany gives up for the time a great many of his peculiar
rights; and that he then forms part of an affociation,
met together not for the particular gratification of any
one, but for the purpole of general fatisfaftion. See
Breeding, Conversation, and Good Manners.
The qualities effential in the art of pleafing, are vir¬
tue, knowledge, and ttianners. All the virtues which
form a good and refpeftable charafter in a moral fenfe
are effential to the art of pleafing. This muff be an
eftablilhed principle, becaufe it depends on the wants
and mutual relations of fociety. In all affairs of com¬
mon bufinefs, we delight in tranfafting -with men in
whom we can place confidence, and in whom we find
integrity; but truth is fo natuially pleafing, and the
common affairs of life are fo interwoven with focial in¬
tercourfe, that we derive abundantly more fatisfaftion
from an honed charafter than from fpecious manners.
“ Should you be fufpefted (fays Cheflerfield) of injuf-
tice, malignity, perfidy, lying, &c. all the parts and
knowledge of the world will never procure you efleem,
friendihip, and refpeft.”
The fird of virtues in our commerce with the world,
and the chief in giving pleafure to thofe with whom we
affociate, is inviolable fincerity of heart. We can never
be too punftual in the mod fcrupulous tendernefs to our
moral charafter in this refpeft, nor too nicely affefted
in preferving our integrity.
The peculiar modes, even of the fafhionable ■world,
which are founded in diffimulation, and which on this
account have induced feveral to recommend the prac-
tice, would not prevent a man of the highelt integrity
from
POL [10
jlitenefs. from being acceptable in the very beft company. Ac-
Y—' knowledged fincerity gives the fame ornament to cha¬
racter that modefty does to manners. It would abun¬
dantly atone for the want of ridiculous ceremony, or
falfe and unmeaning profeffions ; and it would in no re-
fpeft diminilh the luftre of a noble air, or the perfedion
of an elegant addrefs.
If integrity be the foundation of that charader which
is moft generally acceptable, or which, in other words,
poifelTes the power of pleating in the higheft degree, hu¬
manity and modefty are its higheft ornaments.
The whole art of pleating, as far as the virtues are
concerned, may be derived from the one or other of thefe
fourees. Humanity comprehends the difplay of every
thing amiable to others •, modefty removes or fuppreffes
every thing offenlive in ourfelves.
This modefty, however, is not confiftent with firm-
nefs and dignity of charader j it arifes rather from
the knowledge of our imperfedion compared with a
certain ftandard, than from confcious ignorance of what
we ought to know. We mud therefore diftinguifh be¬
tween this modefty and what the French call mauvaife
honte. The one is the unaffeded and unaffuming prin¬
ciple which leads us to give preference to the merit of
others, the other is the awkward ftruggling of nature
over her own infirmities. The firft gives an additional
luftre to every good quality *, while fome people, from
I feeling the pain and inconveniency of the mauvaife
honte, have rulhed into the other extreme, and turned
impudent, as cowards fometimes grow defperate from
e.xcefs of danger. The medium between thefe two ex¬
tremes marks out the w'ell-bred man ; he feels himfelf
firm and eafy in all companies, is modeft without being
bafhful, and fteady without being impudent.
A man polfefting the amiable virtues is ft ill farther
prepared to pleafe, by having in his own mind a perpe¬
tual fund of fatisfadion and entertainment. He is put
to no trouble in concealing thoughts which it would be
difgraceful to avow, and he is not anxious to difplay vir¬
tues which his daily converfation and his conftant looks
render vifible.
The next ingredient in the art of pleafing, is to pof-
fefs a corred and enlightened underftanding, and a fund
of rational knowledge. With virtue and modefty we
muft be able to entertain and inftrud thofe with whom
we aflbciate.
The faculty of communicating ideas is peculiar to
man, and the pleafure which he derives from the inter¬
change alone is one of the moft important of his blef-
fings. Mankind are formed with numberlefs wants, and
with a mutual power of affifting each other. It is a
beautiful and happy part of the fame perfed plan, that
they are likewife formed to delight in each other’s com¬
pany, and in the mutual interchange of their thoughts.
The different fpecies of communication, in a highly po-
lifhed age, are as numerous as the different ranks, em¬
ployments, and occupations of men •, and indeed the
knowledge which men wifti to communicate, takes its
tinge from their peculiar profeflion or occupation.
Thus commercial men delight to talk of their trade,
and of the nature of public, bufinefs ; men of pleafure,
who wilh merely to vary or quicken their amufements,
are in converfation light, trifling, and infincere ; and
the literati delight to dwell on new books, learned men,
and important difeoveries in fcience or in arts. But as
3 ] POL
the different claffes of men will frequently meet together, Pohtenefs.
all parties muft fo contrive matters, as to combine the '“"“v "
ufeful and agreeable together, fo as to give the greateft
delight at the time, and the greateft pleafure on reflec¬
tion. An attention to thefe principles would make the
man of pleafure and the man of learning meet together
on equal terms, and derive mutual advantage from their
different qualifications. With due attention to fuch
ideas, we proceed to mention the kinds of knowledge
which are moft fitted for converfation. Thofe who
wifti to pleafe ftiould particularly endeavour to be in¬
formed in thofe points which moft generally occur.
An accurate or extenfive knowledge on learned fubjefls
is by no means fufficient: we muft alfo have an accurate
and extenfive knowledge of the common occurrences of
life.
It is the knowledge of mankind, of governments, of
hiftory, of public charafters, and of the fprings which
put the great and the little aftions of the world in
motion, which give real pleafure, and rational inftruc-
tion. The knowledge which we communicate muft
in fome ftiape be interefting to thofe to whom we comr
municate it; of that nature, that the defire of recei¬
ving it may overbalance every kind of difguft, excited
too often on the fcore of envy and felf-love, againft
thofe who happen to poffefs fuperior endowments, and
at the fame time of that importance, as to elevate the
thoughts fomewhat above the adlions and the faults of
the narrow circle formed in our own immediate neigh¬
bourhood. On this account it is recommended by an
author who fully knew mankind, as a maxim of great
importance in the art of pleafing, to be acquainted with,
the private charafler of thofe men who, from their fta-.
tion or their aflions, are making a figure in the world.
We naturally wifti to fee fuch men in their retired and
undifguifed moments } and he who can gratify us is
highly acceptable. Hiftory of all kinds, fitly introdu¬
ced, and occafionally embelliftied with pleafing anec¬
dotes, is a chief part of our entertainment in the inter-
Courfe of life. This is receiving inftrudtion, without
exciting much envy •, it depends on memory, and me¬
mory is one of thofe talents the poffeflion of which we
lealt grudge to our neighbour. Our knowledge of hif¬
tory, at the fame time, muft not appear in long and te¬
dious details 5 but in apt and well chofen allufions, cal¬
culated to illuftrate the particular fubjeft of converfa¬
tion. But. the knowledge moft necefiary is that of the
human heart.- This is acquired by conftant obfervation
on the manners and maxims of the world, connefted
with that which paffes in our own minds. This leads us
from the common details of conduft, from flander and
defamation, to the fources and principles of adtion, and
enables us to enter into what may be called the philofo-
phy of converfatinn. We may fee both the pradlicability
of this kind of difcourfe, and the nature of it, in the
following lines of Horace : -
Sermo oritur, non de villis domibufve alienis 5
Nec male necne Lepos faltet: fed quod magis ad nos
Pertinet, & nefeire malum eft, agitamus : utrumne
Divitiis homines, an fint virtute beati ?
Quidve ad amicitias, ufus redtumne, trahat nos ?
Et quae fit natura boni, fummumque quid ejus ? &c.
By this means conftant materials are fupplied for free,
eafy, and fpirited communication. The reftraints which.
are -
POL [ 104 ] POL
Fdlitenefs. are jtnpofed on mankind, either from what their own
charafter may fufFer, or from the apprehenfion of giving
offence to others, are entirely taken off, and they have
a fufficient quantity of current coin for all the common
purpofes of life.
In addition to virtue and knowledge, which are the
chief ingredients in the art ofpleafing, we have to con-
fider graceful and eafy manners. Lord Cheflerfield in¬
deed confiders thefe as the moft effential and important
.part} as if the diamond received its whole value from
the polifh. But though he is unqueftionably miftaken,
there is yet a certain fweetnefs of manners which is par¬
ticularly engaging in our commerce with the world. It
is that which conftitutes the character which the French,
Under the appellation of I'aimab/e, fo much talk of, and
fo juflly value. This is not fo ealily defcribed as felt.
It is the compound refult of different things*, as com-
plaifance, a flexibility but not a fervility of manners, an
air of foftnefs in the countenance, geflure, and expref-
fion, equally whether you concur or differ with the per-
fon you converfe with. This is particularly to be ftudi-
ed when we are obliged to refufe a favour afked of us,
or to fay what in itfelf cannot be very agreeable to the
perfon to whom we fay it. It is then the neceffary gild¬
ing of a difagreeable pill. But this, which may be call¬
ed the fuaviter in modo, would degenerate and fink into
a mean and timid complaifance and paffivenefs, if not
fupported by firmnefs and dignity of character. Hence
the Latin fentence, fuaviter in modo, fortiter in re, be¬
comes a ufeful and important maxim in life.
Genuine eafy manners refult from a conftant attention
to the relations of perfons, things, time, and places.
Were we to converfe with one greatly our fuperior, we
are to be as eafy and unembarraffed as with our equals;
but yet every look, word, and aftion, fhould imply, with¬
out any kind of fervile flattery, the greateft refpeft. In
mixed companies, with our equals, greater eafe and li¬
berty are allowed: but they too have their proper li¬
mits. There is a focial refpeft neceffary. Our words,
geftures, and attitudes, have a greater degree of latitude,
though not an unbounded one. That eafinefs of car¬
riage and behaviour which is exceedingly engaging,
widely differs from negligence and inattention, and by
no means implies that one may do whatever he pleafes;
it only means, that one is not to be ftiff, formal, and em-
barrafred,difconcertedand afhamed; but it requires great
attention to, and a fcrupulous obfervation of, what the
French call les bienfeances; a word which implies “ de¬
corum, good-breeding, and propriety.” Whatever we
ought to do, is to be done with eafe and unconcern;
whatever is improper, mufl: not be done at all. In mix¬
ed companies, alfo, different ages and fexes are to be dif¬
ferently addrelfed. Although we are to be equally eafy
with all, old age particularly requires to be treated with
-a degree of deference and regard. It is a good general
rule, to accuftom ourfelves to have a kind feeling to
every thing connected with man, and when this is the
cafe, we fliall feldom err in the application. Another
important point in the bienfeances is, not to run our own
prefent humour and difpofition indifcriminately againlt
every body, but to obferve and adopt theirs. And if we
cannot command our prefent humour and difpofition, it
is neceffary to fingle out thofe to converfe with who hap¬
pen to be in the humour the neareft to our own. Pe-
remptorinefs and decifion, efpecially in young people, is
contrary to the bienfeances: they fhould feldom feem to Politem
diffent, and always ufe fome foftening mitigating expref-, Polhian
fion.
There is a bienfeance alfo with regard to people of
the lovveft degree; a gentleman obferves it with his foot¬
man, and even indeed with the beggar in the flreet. He
confiders them as obje&s of compatlion, not of infult;
he fpeaks to neither in a harfh tone, but corrects the one
coolly, and refufes the other with humanity.
The following obfervations perhaps contain the fum
of the art of pleafing:
1. A fixed and habitual refolution of endeavouring to
pleafe, is a circumftance which will feldom fail of effedl,
and its effeft will every day become more vifible as this
habit increafes in ftrength.
2. This refolution mull be regulated by a very confi-
derable degree of good fenfe.
3. It is a maxim of almoft general application, that
what pleafes us in another will alfo pleafe others in us.
4. A eonflant and habitual attention to the different
difpofitions of mankind, to their ruling paflions, and to
their peculiar or occafional humours, is abfolutely necef¬
fary.
5. A man who would pleafe, mufl poffefs a firm, equal,
and Heady temper. And,
6. An eafy and graceful manner, as diftant from bafh-
fulnefs on the one hand as from impudence on the other.
“ He who thinks himfelf fure of pleafing (fays Lord
Cheflerfield), and he who defpairs of it, are equally fure
to fail.” And he is undoubtedly in the right. The one,
by his affuming vanity, is inattentive to the means of
pleafing; and the other from fear, is rendered incapable
of employing them.
A variety of excellent rules for acquiring politenefs,
with flriflures on particular kinds of impolitenefs, may
be found in the SpeBator, Rambler, Idler, Lounger, Mir¬
ror, and other periodical works of that kind; in Knox's
Ejfays, and among Swift's Works; fee Good MANNERS.
Che/lerf eld's Art of R leaf ng. and his Letters, are alfo
worthy of perufal, provided the reader be on his guard
againfl the infincerity and other vices which thofe books
are calculated to infufe, and provided he always bears in,
mind, that we have endeavoured to fliow in this article,
that true, politenefs does not confifl in fpeeious manners
and a diffimulating addrefs, but that it mult always be
founded on real worth and intrinfie virtue.
POLITI AN, Angelo, was born at Monte Pulcian(*
in Tufcany in 1454- He learned the Greek tongue, of
which he became a complete mailer, under Andronicus
of Theffalonica. He is faid to have written verfes both
in Greek and Latin when he was not more than 1 2 years
of age. He fludied alfo the Platonic philofophy under
Marfilius Ficinus, and that of Ariflotle under Argyropy-
lus. He was one of the molt learned and polite writers
of his time. The firH work which gained him a re¬
putation was a poem on the tournament of Julian de
Medicis. The account he wrote fome time after of
the confpiracy of the Pazzi’s was very much efleem-
ed. He wrote many other pieces which have merited
approbation; and had he lived longer, he would have
enriched the republic of letters with many excellent
works; but he died at the age of 40 years. His mo¬
rals anfwered the homelinefs of his face rather than the
beauty of his genius; for Paul Jovius informs us, that
“ he was a man of awkward and perverfe manners, of
a
POL [ i
folitian a countenance by no means open and liberal, a nofe re-
markably large, and fquinting eyes. He was crafty,
and full of inward malice : for his conftant
way was, to fneer and ridicule the productions of other
men, and never to allow any criticifm, however juft,
upon his own.”
He was, neverthelefs, as all acknowledged, a man of
moft confummate erudition •, and not only fo, but a very
polite and elegant writer. Erafmus, in his Ciceronianus,
calls him a rare miracle of nature, on account of his ex¬
celling in every kind of writing ; his words are remark¬
able : “ Fateor Angelum prorfus angelica fuijffe ?nente,
rarutn natures miracuhmi, ad quodcunque feripti genus ap-
plicaret animum. Some of his poems were fo much ad¬
mired, that feveral learned men have made it their bufi-
nefs to comment on them. It has been often reported
that he fpoke of the Bible with great contempt 5 and
that, having read it but once, he complained he had ne¬
ver fpent his time fo ill. But this is not probable, for
it muft be remembered that he was a prieft and canon of
Florence •, and wye learn from one of his Epiftles that
he preached a whole Lent. It does not indeed follow
hence, that he did not think contemptuoufly of the Bible,
becaufe many of his church, efpecially among the better
fort, have not been Trery good believers, and he might be
one of them : but it is not likely he would fpeak out fo
freely. “ I could (as Bayle fays) much more eafily
believe the judgment he is faid to have made on the
Pfalms of David and the Odes of Pindar : he did not
deny that there are many good and fine things in the
Pfalms j but he pretended that the fame things appear
in Pindar with more brightnefs and fweetnefs. The two
Scaligers have fpoken highly of Politian : the elder has
preferred a confolatory elegy of his to that which Ovid
fent to Livia upon the death of Drufus, and fays, he had
rather have been the author of it : the younger calls him
an excellent poet, but thinks the ftyle of his epiftles
too elate and declamatory.
His works have been printed at various times, and in
various places: his epiftles have probably been moft read,
becaufe thefe are things which the generality of people
are beft pleafed with.
POLITICAL, from “ a city,” fignifies any
thing that relates to policy or civil government.
POLITICAL Arithmetic, is the art of reafoning by fi¬
gures uppon matters relating to government, fuch as the
revenues, number of people, extent and value of land,
taxes, trade, &c. in any nation.
Thefe calculations are generally made with a view to
afeertain the comparative ftrength, profperity, &c. of
any two or more nations. With this view, Sir William
Petty, in his Political Arithmetic, p. 74, &c. computes
the land of Holland and Zealand to be about 1,000,000
acres, and that of France to be 8,000,000 j and yet the
lormer is one third part as rich and ftrong as the lat¬
ter. The (hipping of Europe he computes to be about
2,000,000 : of which Britain has 500,000 ; Holland
900,000; France 100,000; Hamburgh, Denmark,
Sweden, and Dantzic 250,000 ; and Spain, Portugal,
Italy, &c. the reft. The exports of France he com¬
putes at 5,000,000k of which one-fourth came to
Britain; of Holland i8,ooo,OOol. of which 300,000!.
came to Britain. I he money raifed yearly by the king
of France was about 6,500,000!. Sterling ; that of ail
the Dutch provinces 3,000,000!. of which 2,100,000
Vol. XVII. Part I.
5 ] POL
was raifed in Holland and Zealand. J he number of Politics!
people in England he computed to be fix millions, and
their expences, at 7I. per annum a head, 42,000,000k ;
the rent of land 8,ooo,oool. and the interells, &c. of
perfonal eftates as much; the rents of houfes 4,000,000k
and the profits of labour 26,000,000k The people of
Ireland he reckoned r,200,000. The corn fpent in
England, at 5s. a bulhel for wheat, and 2s. 6d. for bar¬
ley, amounts to 10,000,000k a-year. The navy of
England then required 36,000 men to man it, and other
trade and (hipping 48,000. In France, to manage the
whole (hipping trade, there were then required only 1500
men. The whole people of France were 13,500,000 ;
and thofe of England, Scotland, and Ireland, about
9,500,000. In the three kingdoms are about 20,000
churchmen, and in France more than 270,000. In the
dominions of England were above 40,000 feamen, and in
France not more than 10,000. In England, Scotland,
and Ireland, and all their dependencies, there was then
about 60,000 ton of (hipping, worth about 4,500,000!.
in money. The fea line round England, Scotland, and
Ireland, and the adjacent ides, is about 3800 miles. In
the whole world he reckoned about 350,000,000 of peo¬
ple ; and thofe with whom the Englifti and Dutch have
any commerce, not more than eighty millions ; and the
value of commodities annually traded for in the whole
not above 45,000,000k That the manufadtures ex¬
ported from England amounted to about 5,000,0001.^/*
annum; lead, tin, and coals, to §§o,ooo\. per annum.
The value of the French commodities then brought
into England did not exceed 1,200,000k per annum ;
and the whole ca(h of England in current money was
then about 6,000,000k Sterling.
With thefe calculations Dr Davenant rvas diftatisfied ;
and therefore, from the obfervations of Mr Greg. King,
he advanced others of his own. He reckons the land of
England 39 millions of acres: the number of people 5
millions and a half, increafing 9000 a-year, making al¬
lowance for wars, plagues, and other accidents. He
reckons the inhabitants of London 530,000 : of other
cities and market-towns in England 870,000; and thofe
of villages, &c. 4,100,000. The yearly rent of land
he reckons 10,000,000k ; of houfes, &c. 2,000,000k ;
the produce of all kinds of grain in a tolerable year
9,075,000k ; the annual rent of corn lands 2,200,000k
and the net produce 9,000,000!. ; the rent of pa-
fture, meadows, -woods, forefts, commons, heaths, &c.
7,000,000k ; the annual produce by cattle in butter,
cheefe, and milk, about 2,500,000k ; the value of
the wool yearly (born about 2,000,000k ; of horfes
yearly bred about 250,000k ; of the flefti yearly fpent
as food about 3,350,000k ; of the tallow and hides
about 600,000k ; of the hay yearly confumed by horfes
about 1,300,000k ; of the hay confumed by other
cattle 1,000,000k ; of the timber yearly felled for build¬
ing 500,000k ; and of the timber yearly felled for fir¬
ing, &c. about 500,000k The proportion of the land
of England to its inhabitants is now about acres per
head ; the value of the wheat, rye, and barley, neceflary
for the fuftenance of England, amounts to at leail
6,000,000k Sterling per annum; of the woollen ma¬
nufacture about 8,000,000k per annum ; and exports of
all kinds of the woollen manufacture amount to above
2,000,000k per annum ; the annual income of England,
on which the whole people fubfift, and out of which all
O taxes
POL [ 106 ] POL r
Political taxes are paid, is reckoned to be about 43,003,000!. that
■Arithmetic. Qf prance 8l,000,000l. and of Holland l 8,2 <;0,OOOl.
"v See Haven ant’s EJfay on Trade, in vol. vi. of his works.
For calculations refpe&ing mortality, fee Major Grant’s
Obfervations on the Biiis of Mortality, and our article
Bills of Mortality.
In vol. xlix. of the Philofophical Tranfacfions we have
an eftimate of the number of people in England by Dr
Brakenridge, from confidering the number of houfes and
quantity of bread confumed. On the former principle
he computes the number of people to be 6,257,418 of
all ages, counting in England and Wales 911,310 houfes,
and allowing fix perfons to a houfe. from a furvey of
the window-lights alter the year 175°’ ^ie nurnber of
houfes charged in England and Wales was 690,000,
befides 200,000 cottages that pay nothing ; the whole
number therefore was 890,000, and the number of peo¬
ple, allowing fix to a houfe, 5,340,000. On the latter
principle, he eftimates the number of quarters of wheat
confumed at home to be 2,026,100 ; and allowing a
quarter for three perfons in a year, or feven ounces a day.
for each perfon, he concludes the number ot people to
be 6,078,300. Of this number, according to Dr Hal¬
ley’s rule, he fuppofes about 1,500,000 men able to carry
arms. The country he fuppotes capable of fupporting
one half more inhabitants, or 9,000,000 for, according
to Mr Templeman’s furvey, England contains 49,450
fquare miles,that is, 31,648,000 acres, of wInch 23,000,000
POLITICAL
MAY be defined the feience which relates to the pro-
dudlion, multiplication and diftribution ot Vv ealth.
HISTORY.
The acquifition of wealth mult at all times have been
an object of intereft and attention to mankind. Yet it
was not for a long time reduced into a fcience, but was
left merely to the induftry and praftical obfervation of
men engaged in the different branches of induitry. We
find little or nothing in the ancient writers- which can
be confidered as belonging to this department of fcience.
Among them agriculture appears to have been more
honoured and attended to, than either trade or manufac¬
tures. The latter efpecially were confidered as unworthy
of freemen, and were abandoned entirely to flaves. Yet
the ancient world had its commercial ftates *, and per¬
haps had the monuments of Phenician or Carthaginian
literature come down to us, they might in fome meafure
have fupplied this blank.
During the middle ages, the reign of diforder and
viol nee checked the praftical, and ftill more the theo¬
retical purfuit of thefe important objefts.^ The feudal
fy4t m, in which the lordly baron ruled with licentious
fway over his little territory, and carried on almof! per¬
petual war with his neighbours, was hoftile to all im¬
proved agriculture, and abfolutely precluded any pro-
grefi in mapufaftu es and commerce. Thefe took re-
fug :r the large maritime towns, where fortifications
fecured the inhabitants from lawlefs inroads, and a regu-
acres are proper to be cultivated •, and allowing three Political gj
acres, wrell manured, for the maintenance of one perfon, Arithmetic ^
there will be maintenance in England for 8,430,000 ■V'"'-1
people to which add the produce of filhing, and it will
enable the country to fupport 9,000,000. In Ireland,
Mr Templeman reckons 1 7,536,000 acres, of which Dr
Brakenridge thinks 12,000,000 are capable of cultiva¬
tion •, and allowing four acres to each perfon, and the
number of inhabitants to be only 1,000,000, Ireland
could maintain 2,000,000 more people than it has
now. In Scotland, containing 1,500,000 people, and
17,728,000 acres of land, of which there are 11,000,000
good acres, allowing five for each perfon, he fuppofes
there may be provifion for 2,200,000 people, or for
700,000 more than there are at prtlent. Hence he
infers, that were both the Rritifh ifle* properly cultivat¬
ed, there is a provifion for 6,000,000 inhabitants beyond
the prefent number. Extending his furvey to the whole
globe, he fuppofes the whole furface to be to the quan¬
tity of land as 8 to 3, z. e. as 197,819,550 to 74,182,331
fquare mdes j out of which dediifting one-third for
wafte-ground, there will be 49,454,887 fquare miles, or
31,651,127,680 good acres. And Hating the whole
number of inhabitants on the globe to be 4 :0,0:0,000,
there will be 79 good acres to each perfon. See Dr
Halley’s Calculations on the fame fubjeft, and Dr Crice'sr
(for a lift of whofe works fee his life at the word Frige),
and King on the National Debt.
ECONOMY
lar police placed perfon and property in fafety. The
gradual growth of thefe cities conflituted the grand
caule which induced the civilization of modern Europe..
The models of beautiful workman Ad p which were pro¬
duced, and the various means which ingenuity difeover-
ed for multiplying the accommodations of life, gradual¬
ly brought about a complete change in the habits of
landed proprietors. Power, not wealth, had formerly
been their objeft ; and to promote this power, they fpent
almoft all their revenues in maintaining a crowd of idle
retainers. But when, by the improvement ot arts, they
had got a tafte for luxury, the gratification of which re¬
quired an augmentation of wealth, their objeft came to be,
how to turn their eftates to the beft account. This could
only be done by granting the farmer a longer leafe, which,
enabling him to make improvements, led to a better fyftem
of agriculture. The fame taftes drew them to large cities,
and thus led them into extravagant habits, which often
brought their eftates to market, and placed them in the
hands of the commercial and induftrious. Thus the im¬
provement of modern Europe, contrary to the natural
courfeof things, began with the manufacturing and com¬
mercial claffes, and was from them reilefted to the agri¬
cultural part of the community. The confequtnce was,
that commerce and manufactures were long looked upon
as the grand fource of wealth, and were the objefts of pe¬
culiar favour to theh gifiator. Hence arofe the mercantile
fyftem, which, till about the middle of the laft century,
was completely predominant in Europe. A Iketch of
its leading principles will be introdused in the courfe of
Chap. I. POLITICAL
Hiftoiy. the prefent treatife, and they are fully detailed and fup-
' ported in the writings of Davenant, Petty, Child, and
other writers by whom its tenets were adopted.
This fyltem had a powerful influence on the legiflation
of the different European nations, England not except¬
ed. But in France, above all, it reigned with abfolute
fway. Colbert, the celebrated miniiler of Lewis XIV.
in his zeal for the promotion of trade and manufaflures,
not only negle&ed, but even depreffed agriculture, by
laying abfurd reftraints on the exportation of corn. One
extreme leads to another. Thinking men in France,
obferving the pernicious confequences of this fylttm,
were led to the adoption of one dire&ly oppolite. Ac¬
cording tothem, agriculture formed the only real fource of
wealth. This opinion was firft advanced by M.Quefnay,
a phyfician of Paris ; he was followed by a multitude of
philofophers, who efpoufed his opinion with all the
union and zeal of a fetf. Accordingly they went un-
•der the name of Economics, and the Economical Se£l.
The Encyclopedic of Diderot and D’Alembert was con-
du£ted entirely upon their principles, and tended to give
them a wide circulation. Turgot, in the reforms which
he undertook during his fhort adminiftration, was chief¬
ly guided by the principles of the Economifts.
Soon after this, Scotland had the honour of produ¬
cing a fvftem, which has obtained the general approba¬
tion of thinking men, and has gradually fuperfeded all
others. Adam Smith, being profeffor in the firff com¬
mercial city of Scotland, had his attention naturally
drawn to thefe fubjeds. In his clafs he had already
begun to illuftrate the true principles of political econo¬
my. Travelling afterwards in France, he became ac¬
quainted with the leading members of the Economical
fchool. On his return he fpent nine years in maturing
his ideas, and preparing his great work “ On the Wealth
of Nations,” which was published in 1776- Here, like
the Economifts, he ftiewed the errors of the mercantile
fyftem, but in a much more folid and fatisfadory man¬
ner. He ftiewed alfo their own principles to be in many
refpeds erroneous •, and he inveftigated the effeds of the
divifion of labour, and various other circumftances which
had not occurred to any former writer.
/ Although the fyftem of Smith gave general fatisfac-
tion to all who were able to inveftigate the fubjed, and
though it was even adopted by Mr Pitt as the bafts of
his financial and commercial arrangements, yet it did
not for a long time acquire a very general currency with
the public. It was adopted by the learned only, and
not always by them (a). In thisrefped, the publication
of the Edinburgh Pieview may be confidered as forming
an era in the hiftory of this fcience. This celebrated
journal, by illuftrating in a popular manner the leading
fubp ds of political economy, and by beating down, with
its keen powers of ridicule, the opinions of thofe who ftill
adhered to the obfolete fyftem, has done more towards
diffufing the true principles of the fcienee, than any for¬
mer publication. Lord Lauderdale alfo has recently
publiftied a work, in which, with fome paradoxes, he has
ECONOMY.
made alfo fome important additions and corredions to
the dodrine of Smith.
In the following Iketch, confidering Smith as the fa¬
ther of political economy, we {hall eloiely follow his
fteps, adopting however a lomewhat different arrange¬
ment, and including fuch improvements as the fcience
has received lince his time.
The fubjed, it appears to us, may be treated with
advantage under the following heads :
I. The nature and different Ipecies of wealth.
II. The fources of wealth.
III. The manner in which wealth is produced and
diftributed.
IV. View of the mercantile and economical fyftems.
V. Public revenue.
Thefe topics will form the fubjeds of the following
chapters.
107
Nature of
Wealth,
&c.
Chap. I. On the 'Nature and different Species of
Wealih.
Sect. I. Of the Definition of Wealth ; and of Price.
Wealth has been defined to confift of every thing
which can be exchanged ror another. Lord Lauder¬
dale gives a more general definition, and confiders it as
confifting of every thing which is uleful or agreeable to
man*. We conceive, however, that this mull be limit- * Lauder*
ed to objeds of external accommodation 5 for knowledge dale on
and mental qualifications of every kind, though moil ch'
ufeful and agreeable, cannot be faid to conftitute wealth, 'hm^b ~Re_
nor to form the fubjedl of political economy. Again,
external accommodations, which are in complete and viii. an. 8*
univerfal abundance, the air we breathe, the light of hea¬
ven, are not wealth. To conftitute this, the article muft
exiit in fome degree of fcarcity. It is then only that it
can poffefs an exchangeable value, that its pofleffor can
procure other commodities in return for it. Thus there
are two circumftances to be confidered in any commo¬
dity j its value in life, and its value in exchange. Water,
air, &c. are of the greateft ufe ; but from their great
abundance, nothing can be got in exchange for them.
Diamonds, on the contrary, are of very little ufe ; but
from their great rarity, their exchangeable value, or
price, is beyond that of any other fubftance.
The price of an article depends entirely upon two
circumftances* 1. The demand, or the number of per-
fons who defire to poffefs it, and have fomething to give
in exchange. 2. The fupply, or the quantity brought
to market. The price is diredly as the demand, and
inverfely as the fupply *, the former raifes, the latter
finks it. Where there are many bidders, and where
the quantity is fmall, the competition muft be increafed,
each muft feek to outbid the other, and the price of the
commodity muft rife. On the contrary, if the bidders
are few, and the commodity in great abundance, the
poffeflbr, in order to difpofe of it, will be under the ne-
eeflity of offering it at a low price.
O 2 Sect.
(a) In the fcarcity of 1799 or 1800, the univerfity of Cambridge was announced in the newfpapers as aaving
fubfcribed 50I. to be employed in the apprehenfion of regraters and for ef alters ! !
POLITICAL
Sect. I I. Of Capital.
ECONOMY.
Chap. I. Cl
* Book ii.
ch. iii.
Every man’s wealth is of two kinds; the one which
he lays aftde for immediate confumption j the other
which he referves for the fupply of future wants, or em¬
ploys in fuch a manner as to make it produce new
wealth. The former is called his income, the latter
his capital. In proportion as he devotes his property to
the former of thefe purpofes, his wealth is diininifhed j
in proportion as he devotes it to the latter, it is increaf-
ed. This evidently takes place in the cafe of an indi¬
vidual j and Smith feems to confider it as taking place
equally in the cafe of a nation *. Later inquirers, how¬
ever, feem to have proved, that there is here a differ¬
ence. Extreme parfimony throughout a nation, by
preventing the produflion of all articles but thofe of the
f Lander- neceflity, would induce general poverty f. Still,
dale on however, it is effential to the profperity of a people, that
Wealth. their annual produce fhould not be all eonfumed, but
that a confiderable portion fliould be fet afide and con¬
verted into capital.
Capital is divided into fixed and circulating. Fixed
capital confifts of all thofe articles, which, without be¬
ing themfelves calculated for exchange or confumption,
tend to increafe the produdlion of thofe articles which
are fo. Such are all kinds of machinery, farming flock,
erections for the purpofe of mining or manufafture,
fhips, &c. Thefe form a moft valuable part of the
property of the nation, and make its revenue much
greater than it would otherwife be. At the fame time,
as they are of no ufe in themfelves, provided the fame
fcffe&s can be produced without them, or by cheaper
inftruments, their difufe, by faving expence, forms a
real addition to the national wealth.
Circulating capital confifts of all thofe commodities
which are produced or purchafed for the purpofe of be¬
ing wrought upon, or tranfported elfewhere, and again
fold. It comprifes almoft all the wealth not included
under fixed capital. The feed corn of the farmer, the
materials of the manufacturer, the goods purchafed by
the merchant, come all under this defeription. Lands,
mines, and fiftieries, are the fources from which circula¬
ting capital originally proceeds; whence, after palling
through various hands, it arrives at length, and is loft,
in thofe of the confumer.
* Smith, Sect. III. Of Money*
book. i. ch.
iv. ii.Bock Barter, or the exchange of one thing for another
n. ch. u. 0f eqUai value, is effential to the fupply of the varied
wants of man, and is the grand principle on which com¬
merce depends. Thus it is that men, while merely
confulting their own interefts, minifter to each others
neceffities. It is attended, however, with an obvious
inconvenience. A man may have goods to exchange,
which do not fuit his neighbour. The farmer has a
flieep, and is in want of cloth •, but the cloth merchant
may not be in want of mutton, or at leaf! may not wilh
fo large a quantity. Hence the neceflity of finding
fome commodity which may at all times be in demand,
and which every one may be ready to receive in ex¬
change for every other article. This commodity ought
evidently to poffefs fome quality which may render it
an objed of univerfal eftimation j it ought alfo to pof-
&c.
fefs great value in a fmall compafs, fo as to be portable, Nature of
and not to encumber its poffeffor 5 it ought to be divi- Weakh,
fible into the fmalleft portions; and it ought to be du- u
rable, fo as to be capable of being treafured up till
wanted. All thefe qualities are united in the precious
metals. Their beauty, their durability, their very fcar-
city, render them better fitted than any other commo¬
dity for being the ftandard of value and the medium of
exchange. All nations, accordingly, after a trial of
fome ruder expedients, have finally had recourfe to them
for this purpofe.
Money is in one view a fixed, and in another a circu¬
lating capital. To the individual it ftands in the latter
capacity, for no one receives money unlefs for the pur¬
pofe of fooner or latter exchanging it for fomething elfe.
To the nation, however, it is a fixed capital 5 being not
deftined for confumption, but merely an inftrument for
tranfa&ing biifinefs with greater facility and advan-
tage-
As the facility of exchanging the precious metals for
every other commodity, renders the demand for them
conftant and univerfal, their price depends almoft whol¬
ly on the fupply. This, too, is more uniform than that
of moft other commodities. A great revolution, how¬
ever, took place at the beginning of the 16th century,
in confequence of the difeovery of America. For fome
time before, the value of filver feems rather to have
been riling. But the immenfe mines of Mexico and
Peru furnilhed fuch a copious fupply, as foon reduced it
to about one-third of its former value. Smith is of
opinion, that fince that time there has been rather a
rife in the value of thefe metals. The Eaft Indies,
where they ftill continue fcarcer than in Europe, forms
a conftant drain. The mines, in the courfe of working,
approach nearer to an exhauftion ; accordingly, the
king of Spain, who originally levied a tax amounting
to half the produce of filver, has found it neceffary to
reduce it fueceffively to one-third, one-fifth, and at laft,
to one-tenth. The tax on gold is reduced to one-twen¬
tieth. The annual importation of gold and filver into
Spain is eftimated at about fix millions.
It has been a frequent praflice with fovereignsto re¬
duce the quantity of bullion in any given denomination
of coin, and thus to pay their debts with a fmaller
amount of gold and filver. To fuch an extent has this
praflice been carried, that in England the pound fter-
ling is not quite a third of the real pound of filver, and
in France the depreciation is far greater. This praftice
is completely fraudulent and diftionourable. No power
of the fovereign can really make this debafed coin pafs
for as much as it formerly did 5 the confequence is, an
immediate rife in the nominal or money price of every
commodity. All thofe, however, who are in the pay
of government, fuffer, and fodo all creditors both public
and private \ for though the law cannot compel the na¬
tion to fet the fame value on the new coin as on the
old, it can compel the creditor to accept it in payment
of the fums which he has previoufly advanced in good
All ftates referve to themfelves the privilege of coin¬
ing money. Some, as England, perform this office
gratis j while others, as France, impofe a fmall feigno-
rage at the mint. The latter mode feems rather pre¬
ferable : for when the circulating coin, as frequently
happens, is reduced by long ufe and attrition beneath its
real
Chap. I. POLITICAL
Nature of real value in bullion, tbe iffuing of new coin which pof-
Wealth, fefl'es that value affords a temptation to melt it down
and recoin it.
ECONOMY.
109
&c.
•It Smith,
hook ii. ch.
> Edin-
turgh Re¬
view, N® i.
ut. 25.
Sect. IV. Of Paper Money*.
Money, we have had occalion to obferve, confidered
in a national point of view, is fixed capital. Like other
fixed capitals, therefore, although its funftions be moft
effential to the maintenance of trade, yet if any lefs
coftly fubftitute can be found, by which the fame func¬
tions may be equally well performed, the public is de¬
cidedly a gainer. Such a fubffitute is paper money.
By employing it, a nation faves the expence of gold and
filver, and at the fame time derives all the commercial
advantages which money can afford. It is even in fome
refpedls more convenient, as being more eafily tranfport-
ed, and lefs liable to accident.
There are, however, extraordinary dangers attending
the exceffive and incautious ufe of this inftrument, and
no caufe perhaps has been produftive of more fignal
commercial difafters. The apparent facility of thus
creating wealth, as it were, tempts banks and other pub¬
lic bodies to an exceflive iffue of it. The circulation of
the country, however, can ablorb cnly a certain quanti¬
ty ; and as foon as more is thrown in, it immediately re¬
turns upon the iffuer, in a quantity for which he is pro¬
bably unprepared. As foon as he fliows any hefitation
in difcharging the demand, the whole rufces in, and
bankruptcy and ruin enfue. Where the paper indeed
has been iffued by the government, payment may be re-
fufed 5 but in this cafe an immediate depreciation takes
place in the value of the notes, and a deep injury is
iuffained by all who are poffeffed of them. From this
caufe it was that the French afiignats fell lb far below
their original value ; and for the fame reafon the Ame¬
rican currency is confiderably beneath its nominal value.
Where, however, peculiar circumilances have produced
an accidental fcarcity of money, a temporary fufpenfion
of payment may become neceffary, and with due cau¬
tion may be produftive of no ferious bad confequen-
ces ; fuch has been lately the cafe of the bank of Eng¬
land f.
Banks can with no propriety advance to merchants
the whole capital on which they trade, but only that
part of it which they wmuld otherwife be obliged to
keep by them for the purpofe of anfwering occafional
demands. This they do in two ways. 1. By difeount-
ing bills. 2. By granting calh accounts. The former
only of thefe is pradlifed in England. The latter is pe¬
culiar to Scotland. It is managed thus. Two perfons
of refpedlable, commonly of landed, property, becoming
caution to the extent of a certain fum, the merchant is
allowed to draw to the extent of that fum. Merchants,
however, do not always content themfelves with the de¬
gree of affiilance above pointed out. They endeavour to
carry on extenfive fpeculations merely on paper money.
For this purpofe they draw fiftitious bills for the mere
purpofe of having them difeounted } and by drawing a fe-
cond before the firft becomes due, they delay ftill farther
the repayment of the original advance. Banks ought
always, if poffible, to avoid the difeounting of fiftitious
bills ; and Ihould take care, in calh accounts, that the ad¬
vances and repayments nearly keep pace with each other.
In this cafe there is little danger of an ever xffue of Nature of
notes. Wealth,
It does not appear eligible, however, that gold and .
filver Ihould be entirely fupplanted by paper money. In
all tranfa&ions with foreign nations, the former be¬
comes neceflary 5 and even domeflic inconveniences
■would arife from its abfolute exclufion. For the preven¬
tion of this, it is advifeable not to iffue notes below a
certain value. In England, this, till of late, was fixed
at five or ten pounds j though in a recent fcarcity, notes
for twenty Ihillings began to be iffued. In Scotland
thefe have long been in circulation j and notes even for
five fiiillings were fome time ago introduced, though
thefe, as foon as the preffure of neceffity admitted, have
been difeontinued.
Sect. V. Of the Variations in the Price of Commo¬
dities.
The price of commodities fundamentally depends on
the capacity which they poffefs, of miniftering to the
ufe and pleafure of man. Great variations, however,
are feen to take place; and in this country particularly,
in confequence of national profperity, a great rife has
occurred in a variety of articles. This is vulgarly af-
cribed to the greater plenty of money ; an affertion eve¬
ry way vague, and which has no foundation in faft.
Had the increafe taken place in confequence of any re¬
markable increafe in the fupply of gold and filver,
through the difeovery of new mines, the affertion would
have been juft. No fuch general increafe, however,
has taken place, at leaft to any very fenfible degree.
The increafe in this particular country has been owing
to the augmentation in the number and value of all
other commodities, for the circulation of which a great¬
er quantity of this inftrument of exchange becomes ne¬
ceflary. The relation, however, between it and other
commodities, continues unaltered ; and the quantity of
any particular commodity, for which a certain quantity
of it can be exchanged, remains the fame. Indeed the
augmentation has taken place, not fo much in gold and
filver, as in paper money, the fubftitute of thofe metals.
The fame arguments would hold againft a rife occafion-
ed by the ufe of this inftrument, which can happen only
■where it is depreciated, as in fome government paper,
by the refufal of payment on demand. This cafe, how¬
ever, would be indicated by a difference between its va¬
lue, and that of gold and filver j a difference which has
no place in this country.
Smith has illuftrated *, in a moft able and fatisfac-* Bookx.
tory manner, the fource of thofe variations of price,xi-
which take place in confequence of advancing cultiva¬
tion. He divides commodities into three kinds, which
are as follows :
The firft confifts of thofe produftiong of nature wdiich
human efforts have no powrer of multiplying. Such are
a variety of rare birds and fifties, moft kinds of game,
and particularly birds of paffage. The growth of
wealth and population has a natural tendency to increafe
the demand for thefe articles •, and as the fupply cannot
be made to meet this demand, the price mult eonfe-
quently rife. Accordingly, in a highly opulent ftate
of fociety, it becomes, in fome inftances, enormous.
The Roman epicures are faid fometimes to have given
60I. or Sol. for a Angle bird.
The
[I0 POLITICAL
Nature of The fecond fort is of thofe which human induftry can
Wealth, multiply in proportion to the demand. Where the
^ commodity, as corn, is fuch as cannot be produced but
by human induftry, the price is more uniform than in
almoft any other cafe. The increaling fcarcity and
confequently value of land, tends indeed to raife it;
but this is counteracted by the invention of machinery,
and improved methods of labour. The oppofite agency
of thefe two caufes has a conftant tendency to preferve
uniformity in the value of grain ; though we cannot,
•with Smith, confider this uniformity as likely to be lo
complete, as to render the price of grain a lure ftandard
for the value of filvtr.
There are other commodities, however, which nature
'produces in abundance, or which, where land is plenti¬
ful, can be multiplied with little or no cultivation. Of
thefe the principal is butcher meat. Lands can be co¬
vered with cattle or (beep by the labour of few hands,
and fometimes without any labour at all. Hence, in
rude times, butcher meat is always cheaper than corn ;
in improved periods, the reverfe is the cafe, hor a long
time the price continues conftantly to rife, as we have
feen it do throughout Great Britain, the pafture lands
being more and more converted into arable. At laft,
however, it becomes fo high as to make it an obje£t for
the farmer to ftall his cattle, and to cultivate ground
for the purpofe of feeding them. After this era, the
price is likely to experience a certain diminution, from
the improved modes of feeding and rearing, which, in
confequence of this new attention, are likely to be dif-
covered and adopted.
There are certain animals, as hogs, poultry, &c.
which are fed on mere offals, and in a rude (late, there¬
fore, are (till cheaper than butcher meat. In an im¬
proved ftate they are dearer; for they have not as yet,
at leaft in this country, become an objett of feparate
cultivation.? . .
The third fort confifts of thofe, in the multiplication
of which the power of man is either limited or uncer¬
tain. In thefe the rule is various,. Some commodities
are not cultivated on their own account, but are appen¬
dages to others ■, as wool and hides to the carcafe of the
ox or ftieep. Both thefe commodities are much more
portable, and more eafily preferved, than the flefh of
the animals from which they are taken ; the market for
them is thus much more extenfive, and the demand
more equal at all times. Hence, in rude periods, when
the flefti of animals, from its abundance, h of fmall va¬
lue, thefe appendages equal or furnafs it in price. At
Buenos Ayres frequently, and fometimes even in Spain,
an ox is killed for the fake of the hide, and tallow. In
an improved ftate of fociety, on the contrary, the hide
and fleece become conftderably inferior in value to the
Yifh is an article, the fupply of which is confiderably
limited, as man lias no power of produ£Hon in refpeft
to it, though, by the exertion of induftry, he can col-
ie£t a greater quantity. Shoals of fifh are generally co¬
pious, but uncertain.
Metals and minerals are articles, the fupplyof which
is not precifely limited, but extremely uncertain. The
difcovery of new mines, or the continuance of fertility
in the old, are equally beyond the reach of calcula¬
tion.
ECONOMY.
Chap. II. Of the Sources of Wealth.
Chap. II.
Source of
Wealth.
All wealth arifes from three fources; it is either
produced by the Ipontaneous bounty of nature, or it is
the fruit of human induftry, or it is generated by the
judicious employment of a quantity ot wealth previoully
accumulated. To thefe three heads then ot land, la¬
bour, and capital, all national wealth may be re¬
ferred.
Smith has treated of the revenue derived from thefe
three fources as forming the eonttituent parts ot the
price of commodities ; and with regard to labour in
particular, repeatedly confiders it as the only fource of
wealth*. According to the view, however, given above, * Book;
the price of all commodities depends entirely on the pro-ch, v.vi. vii,
portion between the demand and the iupply. Labour,
therefore, (and the fame may be iaid of land and capi¬
tal), is only a means of furmthing or increaling a iupply
of thofe articles for which there already exiftsa demand,
and unlefs it be iuccefsful in fo doing, the raoft levere
labours will meet with no remuneration whatever. We
ftiall therefore proceed to contider the revenue which
ariles from thefe different iourees, and the circumftances
by which it is increafed or dirniniftied.
Sect. 1. Land.
All land which is not naturally barren, and is culti-
vated with any eafe, affords tomething more than is
neceffary to pay the expence of labouring it. '1 his fur-
plus goes as a rent to the landlord, who, in confidera-
tion of receiving it without riik or trouble, relinquithes
to the farmer the profits of cultivation.
The proportion of the produce of a field which is to
go for rent, varies with different circumftances. The
chief of thefe is the fertility of the foil, the extent of
the market, which enables the produce to be difpofed of
to greater advantage, the profperity or poverty of the
country, which caufes a greater or lefs demand for that
produce, and the average ikill and adlivity of ihe far¬
mers, which will enable them to turn the fertility of
the ground to better account. It is almoft needlefs to
obferve, were it not for the vague language often made
ufe of upon this fubjedt, that the rate at which farms
let, muff, like all other commodities, depend altogether
upon the demand and the fupply. If much is to be
made by farming, many will bid for farms, and the
rent will be railed by their competition, and vice verfa.
The idea that all the landlords of an < xtenfive country
may combine to raife their rents, is altogether chimeri¬
cal. Even could it take place, it could be accomplilhed
only by a certain number of them allowing their lands
to lie wafte, which, diminiftiing the fupply, would
doubtlefs raife the rent of the cultivated lands. But
we need not fear that any landlord ftiould leave his
lands in this condition, from a culpable fehtme of ag¬
grandizing the reft of his body at his own expence, as
well as that of the public.
Land which produces food for man will at all times
afford rent to the landlord, in proportion to its fertility,
and the other circumftances mentioned above. Men
multiply in proportion to the means of fubfiftence •, they
have even a conftant tendency to multiply beyond thefe
means j hence there is always a full demand for this
fpecies
2
iChap. II.
POLITICAL. ECONOMY.
Nature of fpecies of produce. The rent, therefore, afforded by
Wealth, tjie groUnd which is employed in cultivating whatever
^•c' is the ftaple food of the community, regulates the rent
of all other grounds No one, unlefs forced to it by pe¬
culiarities of foil, would cultivate any article which af¬
forded lefs rent than this. There may be foils indeed
which are only fit for the produftion of an inferior ar¬
ticle, and there are others which are fitted for the pro-
duftion of thofe of higher value. In vine countries, the
rent of an ordinary vineyard feems to be nearly on a le¬
vel witlf that of corn. But there are others, whofe
wines being regarded as fuperior, make them yield a
much higher rent. The Welt India illands, before the
late depreciation of their produce, feem to have been
nearly in the fame predicament.
Thefe obfervations, however, apply chiefly to that
produce of land which is the refult of human labour.
In regard to the fpontaneous produce of land, it depends
upon eircumftances, whether or not it yields any rent at
all. In a rude ftate of fociety, above all, the demand
is often fo (lender, that, unlefs through the intervention
of foreign commerce, this produce will bear fcarcely
any value. Such countries are often covered with im-
menfe natural woods, the cutting down of which is a
burden inftead of an advantage. In an improved coun¬
try this wood would afford a large revenue. Mod of
the materials of clothing and lodging are of this nature.
In the infancy of fociety, the great objedl b food ; and
provided men can procure that, they are fatisfied with
very moderate accommodations in other refpecls. The
hides and furs of their cattle, and of the wild animals
whom they kill in hunting, are more than fufficient to
fupply them with coverings. But as focietv becomes
opulent, and luxury is introduced, clothes are among the
favourite obitdls on which this luxury is vented. A
great increafe therefore takes place in the demand for
its materials. The fame may be faid of thofe of lodging
and furniture.
Mines, in political economy, may be confidered in the
fame light as land. Like it, they yield a rent, which,
however, from the difficultv of working, is generally lefs
than that of land. Coal, an important article, is kept
down both by its great bulk, which narrows the market,
and by its relation to the price of wood, which price it
cannot exceed, otherwife wood would be preferred as
fuel. A fifth of the 'whole produce is reckoned a great
rent for a coal mine ; a tenth is the mod common.
Metals, even the coarfe, and dill more the fine, will
bear very extenfive carriage. In general, however, their
rent is not very high. The tin mines of Cornwall, faid
to be the riched in the world, yield on an average onlv a
fixth part of their grofs produce. The king of Spain’s tax
of a fifth on the filver mines in America, formed indeed
the rent of thofe mines; but this tax he wa1- obliged to
reduce to one tenth. It is (aid to be ill paid *.
Fi/henes form another uiurce of wealth fimilar to
land and mines. The fea, however, has never vet been
appropriated, nor a rent exafted far its ufe. The right
of filhing, however, in fame feas of peculiar fertility, has
been claimed as national property. River fifheries let
frequently at a very high rent.
Sect. II. Labour.
The great fource of exchangeable commodities, is the
labour of man. Even thofe powers of nature for which
Smith,
eok i. ch
it r
rent is paid, rarely afford any thing valuable unlefs aid- Nature of
ed by human efforts. Capital, however powerful an in-
ftrument, confitts merely of accumulated labour. Ori- ,
ginally the fruit of every man’s indudry would belong
entirely to himfelf. Soon, however, the proprietor of the
land from which he drew food, would claim a (hare. As
the ftrudture ot fociety became more complicated, and
markets more remote, (omething more rvould be found
requifite. It would be neceflary to have fubfiilence
while the article was producing and carrying to market,
to be able to purchale materials on which to work, and
to command machinery or fixed capiiai in order to ren¬
der labour more productive. For all thefe purpofes,
capital would become neccffary ; and the perfon who
had accumulated a portion of it would be able to com¬
mand the fervices ot feverol others, to whom he would
advance fubfiitence and the material' of working, and
would receive in return the fruits of their labour. As
capitals accumulate, this becomes almolt univerfaily the
cafe ; in a commercial date, few independent workmen
are to be found.
The price of labour or wages is regulated, like every
thing elfe, by the demand and the fupply. It there are
many who want and can employ workmen, and if few
can be found, the competition of the mailers will raife
the wages, until the whole capital, not otherwife employ¬
ed, is diltributed among that imall number. In the op-
poiite circumftance, workmen, glad to work for any
thing rather than fiarve, will bid againil each other till
all are employed, at however fmall a recompenfe. The
combinations among workmen, fo much complained of,
can never have any permanent effect, unlefs accompanied
by thofe eircumftances which neceffarily lead to a rife.
The combination of mailers, though lefs heard of, is
more to be feared. Their numbers are fmallcr, arid
from their greater command of property, they can hold
out for a longer time. From the above caufes, however,
there is no reafon whatever to dread any ferious or lad¬
ing confequences from fueh a meafure.
The fupply of labour, or the population, has a natural
tendency to fuit itfelf to the demand. High wages, by
encouraging early marriage, and enabling the labourer
to take better care of hi' children, loon caufe an addi¬
tion to the numbers of a ftate, which, in its turn, brings
down the wages. Hence uncommonly high wages take
place chiefly in an advancing date of fociety, when a
number of employments are open, lor which a fufficiency
of labourers cannot be found. When the wealth of a
country is flat ionary, the wages will be moderate, fuffi¬
cient to admit of the rearing of fuch a number of child¬
ren, as may keep up the population, but not fueh as to
admit of any increafe. When the country is in a de¬
clining Hate, the wages will fall even below this. They
will fcarcely enable the labourer tofubfid ; comparative¬
ly few will be able to rear families, and population will
decl i n e -f • ^ Smith,
From what has been faid above, there will appear no T ^'1, Ci:‘
reafon to fupnofe, that the price of fubfidence has any
immediate influence on the wages of labour ; an idea
which even Smith feems drangely to have entertained lb. book
The demand for labour, the funds by which it is paid,iii-
and the number of labourers continuing the fame, no al¬
teration in its price can take place. For mailers to give
higher wages on account of fearcity, is, we fufpedl, a
yery injudicious benevolence. The funds for the main¬
tenance
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
1 12
•Sources of tenance of labour, far from being increafed by a dearth,
Wealth. are ra|;]ier diminilhed *, fo tliat the giving a greater pro-
y—portion of them than before to fome, muft be the means
of throwing others altogether out of employment; and to
this caufe we fufpedl that the want of work ufually com¬
plained of at thefe periods, is very much to be afcribed.
Where the rife of provifions is permanent, however, that
of labour, though not immediate, takes place ultimately,
in confequence of a diminution of the fnpply. The diffi¬
culty of fubfiftence prevents labourers from rearing fuch
numerous families population is thinned ; and the di-
miniffied competition oeufes a rife in the price of wages.
Wages in general are nearly the fame over a coun¬
try j for if they are higher in any one place, this proves
a natural attraftion to thofe of other diftri&s, who foon
reduce the rate to its proper level. This free circulation
of labour, however, may be prevented by artificial re-
ftraints, as was the cafe, till of late, in England, by
means of the poor laws. Thefe authorized the pariffi
officers to prevent any one who was ever likely to be¬
come a burden on the pariffi from fettling in it. The
moll obnoxious part of thefe laws, however, has been done
away, chiefly through the exertions of Mr Rofe.
Wages are generally higher in cities than in the coun¬
try. The capitals there are greater. The country too
is more prolific, while few towns keep up their own
numbers. Many indeed migrate from the former to the
latter ; but the predile£tion for their native fpot, and to
more wholefome and cheerful occupations, prevents this
migration from being fo great as completely to equalize
the rate. Another caufe arifes, in modern Europe,
from the corporation fyltem Avhich has generally pre¬
vailed. Almoll every trade has fome regulations to
limit the number of its members, and thus, by reftraining
competition, to increafe their wages. The principal of
thefe regulations are thofe regarding the duration of ap-
prentigeffiip. By the fifth of Elizabeth, no trade can
be exercifed in England, till after an apprenticeffiip of
feven years ; and the only freedom from this llatute is in
the cafe of thofe trades which were at that time un-
« known. In Scotland, apprenticeffiips are in general
much ffiorter.
Wages, however, vary not only from local caufes,
but from others connected with the nature of the trades
by which they are earned. There feem to be five cir-
cumftances which tend to raife the wages of any elafs of
men above the ordinary level.
Firft, When any employment is of an unwholefome
and difagreeable nature. Thus miners, blackfmiths,
butchers, and innkeepers, earn higher wages than thofe
whofe occupation is not liable to the fame objections.
On the other hand, hunting and fiffiing, being naturally
agreeable, and purfued by many for mere amufement,
are by no means profitable.
Secondly, Where a profeffion is difficult to learn, as
in the fine arts and liberal profeffions, which require
many years ftudy before a man is qualified to exercife
them.
Thirdly, Where employment is precarious. Thus
mafons whofe employment depends on the weather, and
all Avorkmen Avho are liable to be called upon and dif-
miffed at a moment’s Avarning, receive higher Avages to
compenfate for this uncertainty in the means of their fub¬
fiftence.
Fourthly, Where great truft is repofed in the work¬
Cliap. II.
man. On this ground, goldfmiths and phyficians are Sources of
entitled to higher gains than others, in order that fuch
important trufts may be repofed inperions Avhohave fome- ’ ^
thing to lofe.
Fifthly, Where there is any peculiar rifle, either of
failure, or of other difafters. Thus in the cafe of phy¬
ficians, and ftill more of laAvyers, it is only a few of
thofe Avho apply to the profeffion to whom it ever yields
a fubfiftence. Thofe who rife to eminence, therefore,
have gained prizes in a lottery, which ought to be high
in proportion to the number of blanks. The effeft of
this circumftance, however, is dimini Hied by the natural
confidence which every one has in his talents and good
fortune, and by the brilliant reputation which accompa¬
nies fuccefs in thefe departments. The fame remark ap¬
plies to thofe profeffions which prefent a life of danger
and adventure, as the na\ral and military fervice. For¬
tunately for the public, notAvithftanding the danger, the
hardftiip, and the {lender emolument ivith which thefe
profeffions are accompanied, no Avant is found of perfons
Avho are ready to engage in them.
Laftly, There are fome circumftances, to Avhich all
trades are occafionally liable. In a neiv trade, the
Avages are generally higher. The fuccefs, and confe-
quently the duration, of fuch muft be more or lefs un¬
certain j and men Avill not be inclined, Avithout fome
extraordinary temptation, to quittheir old and eftabliffied
occupations, in order to engage in it. An extraordinary
demand too fometimes arifes for the commodities fur-
niffied by fome particular trade ; more labourers than
ufual Avill confequently be Avanted 5 and thefe muft be
allured by the offer of higher Avages. Sometimes, on the
other hand, work is done cheaper than ufual, from be¬
ing taken up as a bye-employment, by thofe Avho derive
their fubfiftence from a different fource; as, for inftance,
ftockings in the north of Scotland. This takes place,
hoAvever, only where the demand for labour is {lender,
as otherwife the Avholeof a man’s time may be advanta-
geoufly employed.
In confideripg the effects of labour in the produftion
of Avealth, Smith divides it into two kinds, Avhich he calls
produdlive and unprodudlive. Produdlive labourers are
thofe Avhofe induftry produces a commodity Avhich re¬
mains and can be exchanged for another. Thus the
farmer produces corn, the manufadlurer cloth or hard-
Avare. The unprodudlive, on the contrary, are thofe
whofe fervices periffi in the; moment of performance,
and never produce any commodity to which value can
be attached. Thefe include a variety of profeffions both
the moft refpedlable and the leaf! fo. It includes, on
one hand, all thofe employed in the executive govern¬
ment, officers of the army and navy, officers of juftice,
public teachers of every defeription ; on the other, me¬
nial ferc'ants, players, muficians, &c. The more a man
maintains of the former kind of labourers, the richer he
becomes j the more he maintains of the latter, he becomes
the poorer.
The moft eminent Avriters on this fubjedl, in the pre¬
fent age, feem difpofed to treat this diftindfion as nuga¬
tory. T hey urge, that wealth confifts merely in the abund¬
ance of conveniences and pleafures of life *, and that who¬
ever contributes to augment thefe is a produdlive labourer,
although he may not prefent us with any tangible com¬
modity. The profeffor who gives me aledlure, and the
mufician Avho gives me a tune, give fomething fubfer-
vient
Chap.
Sources of
'Wealth.
S rwy *
Smith,
II.
vient to ufe or pleafure, and for which other articles
may be had in exchange. We are rather difpofed, how¬
ever, to adhere to the dodtrine of Smith, and to doubt
how far thefe peridiing and immaterial commodities,
however valuable they may be, can, ftridly fpeaking,
be confidered as wealth *.
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
n
Mtder-
ule ;
Jin. Re-
'Vw,
r° viii.
h. s.
2y, Ele-
ensd'Eco
jmie Pi)'
Sect. III. Of Capital.
Capital or ftock, as already hinted, is merely the pro¬
duce of land and labour accumulated, and employed in
fuch a manner as to caufe an augmentation of the wealth
of the community. It adts, however, too important a
part, not to deferve feparate confideration. We have
already, confidering it as one of the divifions of wealth,
explained, at fome length, its nature and office. We
thall now confider it in the relation which it bears to
revenue, which, when arifing from this fource, is ufual-
ly called the profits of ftock.
It is difficult to obtain diredh information with regard
to the rate of profit in any particular country ; but it
may be inferred with confiderable certainty from the
rate of intereft, which always bears a certain relation to
thefe profits. The more advantageoufly a man can em¬
ploy ftock, the more will he be inclined to pay for thej
ufe of it. Profit is generally fuppofed to be about double
of the intereft.
In poor but advancing communities profits are high.
There is a great demand for ftock, and little to be had ;
Irence men are glad to pay a high premium for the ufe
of it. In North America intereft; is from fix to eight
per cent. New colonies afford almoft the only in-
liances in which both profit and wages are high at the
lame time. The employment is fo ample as to demand
at once more men, and more ftock, than can be fupplied
to it. As the country advances in wealth, ftock be¬
come? more abundant, and the competition of different
flocks lowers the profit of each. Hence, in a rich coun-
5ry* profits are low. In England the current rate of
Intereft is (or at leaft rvas, before the immenfe loans of
the prefent war) from four to four and a half per cent,
in Holland, the richeft country perhaps in the world,
intereft is two or three per cent, and the Dutch are
efbfcrved to trade on lower profits than any other peo¬
ple. But when a country is in a ftate of decline, in
txmfequence of its property being plundered or deftroy-
ed, flock, from its fcarcity, acquires often an enormous
value. In Bengal money is faid to be lent to the far¬
mer at forty per cent, and upwards. We muft obferve,
however, that even in opulent countries the opening of
new channels of employment, by increafing the demand,
tends to raife the profits of ftock, while the fhutting of
former channels has the contrary effe£h
Profit does not vary nearly fo much as labour, ac¬
cording to the different modes in which it is employed.
Scarcely any of the five circumftances mentioned under
that head, except the laft, affba it at all. Smith feems
indeed to confider the firft, viz. the agreeablenefs or dif-
agreeablenefs of the employment, as fomewhat affe6ling
it, but this it appears to us to do, only from the labour
with which it is accompanied. It is by the drudgery
and inconvenience of conftant attendance on his guefts
that the employment of an inn-keeper is rendered difa-
greeable.
The fafety or riff;, however, attendant on the differ-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
ent modes of employing a capital, Is a moft ferious con- Sources of
fideration. A man will not, without fome temptation health- ^
of extraordinary profit, embark in a concern where a v
part or the whole of his capital may be loft. We are dif¬
pofed, indeed, to confider this as the only circumftauce
which raifes the profits of ftock above the market rate
of intereft. In almoft all modes of employing capital,
there is fome rilk 5 and it may be fuppofed, that where
that rilk is greateft, the profit (hould be greateft alfo.
Yet employments attended with very great riff;, pro¬
vided that rilk be compenfated by the chance of very
great gains, are the moft crowded. Such is the fan-
guine and adventurous fpirit of men, that fpeculation,
as it is called in trade, as well as fuch uncertain trades
as that of the corn-merchant or the fmuggler, are al¬
ways overftocked $ and though productive of occafionaf
gains, prove commonly ruinous in the end.
In fome of the Afiatic countries, where property is
remarkably infecure, the accumulation of capifal is
thereby lo much difeouraged as to render it fcarce, even
where the annual produce of the land and labour is con¬
fiderable. Even the quantity which is accumulated, in-
ftead of being employed in trade, is concealed or bu¬
ried in the earth. T. he fame was the cafe anciently in
European kingdoms, before the eftablilhment of law and
order j accordingly, at that time, treafure-trove formed
an important part of the revenue of the fovereign.
It may be obferved, that what goes under the deno¬
mination of profit is often merely wages. A mer¬
chant or fhopkeeper who conduits his own bufinefs, be¬
tides the profit of his ftock, muft receive fome remune¬
ration for the portion of time and attention he devotee
to the employment. Thus, efpecially in a country
town, a grocer or apothecary will, on a fmall ftock,
make 50 or 100 per cent. ; but this may be no more
than fuffieient to repay him for that (kill and know¬
ledge which are equally neceffary for conducing thefe
employments on a fmall as on a great feale.
Although, however, theVariations in the profits of
ftock occafioned by the nature of the employme; t be
not confiderable, it is otherwife with thofe which have
been occafioned by the policy of modern Europe. As
the improvements introduced into it have been chiefly by
cities, and by the mercantile part of the community, that
part has been extravagantly favoured. The intereft of
the agriculturift and of the confumer has, till of late,
been uniformly^ facrificed to theirs. The regulations
prompted by this fyftem have not indeed been of any
real fervice to trade ; but, by narrowing the competition,
they have fecured to fome commercial bodies a certain
monopoly of the articles in which they dealt, and there¬
by enabled them to raife their profits above the natural
level. This they do fometimes direftly, by veiling the
privilege of conducting certain trades altogether in the
hands of an exclufive company, who can let their own
price on commodities which are produced or imported
by them alone. At other times, they impofe prohibi¬
tions or high duties on the importation of certain arti¬
cles from abroad. Bounties are given for the encourage¬
ment of certain favourite branches of agriculture, or
manufactures. f hefe regulations form what is called
the mercantile fyftem, which we fliall have occafion
hereafter to confider at large, and to (how its entire fal¬
lacy.. The exclufive privileges -of corporations operate
to raife tire profits of ftock, as well as the wages of hs-
bourr
H4
How
POLITICAL
boar. They exclude all fuch as have not certain qua-
VVealth is lifications from employing their flock within the corpo
Pr°tUc ’ ration* Thofe’ therefore, who p< ‘
iflefs thefe qualifica¬
tions enjoy fome degree of monopoly againft the reft of
the fociety. From all thefe caufes the profits derived
from manufactures and commerce have been on the
whole greater than thofe of agriculture. The inftan-
ces of great fortunes raifcd out of nothing in the for¬
mer lines are frequent •, in the latter, they are rare.
We mav obferve, however, that fince the general dilfu-
lion of the writings of Smith and of the economifls, this
fyftem has, in a great degree, ceafed to influence the
legiflatures of Europe •, and what remains of it arifes
rather from the force of habit than from defign. Per¬
haps there is now a tendency to the oppofite error 5 to
undervalue trade too much, and to grant to agriculture
thofe exclufive privileges which were formerly lavifhed
on manufactures and commerce.
The profits of flock are equally, with the wages of
labour, liable to be affe&ed by the introduftion of new
trades, and by alterations in the demand. J hefe varia¬
tions, however, like the caufes which produced them,
will be only of a temporary nature.
ECONOMY. Chap. HI.
exceedingly fmall, when compared with what it becomes Huw .
by means of certain artificial aids, which it gradually re-
ceives in an opulent and improved fociety. 1 hefe aids 1
are chiefly the divifion of labour, and machinery.
Sect. IV. The Interejl of Money.
It may often happen, that perfons are pofiefied of
ftock who want inclination or talents for engaging in
trade. On the other hand, fome may poffefs this incli¬
nation and capacity, who have no ftock. In this cafe
a natural arrangement takes place. 'I he perfon pof-
feflfed of the ftock, which he does not employ, lends it
to the other who is in want of it, and who, in confi-
deration of the profit he derives from its ufe, is willing
to give an annual premium to the lender. Ihis is call¬
ed the intereft of money j for money, being the com¬
mon exchangeable medium, is the form in which ftock
generally appears, when it is colkaed by its poffeffor
for the purpofes either of hoarding or lending.
In order to prevent the ignorant or neceflitous from
being impofed upon, governments have generally fix¬
ed a certain rate, which the intereft of money fhould
not be allowed to exceed. This rate ought always to
be regulated by the market rate. An attempt to keep
down the intereft below that rate, tends only to raife it
higher. The confideration given for the ufe of money
muft ftill be regulated, like every fuch tranfa&km, hy
the fitpply and the demand : and the borrower muft give
a compenfation to the lender, not only for the ufe of
his money, but alfo for the rifk which he incurs by the
violation of the law. L he regulated rate, however,,
ought to be fomewhat above the market rate •, though,
were it too much io, its operation would become nuga¬
tory.
Sect. I. The Divifion of Labour.
The divifion of labour, by which one employment,
or one branch of that employment, forms the foie occu¬
pation of one man, produces the moft wonderful effeits
in augmenting the produftive powers of labour. 'Ibe
oftener that a man performs any operation, the greater
power he acquires of performing it Ikiliully and rapidly :
and when his whole life is fpent in the performance of
any fingle procefs, this power becomes almolt incre¬
dible. Thus, too, be faves the time which is fpent in
palling from one work to another. He faves more in¬
deed than the inere time, for at firft beginning the
new one, he commonly faunters and trifles a little, and
does not at firft go on heartily and vigoroufty.
A ftriking inftance of the effefls of divifion of labour
is afforded in the manufaflure of pin-making. The im¬
portant occupation of making a pin affords employment
to eighteen perfons j one man draws out U.e wire,, an¬
other ftraights it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a
fifth grinds it at the top to receive the head, which two
or three are employed in making. Io put it on, to
whiten the pin, to put it into the paper, torm all dn-
tinft occupations. Smith faw a manufactory where on¬
ly ten were employed, and where fome confequently
performed two or three operations, yet they made for¬
ty-eight thoufand pins a day, or four thoufand eight
hundred each ; whereas a fingle man, performing the
whole procefs by himfelf, would not probably. make
twenty. Thefe effeas would be equally perceptible in
manufaaures of greater confequence, were all their pro-
ceffes capable of being brought as clofe to each otnti as
in this fmall one. _ _
The divifion of labour is capable of being earned far¬
ther in manufaaures than in agriculture. In the Iul-
ter, a change of employment is diaated by the change
of feafons •, the fame man mull fucceflively fow, reap,
and thralh out the grain. Although, therefore, an un¬
proved fociety excels a rude one in agriculture, it does
not, in general, excel fo much as in manufaaures,
where man, making all the arrangements himfelf, can
carry the divifion of labour as far as the extent of his
undertaking will admit of. -
Sect. II. Machinery.
Chap. III. Of the manner in which Wealth is
produced and diflributed.
Among the three fources of wealth above enumerat¬
ed, labour is pre-eminent, not only as the moft abun¬
dant, but, as neceffary in order to give efficacy to the
reft j neither land nor ftock, unlefs in fome rare in-
ftances, being of any value,' unlefs labour be added.
The refult, however, of rude and unaflifted labour is
As improvement advances., and the invention of man
exerts itfelf in every direction, the labour of man is
more and more feconded by the aid of machinery. 1 ms
fource of improvement is claffed by Smith under the
head of the divifion of labour, to which he conceives
it to be indebted for its origin. We rather incline,
however, to agree with Lord Lauderdale, in judging it
worthy of ranking as a feparate and independent prin¬
ciple. Some rude machinery for domeftic and agricul¬
tural purpofes muft have been invented prior to any
confiderable divifion of labour j while thofe wonderful
machines which have excited the admiration of the pre-
fent age, the cotton mill, the fteam engine, Stc. are
* ths
C!i
VVe
, pro
hap. III. POLITICAL
How the invention of ingenious men, not the cafual difcovery
Wealth is Qf workmen ; though they may have received fome ira-
ll-^ced, provement from the latter fource.
L' Machinery is, in many inftances, not lefs powerful
than the divilion of labour, in multiplying the produc¬
tions of human induftry. It has befides this advantage,
that there are many operations to which it is effential,
and which, without it, cannot, in any degree, be per¬
formed. Without the plough or fpade, the faw, the
flour-mill, or fome inftruments correfponding to thefe,
the unaflifted efforts of man would be of no avail to ef-
feft the purpofes for which they are intended.
When any machine is firfl introduced, the immediate
confequence is, that a number of labourers are thrown
out of employment 5 hence, according to the idea of
the vulgar, which has been haftily adopted by fome phi-
lofophers, fuch innovations are pernicious, tending to
diftrefs the poor, and to check population. There
feems no good reafon for this complaint. The popula¬
tion of a country mufl always depend upon the abun¬
dance of the means of fubfiflence*, while, therefore, im¬
proved machinery has no tendency to diminifh thefe, it
cannot be injurious to population. I he manufacturer,
being enabled to produce the fame quantity of goods,
with only part of the flock before employed, will em¬
ploy the other part in extending his concerns, either in
the fame or in other branches of induitry ; and even the
part of his flock which is fpent in the purchafe of ma¬
chinery, will give employment to workmen in framing
that machinery. The only effed, therefore, will be
that of adding, in proportion to the power of this ma¬
chinery, to the comforts and conveniences of the focie-
ty. A certain degree of inconvenience may no doubt
be experienced by thofe workmen who have been ac-
cuftomed to this fpecies of employment, and are lefs
qualified for any other. But this is merely a temporary
difadvantage, fuch as may be expeded to accompany all
changes, however beneficial.
Machinery, like the divifion of labour, can be intro¬
duced to a much greater extent in manufadures than in
agriculture. Nothing on a great fcale, feems hitherto
to have been introduced into the latter, except the
threlhing machine.
Sect. III. Of the different Employments of Labour and
Stock.
All thefe feem to be included under four heads: agri¬
culture, including mines and fiflieries ; manufadures ;
trade by wholefale ; and trade by retail. Each of thefe
will prefent fome objeds for our confideration.
Sect. IV. Agriculture.
Of all modes of employing labour and flock, this is
the moft produdive. It is not here, as in other em¬
ployments where every thing is to be done by man.
Nature labours along with him. His objed is to dired
rather than to augment thofe powers of vegetation
which the earth already poffeffes and exercifes. No
other employment yields that furplus produce obtained
without labour or effort, which is cafled rent. Where-
cver, therefore, things are allowed to take their natural
courfe, agriculture is the firft objed to which the la¬
bour of the fociety is direded. Till it has made con-
Lv,v^v^..
fiderable advances, manufadures are either rudely exe- How
cuted as a by-work, or, where opportunity offers, are ’
imported from abroad, in exchange for the rude pro- c
duce of land. This laft, where pradicable, appears j
evidently to be the moft advantageous fyftem. The
adoption of it has been one great caufe of the rapid pro¬
gress of the North American colonies.
Agriculture gives employment to a greater number
of men than any other fpecies of induftry. Thefe men
alfo, are likely to be the moft found, healthy, uncor¬
rupted part of the population ; and from its local na¬
ture, they muft all reiide within the fociety, and form a-
conflituent part of it.
Sect. V. Manufactures.
Manufadures do not adually produce any new com¬
modity ; but they modify in fuch a manner the produce
of land or mines, as to increafe its exchangeable value.
Few things, efpecially in a highly cultivated ftate of fo¬
ciety, are fit for ufe as they come out of the hands of
nature, till they have been operated upon by human art.
Even corn, the ftaple produce of land, muft pafs through
the hands of the miller and the baker, before it can be
ufed as food. Some manufadures add comparatively
little to the value of the original article; while, in others,
the latter becomes little or nothing when compared with
the additional value ftamped on it by the manufadure.
Thus half a crown’s worth of flax, when wrought into
the fineft cambric, will be raifed perhaps to the value of
twenty pounds.
Manufadures employ fewer men than agriculture,
but more than any other fpecies of induftry. Thefe
men, too, muft evidently refide in the country where
the manufadure is carried on ; though that may be dif¬
ferent from the country where the rude material is pro¬
duced, as well as from that where the finilhed manu¬
fadure is confumed. The cotton of America and the
Weft Indies is imported into Britain, and after being
there wrought into cloth, is re-exported to thofe coun¬
tries.
Manufadures, as already obferved, give fcope beyond
any other employment to the produdive powers arifing
from machinery and the divifion of labour. They can
be colleded into the fmalleft fpace, and the inftruments
are completely under the controul of man. A poor na¬
tion may rival, or even furpafs a rich one, in the cheap-
nefs and abundance of its corn ; but in manufadures it
is always inferior.
It is a general rule, that the manufadures in which
a country excels, are thofe which are fuited to the wants
of her inhabitants. Thefe ihe comes to produce, not
only better, but cheaper, than other countries, to whom
therefore thofe articles become, for her, the moft advan¬
tageous fubjed of export. In France, before the revo¬
lution, the confumers were chiefly perfons of very large
fortune, to whom the fineft manufadures and articles
of ornament were alone fuited. In England, on the
other hand, the greater proportion of the confumers are
perfons of moderate fortune, and in the middling rank.
Subftantial articles, of moderate price, are, therefore,
chiefly demanded in this country. The effed of thefe
different habits appeared clearly in the difeuflions re-
fpeding the commercial treaty concluded by Mr Pitt.
It appeared, that millinery, jewellery, fine manufac-
P 2 tures
i 16
w<7h . lures of all kinds, were msde both better and cheaper
prodai ed^ •f'rance ’ f'u*: hardware, cloth, common articles of
’ every fort, ihe was completely underfold by England,
w—y—. Although woollens be the ftaple of England, yet in the
fineil woollen cloth file was furpaffed by France ; and
though elks be the ftaple of France, yet common filks
were fold cheaper by England. Several other curious
inftances are given by Lord Lauderdale, in the con¬
cluding chapter of his work on public wealth.
Sect. VI, Commerce.
Commerce is the grand fourne of all improvement in
the produftive powers of induftry. It is founded on the
principle of barter. The butcher has a quantity of beef,
and the baker of bread, more than either can confume
himfelf; but each is in want of the other’s commodity.
And exchange therefore being made, both the beef and
the bread acquire a value which they did not poffefs be¬
fore, Thus it is that commerce, confifting in the ex¬
change of two articles, raifes the value of both.
It is only bv means of extenfive commerce, that both
the divifion of labour and machinery can be carried to
any great extent. A manufa&ory, eftabliftied for the
fupply of a fmall neighbourhood, can never be conduc¬
ed on that great fcale which is requifite for thefe im¬
provements. The divifion of labour muft depend on
the numbers employed ; and an extenfive fale is necef-
fary to repay the expence of complicated and powerful
machinery. Land carriage would probably be the firft:
employed ; but as foon as navigation was invented, the
cheapnefs and facility of water carriage would give it a
decided preference. In the infancy of the art, the in¬
land navigation of rivers would experience a preference j
and it is ftill poffefied of peculiar advantages. All the
earlieft improved countries have been thofe which pof-
fefled an extenfive inland navigation ; Egypt, by the
Nile, Indoftan by the Ganges, and China, by feveral
great rivers which perforate it. Africa, an unbroken
mafs of continent, is ftill barbarous ; the only part
which affords any exception to this remark, is that fitu-
ated along the Senegal and Niger. Hence the great
advantage which a country derives from good roads, and
ftill more from navigable canals, which facilitate the
communication between its different parts, and extend
the market of the farmer and manufa&urer.
Commerce is of three kinds; the home trade, the
* Smith, foreign trade, and the carrying trade *.
book in The home trade is of all others the moft advantage-
chap. v. ous> jn excViange which takes place here, both the
commodities, whofe value is raifed, belong to the fame
country, and confequently a double benefit accrues to
the fociety. The returns, alfo, of fuch a commerce are
much more quick. With the fame capital, therefore, a
much greater number of tranfa&ions will take place in
a given time. Smith calculates that the foreign trade
of Great Britain does not exceed a fortieth of its home
trade. The grand branch of internal trade is that be¬
tween the country and the town, in which the farmer
fupplies provifions and raw materials, and receives in
return manufaflured produce.
When all the channels of domeftic trade are filled, a
nation naturally turns to a foreign market. Here,
liowever^ it doqs not trade with equal advantage. Of
Chap. Ill,
the two commodities whofe value is raifed, one only be- How
longs to it •, and confequently it reaps only half the bene- " *s
fit which it reaped from the home trade. Nor is this ^r0C^w'
all. The market being more diftant, the returns are —-i—j
flower. With the fame capital, twelve operations may
frequently be performed in the one, in the fame time
that a fingle one was performing in the other. In this
cafe, the former will be twenty-four times more advan¬
tageous to the country. It does not follow, however,
that foreign trade is not really and greatly advantageous,
when the capital is fufficient to carry it on, in addition
to the home trade.
The foreign trade is fometimes modified as follows.
A country exports to another fome commodity, and
then, with the commodity which it receives in return,
purchafes fome article of a third country. Thus, Eng¬
land fends to Virginia woollens, and having received in
return tobacco, exports it to the Baltic to exchange for
naval ftores. This roundabout trade differs from a com¬
mon foreign trade in no refpeft, except that its returns
are likely to be flower, and confequently its effe£ts ftill
lefs beneficial to the community.
When all other banches are filled, the only refource
of overflowing capital is in the carrying trade. Here
the merchant merely exports the produce of one foreign
country to another foreign country. The country to
which he belongs gains nothing but the mere profits of
the trade. It receives no encouragement to its agri¬
culture, or its manufaiflures. Neither of the goods
whofe value is raifed belong to it. The carrying trade
is the leaft advantageous of all modes of employing the
national capital. It is the fymptom, however, of a great
and almoft overgrown commercial profperity ; for it is-
not till capital is extremely abundant, that it turns into
this dire&ion. Seeing the carrying trade, therefore, the
accompaniment of great national profperity, legiflators
have miftaken it as a caufe, and have held out peculiar
encouragements with the view of forcing part of the na¬
tional capital prematurely into this direction ; which,
from the view now given, muft be evidently hurt¬
ful.
Commerce employs fewer men than either manufac¬
tures or agriculture 5 it employs merely the merchant,
who tranfa&s the bufinefs, and the failors and carriers
who tranfport the goods. Thefe, too, may belong in¬
differently either to one country or the other, or even
to a different one from either; and this, from the fmall-
nefs of their number, is a matter of little confequencei
Sect. VII. The Retail Trade.
The laft fpecies of induftry is the retail trade. The
convenience, and indeed neceflity of this,, is obvious.
It would be extremely troublefome if a man were obli¬
ged to purchafe a whole ox or ftieep at a time ; if he
were obliged to lay in at once fix or eight months pro-
vifion of every different article. Part of his flock
would thus conftantly lie dead, and the commodities
befides would often perifli in his hands. Hence the ufe
of fhop-keepers, from whom we may purchafe any ar¬
ticle in as fmall a quantity as fuits us. Some perfbns
have apprehended bad confequences from the multipli¬
cation of retailers, but with no good reafon ; for the
greater the competition, on the better terms will the
public
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
Chap. III. ‘POLITICAL ECONOMY.
117
How
Wealth is
produced,
&c.
public be ferved, each being anxious to underfell his ri¬
vals. Their multiplication might ruin themfelves,
which, in general, we may be fure of their guarding
againtt j but it mall be for the benefit of their tu-
liomers.
Mercantile
Chap. IV. Of the Mercantile and Economical , syften]-
Syfems. '
Sect. I. General View of the Mercantile Syflem.
SECT. VIII. On the Coincidence between Public and
Private Interef.
As the wealth of a fociety confills merely of the ag¬
gregate wealth of its members, every thing which tends
to increafe the property of an individual, without injur¬
ing that of others, that is, every fpecies of lawful in-
dullry, tends to augment alfo the riches of the fociety.
Thofe branches alfo which are moll productive to the
fociety, will be equally fo to the individual who con¬
ducts them. Such branches have, befides, peculiar re¬
commendations, which will lead men, upon equal pro¬
fits, to prefer them to others of a nature lefs generally
beneficial.
The improvement and cultivation of land is the mode
In which the greateft produce may be raifed with the
lealt capital : it has, befides, other recommendations.
It is the way in which a man’s property is moll com¬
pletely under his own eye, and moil fe.cure from acci¬
dent. The pleafures of a country life, the independ¬
ence by which it is generally accompanied, the health¬
ful and animating nature of its occupations, fecure it a
certain preference over mofi: other employments.
Manufadlures, again, poflefs many advantages above
Commerce, at leaft in that early Hate of improvement
where capitals are moderate. The capital employed
in it is more fecure, and more under the infpedlion of its
owner, than that which is lent to a difiance, and com¬
mitted to the winds and the waves. Some trade indeed
muft always exift for the exchange of the furplus pro-
duce, which even the rudeft fociety poflefies. But, in
the earlier period of fociety, it is more advantageous to
allow foreigners to carry on this trade, and even to fup-
ply all the finer manufactures. The opportunities of
this kind pofieffed by the North American colonies,
have been one great caufe of their rapid profperity.
It is evident, that, in commerce, both domeftic and
foreign, the merchant, with equal profits, will prefer
the (horter voyage, which places the bufinefs more un¬
der his own fuperintendence, yields him quicker returns,
and fubjeCts him to lefs rifk. Above all, the carrying
trade, the whole of which mull be tranfafted abroad,
will have little attraction for him, unlefs ftrong tempta¬
tion be prefented.
Thus we fee, that in all inftances, the private inter-
eft of the individual leads him to adopt that fpecies of
employment which is moft conducive to the interefts of
the public. In leaving him, therefore, to find out and
choofe the moft advantageous employment for his own
induftry and ftock, we are certainly doing that which is -
alio belt for the general good. This principle ought to
be the polar ftar to guide the fteps of the legiflator in
political economy. His objeCt ftiould be, to fecure to
every individual the fruit of his induftry, and then to
leave him at liberty to exert it in any manner he may
judge advantageous. All regulations of an oppofite na¬
ture, are as contrary to the interefts - of the fociety, as.
tiejrare injurious to the individual..
The fundamental principle of the mercantile fyftem,
and that which its fupporters are accuftomed to treat as
a felf-evident axiom, is, that wealth confiits in money,
or in gold and filver. The facility of exchanging thefe
metals for any other commodity, the habit thence de¬
rived, of calculating, according to their ftandard, the
wealth belonging to each individual, has made this &
natural and general error. Having laid down this prin¬
ciple, the next queftion comes to be, how the money
of any nation was to be increafed ? Where it was pof-
fefted of gold and fiiver mines, the obvious policy was,
to lockjup the whole produce of thefe within itfelf, and
to prohibit its exportation under the fevered, penalties.
Where the nation pofieffed no mines of its own, gold
and filver could be obtained only by giving other com¬
modities in exchange. Suppofe a nation to export to
the value of a million, while it imported only to the
value of half a million, the other half, it was conceived,
muft be paid in money, and muft go to increafe the
wealth of the nation. To export much, and to import
little, were therefore conceived to be the great means
of enriching a nation. The difference between the ex¬
ports and imports was called the balance of trade, and
confidered as the grand criterion of commercial profpe¬
rity. If the exports exceeded the imports, it was called
a favourable balance ; if the contrary, an unfavourable
balance. It fo happened, to the great confolation of
our mercantile politicians, that the former of thefe cafes
always took place. A certain annual fupply of gold
and filver was actually imported for the maintenance of
the current coin, and for fome ornamental manufac¬
tures ; and, befides, as duties are rarely levied on arti¬
cles exported, the vanity or convenience of merchants
led them often to enter more than they aftually iliipped. .
But though this was the cafe in general, it was other-
wife with regard to fume particular countries. If, in
the cafe of Spain, America and the Weft Indies, the
refult was as favourable as could be defired, many a rue¬
ful look was call upon the ftatements of the German,
Baltic, and Ealt India commerce ; in all which the ba¬
lance, as it is. called, was decidedly againft this country.
To check this great evil, every expedient was employ¬
ed which might diminifti importation and encourage ex¬
portation in general, and particularly in regard to thole
countries with whom our balance was unfavourable.
What the nature, and effects of thefe meafures really
are, we (hall prefently have occafion to confider. We
ftiall now make fome remarks on the general principle
on which they are founded.
1. Reftri£tions upon the intercourfe with a particular
country, which is luppofed to have a balance againft us,
are unreafonable, even fuppofing the general principle
to be found. For if we get commodities cheaper from
that nation, and fell ours to it'with greater advantage,
the balance will, on the whole, be more in our favour,
than if we carried on the fame tranfa£tions with any
other nation. If we can get wine cheaper from France
than from Portugal, the annual value of our imports for
wixntu
4
POLITICAL ECONOMY. , Chap. IV.
Mercantile wlne will be diminiihed, by dealing with the former
t Syltem. Country. Befides, what is imported may often be fo,
on^ £or tjie pUrpofe of re-exportation to fome other
country.
2. The whole idea of the balance of trade is quite
fanciful and chimerical. By every exchange which
takes place with a foreign country, the nation gains as
well as the individual; nor does it make any difference
whether goods or money be received in return. If in¬
deed the legiflature could fucceed in forcing a greater
importation of gold and filver than would naturally take
place, it would do the country a ferious injury. Thefe
metals, when converted into money, form, as. above
obferved, a part of the fixed capital of the fociety, a
moft ufeful and neceffary part, but ftill one which is
merely inftrumental, and does not make any diredl ad¬
dition to the wealth of the fociety. If we could have
the fame fundlions performed without it, the fociety
would gain the whole of what it has been accuftomed
to pay for it. On the contrary, when a government
forces upon the nation more than is requifite for the
purpofes of circulation, it makes it incur an expence
which would otherwife have been faved. It does not
appear, in the cale of nations which have no mines, that
any of the boafted regulations refpefting import and ex¬
port, will have the lead effedtin enlarging the importa¬
tion of gold and filver. But where a people have mines
within themfelves, a ilridl prohibition, fuchas is ufually
impofed, againft the export of thefe metals, though it
will! be far from abfolutely preventing that export, will
yet keep within the country a fumewhat greater quan¬
tity than would otherwife have remained. This appears
to "be (or at lead to have been) actually the cafe with
Spain and Portugal, occafioning a confiderable lofs to
both thefe countries.
As the principle of the mercantile fyftem naturally
leads to the fuppofition, that, whatever is gained by one
nation, is loti to another, it generally leads to violent
commercial jealoufies between neighbouring countries.
The nearer they are to each other, the more are redac¬
tions and prohibitions multiplied. This is altogether
unreafonable. The nearer a country, the more advan¬
tageous is its trade. It approaches the more nearly to
the home trade, in the quicknefs of its returns, and can
be carried on with a fmaller capital. J he plan, tnsre-
fore, of making our neighbours as poor as poflible, is
completely unwife. The richer they are, they will be
the better cudmners for our commodities, and the
greater will be the benefit which we derive from their
trade.
Having thus proved, that the regulations of the mer¬
cantile fyftem are altogether unfitted for attaining their
end, and that the end, were it attainable, is uielefs,
and even pernicious, we {hall now confider what is the
real effba of thefe regulations. With this view they
may be claffed under two heads, rejlraints upon wiporta-
lion, and encouragements to exportation.
Sect. II. Rejlraints upon Importation.
Thefe are either high duties or prohibitions.
It has been an univerfal principle of modern taxation,
that duties are to be levied only on articles imported,
and not on thofe which are exported. This principle is
found. The taxes impofed by any community ought to
fall upon its own members, not upon thofe of other Mercamil*
communities. To attempt a£ling otherwife, would be t syftem- ^
not only unjuft, but impolitic. Thefe articles of pro-  r~v'"‘Lj
dace and manufafturc, on which the export duty was
impofed, would not, in the general market of the world,
keep their ground againft the fame commodities from
other nations, which impofed no fuch duty. The mer¬
cantile fyftem, however, goes much farther. With the
view of encouraging internal indultry, and preventing
importation, it lays higher duties upon certain articles
imported, than upon the fame when manufaftured with ¬
in the country ; thus fecuring to the latter, a certain ad¬
vantage in the home market, independent of any fupe-
riority of Ikill. It thus turns to certain branches of in-
duftry a greater proportion of the national induftry and
capital tlian would naturally have gone to them.
Now, we have proved, that in all cafes, the direclion
which individual intereft fpontaneoufly gives to the na¬
tional induftry, is the belt and moft ufeful dire&ion.
Everything, therefore, which tends to difturb it, to turn
induftry into channels into which it would not natural¬
ly have gone, is injurious to the public, and tends to
render that induftry lefs productive. Such is precifely
the operation of the duties in queftion, which, therefore,
though they may augment the productive induftry of
the nation in fome particular branches, tend to diminiih
its whole amount. Thus, in an agricultural nation, if
duties are impofed upon the importation of manufactured
goods, a part of the national capital which was employ¬
ed in the more profitable employment of agriculture,
will be forced into the lefs advantageous one of manu¬
factures. The misfortune is, that in the mercantile fy¬
ftem, from a very natural prejudice of thofe with whom
it originates, the lefs advantageous branch is always
rated higher than the more advantageous; manufactures
than agriculture, commerce than manufactures, and fo¬
reign trade than domeftic. Its operations are pernicious,
not only in their general principle, but ftill more in
their particular application.
In regard to prohibitions, their effeCt is the fame as
high duties, only greater in degree. They are feldom
completely effectual, unlefs in the cafe of very bulky
goods; but their operation muft always be equal to the
higheft duty, and muft therefore be equally injurious,
without bringing any advantage to the revenue.
Sect. III. Encouragements to Exportation.
The expedients which the mercantile fyftem employs
to encourage exportation are drawbacks and bounties.
As to drawbacks, they are extremely reafonable. No
government we obferved, can properly, or without im¬
prudence, attempt to tax the confumption of other na¬
tions. When, therefore, it has impofed a duty on any
article produced within itfelf, it is quite expedient that
this fliould be repaid on exportation; otherwife the ar¬
ticles, when carried to a foreign market, could not meet
the competition of others, which had paid no fuch duty.
In the fame manner, when an article has paid a duty at
importation, it is perfectly fair that the duty fhould be
repaid, in the cafe of the article being re-exported ;
otherwife a fevere check would be put both upon the
carrying trade, and the foreign trade of confumption.
Still, indeed, the merchant has the difadvantage of hav¬
ing advanced the tax, and confequently been deprived.
Chap. IV. POLITIC AL
[Mercantile for a certain time, of the ufe of that portion of his ca-
Syftern. pjtal. In fume inftances, a plan has been adopted, which
obviates this inconvenience. The goods are placed in
a warehoufe, under the joint lock and key of the mer¬
chant and the officer of government. No duty is then
paid upon them, unlefs they arc taken out for the pur-
pofe of home confumption.
Bounties are expedients of a different nature. They
are given upon the production and exportation of certain
articles, which, it is conceived, would not otherwife pay
the expence. Their tendency is, therefore, to force ca¬
pital and induftry into the channels which, it is admit¬
ted, are difadvantageous to the individual, and which
according to the principles above explained, muft be
equally fo to the fociety. Their effeCt, therefore, is
nearly the fame as that produced by reftraints upon im¬
portation. Premiums are not liable to the fame objec¬
tions : Being only given to one or two fpecimens of
peculiar merit, they merely ftimulate to excellence in
any branch of induftry, without having much tendency
to turn towards it a difproportionate ffiare of the nation¬
al capital.
The bounty on corn is the moft important of thofe
granted in Great Britain •, and as the whole fyftem of
corn laws is not only of the utmoft importance, but
clofely conne&ed with the views of the mercantile fy¬
ftem, it may not be unfeafonable to introduce our fketch
of them in this place.
Sect. IV. Of the Corn Laws.
To render the neceffaries of life cheap, is a grand ob¬
ject of the mercantile fyflem, iince it thus expedts to
lower the wages of labour, and thereby leffen the ex¬
pence of manufacturing. The expedients it adopts, how¬
ever, are by no means judicious. The objedt of the le-
giflator, on this ilibjedt, has been to prevent as much as
poffible all trade in corn •, to urge the farmer to bring it
to market as foon as poffible, and to difeourage to the
utmoft its paffing through any intermediate hands be¬
tween him and the confumer. All fuch intermediate
perfons are iligmatized by the opprobrious names of re¬
graters and foref oilers, and the fevereft penalties are
enadted againft them. Let us confider on what grounds
thefe proceedings can be jullified.
The great evil in the price of grain is the variations
to which it is liable, which at one time produce fuper-
fluous plenty, and at another threaten the community
with abfolute want. The produdtion of it being only
once a year, there is a confiant danger, that before next
harveft, the fupply may run out. Crops too vary, and
i’ometimes fail to a diftreffing degree. It is moft defirable,
therefore, that the fuperabundance of one period Ihould,
if poffible, be made to fupply the deficiency of another.
The grand intereft of the public, in regard to grain, is
to diftribute, as equally as poffible, over different years,
and over different parts of the fame year, the fupply of
grain, fo that the plenty of one period may relieve the
want of another, and the general price be kept as equal
as poffible. This is precifely what the merchant does.
He buys when it is cheap, and fells again when it is
dear. If he buys it even when it bears a high price, it
is only from the expedlation of its rifing ftill higher, that
is, of the fcarclty becoming ftill greater •, and unlefs
this expedlation be well grounded, he lofes inftead of
5
ECONOMY. 11
gaining by the tranfadlion. He may mifcalculate in- Mercantile
deed ; but in this cafe, he fuffers feverely for his miftake;, t
and he has the conftant ftimulus of private intereft to
guard him againft it.
It follows, therefore, that the freer we leave the trade
in corn, the better will the public be guarded againft
the evils of famine, and that the vulgar outcry upon
this fubjedf has no real foundation.
With regard to the bounty, it has been defended as
being an artificial mode of obviating that irregularity of
price, to which grain is liable. The increafed quantity
which the bounty tends to produce, may, it is alleged,
be employed, in a year of fcarcity, to alleviate the evils
of dearth *. * Anderfoir
on National
Sect. V. Of Exciufve Companies, Induflry.
At the firft introdudlion of commercial enterprife in.
Europe, it was frequently the pradtice of governments to
veil particular trades^ fuppofed to be of a peculiarly ar¬
duous nature, in the hands of an exclusive company...
Such a meafure is almoft always hurtful to the public.
The intereft of all traders is to buy cheap and fell dear,
and is thereby hoftile to the intereft, both of the pro¬
ducers and confumers. But an exclufive company, ha¬
ving no competition to dread, can carry this fyftem into
effedt to a much greater extent than the private trader..
It is even found that the felling a fmall quantity at a
high price, is more profitable than the felling a large
quantity at a moderate price. The Dutch Eaft India
Company are faid to have deftroyed a number of their
plantations in the Spice iflands, with the view of dimi-
nifhing the fupply, and thereby raifing the price.
It is fuppofed that fome very extenfive branches of
trade could not be carried on by individuals with fafety j
but in this cafe, either the capital of the country is not
yet fufficient for fuch undertakings, or a company will
be formed to carry them on, without the neeeffity of any
exclufive privilege. It may be obferved,.that fuch com¬
panies, from the wafte and negligence attending a large
concern, managed often by perfons who have no deep
intereft in it, and not ftimulated by the dread of com¬
petitors, prove generally as ruinous to thole concerned
in it, as to the public. Alrooft all the exelufive com¬
panies, eftablilhed in this and the neighbouring coon-,
tries, have ended in bankruptcy.
Sect. VI. Of Colonial Policy*
As countries inereafe in populoufnefs, and as cultiva¬
tion is carried to a greater extent, the means of fubfift-
ence become continually more and more difficult. The
evil moft felt is a fearcity of land, of that grand fouroe
from, which all revenue muft originally flow. But while
there are other countries comparatively unimproved, an
obvious remedy prefents itfeif. A certain portion of the
inhabitants of the cultivated country removes into that
which is ftill uncultivated, where they find land cheap,
and the means of fubfiftence eafy. Of all focieties, thefe
generally make the moft rapid ftrides towards improve¬
ment. To the abundance and cheapnefs of land, which
is peculiar to uncultivated countries, they join the arts
and induftrious habits of cultivated fociety. They are
thus enabled to make a much more rapid progrefs than
either. All the Grecian colonies, in Afia Minor, Italy,
and
120
Mercantile and Sicily, enjoyed an unexampled degree of profperity.
, | The North American colonies doubled their numbers
T every twenty years ; and in South America, notwith-
flanding the injudicious reftraints with which its com-
ilierce was fettered, the increafe has not been much lefs
confiderable.
In fpite of the temptation thus held out to colonize,
men are in general not eafily induced to leave their na¬
tive country, till they are driven by fome compulfory
motive. In the ancient republics, colonies were formed
by men who had been driven from their homes by civil
war and faction. The North American Hates were peo¬
pled by refugees, criminals, and other tefufe of the mo¬
ther country. The cafe was fomewhat different in the
fouthern part of the continent, where a falfe but glit¬
tering lure was thrown out by the immenfe mines of
gold and filver which it contained.
In purfuance of the monopolizing and trafficking
fpirit of modern Europe, each country has referved to
itfelf the exclufive trade of its colonies. This reftridlion
evidently tends to cramp the improvement of the latter,
and to divert the trade of the former into a lefs natural
and advantageous channel. To Britain, and to the Britiffi
colonies, however, the reftriftion has been little injuri¬
ous. The former was in a Hate to carry on, and to
need, the whole of this commerce *, while the latter,
from their infant ftate, could confine themfelves with
much more advantage to agriculture. The French co¬
lonies have probably fuffered fomething from the reftric-
tion } but to the Spanilh and Portuguefe it has been
very ruinous, as their mother countries were wholly un¬
fit for carrying on fo extenfive a commerce *.
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
* Smith,
book iv.
ch. viii.
Brougham
on Colonial
Policy.
Sect. VIII. Of the Economical Syjlemi
We have already noticed, in our hiftorical introduc¬
tion, the circumftances in which, and the perfons from
whom, this fyftem originated. According to it, agri¬
culture is the only real fource of wealth, and the per-
Xons employed in it are alone to be honoured with the
appellation of productive labourers. The capital fpent
by the landlord in improvements, and that employed
by the farmer in cultivation, are in like manner repre-
fented as the only capitals which are produftive of
wealth. In fupport of this pofition they argue, that ma¬
nufactures merely repay what has been fpent upon them j
the expence of materials, and the fubfiftence of the la¬
bourers. The only part which is gain to the nation is
the profit of the manufacturer, and the portion of their
wages (probably a very fmall portion), which the la¬
bourers fave, and convert into capital. It does not fol¬
low, however, that traders and manufacturers, though
under this fyftem they receive the name of unproductive
labourers, are ufelefs to the fociety. They are valuable
fervants to the proprietors and cultivators of lands. They
fave them the trouble of performing a variety of opera-
Condorcet's^™?,, which would diftraCt their attention, and which
Life of they could not do equally well. By giving a greater
Turgot; quantity of manufactured commodities in exchange for
^Britain in Pro^uce °f kind, they raife the value of that pro-
dependent duce. Still, however, they aCt altogether a fubordinate
of Com* part to the agricultural portion of the community, by
merc^ whom they are fed and fupportedf.
^ipwer^ S ^ very little confideration will Ihew us the fallacy of
f Smith,
book iii.
ch. 9.
Cliap. V.
this fyftem. The wealth of a nation, as We obferved Economical
above, confifts in the total amount of external conveni- , sykern-
ences and comforts which are produced and enjoyed in
it. Now every commodity, with every increafe in its
value, which is produced by manufactures and com¬
merce, is fo much added to national convenience and
comfort, that is, to national wealth. It is of no confe-
quence, that, while the labourer is producing it, he is al-
fo confuming a certain portion of corn and other necef-
faries of life. Thefe were produced for the purpofe of
being confirmed, and if they have perilhed, they have
not done fo without having performed their office, with¬
out having miniftered to the benefit of the fociety, and
enlarged the amount of its comforts. The whole, there¬
fore, of what the manufacturer produces in any given
time, is clear gain to the public. To be convinced of
this, we have only to fuppofe, that in this time, he had
confirmed the fame quantity of goods, without working
at all.
We admit indeed, and have already obferved, that
agriculture is more productive than any other fpecies of
induftry, and alone, befides paying the labour and capital
employed in it, affords a fitrplus as rent to the landlord.
It does not follow, however, becaufe the one employ¬
ment is more productive, that the other is not produc¬
tive at all. Befides manufactures, over and above the
labour and circulating capital employed in them, pay
often a very large fixed capital. Now land, we con¬
ceive, is merely to be confidered as a great fixed capital
provided by nature, and rent as a confideration given
for the ufe of that fixed capital.
The Economifts conceive the rent of land to be the
fund on which all taxes muft ultimately fall. They
therefore recommend a land-tax to be fubftituted inftead
of all others. The propriety of this fyftem will come t«
be confidered in the courfe of the following chapter.
Chap. V. Of Public Revenue.
As the whole fociety derives from government their
proteftion againft evils internal and external, the regu¬
lar adminiftration of juftice, and a variety of other be¬
nefits, without which they could not fubfift, it is per-
feftly equitable that each, in proportion to his means,
ftiould contribute to the extent which is neceffary for
fulfilling thefe different objeCts. Regular government
is even indifpenfable to the production of public wealth,
as it alone affords that fecurity of property which is the
life of induftry. In this view, the officers of govern¬
ment cannot, even upon Smith’s principle, be confider¬
ed as unproductive labourers. They might more pro¬
perly be confidered as a part of the fixed capital of the
fociety.
SECT. I. Of 1'axes in general.
In the compofition of taxes there are four circum¬
ftances, which ought, as far as poflible, to be conftantly
kept in view, and the obfervance of which forms the
criterion of the propriety or impropriety of each parti¬
cular tax.
I. They ought to fall as equally as poflible on every
member of the fociety, in proportion to his means of con¬
tribution. As all derive equal benefits from the efta-.
bliffiment
hap. V. POLITICAL ECONOMY.
<>f Public blifhment of regular government, all ought to contribute
ievenue. equaby fov Its fupport. The rich, however, ought to
contribute not only more, but in a greater proportion,
than the poor. As by far the greater part of their ex¬
penditure is on luxuries, they can retrench a part of it
much better than thofe who, to pay the tax, muft de¬
prive themfelves of the neceffaries or firfl comforts of
life-.
2. The fum paid by each perfon ought ^to be fixed,
and not left to the arbitrary appointment of the collect¬
ing officers. In this laft cafe, the fecurity of property
is in a great meafure done away, and room is left for the
molt grievous oppreffion. This is a {fill greater evil than
inequality.
q. A tax ought to be payable at the time when a
man can belt afford it.
4. In proportion to what it brings into the treafury,
it ought to take as little as poffible from the people j
that is, the expence of collection ought to be as mode¬
rate as poffible. There ought alfo to be care taken to
avoid trouble and inconvenience to the people, in the
way of domiciliary vifits, fines, &c.
Some perfons have fancied, that taxes were beneficial.
They allege, that the merchant derives a profit, not
only for his advance upon the article, but alfo for his
advance upon the tax. In this way, doubtlefs, he is no
Infer : but neither is he a gainer j for in confequence of
the increafed price, the public muff retrench in their ufe
of the article, and confequently the extent of his deal¬
ings in it be diminilhed. Even fliould they not retrench
in this, they muft in fome other article, which will fall
heavy on fome other clafs of merchants. But it is the
intereft, not of the merchant, but of theconfumer, which
ought to be the grand objeCt in political economy •, and
this intereft infallibly fuffers. The confirmers of the
article taxed muft inevitably have their comforts, that
is, their wealth, abridged.
We admit, indeed, that taxes, where they are not fo
heavy as to intrench on the capital of the country, do
not effentially encroach on its wealth. They merely
transfer income out of the pockets of one clafs of men
into thofe of another. The money which a man of for¬
tune would fpend in maintaining menial fervants and
other inftruments of. luxury, when placed in the hands
of government, is employed in maintaining foldiers and
failors. The amount of national income is not diminifh-
ed. They have the difadvantage, however, that the
money is taken out of the hands of thofe by whom it
was earned, and put into the hands of thofe who contri¬
buted nothing to its produdion. If taxes come to fall
upon capital, or to diminifh its accumulation, they are
then ruinous.
Sect. II. Taxes upon Rent.
The rent of land has always been confidered as a pro¬
per objeft of taxation. In moft of the eaftern empires,
the whole land belongs to the fovereign, who draws the
* rent ever7 farm throughout his dominions*. In
■A\ticMo-moft. of the European kingdoms, a certain portion of
M'rhics. land belongs to the fovereign, under the name of crown
lands. Thefe, however, are feldom managed in that
economical manner, which would be neceffary to render
them productive. The only lands which a government
Vol. XVII. Part I.
ought to poffefs, are lands for the purpofe of pleafure (ft fAili •
and magnificence. , Revenue.
The rent of land is a very proper fubiedl of taxation.
It comes to the poffeffors without care or trouble, and
it depends, more than any other fource of income, on
the protection of government. The chief difficulty a-
rifes from its being fo variable. Thus the Englifh land-
tax was impofed in the reign of King William. Since
that time, the value of all the lands in England has
rifen, but that of fome much more than others j fo that
the tax, even had it been equal at. firft, muff now have,
become very unequal. The only remedies are by mak¬
ing a furvey at certain intervals, or by keeping a regif-
ter of leafes. To this it is objeCled, that it would dif-
courage the landlord from laying out money on improve¬
ments ; but the objection might be obviated by making •
liberal deductions on that account.
The rent of houfes is of a very different nature from
the rent of land. It is a commodity produced by art j
and as the builder muft have his profit, the rent will be.
raifed in confequence of the tax. The rife, however,
does not take place immediately. Houfes are fo durable
an article, that for fome time there will be no diminu¬
tion of the fupply ; the rent will continue the fame j
and the lofs will fall on the proprietor. As a certain
number of houfes, however, fall to ruin, undertakers will
not build new ones without adequate profits ; and the
rents ■will rife to their proper level. It is lingular that
this Ihould have been overlooked by Smith -f. f Bookv,
Taxes are fometimes impofed, not on the rent, but onch. ii.
the produce of land. Such is that levied for the fup¬
port of the church, both in England and Ireland Such
taxes are pernicious. They difeourage induftry. The
farmer feels that the more he raifes, the more will be
taken from him. It would be of great advantage, there¬
fore, to the country, if tithes were commuted for a fix¬
ed annual fum. It would then completely be the inte¬
reft of the cultivator to raife as much produce as pof¬
fible. The difficulty, no doubt, lies in making fuch an
arrangement as would enable the clergy to benefit by
the improvement of agriculture 5 but expedients might
doubtlefs be found out, fimilar to thofe which were pro-
pofed above, in the cafe of land-tax.
The economifts, as above obferved, contend that all
taxes fall finally on the rent of land ; and therefore re¬
commend that they fhould be laid direftly upon that
fubjedl. The only argument which they allege in fup¬
port of this opinion is, that taxes cannot fall either upon
the profit of flock, or the rvages of labour. Now we
ffiall, in treating of thefe fubjefts, endeavour to prove,
that taxes may moft readily fall upon both.
Sect. III. Of Taxes on the Proft of Stock.
What are ufually called the profits of ftock, may be
divided into three parts. The firft is equal to the mar¬
ket rate of intereft, and conftitutes what any one is
willing to give for the mere ufe of the ftock ; the fe-
cond is a compenfation for the rifk incurred ; the third
is a compenfation for the' trouble of carrying on the bu-
finefs. Of thefe, the laft appears to us to belong more
properly to the wages of labour, and will be confidered
under that head. The fecond evidently is not taxable,
becaufe a ttian would rather not employ his ftock at all,
Q. than
I 2 2
Of Public than not receive a full compenfation for the rilk he runs
Revenue. jn f0 But the firft (which perhaps ought alone
' to be confidered, ftri£tly fpeaking, as the profits of flock),
is, to almoft its whole extent, completely taxable. Al¬
though, out of five per cent, government fliould take
four^ it would ftill remain the intereft of the capitalifl,
to lend, or to employ his flock, rather than lofe the re¬
maining one. The profits of flock, however, are a lefs
proper fubje£l of taxation, than the rent of land. Ihey
are not fo eafily afcertained \ the capital from which
they are derived has been accumulated by induftry and
frugality 5 and it is the intereft of the public to encou¬
rage this accumulation. There would be a danger of
driving the capitalifts into other countries where they
would he liable to no fuch impofition, to the great de¬
triment of the country which they left.
A tax is fometimes impofed upon the profit of parti¬
cular employments. Such a tax can never fall finally
upon thefe profits. The perfons engaged in this em¬
ployment muft have the ufual profits for their flock,
otherwife they will carry it into fome other. Where
thefe taxes, however, are unequal, they may favour cer¬
tain claffes of traders. Thus all licences, being the
fame whether the trader deals to a greater or lefs ex¬
tent, fall heavier on the fmall than on the great
dealer.
Taxes on the transference of property, ftamp duties,
duties of regiftration, &c. have bee» carried to a con-
fiderable extent in modern financial fyftems. 1 he faci¬
lity of raifing a revenue by this method, has encouraged
its adoption. Such taxes are unequal; for the frequen¬
cy of transference has no connexion with the value of
property. We may conceive an eftate coming fo often
to market, that thefe duties may abforb the whole of it;
while another of the fame value, from remaining long in
the fame hand, may pay nothing whatever. Thefe
taxes, too, fall chiefly upon the national capital, the
fund by which its induftry is fupported. In many cafes,
they may prove a bar to the frequency and facility of
mercantile exchange. Upon the whole, therefore, it is
to be regretted, that they ftrould prevail to fo great an
extent.
Sect. IV. Taxes on the Wages of Labour.
Dr Smith is of opinion, that no tax can fall upon the
wages of labour; that wages, in confequence of fuch
taxes, muft immediately rife; and that the only effect
will be a rife in the price of every fpecies of produce.
But how this effeft can follow, we confefs wTe do not
fee A tax on the wages of labour has no tendency to
increafe the funds for the maintenance of labour; fo far
as it has any effe£l, it tends to diminifh them. The
fop ply and the demand will ftill remain the fame. The
only wray in which fuch taxes can raife the price of la¬
bour, is by diminifhing the fupply of it, that is, the po¬
pulation ; which, in procefs of time, they are very likely
to do. The fame funds being then diftributed among a
fmaller number, the wages of labourers Avill be higher ;
after paying the tax, they will ftill fubfift as well as for¬
merly ; but ftill a portion will remain to go into the
p ckets of government. It is to be fully admitted,
however, that fuch taxes are oppreflive, and by all
means to be avoided. When they dimini ft), too, the
X
Chap. V,
population and raife wages, they produce all the bad Of Public
effects which Smith imputes to them, in raifing the price 11>,evenue.
of every manufactured commodity. ' *
Sect. V. Of Capitation Taxes.
The taxes already noticed, are deftined to fall on
fome particular fource of revenue; this, and the reft of
which we are now to treat, fall indifferently on all.
Capitation taxes are obvioufly unequal. The fame
fum is paid by the richeft and the pooreft. They muft
fall chiefly, too, on the labouring claffes; and what
may be moft oppreflive to them will be fcarcely felt by
the more opulent. They are not arbitrary, however ;
they are eafily levied ; and in abfolute governments,
where the comfort of the people is little confidered,
they are pretty frequent. A capitation on flaves muft
be paid by the mafters, and forms a tax on his farming
or manufa&uring flock.
Sect. VI. Of Income Tax.
A well regulated income tax is, in many refpe£ls, the
moft equal which can be impofed. It falls upon every
one according to his ability, and it affords no one an
opportunity of exempting himfelf from bearing a {hare
in the public burdens. The expence of colle&iort is
fmall, and it takes as little as poflible out of the pockets
of the people, in proportion to what it places in thofe
of the government. At the fame time, it is liable to
ferious obje£!ions. It demands a difclofure of private
circumftances, which muft often be a hardftfip. It
affords confiderable room for evafion. The payment
of a large fum at once is felt much more grievoufty than
the fame would be, if paid gradually and infenfibly, by
taxes on commodities. Thefe caufes have hitherto pre¬
vented its adoption, unlefsin a few rare inftances, where
reliance, it was fuppofed, could be placed on the good
faith of the contributors. This feems to have happened
only in fome fmall republics, where the connexion be¬
tween public and private intereft was very evident. By
this means, however, under the prefent exigency, a very
large fum is now railed in this country, more eafily
perhaps than it could be raifed by any other method.
To render it an equal tax, however, fome further mo¬
dification would ftill be neceffary. One broad diftinc-
tion is that of income which perifhes with its owner,
and income arifing from land or capital. The laft is
evidently of confiderably greater value, yet, under the
prefent fyftem, it is taxed equally. Land, indeed, pays
the land tax. We obferved above, that the larger a
man’s income, the greater proportion of it can he afford
to pay, fince he fpends the more on fuperfluities. In
regard to the lower ranks, this is fufficiently provided
for by the prefent income tax ; but by levying 1 o per
cent, on all who have 150I. a-year and upwards, it falls
heavy on the middling ranks.
SECT. VII. Of Taxes on Confumable Commodities.
Of all taxes thefe are the leaft felt. Being dire£lly
paid by the merchant, they are felt by the confumers
only
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
i hap. V. POLITICAL
Public only in the increafed price of the goods. They are thus
muie. paj£j gradually and piecemeal, and every one has the
" power of paying or not as he choofes. Thefe advan¬
tages, efpecially in countries where the comfort of the
fubjeft is much attended to, lead to the very extenfive
adoption of fuch taxes. They are attended, however,
with very ferious drawbacks. No taxes take fo much
out of the pocket of individuals, in proportion to what
they put into that of government. The tax being ad¬
vanced by the merchant, he expedls not only to have it
repaid to him in the price of his goods, but to have it re¬
paid with a profit. The commodity will therefore be raif-
ed, not merely by the amount of the tax, but by fome-
what more than that amount. Thefe taxes alfo require
an holt of colle&ing officers, whofe falaries confiderably
diminiffi their amount. The vifits which thefe officers
mud be allowed to make into the warehoufe,. workfhop,
and even private houfe of the merchant and manufac¬
turer, form alfo a very ferious grievance.
Such taxes may be either on neceffaries or luxuries.
The former are avoided as much as poffible, by all wife
legiflators, as oppreffive, falling chiefiy on the poor, and
having at lead an ultimate tendency to raife the wages
of labour. In Great Britain, the only taxes on necef¬
faries are thofe on fait, foap, leather, and candles.
It is of the utmod importance that thefe duties ffiould
be levied in fuch a manner as not to impede the free
transference of commodities from one place to another.
In France, before the Revolution, and in other Euro¬
pean countries, duties were to be paid almod condantly
in paffing from one province to another. The alcavala
of Spain, the mod ruinous of all taxes, levied ten,
though afterwards only fix per cent, every time a com¬
modity was fold 5 which amounted almod to an abdi¬
lute prohibition of all trade.
Sect. VIII. Of 'Public Debts.
Governments are feldom economical j and befides the
large expence which is regularly incurred in fupporting
their edabliffiment, they are liable to great occafional
demands, which their ordinary revenue is quite unable
to anfwer. Of thefe demands the mod frequent and
preffing is war, whether offenfive or defenfive j nor is
there any caufe which fo frequently deranges the finan¬
ces of a nation.
In rude times, when no great capitals are accumulat-
ECONOMY. 12 j
ed, and when, from the unfettled date of things, thofe Of Public
who have, would be unwilling to lend them, the only 11,1 vcr-uc- ^
refource is in amaffing a treafure. This was the policy *
of the fovereigns and great barons in the middle ages ;
and it Hill is that of mod of the Afiatic princes. In a
commercial date of fociety, however, fovereigns find
ample means and temptation to fpend the whole of
their ordinary revenue in the luxuries which abound j
while, at the fame time, the great accumulation of capital
enables the merchants eafily to advance very large fums
to government. In this tranfa£Hon, they of courfe re¬
ceive advantageous terms, and by felling their ffiare of
the public debt (thus converting it into a fpecies of
commodity, called Jloch), they are enabled to replace
their capitals, and carry on their bufinefs as before.
Loans made by the government have this difadvan-
tage, that whereas taxes are drawn from the income of
the nation, thefe are drawn from its capital j from the
fund by which its indudry is fupported. They have
alfo the difadvantage, that from the facility with which
money may be borrowed, they are apt to increafe to an
enormous and ruinous amount. To the credit of a pri¬
vate perfon, there are limits in the extent of his for¬
tune j but thefe limits do not exid in the cafe of a go¬
vernment, which polfeffes an unlimited, or at lead inde¬
finite, power of augmenting its means. The intered of
the prefent funded debt of Great Britain would be
nearly fufficient for carrying on the mod expenfive war.
In fuch a cafe the only remedy is by a finking fund. A
certain annual fum is appropriated to the purpofe of pay¬
ing off the national debt and the intered which confe-
quently falls in, is added to the original fum, which
thus accumulating at compound intered, will increafe,
after a certain period, with immenfe rapidity. Before
the time of Mr Pitt, there was always, during peace,
fomething in the ffiape of a finking fund in Great Bri¬
tain. It was frequently devoted, however, to other
purpofes, and never paid off any confiderable portion of
the debt of the preceding war. He was the fird who
deadily fet afide, in peace and war, a million for this
purpofe, and allowed it to accumulate at compound in¬
tered. Whenever a new loan was raifed, he laid on
one per cent, as a finking fund. In confequence of a
deady perfeverance in this fydem, there is now a fair
profpedt of the country being gradually relieved from
the burden which preffed upon it.
| ’olitics,
i Polity.
POL
POLITICS, the fird part of economy or ethics, con¬
fiding in the well governing and regulating the affairs
1 of a date for the maintenance of the public fafety, order,
tranquillity, and morals.
Lord Bacon divides politics into three parts, viz. the
■prefervation of the date, its happinefs and fiourijhing, and
its enlargement. Of the fird two he informs us, various
authors have treated, but the lad has never been hand¬
led j and he has given a fpecimen of an effay to fupply
the want.
POLITY, or Policy, denotes the peculiar form and
•vernment.
POL
conditution of the government of any date or nation ; Polity,
or the laws, orders, and regulations, relating thereto *. e——y—_
——Polity differs only from politics, as the theory from * See Go-
the practice of any art.
Of the nature of our focial duties, both private and
political, we have already fpoken at fome length (fee
MORAL Philofophy, Part II. chap. iii. and particularly
fe6t. vii.) j and we diall have occafion to take a view of
the origin and nature of the feveral political edablifii-
ments of Europe, &c. hereafter. (See Civil SOCIETT).
Wre diall only further remark in this place upon the ne-
Q, 2 ceffity
Polity
Pollen
P O L [ i
ccffity of always joining politics and morality together.
This view of the iubje£t is indeed antiquated and negle£t-
ed but the connexion has always been externally re-
fpected, even by thofe who have feparated them the moil
widely. Politics and morality, far from {landing in oppo-
fition to each other, have the mod intimate connexion,
and exhibit the relation which the part bears to the
whole ; that is to fay, that politics are only a part or a
branch of morality. No truth can be more evident than
this •, for as morality is the guide of human life, the
principle of order, and the univerfal fource of real im¬
provement and genuine happinefs to all mankind, every
thing relative to the direction of individuals, or the go¬
vernment of nations, mud be comprehended within its
fphere, and mud be fubfervient to its laws. All the
jchemes and projedls of pretended political wifdom, that
deviate from or violate the rules of this mader-fcience,
turn out in the iffue often to the detriment of their con¬
trivers, always to that of the nation ; and it is a palp¬
able and abfurd error to think of advancing the happi¬
nefs of one country at the ex pence of the general good
of mankind. The experience of ages, and the hidory
of the world, confirm thefe affertions ; from which, and
from daily obfervation, we obtain a convincing proof of
the wifdom of the good old maxim, both in its applica¬
tion to individuals and to nations, that “ honedy is the
bed policy.” See Baron Dahlberg’s Conderations on
the Connexion between Morality and Politics, read by
himfelf to the Academy of Sciences at Erfurt.
POLL, a word ufed in ancient writings for the head l
hence to poll, is either to vote, or to enter down the
names of thofe perfons who give their votes at an elec¬
tion.
Poll Evil, a troublefome ulcer on the back of the
horfe’s neck, ufually the confequence of external injury.
See Farriery, N° 395.
Poll-Money, or Capitation, a tax impofed by autho¬
rity of parliament on the perfon or head/, either on all
indifferently, or according to feme known mark or di-
dimdion, as quality, calling, &c.
Thus, by the datute 18 Car. II. every fubjeft in the
kingdom was affeffed by the head, or poll, according to
his degree •, every duke icol. marquis Sol. baronet 30I.
knight 2o\. efquire 10I. &c. and every Angle private
perfon 12d.
This was no new tax, as appears by former a£is of
parliament.
POLL ACHIUS, or Pollack. See Gadus, Ich¬
thyology Index.
POLLARD, or Crocard, the name of a fort of
bafe money current in Ireland in the time of Edward I.
See SitJion's Hijlory of lrijh Coins, p. 15.
POLLARDS, a kind of coarfe flour. When wheat
is ground to meal, and divided into three kinds, accord¬
ing to the degree of finenefs, the third or coarfed kind
comes under the denomination of pollards.
POLLEN, the fecundating or fertilizing dud con¬
tained within the antherae or tops of the damina, and
difperfed upon the female organ when ripe fur the pur-
pofes of impregnation. See Botany,
This dud, correfponding to the feminal fluid in ani¬
mals, is commonly of a yellow colour •, and is very con-
fpicuous in the fummits of fome flowers, as the tulip and
lily. Its particles are very minute, and of extreme hard-
5
24 "] P O L
nefs. Examined by the microfcope, they are generally
found to affume fome determinate form, which often pre¬
dominates, not only through all the fpecies of a partieu-
lar genus, but alfo through the genera of a natural fami¬
ly or order. The powder in quedion being triturated,
and otherwife prepared in the flomach of bees, by whom
great quantities are colle61ed in the hairy bruflies with
which their legs are covered, is fuppofed by fome authors
to produce the fubllance known by the name of wax £
a fpecies of vegetable oil, rendered concrete by the pre¬
fence of an acid, which muft.be removed before the
fubftance can be rendered fluid.
POLLENTI A, a town or colony of Roman citizens
in the Balearis Major. It is now faid to be Alcudia,
fituated on the north-eaft fide of the ifland Majorca.
There was another Pollentia of the Picenum, likewife a
colony. It is thought to be either the fame with or
near to the Urbs Salvia, but is now extindl. There was
a third of Liguria, fituated at the confluence of the Stura
and Tanarus. Suetonius calls it a municipium, and the
people Polentina Plebs. It was famous for its abundance
of black fleeces; but was afterwards, under Arcadius,
ftained with a defeat rather of the Romans under Stili-
co than of the Goths under Alarieus, though palliated
by Claudian the poet; after which Rome was taken and
fet on fire. It is now called Solenza, a fmall town,of
Piedmont, not far from Afti.
POLLEX, in Anatomy, denotes either the thumb or
great toe, according as manus or pedis is added to it.
POLLICHIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe that are doubtful. See Botany Index.
POLLICLS PRESSIO, and Pollicis versio, were
ufed at the combats of gladiators as fignals of life or
death to the vanquiflied combatant; or to the vi<51or to
fpare or take the life of his antagonift. The pollicis
prejjio, by which the people granted life to the proftrate
gladiator, was no more than a clenching of the fingers
of both hands together, and fo holding the two thumbs
upright clofe together. The pollicis verjio, which au-
thorifed the vi£lor to kill the o^her as a coward, -was the
bending back of the thumbs. Such is Dacier’s opinion ;
but others fay the pollicis prejjio was when the people
held up one hand with the thumb bent, and the pollicis
verjio when they fhowed the hand with the thumb rail¬
ed. Authors, however, are not perfe£lly agreed, though
the phrafes pollicem premere, and pollicem vertere, fre-
cjuently occur in the Latin claflics as indications of the
people’s will that a gladiator (hould live or die.
POLLIO, Caius Asinius, a celebrated Latin poet
and orator, was of confular digpity, and compofed fome
tragedies which were efteemed, but are now loft. He
was the firft who opened at Rome a library for the ufe
of the public. He was the friend of Mark Antony ;
which prevented his complying with the folicitations of
Auguftus, who preffed him to embrace his party. At
length Auguftus having wrote fome verfes againft Pol-
lio, he was urged to anfwer them : on which he faid,,
“ I fhall take care of writing againft a man who has the
power of profcribing us.” He is praifed by Virgil and
Horace, whofe patron he was.
There Avas another Pollio, a friend of Auguftus, who
ufed to feed his fifties with human flefti. This cruelty
Avas difcovered Avhen one of his fervants broke a glafs in
the
bofltn'
II
Pollio.
Pollio
II
Pollux.
f
POL [ 125 ] POL
the prefence of Auguftus, who had been invited to a
feaft. The maftei- ordered the fervant to be feized, but
he threw himfelf at the feet of the emperor, and begged
him to interfere, and not to fuffer him to be devoured
by fifties. Upon this the caufes of his apprehenfxon
were examined and Auguftus, aftoniftied at the barba¬
rity of his favourite, caui'ed the fervant to be difmifled,
all the fifti ponds to be filled up, and the eryftal glaffes
of Pollio to be broken to pieces.
POLLUTION, in general fignifies defilement, or
the rendering a perfon or place unclean or unholy. For
theTewifti pollutions, fee the article Impurity.
The Romanifts hold a church to be polluted by the
effufion of blood or of feed therein : ai*l that it muft be
confecrated anew. And the Indians are fo fuperftitious
on this head, that they break all the veffels which thofe
of another religion have drank out of, or even only
touched ; and drain all the water out of a pond in which
a ftranger has bathed.
Pollution, in Medicine, a difeafe which confifts in
an involuntary emiflion of the feed in time of fleep.
This, in different perfons, is very different in degree j
fome^being affected with it only once in a week, a fort¬
night, three weeks, or a month, and others being fubjecl
to it almoft every night. The perfons molt fubjeft to
it, are young men of a fanguineous temperament, who
feed high and lead a fedentary life. When this hap¬
pens to a perfon but once in a fortnight or a month, it
is of no great confequence ; but when it happens almoft;
every night, it greatly injures the health ; the » itient
looks pale and fickly j in fome the eyes become weak
and inflamed, are fometimes affedted with violent de¬
fluxions, and are ufually at laft encircled with a livid
appearance of the fkin. This diftemper is to be cured
rather by a change of life than by medicines. When
it has taken its rife from a high diet and a fedentary
life, a coavfer food and the ufe of exercife will generally
cure it. Perfons fubjedt to this difeafe ftiould never take
any ftimulating purges, and muft avoid as much as pof-
fible all violent paflions of the mind j and though exer¬
cife is recommended in moderation, yet if this be too
violent, it Avill rather increafe the diforder than contri¬
bute to its cure.
Se/f-POLLUTION. See ONANISM.
POLLUX, Julius, a Greek writer of antiquity,
fiouriftied in the reign of the emperor Commodus, and
was born at Naucrates, a town in Egypt. He was edu¬
cated under the fophifts, and made great progrefs in
grammatical and critical learning. He taught rhetoric
at Athens, and became fo famous that he was made pre¬
ceptor of the emperor Commodus. He drew up for
his ufe, and infcribed to him, while his father Marcus
Antoninus was living, an OnomaJHcon or Greek voca¬
bulary, divided into ten books. It is extant, and con¬
tains a vaft variety of fynonymous words and phrafes,
agreeable to the copioufnefs of the Greek tongue,
ranged under the general claffes of things. It was in¬
tended to facilitate the knowledge of the Greek lan¬
guage to the young prince ; and it is ftill very ufeful to
all who have-a mind to be perfeft in it. The firft edi¬
tion of it was printed at Venice by Aldus in 1502, and a
Latin verfion was afterwards made and publiftied with
it: but there Avas no corredt and handfome edition of it
till that of Amfterdam, 1706, in folio, by Lederlinus
and Hemfterhufius. Lederlinus Avent through the firft;
feven books, corredled the text and verfion, and fub-
joining his oAvn, Avith the notes of Salmafius, If. Vof-
fius, Valelius, and of Kuhnius, whofe fcholar he had
been, and Avbom he fucceeded in the profefforftnp of
the oriental languages in the univerfity of Strafburg.
Hemfterhufius continued the fame method through the
three laft books : this learned man lias fince diftinguifli-
ed himfelf by an excellent edition of Lucian, and other
monuments of folid and profound literature.
Pollux Avrote many other things, none of which re¬
main. He lived to the age of 58. Philoftratus and
Lucian have treated him Avith much contempt and ridi¬
cule. Philqflrat. de vit. Sophift. lib. ii. and Lucian in
Rhetor urn preeceptore.
Pollux. See Castor and Pollux.
Pollux, in AJironomy, a fixed ftar of the fecond
magnitude in the conllellation Gemini, or the Tivins.
See Castor.
POLLUX and Cajlor, a fiery meteor. See CASTOR
and Pollux.
POLOCSKI, a palatinate in the duchy of Lithuania,
partly in Poland, and partly in Ruftia, and under the
government of Ruftia fince 1773; bounded on the north
by the palatinate of Weytepiki, on the fouth by the
Dwina, on the north by Mufcovy, and on the weft by
Livonia. It is a defert country, full of Avood, and had
formerly its.oAvn dukes.
Polocski, a toAvn of Lithuania, and capital of a pa¬
latinate of the fame name, with two caftles to defend it.
It Avas taken by the Mufcovites in 1563, and retaken
the lame year. It. is feated on the river DAvina, 50
miles fouth-Aveft of Weytepiki, and 80 eatl of Breflaw.
E. Long. 29. O. N. Lat. 56. 4.
POLTROON, or Poltron, a corvard or daftard,
Avanting courage to perform any thing great or noble.
The Avoi’d is borroAved, from the French, Ayho according
to Salmafius, derived it a pol/ice truncato ; becaufe arw
ciently thofe Avbo Avould avoid going to the Avars cut off
their thumb. But Menage, with more probability, de¬
rives it from the Italian poltrone and that from poltro
a “ bed becaufe timorous, pufillanimous people take
pleafure in lying a-bed. Others derive the word from
the Italian/W/ro, a “ coltj.” beeaufe of. that creature’^
readinefs to run aAvay.
POLVERINE, the calcined allies of. a.plant \ of a
fimilar nature Avith our pot-afhes or pearl-aihes, It is
brought from the Levant and Syria ; and in the glafs-
trade it is alivays to be preferred to any other allies.
The barilla, or pot-alhes of Spain, yield more pure fait
than the polverine of the Levant, but the glafs made
Avith it has always fome blue tinge : that made Avith the
polverine is perfeftly Avhite, Avhich ought alivays to be
ufed for the fineft cryftal.
POLYADELPHIA (from voXv?, many, and «^eA-
qua, brotherhood'), many brotherhoods ; the name of the
18th clafs of Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem, confifting of plants
Avith hermaphrodite floAvers, in Avhich feveral ftamina or
male organs are united by their filaments into three or
more diftimft bundles. See Classification under Bo¬
tany.
POLYiENUS, the name of many famous’men re¬
corded in ancient Avriters. Among them Avas Julius
Polyaenus, of whom we have fome Greek epigrams ex-
Pol lux
Polyaenus.
tant
POL
tant m the firft book of the Anthologia. The Polyse-
nus whom it moft concerns us to know about, is the
author of the eight books of the Stratagems of Illuftrious
Commanders in War. He was probably a Macedo¬
nian, and perhaps a foldier in the early part of his life ;
but of this there is no certainty. He was undoubtedly
a rhetorician and a pleader of caufes; and appears,
from the dedication of his work to the emperors Anto¬
ninus and Verus, to have lived towards the latter part of
the fecond century. The Stratagemata were publilhed
in Greek by Ifaac Cafaubon, with notes, in 1589,
12mo; but no good edition of them appeared till that of
Leyden, 1690, in 8vo. The title page runs thus: Fo-
tycsni Stratagemxitum libri o£7o, Jujio Vulteio interpreter
Pancratius Maafvicius recenfuit, Ifaaci Cafaubom nec nan
fuas notas adjecit.
We have in this work the various ftratagems of above
300 captains and generals of armies, chiefly Greeks and
barbarians; for the Romans feldom ufed fuch fineffes *,
and Polyaenus Tras Ihown further, that he was not well
verfed in Roman affairs. A great number of thefe ftra¬
tagems appear to us to be ridiculous or imprafticable j
and neither the generals, or even common foldiers of
our days, would be found Ample enough to be caught
by them. Few of this order are capable of reading
Polyeenus's Stratagems; and if they were, they would
reap little benefit from it. The book is ufeful to fuch
as ftudy the Greek language and antiquity 5 for many
things will be found in it, illuftrating the cuftoms and
opinions of ancient times. The fixth and feventh books
are imperfeft.
Polyaenus compofed other works befides the Stratage¬
mata. Stoboeus has produced fome paffages out of a
book De Republica Macedonian; and Suidas mentions a
piece concerning the Thebans, and three books of Ta¬
citus. , If deatli had not prevented, he would have writ¬
ten Memorabilia of the Emperors Antoninus and Verus:
for he makes a promife of this in the preface to his
lixth book of Stratagems. Cafaubon, in the dedication
of Polygenus to Morngeus, calls him an elegant, acute,
and learned writer.
POLYANDRIA (from ttoAu*, many, andoti^, a?/zcr«,
or hufband), many hufbands. The name of the 13th
clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants
with hermaphrodite flowers, which are furnifhed with
feveral ftamina, that are inferted into the cotnmon recep¬
tacle of the flower. See C/aJJif cation under Botany.
POLYANTHEA, a colleftion of common-places in
alphabetical order, for the ufe of orators, preachers, &c.
The word is formed from the Greek voXvg, much, and
enfos, flower: and has much the fame meaning with an¬
thology or florilege. The firfl: author of the polyanthea
was Dominic Nanni de Mirabellio, whofe labour has
been improved on by Barth. Amantius, and Franc. Tor-
flus *, and fince thefe, by Jof. Langius, under the title of
Polyanthea nova, 1613.
POLYANTHUS. See Primula, Botany/We#;
and for the cultivation of this early ornament of the
flower-garden, fee Gardening.
POLYBIUS, a famous Greek hiftorian, was born
at Megalopolis, a city of Arcadia, 205 years before
Chrift *, and was the fon of Lycortas, chief of the re¬
public of the Achaeans. He was trained to arms under
the celebrated Philopoemen, and is defcribedby Plutarch
^carrying the urn of that great but unfortunate general
POL
in his funeral proceflion. He arofe to conftderable ho- Polybius,
noun in his own country, but was compelled to vifit 1 oiycarp,
Rome with other principal Achaeans, who were detain¬
ed there as pledges for the fubmiflion of their ftate.
From hence he became intimate with the fecond Scipio
Africanus, and was prefent with him at the demolition
of Carthage. He faw Corinth alfo plundered by Mum-
mius, and thence palling through "the cities of Achaia,
reconciled them to Rome. He extended his travels in¬
to Egypt, France, and Spain, that he might avoid fuch
geographical errors as he has cenfured in others.
It was in Rome that he compofed his excellent hi-
ftory, for the fake of which his travels were undertaken.
This hillory was ^livided into 40 books •, but there only
remain the five firft, with extradls of fome parts of the.
others. It has had feveral editions in Greek and Latin j
and there is an Englilh tranllation by Mr Hampton. He
died at the age of 82.
POLYCARP, one of the moft ancient fathers of the
Chriftian church j was born towards the end of the reign
of Nero, probably at Smyrna; where he was educated at
the expence of Califta, a noble matron diftinguiftied by
her piety and charity. He was unqueftionably a difciple
of St John the Evangelift, and converfed familiarly with
other of the apoftles. When of a proper age, Bucolus or¬
dained him a deacon and catechift of his church j and upon
his death he fucceeded him in the bilhopric, to which he
is faid to have been confecrated by St John, who alfo di-
refled his Apocalypfe, among others, to him, under the
title (A the angel of the church of Smyrna. At length the
controverfy about the obfervation of Eafter beginning to
grow high between the eaftern and weftern churches,
he went to Rome todifcourfe with thofe who were of the
oppofite party. The fee was then poffeffed by Anicetus,
with whom he had many conferences, that were carried
on in the moft peaceable and amicable manner j and
though neither of them could bring the other to em¬
brace his opinion, they both retained their own fenti- _
ments without violating that charity which is the great
law of their religion.
Whilft at Rome he particularly oppofed the herefies
of Marcian and Valentinus. His conduft on this oc-
cafion is related by Ireneeusj who informs us, that when
Polycarp pafled Marcian in the ftreet without fpeak-
ing, Marcian faid, “ Polycarp, own us!” To which he
replied with indignation, “ I own thee to be the firft-
born of Satan.” Irenaeus adds, that when any hereti¬
cal doflrines were fpoken in his prefence, he would flop
his ears and fay, “ Good God! to what times haft thou
referved me, that I fhould hear fuch things !” and im¬
mediately left the place. He was wont to tell, that
St John, going into a bath at Ephefus, and finding Ce-
rinthus the heretic in it, immediately ftarted back with¬
out bathing, crying out, “ Let us run away, left the
bath ftiould fall upon us while Cerinthus the enemy of
truth is in it.” Polycarp governed the church of Smyr¬
na with apoftolic purity, till he fuffered martyrdom in
the 7th year of Marcus Aurelius} the manner of which
is thus related.
The perfecution waxing hot at Smyrna, and many
having fealed their faith with their blood, the general
cry was, “ Away with the impious} let Polycarp be
fought for.” Upon which he privately withdrew into a
neighbouring village, where he continued for fome time
praying night and day for the peace of the church. He
was
[ 126 1
POL
Polycarp, was thus employed, when one night he fell into a
trance, and dreamed that his pillow took fire, and was
burnt to allies •, which, when he awoke, he told his
friends was a prefage that he Ihould be burnt alive for
the caufe of Chrift. Three days afterwards, in order
to efcape the inceffant fearch for him, he retired into
another village : his enemies, however, were at hand,
who feized upon two youths (one of whom they forced
by Itripes to a confeflion), by whom they were conduc¬
ed to his lodging. He might have faved himfelf by
getting into another houfe •, but he fubmitted, faying,
“ The will of the Lord be done.” He therefore came
down from his bed-chamber, and faluting his perfecutors
with a ferene and cheerful countenance, he ordered a
table to be fet with provifions, invited them to partake
of them, and only requefted for himfelf, one hour for
prayer 5 after which he was fet upon an afs, and con¬
duced towards Smyrna. On the road he met Herod
an irenarch or juftice of the province, and his father,
who were the principal inftigators of the perfecution.
Herod took him up into his chariot, and ftrenuoufly
endeavoured to undermine his conftancy •, but having
failed in the attempt, he thruft him out of the chariot
with fo much violence and indignation that he bruifed
his thigh with the fall. When at the place of execu¬
tion, there came, as is faid, a voice from heaven, faying,
“ Polvcarp, be ftrong, and quit thyfelf like a man.”
Before the tribunal he was urged to fwear by the genius
of Csefar. “ Repent (fays the proconful), and fay with
us, take away the impious.” Whereupon the martyr
looking round at the crowd with a fevere and angry
countenance, beckoned with his hand, and looking up
to heaven, laid with a figh, in a very different tone
from what they meant, “ Take away the impious.”
At laft, confelling himfelf to be a Chriftian, the crier
thrice proclaimed his confeffion, and the people Ihouted,
“ This is the great doCor of Alia, and the father of the
Chriftians ; this is the deftroyer of our gods, that teaches
men not to do facrifice, or worlhip the deities.” 'When
the fire was prepared, Polycarp requelled not to be
nailed, as ufual, but only tied to the flake ; and after a
Ihort prayer, which he pronounced with a clear and au¬
dible voice, the executioner blew up the fire, which in-
creafing to a mighty flame, “ Behold a wonder feen
(fays my author) by us who were purpofely referved,
that we might declare it to others; the flames difpo-
fing themfelves into the refemblance of an arch, like the
fails of a Ihip fwelled with the wind, gently encircled
the body of the martyr, who flood all the while in the
midft, not like roafted flelh, but like the gold or filver
purified in the furnace, his body fending forth a de¬
lightful fragrancy, which like frankincenfe or fome
other coftly fpices, prefented itfelf to our fenfes. The
infidels, exafperated by the miracle, commanded a fpear-
man to run him through with a fword : which he had
no fooner done, but fuch a vail quantity of blood flow¬
ed from the wound as extinguilhed the fire 5 when a
POL
dove was feen to fly from the wound, which fome fup- Polycarp
pofe to have been his foul, clothed in a vifible ftiape al p 1 r t
the time of its departure (a).” The Chriftians endea- .
voured to carry off his body entire, but were not allowed
by the irenarch, who commanded it to be burnt to allies.
The bones, however, were gathered up, and decently
interred by the Chriflians.
Thus died St Polycarp, the 7th of the kalends of
May, A. C. 167. The amphitheatre on which he buf¬
fered was moftly remaining not many years ago; and
his tomb, which is in a little chapel in the fide of a
mountain, on the fouth-eaft of the city, was folemnly
vifited by the Greeks on his feftival day ; and for the
maintenance and repairing of it, travellers were wont to
throw a few afpers into an earthen pot that Hands there
for the purpofe. He wrote fome homilies and epiftles,
which are now loft, except that to the Philippians, which
is a truly pious and Chriftian piece, containing Ihort and
ufeful precepts and rules of life, which St Jerome informs
us was even in his time read in the public affemblies of
the Afiatic churches. It is Angularly ufeful in proving
the authenticity of the books of the New Teftament *, for
he has feveral paffages and expreflions from Matthew,
Luke, the Adis, St Paul’s Epiftles to the Philippians,
Ephefians, Galatians, Corinthians, Romans, Theffalo-
nians, Coloflians, ill Timothy, id Epiftle of St John,
and ill of Peter j and makes particular mention of St
Paul’s Epiftle to the Ephefians. Indeed his whole
Epiftle confifts of phrafes and fentiments taken from the
New Teftament (e).
POLYCARPON, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 22d order, Canjophyllei. See Botany In¬
dex.
POLYCHREST, in P/zarwary, fignifies a medicine
that ferves many ufes, or that cures many difeafes.
Scd POLTCHREST, a compound fait made of equal
parts of faltpetre and fulphur, deflagrated in a red-hot
crucible. See Materia Medica.
POLYCNEMUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the triandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 1 2th order, Holoraceee. See Botany Index.
POLYCRATES, -was a tyrant of Samos, famous
for the good fortune which always attended him. He
became very powerful j and got poffeflion not only of
the neighbouring iflands, but alfo of fome cities on the
coaft of Afia. He had a fleet of 100 fliips of war, and
was fo univerfally efteemed, that Amafis the king of
Egypt made a treaty of alliance with him. The Egyp¬
tian king was, however, afraid of his continued profpe-
rity, and advifed him to chequer his enjoyments, by re-
linquifliing fome of his moft favourite objedls. Poly¬
crates, in compliance, threw into the fea a beautiful feal,
the moft valuable of his jewels. The lofs of fo precious
a feal affli&ed him for fome time ; but foon after he
received as a prefent a large filh, in whofe belly it was
found. Amafis no fooner heard this, than he gave up
all
1 127 1
r (a) The miraculous part of this account is ridiculed by Dr Middleton in his Free Enquiry and Defence of it;
but fomething is offered in its favour by Mr Jortin, who obferves, “ the cireumftances are fufficient only to create
a paufe and a doubt.” Remarks on Ecc/. Hifl. vol. i.
(b) Jortin, vol. i. p. 68. who to the particulars made out by Cotelerius, has added one from Galat. iv. 26. and
another from Hebr. iv, 12, 13.
POL [ 128 ] POL
Poly crates all alliance with the tyrant of Samos, and obferved, that
! N fooner or later his good fortune would vanilli. Some
<... ‘'. time after Polycrates vifited Magnefia on the Mfeander,
where he had been invited by Orontes the governor.
Here he was fhamefully put to death, merely beeaufe'
the governor wifhed to terminate his profperity. The
daughter of Polycrates had dilTuaded her father from
going to the houfe of Orontes, on account of the bad
dreams which the had, but in vain.
POLYCROTA, in the naval architefture of the an¬
cients, is a word ufed to exprefs fuch of their galleys as
had three, four, five, or more tiers of rowers, feated at
■different heights : they were diffinguifficd by this term
from the monocrota, or thofe which had only tingle rows
of oars. The number of rows of rowers in the poly-
crote galleys has given occafion to feme to fuppofe thofe
veflels of fuch a height from the water as is fcarce cre¬
dible. Commentators are not at all agreed upon the
conftrudlion of thefe veflels.
POL YD AM AS, was a famous athlete, who imita¬
ted Hercules in whatever he did. He killed a lion with
his fill $ and it is reported he could Hop a chariot with
his hand in its moll rapid courfe. He was one day
with fome of his friends in a cave, when on a hidden a
large piece of rock came tumbling down, and while all
tied away, he attempted to receive the falling fragment
in his arms. His prodigious ftrength, however, was in-
fufficient, and he was inftantly erulhed to pieces under
the rock.
POLYDECTES, a fon of Magnes, was king of the
itland of Seripho*. He received with great kindnefs
Danae and her fon Perfeus, w ho had been expofed on
the fea by Acrifius. He took great care of the edu¬
cation of Perfeus j but becoming enamoured of Danae,
he removed her from his kingdom, apprehenfive of his
refentment. He afterwards paid his addrefles to Da¬
nae 5 and being rejected, he prepared to offer her vio¬
lence. Danae fled to the altar of Minerva for protec¬
tion ; and Diftys, the brother of Polyde&es, who had
himfelf faved him from the fea-waters, oppofed her ra-
- vither, and armed himfelf in her defence. At this cri¬
tical moment Perfeus arrived j and with Medufa’s head
he turned into ftones Polydedles, with the aflbeiates of
his guilt. The crown of Seriphos was given to Diflys,
who had fliown himfelf fo adtive in the caufe of inno¬
cence.
POLYDORE Virgil. See Virgil.
POLYDORUS, a fon of Priam by Hecuba, or, ac¬
cording to others, by Laothoe, the daughter of Altes,
king of Pedafus. Being young and inexperienced when
Troy was befieged by the Greeks, his father removed
him to the court of Polymneftor, king of Thrace, to
whofe care he entrufted the greateft part of his treafures,
till his country fhould be freed from foreign invafion.
On the death of Priam, Polymneftor made himfelf mafter
of the riches which were in his ppfleflion j and to en-
fure them the better, he murdered the young prince,
and threw his body into the fea, Where it was found
by Hecuba. According to Virgil, his body was bu¬
ried near the fliore by his affaflin ; apd there grew on
his grave a myrtle, whofe boughs dropped blood, when
/Eneas going to Italy, attempted to tear them from the
tree.
POLYGALA, Milkwort ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the diadelphia clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 33d order, Lomentacece. See Polygala
Botany Index. !l
POLT GAMIA (weyuj, many, and yetfiei, marriage'), / op gamy.
is a term exprefling an intercommunication of fexes, and " y---1-
is applied by Linmeus both to plants and flowers. A
polygamous plant is that which bears both hermaphro¬
dite flowers, and male or female, or both.
POLYGAMY, a plurality of wives or hufbands, in
the poffeflion of one man or woman at the fame time.
Polygamy is fo universally efteemed unlawful, and
even unnatural, through Europe, and in all Chriftian
countries, that we have generally reafoned upon this
conviction. Both religion and reafon appear at firft
fight at leaft to condemn it ; and with this view of the
fubject mankind in general reft fatisfied: but fome bolder
geniufes have taken the oppofite fide of the queftion j
have caft off the prejudices of education, and attempted
to fhow that polygamy is not unlawful, but that it is
juft and neeeflary, and would be a public benefit. Such
writers, to ufe the words of an intelligent critic *, “ re- * Monthly
cur to the common fubterfuge, of which every fetter
up of flrange gods, and every conscientious troubler p,
of the public peace, have artfully availed themfelves
to filence the clamour of expoftulation. ‘ Truth !
Truth !’ is their general cry : and with this hopeful
pretence, prudence and humility, and every amiable and
ufeful virtue, are left behind j while CONSCIENCE (con-
fcience !) blindly rufhes forward to oppofe order, infult
authority, and overturn the cuftoms of ages.”
But notwithftanding thefe fair pretences, it will, we
doubt not, be eafy to flhow7 that truth is not upon their
fide prudence and delicacy are certainly at open war
with them : for Dr Percival, Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvi.
part i. p. 163. has very juftly obferved, that the practice
is brutal, deftruftive to friendfliip and moral fentiment,
inconfiftent with one great end of marriage, the educa¬
tion of children, and fubverfive of the natural rights of
more than half of the fpecies. Btfides, it is injurious
to population^ and therefore can never be countenanced
or allowed in a well-regulated ftate j for though the
number of females in the world may confiderably exceed
the number of males, yet there are more men capable
of propagating their fpecies than women capable of bear¬
ing children •, and it is a well known faff, that Armenia,
in which a plurality of wives is not allowed, abounds
more with inhabitants than any other province of the
Turkifti empire.
Indeed it appears, that in fome countries where it is
allowed, the inhabitants do not take advantage of it.
“ The Europeans (fays M. Niebuhrf) are miftaken inf. Heron's
thinking the ftate of marriage fo different among the Tranf ation
Muffulmans from what it is with Chriftian nations, I nfN\e~
could not difeern any fuch difference in Arabia. The s ra‘
women of that country feem to be as free and as happy
as thofe of Europe poflibly can be. Polygamy is per¬
mitted, indeed, among Mahometans, and the delicacy
of our ladies is {hocked at this idea j but the Arabians
rarely avail J themfelves of the privilege of marrying t See tf*-
four lawful wives, and entertaining at the fame time any ^°01’
number of female {laves. None but rich voluptuaries
marry fo many wives, and their condudt is blamed by
all fober men. Men of fenfe, indeed, think this privi¬
lege rather troublefome than convenient. A hulhand
is by law obliged to treat his wives fuitably to their con¬
dition, and to difpenfe his favours among them ivith.
perfect
J
pol r i
‘Polygamy, perfect equality: but tliefe are duties not a little dif-
agreeable to moft Muflulmans; and fuch modes of luxury
are too expenfive to tbe Arabians, who are feldom in
eafy circumftanees. I muft, however, except one cafe j
for it fometimes happens that a man marries a number
of wives in the way of commercial [peculation. I know
a Mullah, in a town near the Euphrates, who had mar¬
ried four wives, and was fupported by the profits of
their labour.”
See a curious kind of polygamy under the article
Nayres. The ancient Britons, too, had a kind of
polygamy among them, 12 women being common to
12 men.
Selden has proved, in his Uxor Hebraica, that plura¬
lity of wives was allowed of, not only among the He¬
brews, but alfo among all other nations, and in all ages.
It is true, the ancient Romans were more fevere in their
morals, and never praftifed it, though it was not forbid
among them : ahd Mark Antony is mentioned as the
firft who took the liberty of having two wives.
From that time it became pretty frequent in the em¬
pire till the reigns of Theodofms, Honorius, and Arca-
dius, who.firft prohibited it by exprefs law in 393.
After this the emperor Valentinian, by an edift, per¬
mitted all the fubje&s of the empire, if they pleafed, to
marry feveral wives : nor does it appear, from the ec-
clefiaftical hiftory of thofe times, that the bifhops made
any oppofition to the introduftion of polygamy. In
effeft, there are fome even among the Chriftian cafuifts
who do not look on polygamy as in itfelf criminal. Ju-
rieu'obferves, that the prohibition of polygamy is a po-
fitive law, but from which a man may be exempted by
fovereign neceffity. Baiilet adds, that the example of
the patriarchs is a powerful argument in favour of poly¬
gamy : of thefe arguments we fhall fpeak hereafter.
It has been much difputed among the doftors of the
civil law whether polygamy be adultery. In the Ro¬
man law it is called Jluprum, and punifhed as fuch, that
is, in fome cafes, capitally. But a fmaller punifhment
is more confiftent with the Jewifh law, wherein the pro¬
hibition of adultery is perpetual, but that of polygamy
temporary only.
In Germany, Holland, and Spain, this offence is dif¬
ferently punifhed. By a conftitution of Charles V. it
was a capital crime. By the laws of ancient and modem
Sweden it is punilhed with death. In Scotland it is pu¬
nifhed as perjury.
In England it is enaftedby ftatute 1 Jac. I. cap. II.
that if any perfon, being married, do afterwards marry
■again, the former hufband or wife being alive, it is fe¬
lony, but within the benefit of clergy. The firft wife,
in this cafe, fhall not be admitted as an evidence againft
her hufband, becaufe fhe is the true wife; but the fe-
cond may, for fhe is indeed no wife at all; and fo vice
verfa of a fecend hufband. This aft makes an exception
to five cafes, in which fuch fecond marriage, though in
the three firft it is void, is however no felony. 1. Where
either party hath been continually abroad for feven years,
whether the party in England had notice of the other’s
being living or not. 2. Where either of the parties
hath been abfent from the other feven years Avithin this
kingdom, and the remaining party hath had no notice of
the other’s being alive Avithin that time. 3. Where
there is a dworce or feparation a mevja et thoro by len-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
29 ] POL
tence in the ecclefiaftical court. 4. Where the firft ^
marriage is declared abfolutely void by any fuch fentence, " '
and the parties loofed a vinculo. Or, 5. Where either
of the parties Avas under the age of conlent at the time
of the firft marriage ; for in fuch cafe the firft marriage
Avas voidable by the difagreement of either party, which
this fecond marriage very clearly amounts to. But if
at the age of confent the parties had agreed to the mar¬
riage, Avhich completes the contract, and is indeed the
real marriage, and aftenvards one of them fhould marry
again, Judge Blackftone apprehends that fuch fecond
marriage Avould be Avithin the reafon and penalties of the
aft.
Bernardus Ochinus, general of the order of Capu¬
chins, and afterwards a Proteftant, publifhed, about the
middle of the 16th century, Dialogues in favour of Po¬
lygamy, which Avere anfwered by Theodore Beza. And
about the conclufion of the laft century Ave had at Lon¬
don an artful treatife publifhed in behalf of a plurality
of wives, under the title of Po/ygawin Tnumphatrix: the
author Avhereof affumes the name of Theophilus Aletheus ;
but his true name Avas Lyferus. He Avas a native of Sa¬
xony. It has been anfwered by feveral.
A neAV argument in favour of polygamy has been
adduced by Mr Bruce, on this principle, that in fome
parts of the World the proportion of female children is
much greater than that of the males. “ From a dili¬
gent inquiry (fays he) into the fouth and fcripture part
of Mefopotamia, Armenia, and Syria, from Moulul or
Nineveh to Aleppo and Antioch, I find the proportion
to be fully two women to one man. There is indeed a
fraftion over, bnt it is not a confiderable one. From
Latikea, Laodicea ad mare, down the coaft of Syria
to Sidon, the number is nearly three, or two and threfe-
fourths, to one man. Through the Holy Land, the
country called Horan, in the ifthmus of Suez, and the
parts of the Delta unfrequented by ftrangers, it is fome-
thing lefs than three. But from Suez to the ftraits of
Babelmandel, Avhich contains the three Arabias, the
proportion is fully four Avomen to one man ; Avhich I
have reafon to believe holds as far as the line, and 30°
beyond it. The Imam of Sama Avas not an old man
Avhen I Avas in Arabia Felix in 1769; but he had 88
children then alive, of Avhom 14 only Avere fons. The
prieft of the Nile had Jo and odd children : of Avhom,
as I remember, above fifty Avere daughters.
“ It may be objefted, that Dr Arbuthnot, in quo¬
ting the bills of mortality for 20 years, gave the moft
unexceptionable grounds for his opinion ; and that my
fingle exception of what happens in a foreign country,
without further foundation, cannot be admitted as
equivalent teftimony : and -I am ready to admit this ob-
jeftion, as there are no bills of mortality in any of thefe
countries. I fhall therefore fay in Avhat manner I at¬
tained the knowledge which I have juft mentioned.
Whenever I went into a town, village, or inhabited
place, dwelt long in a mountain, or travelled journeys
Avith any fet of people, I always made it my bufinefs to
inquire how many children they had, or their fathers,
their next neighbours or acquaintance. I then afked
my landlord at Sidon, fuppofe him a weaver, how many
children he has had ? He tells me hoAv many fons and
Iioav many daughters. The next I afk is a tailor, a
fmith, &c. in fhort every man Avho is not a ftranger,
R from
POL [ 130 j POL
Polygamy, from whom I can get the proper information. I fayj
  therefore, that a medium of both fexes, arifing from
three or four hundred families, indilcriminately taken,
fhall be the proportion in which one differs from the
other; and this, I am confident, will give the refult to
be three women in 50° of the 90° under every meridian
of the globe.”
Our author corroborates this argument by fuppofing
that Mahomet perceived this difproportion, and that
upon it he founded his inftitution allowing one man to
have four wives. “ With this view he enabled, or ra¬
ther revived, the law which gave liberty to every indi¬
vidual to marry four wives, each of whom was to be
equal in rank and honour, without any preference but
what the predile&ion of the hufhand gave her.”
Having thus eftablilhed, as he fuppofes, the neceffity
of polvgamy in the Eall, Mr Bruce proceeds to confider
whether there is not fome other reafons why it fhould
not be pra&ifed in Britain farther than the mere equa¬
lity in numbers of the fexes to one another. This rea-
fon he finds in the difference between the conftitutions
of the Europeans and eaftern nations. “ Women in
England (fays he) are capable of child-bearing at 14 j
let the other term be 48, when they bear no more ;
34 years therefore an Englifh woman bears children.
At the age of 14 or 15 they are objefts cf our love j
they are endeared by bearing us children after that
time •, and none, I hope, will pretend, that at 48 and
50 an Englifhwoman is not an agreeable companion.
The Arab, on the other hand, if (lie begins to bear
children at ix, feldom or never has a child after 20.
The time, then, of her child bearing is nine years 5 and
four women, taken altogether, have then the texm of
36. So that the Englifh woman that bears children
for 34 years lias only two years lefs than the term en¬
joyed by the four wives whom Mahomet has allowed;
and if it be granted that an Englifh wife may bear at
50, the terms are equal. But there are other grievous
differences. An Arabian girl at 11 years old, by her
youth and beauty, is the objeft of man’s defire : being
an infant, however, in underftanding, fhe is not a ra¬
tional companion for him. A man marries there, fay
at 20 ; and before he is 30, his wife,, improved as a
companion, ceafes to be the objedf of his defires and a
mother of children : fo that all the beft and moft vigo¬
rous of his days are fpent with a woman he cannot
love ; and with her he would be deflined to live 40 or
without comfort to hitnielf by increaic of
family, or utility to the public. The reafons, then, a-
gainft polygamy, which fubfifl in England, do not by
any means fubfift in Arabia; and that being the cafe,
it would be unworthy of the wifdom of God, and an
imevennefs in his ways, which we (hall never fee, to
fubjeft two nations under fuch different circumftances
abfolutely to the fame obfervances.”
To all this argumentation, however, it may be re¬
plied, that whatever we may now fuppofe to be the
conftitution of nature in the warmer parts of the globe,
it certainly was different at the beginning. We cannot
indeed, afcertain the exadf pofition of the Garden of
Eden ; but it is with reafon fuppofed not to have been
far from the ancient feat of Babylon. In that country,
therefore, where Mr Bruce contends thatyiz/r women
are neceffary to the comfort of one man, it pleafed
God to grant only one to the fir ft man ; and that, too,
4
when there was more occafion for population than ever Polygamy.
there has been fince, becaufe the whole earth was to be w ^
peopled from a fingle pair. Matters were not altered
at the flood ; for Noah had but one wife. And this
is the very argument tiled by our Saviour himfelf when
fpeaking of divorce without any fufficient caufe, and
then marrying another woman, which is a fpecies of
polygamy.—Again, with refpett to the alleged multi¬
plicity of females in the eaftern part of the world, it is
by no means probable that the calculations of Mr Bruce
or any other perfon can be admitted in this cafe. Hif-
tory mention*-' no fueh thing in any nation ; and confi-
dering the vaft deftruflion among the male part of the
human fpecies more than that of the females by war and
other accidents, we may fafely fay, that if four women
children.were born for every fingie male, there would
in fuch countries be five or fix grown up women for
every man ; a proportion which we may venture to
affirm does not, nor ever did, exift anywhere in the
world. That it was not fo in former times, we can
only judge from the particular examples recorded in
hiftory, and thefe are but few. We read in the Greek
hiftory, indeed, 6f the fifty daughters of Danaus ; but
thefe were matched by as many fions of another man.
Job had only one wife, yet had fieven fons and but three
daughters. Jacob had two wives, who bore twelve
fons, and only one daughter. Abraham had only one
child by his firft wife, and that was a fon. By his fe-
cond wife Keturah he had fix fons ; and confidering
his advanced age at the time he married her, it is by
no means probable that he could have 24 daughters ;
nay, if, as Mr Bruce tells us, the women in the eaftern
countries bear children only for nine years, it was im-
poffible ftie could have fo many. Gideon, who had
many wives, had no fewer than feventy fons by thefe
wives, and even his concubine had a fon ; fo that if all
thefe women had produced according to Mr Bruce’s
proportion, of nearly three females to one male, he
mull have had almoft 284 children ; a better family
than any of Mr Bruce’s eaftern acquaintance can pro¬
bably boaft of.
With regard to the fubjeft, however, it vnuft be ob-
ferved, that the procreation-of male or female children
depends in fome degree on the health and vigour of the
parents. It is by no means improbable, therefore, that
the eaftern voluptuaries, whofe conftitutions are debili¬
tated by their exceffes, may have many more female than
male children born to them. The women themfelves,
by premature enioyment, will alfo be inclined to pro¬
duce females inftead of males; but neither of thefe cir¬
cumftances can prove this to be an original law of na¬
ture. Something like this maybe gathered from facred
hiftory. Gideon above mentioned, who was a hardy
and aftive warrior, had many fons. The fame was the
cafe with David, who led an aftive and laborious life ;
while Solomon, who was a voluptuary, had only one fon,
notwithftanding his multitude of wives.
The moft barefaced defence of polygamy that has ap¬
peared in modern times is by the Rev. Mr Madan, who
publiftied a treatife, artfully vindicating, and ftrongly
recommending it, under the title of Thelyphthora; or,
A Treatfie on Female Ruin, in its Caufies, Effects, Confie-
quences, Prevention, and Remedy, &c. Marriage, ac¬
cording to this writer, fimply and wholly confifts in the
a£t of perfonal union, or aflus coitus. Adultery, he
POL [13
‘olygamy. fays. Is never ufed In the facred writings but to denote
—■"Y 1 the defilement of a betrothed or married woman, and to
this fenfe he reftri&s the ufe of the term j fo that a mar¬
ried man, in his opinion, is no adulterer, if his commerce
with the fex be confined to fingle women, who are un¬
der no obligations by efpoufals or marriage to other
men : but, on the other hand, the woman who Ihould
dare to have even but once an intrigue with any other
man befides her hufband, (let him have as many wives
as Solomon), would, ipfo faBo, be an adtdterefs, and
ought, together with her gallant, to be punilhed with
immediate death. This, he boldly fays, is the law of
God : and on this foundation he limits the privilege of
polygamy to the man *, in fupport of which he refers to
the polygamous connexions of the patriarchs and faints
of the Old Teftament, and infers the lawfulnefs of their
praXice from the bleffings which attended it, and the
laws which were inftituted to regulate and fuperintend
it. He contends for the lawfulnefs of Chriitians having,
like the ancient Jews, more wives than one •, and labours
much to reconcile the genius of the evangelical difpen-
fation to an arrangement of this fort. With this view
he afferts, that there is not one text in the New Tefta¬
ment that even hints at the criminality of a polygamous
connexion ; and he would infer from St Paul’s direc¬
tion, that biihops and deacons Ihould have but one wife,
that it was lawful for laymen to have more. Chrift, he
fays, was not the giver of a new law ; but the bufmefs
of marriage, polygamy, &c. had been fettled before his
appearance in the world, by an authority which could
not be revoked. Befides, this writer not only thinks
polygamy lawful in a religious, but advantageous in a
civil light, and highly politic in a domeftic view.
In defence o£his notion of marriage, which, he fays,
confifts in the union of man and woman as one body, the
effeXs of which in the fight of God no outward forms
or ceremonies-of man’s invention can add to or detraX
from, he grounds his principal argument on the Hebrew
words made ufe of in Gen. ii. 24. to exprefs the primi¬
tive inftitution of marriage, viz. tnuuo ps-v rendered by
the LXX. ‘XQtxrv.eXXriiririlca yrgaj r«» yvvxtKoc etvltf, which
tranflation is adopted by the evangelift (Mat. xix. 5.)
with the omiftion only of the fuperfluous prepofition
(•nr^aj) after the verb. Our tranflation, “ ftiall cleave to
his wife,” doth not, he fays, convey the idea of the He¬
brew, which is literally, as IVJontanus renders the words,
“ (hall be joined or cemented z/z his woman, and they
lhall become (i. e. by this union) one ftefh.” But on
this criticifm it is well remarked, that both the Hebrew
and Greek terms mean Amply and literally attachment
or adherence *, and are evidently made ufe of in the fa-
ered writings to exprefs the whole fcope of conjugal fi¬
delity and duty, though he would reftrain them to the
groffer part of it.
With refpeX to the Mofaic law, for which Mr Ma-
dan is a warm advocate, it was certainly a local and
temporary inftitution, adapted to the ends for which
it was appointed, and admirably calculated, in its rela¬
tion to marriage, to maintain and perpetuate the fepa-
ration of the Jewifti people from the Gentiles. In at¬
tempting to depreciate the outward forms of marriage,
this writer would make his readers believe, that becaufe
none are explicitly deferibed, therefore none exifted ;
and confequently that they are the fuperfluous ordinances
of human policy. But it is evident, from comparing
i ] POL
Ruth iv. fo, 13. with Tobit vii. 13, 14. and from the Polygamy-
cafe of Dinah, related Gen. xxxiv. that fome forms were v
deemed effential to an honourable alliance by the patri¬
archs and faints under the Old Teftament, exclufive of
the carnal knowledge of each other’s perfons. It is al-
fo evident in the cafe of the woman of Samaria, whofe
ConneXion with a man not her hufband is mentioned in
John iv. that fomething befides cohabitation is neceifary
to conftitute marriage in the fight of God.
Having ftated his notion of marriage, he urges, in de¬
fence of polygamy, that, notwithftanding the feventh
commandment, it was allowed by God himfelf, who
made laws for the regulation of it, wrought miracles in
fupport of it by making the barren woman fruitful, and
declared the iffue legitimate to all intents and purpofes.
God’s allowance of polygamy is argued from Exod. xxi.
10. and particularly from Deut. xxi. 15. which, he fays,
amounts to a demonftration. This paffage, however, at
the utmoft, only prefuppofes that the praXice might have
exiftence among fo hard-hearted and fickle a people as
the Jews and therefore wifely provides againit fome of
its more unjuft and pernicious confequences, fuch as tend¬
ed to affeX the rights and privileges of heirlhip. Laws
enaXed to regulate it cannot be fairly urged in proof of
its lawfulnels on the author’s own bypothefis; becaufe
laws were alfo made to regulate divorce, which Mr Ma-
dan condemns as abfolutely unlawful, except in cafes of .
adultery. Befides, it is more probable that the “ ha¬
ted wife” had been difmilfed by a bill of divorcement,
than that fhe was retained by her hufband : and, more¬
over, it is not certain but that the two wives, fo far from
living with the fame Imlband at the fame time, might
be dead j for the words may be rendered thus, “ if there
Jhuuld have been to a man two wives, &c.” The words
expreffing the original inftitution of marriage, Gen. ii.
24. compared with Matt. xix. 4, 5, 8. affords infuperable
objeXions againft Mr Madan’s doXrine of polygamy.
If we appeal on this fubjeX, from the authority of
Scripture to the writings of the earlieft fathers in the
Chriftian church, there is not to be found the fainteft;
trace of any thing refembling a teftimony to the lawful¬
nefs of polygamy ; on the contrary, many pafiages oc¬
cur, in which the praXice of it is ftrongly and explicitly
condemned.
We ihall clofe this article with the words of an excel- Monthly
lent anonymous writer already quoted, and to whofe cri-
tique on Mr Madan’s work we are indebted for the p01'1 glli’
above remarks : “ In a word, when we rtfleX that the^ee alfo
primitive inftitution of marriage limited it to one man vol. Ixix.
and one woman ; that this inftitution was adhered to by
Noah and his funs, amidft the degeneracy in which they
lived, and in fpite of the examples of polygamy which
the accurfed race of Cain had introduced ; when we
confider how very few (comparatively fpeaking) the
examples.of this praXice were among the faithful; how
much it brought Its own punifhment with it; and how
dubious and equivocal thofe paffages are in which it ap¬
pears to have the fanXion of divine approbation ; when
to thefe refleXions we add another, refpeXing the limit¬
ed views and temporary nature of the more ancient dif-
penfations and inftitutions of religion—how often the
imperfeXions and ev«n vices of the patriarchs and peo¬
ple of God, in old time, are recorded, without any ex¬
prefs notification of their criminality—how much is faid
to be commanded, which our reverence for the holinefs
R 2 qf
♦
POL [ i
Polygamy, 0f God and his law will only fuffer us to fuppofe, were,
. ygars. ends, permitted—how frequently the meffengers
of God adapted themfelves to the genius of the people
to whom they were fent, and the circumftances of the
times in which they lived :—above all, when we confi-
der the purity, equity, and benevolence of the Chriftian
law 5 the explicit declarations of our Lord, and his a-
poltle St Paul, refpefting the inftitution of marriage, its
defign and limitation ;—when we refleft, too, on the
teflimony of the moft ancient fathers, who could not
poffibly be ignorant of the general and common prac¬
tice of the apoftolic church ; and, finally, when tothefe
confiderations we add thofe which are founded on juf-
tice to the female fex, and all the regulations of domeftic
economy and national policy—we muft wholly condemn
the revival of polygamy ; and thus bear our honeft tefti-
mony againft the leading defign of this dangerous and
ill-advifed publication.”
We would advife our readers to perufe the whole cri-
ticifms on Madan’s book in the Monthly Review, toge¬
ther with their account of the feveral anfwers to it. The
reverend author of the Thelyphthora has there met with
a moft able antagonift, who traces him through all his
deceitful windings, and expofes the futility and falfehood
of his arguments with fingular ability. See Monthly
Review, vol. Ixiii. p. 273, &c. ; fee alfo Paleifs Moral
. Phi/o/ophy, qto. p. 262.
POLYGARS, are natives of Hindoftan. They in¬
habit almoft impenetrable woods, and are under the ab-
folute direction of their own chieftains. In time of
peace they are profeftionally robbers, but in times of
war are the guardians of the country. The general
name of thefe people is Poh/gar. Their original infti¬
tution, for they live in diftinft clans, is not very well
underftood. It probably took its rife from the munici¬
pal regulations relative to the deftnnftion of tygers and
other ferocious beafts. Certain tradts of woodland were
indifputably allotted as rewards to thofe who fhould flay
a certain number of thofe .animals 5 and thofe lands ap¬
proximating, probably laid the foundation of the feveral
confederacies of Polygars.
“ The Pollams, or woods, from which is derived the
word Po/ygar, lying in profufion through all the fouth-
ern parts of Hindoftan, the ravages committed in the
open countries by thefe adventurous clans, are both fre¬
quent and deftrudtive. Cattle and grain are the con-
ftant booty of the Polygars. They not unfrequently
even defpoil travellers of their property, and fometimes
‘ murder, if they meet with oppofition : yet thefe very
Polygars are the hands into which the aged and infirm,
the wives, children, and treafure, of both Hindoos and
others are entrufted, when the circumjacent country un¬
fortunately happens to be the feat of war. The protec¬
tion they afford is paid for ; but the price is inconfi-
derable, when the helplefs fituation of thofe who fly to
them for ftndter is confidered, and efpecially when their
own very peculiar charafler is properly attended to.
The native governments of Hindoftan are under the ne-
ceffity of tolerating this honourable banditti. Many of
them are fo formidable as to be able to bring 15,000 and
20,000 men into the field.
“ The Hindoo code of laws, in fpeaking of robbe¬
ries, hath this remarkable claufe, ‘ The mode of ftiares
amongft robbers (hall be this:—If any thief or thieves,
by tli£ command of the magiftrate, and with his afliii-
ar
32 3 p O L
ance, have committed depredations upon, and brought Polygars
away any booty from, another province, the magiftrate II
fhall receive a ihare of one-fixth part of the whole. If Poly^otus:
they received no command or afliftance from the ma- '
giftrate, they ftiall give the magiftrate in that cafe one-
tenth part for his fhare, and of the remainder their chief
ftiall receive four ftiares 5 and whofoever among them is
perfect mafter of his occupation, ftiall receive three ftiares:
alfo, whichever of them is remarkably ftrong and ftout,
fhall receive two ftiares, and the reft (hall receive each
one fliare.’ Here, then, we fee not only a fan&ion, but
even an inducement, to fraudulent pradices.—Another
fingular inconfiftency among a people who, in many pe¬
riods of their hiftory, have been proverbial for innocency
of manners, and for uncommon honefty in their conduct
towards travellers and ftrangers.
“ At the firft fight, it would appear that the tolera¬
tion of the Polygars is owing to their great numbers, and
to the fecurity of their fortreffes, which are in general
impenetrable but to Polygars j that the government li¬
cence, in this manner given to them, to live on the fpoils
of the induftrious, might have originally occafioned the
formal divifion, and encouragement to perfeverance,
which we have juft quoted : but the caufe I ftiould ra¬
ther fuppofe to lie in the nature of certain governments,
than to have arifen from any accidental circumftance af¬
terwards : and I am the more inclined to this opinion,
from the fituation of the northern parts of Hindoftan,
which are, and always have been, uninfefted by thefe
freebooters.
“ The dominion of the Eaft was, in former days, moft
probably divided and fubdivided into all the various
branches of the feodal fyftem. The veftiges of it re¬
main to this hour : rajahs and zemindars are nothing
more than chieftains of a certain degree of confequence
in the empire. If, then, experience has ftiown, in other
parts of the world, that clans have always been obfervcd
to commit the moft pernicious a£ts of depredation and
hoftility on each other, and that the paramount lord
has feldom been able effeflually to crufh fo general and
fo complicated a fceneof mifchief—may we not reafon-
ably venture to fuppofe, that the Hindoo legiflature
paffed this ordinance for the fuppreflion of fuch provin¬
cial warfare, and for the wholefome purpofe of drawing
the people, by unalarming degrees, more immediately
under the controul of the one fovereign authority I1 The
conclufion, I own, appears to me fatisfaftory. More¬
over, Polygars cannot but be of modern growth ; for
the law relative to thefts is antecedent to the mention
of Polygars in hiftory.” Sullivan’s Philofophical Rhap-
fodies.
POLYGLOTT, among divines and critics, chiefly
denotes a Bible printed in feveral languages. See Bible
and Printing.
POLYGLOTTUS, a fpecies of bird, belonging to
the genus turdus. See Turdus, Ornithology /«-
dcx.
POLYGNOTUS, a famous painter of Thafos, flou-
riftied about 422 years before the Chriftian era, and was
the fon and fcholar of Aglaophon. He adorned one of
the public porticoes of Athens with his paintings, in
which he had reprefented the moft ftriking events of the
Trojan war. The Athenians were fo pleafed with him,
that they offered to reward his labours with whatever
he pleafed to accept j but he declined the offer 5 and the
Amphi&yonic
POL r 133 1 POL
Polygnotus Amphi£lyonic council, which was compofed of the re-
II prefentatives of the principal cities of Greece, ordered
tor"6" P'^yg00*113 fhould be maintained at the public ex-
« ^ pence wherever he went.
Of the talents of Polygnotus much honourable men¬
tion is made by many of the beft authors of antiquity,
as Ariftotle and Plutarch, Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis,
&c. Paufanias fpeaks of his pictures of the events of
the Trojan war, and, in his Tenth Book, introduces a
very long defcription of other pidlures by the fame ar-
tift, painted alfo from Homer in the temple at Delphos.
The paflage, however, gives but a confufed and imper-
fe£t idea of the painter’s performance. How much the
art is indebted to this ancient mailer, what grace and
foftnefs he gave to the human countenance, what em-
bellifhments he added to the female figure and drefs, are
much more happily defcribed by Pliny. “ Primus mu-
lieres lucida velle pinxit, capita earum mitris verficolo-
ribus operuit, plurimumque pi&urae primus contulit :
iiquidem inftituit os adaperire, dentes oltendere, vultum
ab antiquo rigore variare.”—The fame author likewife
bears honourable teftimony to the liberal fpirit of this
great artilt, who refufed any reward for his ingenious la¬
bours in the portico.—“ Porticum gratuito, cum partem
ejus Mycon mercede pingeret.” Plin. lib. xxxv. cap. 8.
POLYGON, in Geometry, a figure with many tides,
or whofe perimeter confills of more than four fides at
leaft •, fuch are the pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, &c.
POLYGONUM, Knot-grass; a genus of plants
belonging to the o&andria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 12th order, Holoracece. See
Botany Index.
POLYGRAPHY, Polygraphia , or Polygraphice,
the art of writing in various unufual manners or cyphers ;
as alfo of decyphering the fame. The word is formed
from the Greek, yro\v, mu/tum, and fcriptura,
“ writing.”
The ancients feem to have been very little acquaint¬
ed with this art; nor is there any mark of their having
gone beyond the Lacedjemonian fcytala. Trithemius,
Porta, Vigenere, and Father Niceron, have written on the
fubjeft of polygraphy or ciphers. See Cipher.
POLYHYMNIA, in the pagan mythology, one of
the nine mufes, thus named from the Greek words sraAvj,
“ much,” and pmx, “ memory.” She prefided over hi-
ftory, or rather rhetoric ; and is reprefented with a crowm
of pearls and a white robe ; her right hand in aftion as
if haranguing, and holding in her left a caduceus or
fceptre to {how her power.
POLYHEDRON, in Geometry, denotes a body or
folid comprehended under many fides or planes.
Polyhedron, in Optics, is a multiplying glafs or
lens, confifting of feveral plane furfaces difpofed into a
convex form. See Optics.
POLYMATHY, denotes the knowledge of many
arts and fciences. The word is derived from the Greek,
/toAy, multum, and pxviceva, difco.
POLYMNESTOR, was a king of the Thracian
Cherfonefus. He married Ilione, Priam’s eldeft daugh¬
ter ; and for the fake of the treafure with which he was
entrufted by Priam during the fiege of Troy, he mur¬
dered Polydorus, (fee Polydorus). The fleet in which
the vi&orious Greeks returned, together with their Tro¬
jan captives, among whom Avas Hecuba, Hopped on the
coaft of Thrace, where one of the female captives dif-
covered on the fhore the body of Polydorus, whom Po- Polymnef-
lymneflor had thrown into the fea. The dreadful in- tor
telligence Avas immediately communicated to Hecuba p ,
his mother, who recolle-Ring the frightful dreams Ihe °i^s e*
had the preceding night, did not doubt but Polymne- '■ —v—
ftor was the cruel aflaffin. RefoKed to revenge her
fon’s death, Ihe immediately called out Polymneltor, aa-
if to impart to him fomething of importance. He was
drarvn into the fnare ; and no fooner Avas he introduced
into the apartment of the Trojan princefs, than the fe¬
male captives rulhing upon him, put out his eyes with
their pins, while Hecuba murdered his trvo children,.
Avho had accompanied him. Euripides informs us, that
the Greeks condemned Polymneilor to be banilhed into
a diftant ifland for his perfidy. Hyginus, hoAvever,
relates the Avhole differently, and tells us, that Avhen
Polydorus was lent to Thrace, Ilione his filter took
him inltead of her fon Deiphilus, who was of the fame
age, being fearful of her hulhand’s cruelty. The mo¬
narch, unacquainted Avith the impofition, looked upon
Polydorus as his OAvn fon, and treated Deiphilus as
her brother. After the deftrudtion of Troy, the con¬
querors Avilhed the houfe and family of Priam to be ex¬
tirpated, a.nd therefore offered Ele&ra the daughter of
Agamemnon to Polymneftor, if he Avould deflroy Ilione
and Polydorus. Pie accepted the offer, and immedi¬
ately difpatched his OAvn fon Deiphilus, whom he took
for Polydorus. Polydorus, who paffed as the fon of
Polymneltor, confulted the oracle after the murder of
Deiphilus, and being informed that his father Avas dead,
his mother a captive in the hands of the Greeks, and
his country in ruins, he communicated the anfwer to
Ilione, Avhom he had always regarded as his mother.
She told him the meafures Ihe had purfued to faVe his
life, upon Avhich he aArenged the perfidy of Polymneltor
by putting out his eyes.
POLYMNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
POLYNICES, the fon of Oedipus by his mother
Jocalta. See Jocasta, Oedipus, and Eteocles.
POLYPE. See Polypus.
POLYPETALOUS, among botanifts, an epithet
applied to fuch floAA7ers as cenfiit of feveral petals or
flower-leaves.
POLYPHEMUS (fab. hilt.), a celebrated Cyclops,
and king of all the Cyclops in Sicily, Avas the fon of
Neptune and Thoofa the daughter of Phorcys. He is
faid to have been a monitor of great ftrength, \7ery tall,
and Avith one eye in the middle of the forehead. He
ate human flelh, and kept his flocks on the coalts of
Sicily, Avhen Ulyffes, at his return from the Trojan Avar,
Avas driven there. Ulyfles, together Avith 12 of his com¬
panions, vifited the coalt, and with them was feized by
the Cyclops, Avho confined them in his cave, and daily
devoured tAvo of them. Ulyfles Avould have lhared the
fate of the reft, had he not intoxicated the Cyclops, and
put out his eye Avith a firebrand Avhen he was afleep.
Polyphemus Avas avvakened by the fudden pain, and
flopped the entrance of his cave; but Ulyfles efcaped,
by creeping betAveen the legs of the rams of the Cyclops,
as they were led out to feed on the mountains. Poly¬
phemus became enamoured of Galataea ; but his addrefles
Avere difregarded, and the nymph Ihunned his prefence.
The Cyclops Avas ftill more earneft ; and Avhen he farv
Galataca
POL [i
Polyplic- GalaUea furrcnder herfelf to the pleafures of Acis, he
1Tj.us crufhed his rival with a piece of a broken rock.
Polypus. POLYPODIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
i——y—~ the cryptogamia elafs. See Botany Index.
POLYPKEMUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 22d order, Caryopkillei. See Botany Index.
POLYPUS, a fpecies of frefli-water infedts, be¬
longing to the genus of hydra, of the order of zoo¬
phytes, and clafs of vermes. See Helminthology.
The name of hydra was given them by Linnaeus, on
account of the property they have of reproducing them-
felves when cut in pieces, every part foon becoming a
perfedt animal. Dr Hill called them biota, on account
of the flrong principle of life with which every part of
• them is endowed.
< Thefe animals were firft difcovered b/Leeuwenhoeck,
who gave feme account of them in the Philofophical
Tranfadtions for 1703*, but their wonderful properties
■were not thoroughly known till the year 1740, when
Mr Trembley began to inveftigate them. Previous to
his difeoveries, indeed, Leibnitz and Boerhaave, by rea-
fonings a priori, had concluded that animals might be
found which would propagate by flips like plants. Their
conjedtures have been verified.
Marine POLTPUS, is different in form from the frefli-
water polype already deferibed j but is nourifhed, in-
creafes, and may be propagated, after the fame manner :
Mr Ellis having often found, in his inquiries, that fmalb
pieces cut off from the living parent, in order to view
the feveral parts more accurately, foon gave indications
that they contained not only the principles of life, but
likewife the faculty of increafing and multiplying into a
numerous iffue. It has been lately difcovered and fuf-
ficiently proved by Peyffonel, Ellis, Juflieu, Reaumur,
Donati, &c. that many of thofe fubftances which had
formerly been confidered by naturalifts as marine vege-
34 ] P o L
tables or fea-plants, are in reality animal produdlions ; Polypus
and that they are formed by polypes of different fliapes it
and fizes, for their habitation, defence, and propagation. i'olyb’nile-
To this clafs may be referred the corals, corallines, ke- ,
ratophyta, efehara, fponges, and alcyonium : nor is it
improbable, that the more compact bodies, known by
the common appellations of Jlar-Jlones, brain Jiones, pe¬
trified fungi, and the like, brought from various parts of
the Eaff and Weft Indies, are of the fame origin. To
this purpofe Mr Ellis obferves, that the ocean, in all the
warmer latitudes, near the Ihore, and wherever it is pof-
fible to obferve, abounds fo much with animal life, that
no inanimate body can long remain unoccupied by fome
fpecies. In thofe regions, Ihips bottoms are foon co¬
vered with the habitations of thoufands of animals :
rocks, ftones, and every thing lifelefs, are covered with
them inftantly ; and even the branches of living vege¬
tables that hang into the water are immediately loaded
with the fpawn of different animals, ftiell-filh of various
kinds : and Ihell-fifh themfelves, when they become im¬
potent and old, are the balls of new colonies of animals,
from whofe attacks they can no longer defend them¬
felves. See Cor allin a, Helminthology Index.
POLl'PUS of the Heart. See MEDICINE, N° 97, 98,
274, and 290.
POLYSARCIA, or Corpulency. See Medicine,
N°335-
POLYSPERMOUS (from and <mi£u.ce.,feedf
in Botany, is applied to fuch plants as have more than
four feeds fucceeding each flower, without any certain
order or number.
POLY YLL ABLE, in Grammar, a word confift-
ing of more than three fyllables : for when a word con-
fills of one, two, or three fyllables, it is called a mono-
fyllab/e, a diffyllable, and trifyllable.
POLYSYNDETON. See Oratory, N° 97.
POLYTHEISM,
Definition.
* Sketches
of the dijl.
of Man.
Source of
religious
principles
traced
THE doclrine of a plurality of gods or invifible
powers fuperior to man.
“ That there exift beings, one or many, powerful
above the human race, is a propofition (fays Lord
Kames *) univerfally admitted as true in all ages and
among all nations. I boldly call it univerfql, notwith-
ftanding what is reported of fome grofs favages •, for re¬
ports that contradift what is acknowledged to be gene¬
ral among men, require more able vouchers than a few
illiterate voyagers. Among many favage tribes, there
are no words but for objefts of external fenfe : is it fur-
priling that fuch people are incapable of exprefling their
religious perceptions, or any perception of internal fenfe?
The conviclion that men have of fuperior powers, in
every country where there are words to exprefs it, is fo
well vouched, that in fair reafoning it ought to be taken
for granted among the few tribes where language is de¬
ficient.”
Thefe are judicious obfervations, of which every man
will admit the force who has not fome favourite fyftem
to build upon the unftable foundation which his Lord-
fliip overturns. Taking it for granted, then, that our
conviclion of fuperior porvers has long been univerfal,
the important queftion is, From what caufe it proceeds ?
The fame ingenious author fliows, with great ftrength
of reafoning, that the operations of nature and the go¬
vernment of this ■world, which to us loudly proclaim the
exiftence of a Deity, are not fufficient to account for
the univerfal belief of fuperior beings among favage
tribes. He is therefore of opinion, that this univerfali-
ty of conviction can fpring only from the image of Dei¬
ty ftamped upon the mind of every human being, the
ignorant equally with the learned. “ Nothing lefs (he
fays) is fufficient : and the original poffeflion which we
have of Deity muft proceed (he thinks) from an inter¬
nal fenfe, which may be termed the fenfe of Deity.''1
We have elfewhere expreffed our opinion of that phi-
lofophy which accounts for every phenomenon in human
nature, by attributing it to a particular inftinCt (fee In¬
stinct) ; but to this inftinft or fenfe of Deity, con-
fidered as complete evidence, many objections, more
than ufually powerful, force themfelves upon us. All
nations, except the Jews, were once polytheifts and ido¬
laters. If therefore his Lordlhip’s hypothefis be ad¬
mitted.
P O L Y T
Theifm.
mitted, either the do^rine of polytheifm muft be true
theology, or this infUntt or fenfe is of fuch a nature as
to have at different periods of the world milled all man¬
kind. All favage tribes are at prefenUpolytheills and
idolaters; but among favages every inffind appears in
greater purity and vigour than among people polilhed
by arts and fciences; andinftimft never miftakes its ob¬
ject. The initindt or primary impreffion of nature,
which gives rife to felf-love, affeftion between thefexes,
love of progeny, &c. has in all nations, and in every pe¬
riod of time, a precife and determinate objeft which it
inflexibly purfues. How then comes it to pafs, that this
particular inffinft, which if real is furely of as much im¬
portance as any other, fhould have uniformly led thofe
who had no other guide to purfue improper objects,
to fall into the groffelt errors and the mold pernicious
pra&ices ? To no purpofe are we told, that the fenfe of
Deity, like the moral fenfe, makes no capital figure
among favages. There is reafon to believe that the
feeling or perception, which is called t he moral fenfe, is
not wholly inif indive; but whether it be or not, a tingle
inflance cannot be produced in which it multiplies its
obje&s, or makes even a favage exprefs gratitude to a
thoufand perfons for benefits which his prince alone had
power to confer.
For thefe, and other reafons which might eafily be
afligned, we cannot help thinking, that the firft religi¬
ous principles muft have been derived from a fource dif¬
ferent as well from internal fewfe as from the deductions
of reafon ; from a fource which the majority of man¬
kind had early forgotten : and which, when it was ba-
niftied from their minds, left nothing behind it to pre¬
vent the very firft principle of religion from being per¬
verted by various accidents or caufes, or, in fome extra¬
ordinary concurrence of circumftances, from being per¬
haps entirely obliterated. This fource of religion every
confident theift muft believe *to be revelation. Reafon,
it is acknowledged, and we fhall afterwards {how (fee
Religion), could not have introduced favages to the
knowledge of God ; and we have juft fcen, that a fenfe
of Deity is an hypothefis clogged with infuperable dif¬
ficulties. Yet it is undeniable, that all mankind have
believed in fuperior invifible powers : and if reafon and
inftinCt be fet afide, there remains no other origin of
this univerfal belief than primeval revelation, corrupted,
indeed, as it paffed by oral tradition from father to fon,
in the courfe of many generations. It is no flight fup-
port to this doftrine, that if there really be a Deity*,
ketches o/'R is highly prefumable that he would reveal himfelf to
'lan lft' 0^the firft men—creatures whom he had formed with fa¬
culties to adore and to worfhip him. To other ani¬
mals, the knowledge of a Deity is of no importance ;
to man, it is of the firft importance. Were we totally
ignorant of a Deity, this rvorld would appear to us a
mere chaos. Under the government of a wife and be¬
nevolent Deity, chance is excluded ; and every event
appears to be the refult of eftablifhed laws. Good men
fubmit to whatever happens without repining, knowing
that every event is ordered by Divine Pfovidence: they
fubmit with entire refignation ; and fuch refignation is a
4 fovereign balfam for every misfortune or evil in life.
>ich Admitting, then, that the knowledge of Deity was
,*gkt pure originally derived from revelation, and that the firft
J men profefled pure theifm, it fhall be our bufinefs in the-
o revela-
ion,
See
H E I S M. 135
prefent article to trace the rife and progrefs of polytheifm Theifm.
and idolatry ; and to afcertain, if wre can, the real opi-
nions of the Pagan world concerning that multitude of
gods with which they filled heaven, earth, and hell.
In this inquiry, though we fhall have occafion to appeal
to the writings of Mofes, we {hall attribute to them no
other authority than what is due to records of the ear-
lieft ages, more ancient and authentic than any others
which are now extant.
Whether we believe, with the author of the book of
Genefis, that all men have defeended from the fame
progenitors ; or adopt the hypothefis of modern theo-
rifts, that there have been fucceflive creations of men,
and that the European derives his origin from one pair,
the A fid tic from another, the woolly-bended African
from a third, and the copper-coloured American from a
fourth—polytheifm and idolatry will be feen to have
arifen from the fame caufes, and to have advanced near¬
ly in the fame order from onb degree of impiety to an¬
other. On either fuppofition, it muft be taken for grant¬
ed, that the original progenitors were inftrudfed by their
Creator in the truths of genuine theifm : and there is
no room to doubt, but that thofe truths, fimple and
fubhme as they are, would be conveyed pure from fa¬
ther to fon as long as the race lived in one family, and
were not fpread over a large extent of country. If any
credit be due to the records of antiquity, the primeval
inhabitants of this globe lived to fo great an age, that
they muft have increafed to a very large number long
before the death of the common parent, who would of
courfe be the bond of union to the whole fociety, and
whofe dilates, efpeeially in what related to the origin
of his being and the exiftence of his Creator, would be
liftened to with the utmoft refpeft by every individual
of bis numerous progeny.
Many caufes, however, would confpire to diflblve this
family, after the death of its anceftor, into feparate and ’
independent tribes, of which iome would be driven by
violence, or would voluntarily wander, toa diftance from ■
the reft, from this difperfion great changes would
take place in the opinions of fome of the tribes refpedl-
ing the object of their religious worfhip. A fingle fa¬
mily, or a Imall tribe banifhed into a defert wildernefs
(iuch as the whole earth muft then have been), would
find employment for all their time in providing th6
means of fubfiftence, and in defending themfelves from
beads of prey. In fuck circumftances they would have ^
little for meditation, and, being eonftantly con-ftanc™*
verfant with objects of fenfe, they would gradually lofe which led
the power of meditating upon the fpiritual nature oft0 P01?"
that Being by whom their anceftors jiad taught them
that all things were created. The firft wanderers would
no doubt retain in tolerable purity their original notions
of Deity ; and they would certainly endeavour to im-
prefs thofe notions upon theR children : but in circum¬
ftances infinitely more favourable to fpeculation than
theirs could have been, the human mind dwells not long
upon notions purely intellectual. We are fo accuftom-
ed to fenfible objects, and to the ideas of fpace, exten-
fion, and figure, which they are perpetually impreffino-
upon the imagination, that we find it extremely difficult * Bijhop
to conceive any being without affigning to him a form LaajL'iu
j o   o r w min a ~ ***
and a place. Hence a learned writer* has fuppofed Confldera-
  .c r . , ’ ttons on thp
that the earlieft generations of men (even thofe to whom neowlf
he Religion*
POLYTHEISM.
236
Origin of he contends that frequent revelations were vouchfafed)
Polytheifm. may have been no better than anthropomorphites in their
£j"""v conceptions of the Divine Being.
Be this as it may, it is not conceivable but that the
members of thofe firft colonies would quickly lofe many
of the arts and much of the fcience which perhaps pre¬
vailed in the parent Hate ; and that, fatigued with the
contemplation of intelleflual objects, they would relieve
g their overflrained faculties, by attributing to the Deity
Firft fteps a place of abode, if not a human form. To men to-
in the pro- tally illiterate, the place fitteft for the habitation of the
grefs. Deity would undoubtedly appear to be the fun, the
molt beautiful and glorious object of which they could
form any idea •, an object, too, from which they could
not but be fenfible that they received the benefits of
light and heat, and which experience mull foon have
taught them to be in a great meafure the fource of ve¬
getation. The great fpirit therefore inhabiting the
fun, which they would confider as the power of light
and heat, was in all probability the firft objeft of idola¬
trous adoration.
The fpirit From looking upon the fun as the habitation of their
of light the god, they would foon proceed to confider it as his
firft god of body. Of pure mind entirely feparated from matter,
paganifm. men jn t}je;r circumftances could not long retain the
fainteft notion j but confcious each of power in him-
felf, and experiencing the effefts of power in the fun,
they would naturally conceive that luminary to be ani¬
mated as their bodies were animated. They would feel
his influence when above the horizon •, they would fee
him moving from eaft to weft j they would confider
him when fet as gone to take his repofe : and thofe ex¬
ertions and intermiflions of power being analogous to
what they experienced in themfelves, they would look
upon the fun as a real animal. Thus would the Divi¬
nity appear to their untutored minds to be a compound
being like man, partly corporeal and partly fpiritual $
and as foon as they imbibed fuch notions, though per¬
haps not before, they may be pronounced to have been
abfolute idolaters.
When men had once got into this train, their gods
would multiply upon them with wonderful rapidity.
Darknefs and cold they could not but perceive to be
contrary to light and heat; and not having philofophy
enough to diftinguifti between mere privations and pofi-
8 live effects, they would confider darknefs and cold as
The fpirit entities equally real with light and heat j and attribute
or power of tjiepe different and contrary effefls to different and con-
ths'fecond. trary powers. Hence the Ipirit or power of darknefs
was in all probability the fecond god in the Pagan ca¬
lendar *, and as they confidered the power of light as a
benevolent principle, the fource of all that is good, they
muft have looked upon the contrary power of darknefs
as a malevolent fpirit, the fource of all that is evil. This
we know from authentic hiftory to have been the belief
of the Perfian magi, a very ancient fe<ft, who called their
9 good god Ta%dan, and alfo Ormu-zd, and the evil god
Polytheifm Ahraman. Confidering light as the fymbol, or perhaps
of the Per- as the body, <£ Ormiizd, they always worftiipped him
fian magi, before the fire, the fource of light, and. efpecially before
the. fun, the fource of the moft perfect light: and for
the fame reafon fires were kept continually burning on
his altars. That they fometimes addreffed prayers to
the evil principle, we are informed by Plutarch in his
, life of Themiftocles; but with what particular rites he
was worlhipped, or where he was fuppofed to refide, is Magiaftifm-
not fo evident. Certain it is, that the worftiippers held —y—”*1
him in deteftation *, and when they had occafion to
write his name, they always inverted it {umuvui[y'), to
denote the malignity of his nature.
The principles of the magi, though widely diftant
from pure theifm, were much lefs abfurd than thofe of
other idolaters. It does not appear that they ever
worfhipped their gods by the medium of graven ima¬
ges, or had any other emblems of them than light and
darknefs. Indeed we are told by Diogenes Laertius
and Clemens Alexandrinus, that they condemned all
ftatues and images, allowing fire and water to be the
only proper emblems or reprefentatives of their gods.
And we learn from Cicero*, that at their inftigation * - i
Xerxes was faid to have burnt all the temples of Greece, qt,, U
becaufe the builders of thofe edifices impioufly prefu-§ 10.
med to inclofe within walls the gods, to whom all things
ought to be open and free, and whofe proper temple is
the whole world. To thefe authorities we may add
that of all the hiftorians, who agree, that when magia-
nifm was the religion of the court, the Perfian mo-
narchs made w7ar upon images, and upon every emblem
of idolatry different from their own.
The Magi, however, were but one fe£t, and not the
largeft feft of ancient idolaters. The worlhip of the
fun, as the fource of light and heat, foon introduced
into the calendar of divinities the other heavenly bodies,
the moon, the planets, and the fixed ftars. Men could
not but experience great benefit from thofe luminaries 5.^;.^
in the abfence of their chief god 5 and when they had polythelia;
proceeded fo far as to admit two divine principles, a
good and an evil, it was natural for minds clouded with
fuch prejudices to confider the moon and the ftars as
benevolent intelligences, fent to oppofe the pow'er of
darknefs whilft their firft and greateft divinity was ab-
fent or afleep. It was thus, as they imagined, that he
maintained (for all held that he did maintain) a con-
ftant fuperiority over the evil principle. Though to
aftronomers the moon is known to be an opake body of
very fmall dimenfions when compared with a planet or
a fixed ftar, to the vulgar eye (lie appears much more
magnificent than either. By thofe early idolaters {he
was confidered as the divinity fecond in rank and in
powder; and whilft the fun was worftiipped as the king,
ftie was adored as the queen, of heaven.
The earth, confidered as the common mother of all
things ; the ocean, whofe waters are never at reft ; the
air, the regibn of ftorms and tempefts, and indeed all
the elements—were gradually added to the number of
divinities 5 not that mankind in this early age had fo
far degenerated from the principles of their anceftors as
to worfliip brute matter. If fuch worfliip was ever prac-
tifed, which to us is hardly conceivable, it was at a
later period, when it was confined to the very loweft of
the vulgar, in nations otherwife highly civilized. The
polytheifts, of whom we now treat, conceived every
thing in motion to be animated, and animated by an in¬
telligence powerful in proportion to the magnitude of
the body moved.
This feft of idolaters, which remains in fome parts of
the eaft to this day, was known by the name of Sabi-
ans, which they pretended to have derived frcm Subius
a fon of Seth j and among the books in which their fa-
cred do&rines are contained, they have one which they
cal!
P O L Y T
Arofe in
Ghaidea.
Sabiifm. call the book of Seth. We need hardly obferve, that
thefe are fenfelefs and extravagant fables. The name
Sabian is undoubtedly derived from the Hebrew word
Tfaba, which fignifies “ an hoft or army and this clafs
of polytheifts was fo called, becaufe they worfliipped
. “ the hoft of heaven j” the Tfaba hefemlm, againft
,lf ^eut'1V' which Mofes fo pathetically cautions the people of If-
'‘0’ rael *.
This fpecies of idolatry is thought to have firft pre¬
vailed in Chaldea, and to have been that from which
Abraham feparated himfelf, when, at the command of
the true God, he “ departed from his country, and
from his kindred, and from his father’s houfe.” But
as it nowhere appears that the Chaldeans had fallen into
the favage ftate before they became polytheifts and ido¬
laters, and as it is certain that they were not favages at
the call of Abraham, their early Sabiifm may be thought
inconfiftent with the account which we have given of
the origin of that fpecies of idolatry. If a great and
civilized nation was led to worftiip the hoft of heaven,
why Ihould that worftiip be fuppofed to have arifen
among favages ? Theories, however plaufible, cannot be
admitted in-oppofition to facts.
True : but we beg leave to reply, that our account
of the Origin of polytheifm is oppofed by no fa6t *, be¬
caufe we have not fuppofed that the worftiip of the hoft
of heaven arofe among favages only. That favages, be¬
tween whom it is impoffible to imagine any intercourfe
to have had place, have univerfally worftiipped, as their
firft; and fupreme divinities, the fun, moon, and fars, is
a fa£t evinced by every hiftorian and by every travel¬
ler ; and we have ftiown how their rude and uncultivat¬
ed ftate naturally leads them to that fpecies of idolatry.
But there may have been circumftances peculiar to the
Chaldeans, which led them likewife to the worftiip of
the heavenly hoft, even in a ftate of high civilization. 
We judge of the philofophy of the ancients by that of
ourfelves, and imagine that the fame refined fyftem of
metaphyfics was cultivated by them as by the follow¬
ers of Defcartes and Locke. But this is a great miftake j
for fo grofs were the notions of early antiquity, that it
may be doubted whether there was a Angle man, unin-
fpired, who had any notion of mind as a being diftimft:
and entirely feparated from matter (fee Metaphysics,
Part III. chap. iv.). From feveral paffages in the books
»f Mofes, we learn, that when in the firft ages of the
world the Supreme Being condefcended to manifeft his
prefence to men, he generally exhibited feme fenfible
emblem of his power and glory, and declared his will
irom the midft of a preternatural fre. It was thus that
he appeared to the. Jewifti lawgiver himfelf, when he
ipoke to him from the midft of a bufti; it was by a pil¬
lar of cloud and fre that he led the Ixraelites from
-Egypt to the Land of Promife j and it was in the midft
of fmoke, and fire, and thunderings, that the law was
delivered from Mount Sinai.—That fuch manifeftations
of the Divine Prefence would be occafionally made to
the defeendants of Noah who fettled in Chaldea foon af¬
ter the deluge, muft appear extremely probable to every
one who admits the authority of the Hebrew Scriptures :
and he who queftions that authority, has no right to
make the objection to which we now reply ; becaufe it
only from the book of Genefis that we know the
Chaldeans to have been a civilized people when they fell
mto idolatry. All biftories agree in reprefentino the in-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
*37
Sabitftn.
H E I S M.
habitants of Chaldea as at a very early period corrupted
by luxury and funk in vice. When this happened, we
muft fuppofe that the moral Governor of the univerfe
would withdraw from them thole occafional manifefta¬
tions of himfeli, and leave them to their own inventions.
In fuch circumitances, it was not unnatuial for a people
addidled to the ftudy of aftronomy, who had been
taught to believe that, the Deity frequently appeared to
their anceftors in a flame of fire, to confider the fon as
the place of lus permanent refidence, if not as his body.
But when either opinion was firmly eftabliftied, poly¬
theifm would be its inevitable confequence, and the pro-
grefs of Sabiifm would, in the moft poliftied nation, be
fuch as we have traced it among favage tribes.
From Chaldea the idolatrous worfliip of the hoft of
heaven fpread itfelf over all the eaft, pafled into Egypt,
and thence into Greece; for Plato affirmsf, that “ lhe\In.Cratyk
firft inhabitants of Greece feemed to him to have wor
12
(hipped no other gods but the fun, moon, earth, ftars, ^
and heavens, as moft barbarous nations (continues he) C’
ftill do.” - - -
That Sabiifm, or the worftiip of the hoft: of
heaven, was the firft fpecies of idolatry, befides the pro¬
bability of the thing, and the many allufions to it in fa-
cred Scripture, we have the pofitive evidence of the
moft ancient pagan hiftorians of whofe writings any part
has been tranfmitted to us. Herodotus *, (peaking of* Lib. i.
the religion of the Perfians, fays, that “ they worftiip cap. 131.
the fun, moon, and earth, fire, 'Water, and the winds ;
and this adoration they have all along paid from the
beginning.” He teftifies the fame thing of the favage
Africans, of whom he affirmsf, that they all worlhip-. Lib iv
ped the fun and moon, and no other divinity. Diodo-cap! 188*
rus Siculus, writing of the Egyptians tells us, that | Lib. i.
“ the firft men looking up to the world above them, and
terrified and (truck with admiration at the nature of the
univerfe, fuppofed the fun and moon to be the principal
and eternal gods y And Sanchoniathon the Phoenician,
a more ancient writer than either of thefe, informs us,
in the fragment of his hiftory preferved by Eufebius,
that “ the two firft mortals were iEon and Protogonus ;
and their children were Genus and Genea, who inha¬
bited Phcenicia ; and when they were feorched with
the heat, they lifted up their hands to the fun, whom
they believed to be the Lord of Heaven, and called
him Baalfamen, the fame whom the Greeks call
Hitherto thofe divinities were worftiipped in perfon,
or, as Dr Prideaux expreffes it, in their facellu, or fa-
cred tabernacles; for the votaries of each direfted their
devotions towards the planet which they fuppofed to
be animated by the particular intelligence whom they
meant to adore. But thefe orbs, by their riftng and
fetting, being as much below the horizon as above it,
and their grofsly ignorant worftiippers not foppofing it
pofiible that any intelligence, however divine, could
exert its influence but in union with fome body, ftatues 13
or pillars were foon thought of as proper emblems of the ced ftatue'
abfent gods. Sanchoniathon, in the fragment already worftiip,
quoted, informs us, that “ Hyfpouranios and his brother
Oufous, Phoenician patriarchs, credited two pillars, the
one to fre and the other to air or wind, and worftiipped
thofe pillars, pouring out to them libations of the blood
of the wild beads hunted down in the chace.” As
thefe early monuments of idolatry were called
a word evidently derived from the Hebrew Bethel, the
^ probability
138
POLYTHEISM.
Statue-
worfhip.
^ Genefis,
ck xxxv.
probability is, that t'hey were altars of loofe ftones, fuch
( as that which was built by Jacob *, and from him re¬
ceived the fame name. As his was confecrated to the
true God, theirs were confecrated to the hoft of hea-
and the form of confecration feems to have been
ven
nothing more than the anointing of the {tone or pillar
with oil (a), in the name of the divinity whom it was
intended to reprefent. When this ceremony was per¬
formed, the ignorant idolaters, who fancied that their
gods could not hear them but when they were vifible,
fuppofed that the intelligences by which the fun and
planets were animated, took poffeflion, in fume inexpli¬
cable manner, of the confecrated pillars, and were as
•well pleafed with the prayers and praifes offered up be¬
fore thofe pillars, as with the devotions which were ad-
dreffed towards the luminaries themfelves.—Hence San-
choniathon calls them animated or living Jionesy Miev?
t^vxovs, from the portion of the Divine Spirit which
was believed to refide in them } and as they were dedi¬
cated to the hoft of heaven, they were generally creeled
on the tops of mountains j or in countries which, like
Egypt, were low and level, they were elevated to a
great height by the labour of men.
wim me It has been fuppofed, that this practice of raifing the
idolatry of pillars on tigt ‘places proceeded from a defire to make
high places. objefts of vvorfhip confpicuous and magnificent : but
we are ftrongly inclined to believe, that the ereftors of
PxflvXtx had feme thing farther in view, and that they
thought of nothing lefs than to bring the [acred ftone or
pillar as near as poftible to the god w hom it reprefented.
Whatever be in this, we know that the pra&ice itfelf
prevailed univerfally through the eaft ; and that there
was nothing which the Jewifh legiflator more ftriclly
enjoined his people to deftroy, than the. altars, ftatues,
and pillars, erefted for idolatrous worftup upon moun¬
tains and high places. “ Ye (hall utterly deftroy (fays
hej all the places wherein the nations which ye {hall
poflefs ferved their gods, upon the high mountains, and
upon the hills, and under every green tree. And ye
fhall overthrow their altars, and break down their pil-
f Vent. xii. lars, and burn their groves with fire +.”
with the
-a- The mention of groves by the Hebrew lawgiver,
brings to our recolle&ion another fpecies of idolatry,
which was perhaps the fecond in order, as men devia¬
ting from the principles of pure theifm were more and
more entangled in the labyrinths of error. The Chal¬
deans, Egyptians, and all the eaftern nations who be¬
lieved in a fuperintending providence, imagined that
the government of this world, the care of particular na¬
tions, and even the fuperintendence of groves, rivers,
and mountains, in each nation, was committed by the
gods to a clafs of fpirits fuperior to the foul of man, but
inferior to thofe heavenly intelligences which animated
the fun, the moon, and the planets. Thefe fpirits were
by the Greeks called dcuy-ons, deemons, and by the ho-
mans genii. Timseus the Locrian, who flouriflied before
iDe Amina Plato, fpeaking of the punifhment of wicked men, faysj.,
in-all thefe things hath Nemefis decreed to he executed
ter fcr.pr. ^ tbe feCond°period» by the miniftry of vindiftiye ter-
fdiS reftrial demons, who are overfeers of human affairs j to
which daemons the Supreme God, the ruler over all,,‘Daet[onSjj
hath committed the government and adminiftration of >r—•
this world, which is made up of gods, men, and ani¬
mals. _ , . 15
Concerning the origin of thefe intermediate beings, Origin ®f
fcholars and philofophers have framed various hypothe-d®mon-
fes. The belief of their exiftence may have been de-W0llu^
rived from five different fources.
1. It feems to have been impoflible for the. limited
capacities of thofe men, who could not form a notion of
a God divefted of a body and a place, to conceive how
the influence and agency of fuch a being could every
inftant extend to every point of the univerfe. Hence,
as we have feen, they placed the heavenly regions un¬
der the government of a multitude of heavenly gods, the
fun, the moon, and the Jlars. But as the neareft of thofe
divinities was at an immenfe diflance from the earth,
and as the intelligence animating the earth itfelf had
fufficient employment in regulating the general affairs
of the whole globe, a notion infinuated itfelf into, the
untutored mind, that thefe fuperior governors of.univer-
fal nature found it neceffary, or at lead expedient, to
employ fubordinate intelligences or daemons as minifters
to execute their behefts in the various parts of their
widely extended dominions.
2. Such an univerfal and uninterrupted courfe of ac¬
tion* as was deemed neceffary to adminitter the affairs
of the univerfe, would be judged altogether inconfiftent
with that ftate of indolence, which, efpecially in the.eaft,
was held an indifpenfable ingredient in perfedl felicity.
It was this notion, abfurd as it is, which made Epicu¬
rus deny the providence, w'hilft he admitted the ex fence,
of gods. And if it had fuch an effea upon a philofo-
pher who in the moft enlightened ages had many fol¬
lowers, we need not furely wronder if it made untaught
idolaters imagine that the governor or governors of the
univerfe had devolved a great part of their trouble on
deputies and minifters.
a. When men came to refleft on the infinite diftance
bet ween themfelves and the gods, they would naturally
form a wifh, that there might fomewhere exift a clafs
of intermediate intelligences, whom they might employ
as mediators and intereeffors with their far diftant divi¬
nities. But what men earneftly with, they very readily
believe. Hence the fuppofed diftance of their gods
would, among untutored barbarians, prove a fruitful
fource of intermediate intelligences, more pure and more
elevated than human fouls.
4. Thefe three opinions may be denominated popu¬
lar but that which we are now to ftate, wherever it
may have prevailed, was the offspring.of philofophy.—
On this earth we perceive a fcale of beings rifing gradu¬
ally above each other in perfe.aion, from mere brute
matter through the various fpecies of foflils, vegetables,
infefts, fifties, birds, and beafts,. up to man. But the
diftance between man and God is infinite, and capable
of admitting numberlefs orders of intelligences, all fupe¬
rior to the human foul, and each rifing gradually above
the other till they reach that point, wherever it may
be at which creation flops. Part of this immenle
rVinfm
P O L Y T
lijemon’.
f Jimxuu
I ■* Epinio-
nis.
chafm the phtlofophers perceived to be aftually filled by
the heavenly bodies j for in philofophicalpolytheifm there
was one invifible God fupreme over all thefe : but ftill
there was left an immenfe vacuity between the human
fpecies and the moon, which was known to be the lowed
of the heavenly hoft : and this they imagined muft cer¬
tainly be occupied by invifible inhabitants of different
orders and difpofitions, which they called good and evil
dcemons.
5. There is yet another fource from which the uni-
yerfal belief of good and evil daemons may be derived,
with perhaps greater probability than from any or all
of thefe. If the Mofaic account of the creation of the
world, the peopling of the earth, and the difperfion of
mankind, be admitted as true (and a more confident ac¬
count has not as yet been given or devifed), forae know¬
ledge of good and evil angels mud neceffarily have been
tranfmitted from father to fon by the channel of oral
tradition. This tradition would be corrupted at the
fame time, and in the fame manner, with others of
greater importance. When the true God was fo far
midaken as to be confidered, not as the foie governor
of the univerfe, but only as the felf-extant power of
light and good, the Devil would be elevated from the
rank of a rebellious created fpirit to that of the inde¬
pendent power of darknefs and evil j the angels of
light would be transformed into good dcemons, and
thofe of darknefs into dcemons that are evil. This ac¬
count of the origin of dsemonology receives no fmall
iupport from Plato, who derives one branch of it whol¬
ly from tradition. “ With refpeft to thofe daemons
(fays hef) who inhabit the fpace between the earth and
the moon, to underdand and declare their generation is
a talk too arduous for my {lender abilities. In this cafe
W’e mud credit the report of men of other times, %vho,
according to their own account, were the defendants
of the gods, and had, by fome means or other, gained
exa& intelligence of that mydery from their ancedors.
We mud not quedlon the veracity of the children of
the gods, even though they Ihould tranfgrefs the bounds
of probability, and produce no evidence to fupport their
affertions. We mud, I fay, notwithdafiding, give them
credit, becaufe they profefs to give a detail of fafts with
which they are intimately acquainted, and the laws of
our country oblige us to believe them.”
Though thefe dcemons wrere generally invifible, they
were not fuppofed to be pure difembodied fpirits.—
Proclus, in his Commentary upon Plato’s Timaeus, tells
us, that “ every daemon fuperior to human fouls con¬
fided of an intelle&ual mind and an ethereal vehicle.”
Indeed it is very little probable, that thofe who gave a
body and a place to the Supreme God, ihould have
thought that the inferior orders of his miniders were
fpirits entirely feparated from matter. Plato himfelf di¬
vides the clafs of daemons into three orders * 5 and whild
he holds their fouls to be particles or emanations from
the divine effence, he affirms that the bodies of each or¬
der of daemons are compofed of that particular element
in which they for the mod part refide. “ Thofe of the
fird and highed order are compofed of pure ether } thofe
of the fecond order confid of groffer air ; and daemons
of the third or lowed rank have vehicles extra&ed from
the element of water. Daemons of the fird and fecond
orders are invifible to mankind. The aquatic daemons,
being inveded with vehicles of groffer materials, are
H E 1 s M.
fometimes vifible and fomctimes invifible. W hen they Dazmon»< ^
do appear, though faintly obfervable by the human eye,
they drike the beholder with terror and adoniffiment.”'
Dsemons of this lad order were fuppofed to have paf-
fions and affeftions fimilar to thofe of men ; and though
all nature was full of them, they were believed to have
local attachments to mountains, rivers, and groves,
where their appearances were mod frequent. The rea-
fon of thefe attachments feems to be obvious. Poly¬
theifm took its rife in countries fcorched by a burn- i<»
ing fun *, and daemons by their compofition being necef-In ,grovc.*
farily fubjeft in fome degree to the influence of heat ^uks'of *
and cold, it was natural to fuppofe that they, like men, rivers*
would delight in the fliady grove and in the purling
dream. Hence theearlied altars of paganifm were ge¬
nerally built in the midd of groves, or on the banks of
rivers ; becaufe it was believed that in fuch places were
affembled multitudes of thofe intelligences, whofe office
it was to regulate the affairs of men, and to carry the
prayexs and oblations of the devout to the far diflant re-j
fidence of the celedial gods. Hence too are to be dep¬
rived the mountain and river gods, with the dryads and
hamadryads, the fatyrs, nymphs, and fauns, which held
a place in the creed of ancient paganifm, and make fo
confpicuous a figure in the Greek and Roman poets.
Thefe different orders of intelligences, which, though
worffiipped as gods or demigods, were yet believed to
partake of human paffions and appetites, led the way
to the deification of departed heroes and other eminent lh,
benefactors of the human race. By the philofophers Deification
all fouls were believed to be emanations from the divi- departed
nity 5 but “ gratitude f and admiration, the warmeit heroes,
and molt aCtive affeCtions of our nature, concurred to f Warbur-
enlarge the objeCt of religious worflup, and to make man -Dz<I'v
regard the inventors of arts and the founders of fociety e^'
as having in them more than a common ray of the di¬
vinity. So that god-like benefits, befpeaking as it were
a god-like mind, the deecafed parent of a people was ea-
fily advanced into the rank of a daemon. When the re¬
ligious bias was in fo good a train, natural affeCtion
would have its ffiare in promoting this new mode of ado¬
ration. Piety to parents would naturally take the
lead, as it was fupported by gratitude and admiration,
the primum mobile of the whole fyllem : and in thofe
early ages, the natural fathet of the tribe often hap¬
pened to be the politicalfather of the people, and the
founder of the ftate. Fondnefs for the offspring would
next have its turn 5 and a difconfolate father, at the
head of a people, would contrive to foothe his grief for
the untimely death of a favourite child, and to gratify
his pride under the want offuccejjton, by paying divine
honours to its memory.” “ For a father % afflicted with f Wtfdcm of
untimely mourning, when he had made an image of his Solomon,
child foon taken away, now honoured him as a god,X1V'lS*
who was then a dead man, and delivered to thofe that
were under him ceremonies and facrifices.” That this
was the origin and progrefs of the worfhip of departed
fouls, we have the authority of the famous fragment of
Sanchoniathon already quoted, where the various mo¬
tives for this fpecies of idolatry are recounted in exprefs
words. “ After many generations (fays he) came Chry-
for; and he invented many thinj'’ ufeful to civil life,
for which, after his deceafe, he was worfhipped as s
god. Then flourifhed Ouranos and his filler Ge, wh®
deified and offered facrifices to their father Hypfjlos,
S 2 when
/
POLYTHEISM.
18
a political
invention,
which in-
troduced
$ Egyuif km
■Afitful,
lib, i. verf.
too, &c.
. 19
national
and tutelar
gods.
when he had been torn in pieces by wild beads. Af¬
terwards Cronos confecrated Muth his fon, and was him-
felf confeerated by his fubjefts.”
In the reign of Cronos flourilhed a perfonage of great
reputation for wifdom, who by the Egyptians was call¬
ed 'Hioth, by the Phoenicians Taautos, and by the
Greeks Hermes. According to Plutarch, he was a
profound politician, and chief counfellor to Oliris,
then the king, and afterwards the principal divinity, of
Egypt : and we are told by Philo Byblius, the tranfla-
tor of Sanchoniathon, “ that it w'as this Thoth or Her¬
mes who firft took the matters of religious worfhip out
of the hands of unlkilful men, and brought them into
due method and order.” His object was to make reli¬
gion ferviceable to the interefts of the Hate. With this
view he appointed OJiris and other departed princes to
be joined with the liars and worfhipped as gods ; and
being by Cronos made king of Egypt, he was, after his
death, worlhipped bimfeif as a god by the Egyptians.
To this honour, if what is recorded of him be true, he
had indeed a better title than moft princes ; for be is
faid to have been the inventor of letters, arithmetic,
geometry, allronomy, and hieroglyphics, and was there¬
fore one of the greatelt benefactors of the human race
which any age or country has ever produced.
That the gods of Greece and Rome were derived from
Egypt and Phoenicia, is fo univerfally known, that it is
needlefs to multiply quotations in order to prove that
the progrefs of polytheifm among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans was the fame with that which we have traced in
more ancient nations. The following tranllation, how¬
ever, of the account given by Hefiod of the deification
of departed heroes, with which we have been favoured
by a learned and ingenious friend, is fo juft, and in our
opinion fo beautiful, that w’e cannot deny ourfelves the
pleafure of giving it to our readers. /
“ The gods who dwell on high Olympus’ hill,
Firft fram’d a golden race of men, who liv’d
Under old Saturn’s calm aufpicious fvvay.
Like gods they liv’d, their hearts devoid of care,
Beyond the reach of pain and piercing woes j
Th’ infirmities of age nor felt, nor fear’d.
Their nerves with youthful vigour ftrung, their days
In jocund mirth they paft, remote from ills.—
Now when this godlike race was lodg’d in earth,
By Jove’s high will to demigods they rofe,
And airy daemons, who benign on earth
Converfe—the guides and guardians of mankind.
In darknefs veil’d, they range earth’s utmoft bound,
Difpenfing wealth to mortals. Ihis reward
From bounteous Jove awaits illuftrious deeds
The deification of departed heroes and ftatefmen was
that which in all probability introduced the univerfal
belief of national and tutelar as well as the praftice
of wor(hipping thofe gods through the medium oiJlatues
cut into a human figure. When the founder of a ft ate
or any other public benefa&or was elevated to the rank
of a god, as he was believed ftill to retain human paf-
fions&and affe&ions, it was extremely natural to fuppofe
that he would regard with a favourable eye that nation
for which he had done fo much upon earth that he
would oppofe its enemies, and proteifl the laws and in-
ftitutions which he himfelf had given it. By indul-
2
ging the fame train of fentiment, each city, and even Mere,,
every family of confequence, found Lares and Penates x
among their departed anceftors, to whom they paid the
warmeft adoration, and under whofe protection they
believed their private affairs to be placed. As thofe
national and houfehold gods were believed to be in their
deified ftate clothed with airy bodies, fo thofe bodies
were fuppofed to retain the form which their groffer
bodies had upon earth. The image of a departed friend
might perhaps be formed by the hand of forrowful af-
feftion, before the flatue or the fhrine of a deity was
thought of; but when that friend or benefaClor became
the objeft of religious adoration, it was natural for his
votaries to enliven their devotion by a view of his fi-
militude. Maximus Tyrius tells us §, that “ there is no j Dijertu
race of men, -whether barbarian or Grecian, living 0038.
the fea-coaft or on the continent, wandering in deferts
or living in cities, which hath not confecrated fome
kind of fymbol or other in honour of the gods.” This
is certainly true •, but there is no good evidence that
the firft fymbols of the gods were ftatues of men and
women. Whilft the fun and other heavenly bodies con¬
tinued to be the foie objeCls of religious worfhip, the
fymbols confecrated to them were pillars of a conical or
pyramidal figure j and if fuch pillars are ever called
graven images by Mofes and other ancient writers, it
was probably oh account of the allegoric figures and
charaffers, or hieroglyphic writing, with which they
were inferibed.
Hitherto we have confidered the fouls of departed
heroes as holding the rank only of daemons or demigods j 20.
but they generally rofe in the feale of divinities, till Hero-won
they dethroned the heavenly bodies, and became them-flllP er--
felves the dii majorum gentium. This revolution was ef-^telan°”
feCled by the combined operation of the prince and tbetary,
pxieft ; and the firft ftep taken towards it feems to have
been the complimenting of their heroes and public be-
nefadlors with the name of that being which was moft.
efteemed and wor {hipped. “ Thus a king for his be¬
neficence was called the fiun, and a queen for her beau¬
ty the moon. Diodorus relates, that Sol firft reigned
in Egypt, called fo from the luminary of that name in
the heavens. This will help us to underftand an odd
paffage in the fragment of Sanchoniathon, where it is
faid that Cronus had fieven fans by Rhea, the youngefi oj\
whom ivas a GOB as foon us BORN. The meaning pro¬
bably is, that this youngeft fon was called after fom&
luminary in the heavens to which they paid divine ho¬
nours \ and thefe honours came in procefs of time to be,
transferred to the terreftrial natnefake. The fame hif-
torian had before told us, that the fons of Genos, mortals
like their father, were called by the names of the ele¬
ments—light, fire, and fiame, of which they had difee-,
vered the ufe.”
“ As this adulation advanced into an eftabliftied wor¬
fhip, they turned the compliment the. other way, and
called the planet or luminary after the hero, the better
to accuftom the people, even in the ad of Planet-wor- 4I
Jhip, to this ww adoration. Diodorus,, in the paffage which in
already quoted, having told us, that by the firft inha-time it fu^.
bitants of Egypt the fun and moon were fuppofed to planted^
be the principal and eternal gods, adds, that the former
was called Osiris, and the latter Isis. rf his was in¬
deed the general pradice ; for we learn from Macro-
bius, that the Ammonites called the fun Moloch; the.
Syrians
Hero-
Worfhip.
POL
Syrians Adad; the Arabs Dionyfus ; the A {Tyrians Be¬
fits ; the Phoenicians Saturn; the Carthaginians Her¬
cules; and the Palmyrians Elegabalus. Again, by the
Phrygians the moon was called Cybele, or the mother
of the gods; by the Athenians Minerva ; by the Cy¬
prians Venus ; by the Cretans Diana; by the Sicilians
Proferpine; by others Hecate, Bellona, 'Vejla, Urania,
Lucma, &c. Philo Byblius explains this practice i “ It
is remarkable (fays he) that the ancient idolaters im-
pofed on the elements, and on thofe parts of nature which
they efteemed gods, the names of their kings; for the
natural gads which they acknowledged were only the
fun, moon, planets, elements, and the like j they being
now in the humour of having gods of both claffes, the
mortal and the immortal.’1''
“ As a farther proof that taro-worftiip was thus fu-
perinduced upon the planetary, it is worthy of obferva-
tion, that the firft ftatues confecrated to the greater
hero-gods—thofe who were fuppofed to be fupreme—
were not of a human form, but conical or pyramidal,
like thofe which in the earlieft ages of idolatry were
dedicated to the fun and planets. Thus the fcholiaft
on the Vefpae of Ariftophanes tells us, that the ftatues
of Apollo and Bacchus were conic pillars or obelilks $
and Paufanias, that the ftatue of Jupiter Meilichius re-
prefented a pyramid; that of the Argive Juno did the
fame, as appears from a verfe of Phoronis quoted by
♦Jifrew.l.i. Clemens Alexandrinus * ; and indeed the practice was
univerfal as well amongft the early barbarians as amongft
the Greeks. But it is well known that the ancients
reprefented the rays of light by pillars of a conical or
pyramidal form j and therefore it follows,, that when
they erefled fuch pillars as reprefentatives of their hero-
gods, thefe latter had fucceeded to the titles, rights, and
’ War bur- honours of the natural and celejlietl divinities -f.”
L^book'3 ®ut it feems to be certain that ^ro-worlhip
e£T was thus engrafted on the planetary, and that fome of
thofe heroes in procefs of time fupplanted the planets
themfelves, this was fuch a revolution in theology as
could not have been fuddenly effected by the united in-
’rogrefs of Auence of the prince and the prieft. We doubt not
his revolu-the fa£t that sol was believed to have reigned in Egypt,
lonmtheo-and was afterwards worftiipped under the name Oftris ;
but it was furely impoftible to perfuade any nation,
however ftupid or prone to idolatry, that a man, whom
they remembered difcharging the duties of their fovereign
and legiflator, was the identical fun -whom they beheld
in the heavens. Ofiris, if there was in Egypt a king
of that name, may have been deified immediately after
his death, and honoured with that worfhip which* was
paid to good demons; but he muft have been dead for
ages before any attempt was made to perfuade the na¬
tion that he was the fupreme God. Even then great
addrefs would be requifite to make fuch an attempt fue-
cefsful. The prince or prieft who entered upon it
would probably begin with declaring from the oracle,
that the divine intelligence which animates and governs*
the fun-had defcended to earth and animated the perfon
of their renowned legiflator; and that, after their laws
Were framed, and the other purpofes lerved for which
the defcent was made, the fame intelligence had re¬
turned to its original refidence and employment amono-
the celeftials. The poffibility of this double tranfmi-
gration from beayen to earth and from earth to heaven,
would without difficulty be admitted in an age when
Y T H E I S M. I4I
the pre-exiftence of fouls was the univerfal belief. Ida- Kero-
ving proceeded thus far in the apotheofis of dead men, Worfhip.
the next ftep taken in order to render it in fome degree
probable that the early founders of ftates and inventors
of arts, were divine intelligences clothed with human
bodies, was to attribute to one fuch benefadlor of man¬
kind the a&ions of many of the fame name. Voffiius
who employed vaft erudition and much time on the fub-
jeft, has proved, that before the aera of the Trojan
wars moft kings who were very powerful, or highly re¬
nowned for their {kill in legiflation, &c. were called
Jove; and when the adlions of all thefe were attributed
to one Jove of Crete, it would be eafy for the crafty
prieft, fupported by all the power and influence of thfc
ftate, to perfuade an ignorant and barbarous people, that
he whofe wifdom and heroic exploits fo far furpaffed
thofe of ordinary men muft have been the fupreme God
in human form.
.. This fcort &etch of the progrefs of polytheifm and Vicestf the
idolatry will enable the reader to account for many cir-Pagan gods,
cumftances recorded of the pagan gods of antiquity,
which at firft view feem very furprifing, and which at
laft brought the whole fyftem into contempt among the
philofophers of Athens and Rome. The circumftances
to which we allude are the immoral characters of thofe
divinities, and the abominable rites with which they
were worftiipped. Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, and the
whole rabble of them, are deferibed by the poets as ra-
vifliers of women and notorious adulterers. Hermes or
Mercury was a thief, and the god of thieves. Venus
was a proftitute, and Bacchus a drunkard. The malice
and revenge of Juno were implacable ; and fo little re¬
gard was any of them fuppofed to pay to the laws of
honour and reditude, that it was a common pradtice of
the Romans, when befieging a town, to evocate the
tutelar deity, and to tempt him by a reward to betray
his friends and votaries J. In a word, they were, in j T uvif
the language of the poet, lib.'v. c. 21. -
“ Gods partial, changeful, paflionate, unjuft; ^Satur.^'
“ Whole attributes were rage, revenge, and luft.” Kb. iii. c. 9.
This was the natural confequence of their origin. Ha-Accounted
ving once animated human bodies, and feeing fuppofed for.
ftill to retain human pafllons and appetites, they were
believed, in their ftate of deification, to feel the fame
fenfual defires which they had felt upon earth, and to
purfue the fame means for their, gratification. As
the men could not well attempt to furpafs the gods,
in purity and virtue, they were eafily perfuaded by art¬
ful and profligate priefts, that the moft acceptable wor-
ftiip which could be rendered to any particular deity
was to imitate the example of that deity, and to indulge
in the pradlices over which he prefided. Hence the
wor.ftiip of Bacchus was performed during the night by
men and women mixing in the dark after intemperate
eating and drinking. Hence too it was the pradice
in Cyprus and lome other countries to facrifice to Ve¬
nus the virginity of young women fome days before
their marriage, in order, as it was pretended, to fecure
their chaftity ever afterwards ; and, if Herodotus may be
credited, every woman among the Babylonians was ob¬
liged once in her life to proftitute herfelf in the temple
of the goddefs Mylitte (Venus), that (he might thence
forward be proof againft all temptation.
The progrefs of polytheifm, as far as we have traced
142
Hero-
Worfliip.
25
Progrefs of
idolatry re¬
gular and
univerfal.
AJiatic
Refearches,
VOl. i.
POLYTHEISM.
25
Indian ido¬
latry.
it, bas been regular •, and after the enormous error of
forfaking the worfhip of the true God was admitted,
every fubfequent ftep appears to be natural. It would
be no difficult }alk to prove that it has likewife been
univerfal. Sir William Jones, the learned prefident of
the Afiatic Society, has difcovered fuch a itriking re-
femblance between the gods of Ancient Greece and
thofe of the pagans of Hindoftan f, as puts it beyond a
doubt that thofe divinities had the fame origin. The
Ganesa of the Hindoos he has clearly proved to be the
Janus of the Greeks and Romans. As the latter was
reprefented ■with two and fometimes with four faces, as
emblems of prudence and circumfpe6tion, the former is
painted with an elephant’s head, the well-known fym-
bol among the Indians of fagacious difcernment. The
Saturn of Greece and Rome appears to have been the
fame perfonage with the Menu or Satyavrata of
Hindoftan, whofe patronymic name is Vaivaswata,
or child of the fun ; which fufficiently marks bis origin.
Among the Romans there were many Jupiters, of whom
one appears from Ennius to have been nothing more
than the firmament perfonified.
Afpice hoc fublime candens, quem invocant omnes
JoVEM.
But this Jupiter had the fame attributes with the Indian
god of the vifible heavens called Indra or the king,
and Divespetir or the /W of the fkij, whofe confort
is Sachi, and whofe weapon is vajra or the thunderbolt.
Indra is the regent of winds and fhowers j and though
the eaft is peculiarly under his care, yet his Olympus
is the north-pole, allegorically reprefented as a mountain
of gold and gems. With all his power he is confidered
as a fubordinate deity, and far inferior to the Indian
* Plate triad Brahma, Vishnou, and MahaHeva or Siva *,
tfgccxxxv. are t},ree forms of one and the fame godhead.
The prefident having traced the refemblance between
the idolatry of Rome and India through many other
gods, obferves, that “ we muft not be furpnfed at find-
ing, on a clofe examination, that the charaaers of all the
pao-an deities melt into each other, and at laft into one
or*two •, for it feems a well-founded opinion, that the
whole crowd of gods and goddeffes in ancient Rome, and
likewife in Hindoftan, mean only the powers of nature,
and principally thofe of the fun, expreffed in a variety
of ways, and by a multitude of fanciful names.
Nor is it only in Greece, Rome, Egypt, and India,
that the progrefs of idolatry has been from planetary to
hero-worffiip. From every account which modem tra¬
vellers have given us of the religion of favage nations, it
appears that thofe nations adore, as their firft and great-
eft gods, the fun, moon, and ftars j and that fuch of them
as have any other divinities have proceeded m the lame
road with the celebrated nations of antiquity, from the
worfhip of the heavenly bodies to that of celeftial dae¬
mons, and from celeftial daemons to the deification ot
dead men. It appears likewife that they univerlally
believe their hero-gods and demigods to retain the
paffions, appetites, and propenfities of men.
That the Scandinavians and our Saxon anceftors had
the fame notions of the gods with the other pagans
whofe opinions we have ftated, is evident from their
calling the days of the week by the names of their divi¬
nities, and from the forms of the ftatues by which thole
27
Scandina¬
vian and
Saxon ido¬
latry.
Plate
ccccxxxv. divinities were reprefented f. I. The idol of the fun,
from which Sunday is derived, among the Latins dies Hens-
Solis, was placed in a temple, and adored and facrificed , Wor(luP-
to j for they believed that the fun did co-operate with ■
this idol. He was reprefented like a man half naked,
with his face like the fun, holding a burning wheel
with both hands on his breaft, fignifying his courfe
round the world ; and by its fiery gleams, the light and
heat with which he warms and nourifficth all things.—
1. The idol of the moon, from which cometh our Mon¬
day, dies Lunce, anciently Moonday, appears ftrangely
fingular, being habited in a fhort coat like a man. Her
holding a moon expreffes what ffie is; but the reafon of
her fhort coat and long-eared cap is loft in oblivion.—•
3. Tuifco, the moft ancient and peculiar god of the
Germans, reprefented in his garment of a fkin according
to their ancient manner of clothing, was next to the
fun and moon, the idol of higheft rank in the calendar
of northern paganifm. To him the third day in the
week was dedicated j and hence is derived the name
Tuefday, anciently Tuifday, called in Latin dies Mortis,
though it muft be confeffed that Mars does not fo much
refemble this divinity as he does Odin or Woden.
4. Woden was a valiant prince among the Saxons.
His image was prayed to for viftory over their enemies 5
which, if they obtained, they ufually facrificed the
prifoners taken in battle to him. Our Wednefday is
derived from him, anciently Wodenfday. The northern
hiftories make him the father of Thor, and Friga to be
his wife. _
3. Thor was placed in a large hall, fitting on a bed
canopied over, with a crown of gold on his head, and
12 ftars over it, holding a fceptre in his right hand.
To him was attributed the power over both heaven and
earth •, and that as he was pleafed or difpleafed he could
fend thunder, tempefts, plagues, &c. or fair, feafonable
weather, and caufe fertility. From him our Thurfday de¬
rives its name, anciently Thorfday ; among the Romans
dies Jovis, as this idol may be fubftituted for Jupiter.
6. Friga reprefented both fexes, holding a drawn
fword in the right hand and a bow in the left $ denoting
that women as well as men fhould fight in time of heed.
She was generally taken for a goddefs j and was repu¬
ted the giver of peace and plenty, and caufer of love
and amity. Her day of worffiip was called by the
Saxons Frigedeag, now Friday, dies \eneiis $ but the
habit and weapons of this figure have a refemblance of
Diana rather than Venus.
7. Sealer, or Crodo, flood on the prickly back of a
perch. He was thin-vifaged and long-haired, with a
long beard, bare-headed and bare-footed, carrying a pail
of water in his right hand wherein are fruit and flowers,
and holding up a wheel in his left, and his coat tied
with a long girdle. His {landing on the ffiarp fins of
this fifh fignified to the Saxons, that by worffiipping
him they fhould pafs through all dangers unhurt: by
his girdle flying both ways was ffiown the Saxons free¬
dom •, and by the pail with fruit and flowers, was de¬
noted that he would nourifli the earth. From him, or
from the Roman deity Saturn, comes Saturday.
Such were the principal gods of the northern nations:
but thefe people had at the fame time inferior deities,
who were fuppofed to have been tranflated into heaven
for their heroic deeds, and whofe greateft happinefs
confifted in drinking ale out of the fkulls of their ene¬
mies in the hall of Woden. But the limits prefcribed
•fo
POLYTHEISM.
Brute- to the prefent article do not pehnit us to purfue this
Worfhip. fubje£t 5 nor is it neceffary that we fhould purfue it.
The attentive reader of the article MYTHOLOGY, of
the hiftories given in this work of the various divinities
of paganifm, and of the different nations by whom thofe
divinities were worthipped, will perceive that the pro-
grefs of polytheifm and idolatry has been uniform over
the whole earth.
There is, however, one fpecies of idolatry more won-
derful than any thing that has yet been mentioned, of
Brute wor- which our readers will certainly expe£t fome account. It
ftiip of the is the worthip of brutes, reptiles, and vegetables, among
Egyptians jbe Egyptians. To the Greeks and Romans, as well
as to us, that fuperftition appeared fo monilrous, that
to enumerate every hypothefis, ancient and modern, by
which philofophers have endeavoured to account for it,
would fwell this article beyond all proportion. Brute-
worlhip prevailed at fo early a period in Egypt, that
the philofopbers of antiquity, whole writings have de-
feended to us, had little or no advantage over the mo¬
derns in purfuing their refearches into its origin ; and
among the modern hypothefes, thofe of Mojhcim and
Warburton appear to us by much the molt probable of
any that we have feen (b). The former of thefe learned
writers attributes it wholly to the policy of the prince
and the craft of the prieft. The latter contends, with
much earneftnefs and ingenuity, that it refulted from
the ufe of hieroglyphic writing. We are ftrongly in¬
clined to believe that both thefe caufes contributed to
the produ&ion of fo portentous an effe£t ; and that the
ufe of hieroglyphics as facred fymbols, after they were
laid alide in civil life, completed that wonderful fuper¬
ftition which the craft of the prieft and the policy of the
prince had undoubtedly begun.
* bib. ii. -yp-g iearn from Herodotus *, that in his time the
'Jp number of ufeful animals in Egypt was fo fmall as
introduced hardly to be fufficient for tillage and the other pur-
with a po- pofes of civil life ; whilft ferpents and other noxious
liticalview; anjma]Sj fucb as the crocodile, wolf, bear, and hippo¬
potamus, abounded in that country. From this fa£t
\Cud<wo) th, Molheim very naturally concludes f, that the founders
Intellect. 0f foc;ety and government in Egypt would by every
| 1V" art endeavour to increafe the number of ufeful animals
as the number of inhabitants increafed j and that with
143
this view they would make it criminal to kill or even to Bmte-
hurt Iheep, cows, oxen, or goats, &c. whilft they would ^ orfliip- ^
wage perpetual W'ar upon the noxious animals and beads
of prey. Such animals as were affifting to them in the
carrying on of this warfare would be juftly confidered
as in a high degree ufeful to fociety. Hence the moft;
grievous punidiments were decreed againft the killings
or fo much as the wounding, of the ichneumon and ibis;
becaufe the former was looked upon as the inftin&ive
enemy of the crocodile, and the latter of every fpecies of
lerpents. The learned writer, however, obferves, that in
Egypt as in other countries, people would be tempted to
facrifice the good of the public to the gratification of their
own appetites, and fometimes even to the indulgence of
a momentary caprice. He thinks it was found neceffary
to ftrengthen the authority of the laws enafted for the
prefervation of ufeful animals by the famftions of reli¬
gion : and he fays, that with this view the priefts decla¬
red that certain animals were under the immediate pro-
teftion of certain gods ; that fome of thofe animals had
a divine virtue refiding in them j and that they could
not be killed without the moft facrilegious wickednefs,
incurringthe higheft indignation of the gods. When once
the idolatrous Egyptians rvere perfuaded that certain ani¬
mals were facred to the immortal gods, and had a di¬
vine virtue refiding in them, they could not avoid view¬
ing thofe animals with fome degree of veneration j and
the priefts, taking advantage of the fuperftition of the
people, appointed for each fpecies of facred animals ap¬
propriated rites and ceremonies, which were quickly fol¬
lowed with building {brines and temples to them, and
approaching them with oblations and facrifices, and other
rites of divine adoration.
To corroborate this hypothefis, he obferves, that^
befides the animals facred over all Egypt, each pro¬
vince and each city had its particular animal to which
the inhabitants paid their devotions. This arofe from
the univerfal practice among idolaters of confecrating
to themfelves Lares and Penates ; and as the animals
which were worftiipped over the whole kingdom were-
confidered as facred to the Dii majorum gentium, fo the
animals whofe worftnp was confined to particular cities
or provinces, were facred to the Lares of thofe cities
and provinces. Hence there was in Upper Egypt a
city
(b) There is, however, another hypothefis worthy of fome attention, if it rvere only for the learning and ingenuity
of its author. The celebrated Cudworth infers, from the writings of Philo and other Platonifts of the Alexandrian
fchool, that the ancient Egyptians held the Platonic doftrine of ideas exifting from eternity, and conftituting, in
one of the perfons of the godhead, the intelligible and archetypal world. (See Platonism). Philo, he obferves,
did not himfelf confider thofe ideas as fo many diftinft fubjlances and animals, much lefs as gods ; but he mentions
others Avho deified the whole of this intelligible fyftem as well as its feveral parts. Hence, when they paid their
devotions to the fenfible fun, they pretended only to worlhip the divine idea or archetype of that luminary : and
hence, thinks our learned author, the ancient Egyptians, by falling down to bulls, and cows, and crocodiles,
meant at firft to worfhip only the divine and eternal ideas of thofe animals. He allows, indeed, that as few could
entertain any thoughts at all of thofe eternal ideas, there were fcarcely any who could perfuade themfelves that the
intelligible fyftem had fo much reality in it as the fenjible things of nature ; and hence he thinks thedevotion which
was originally paid to the divine ideas had afterwards no higher objeft than the brutes and vegetables of which
thofe ideas were the eternal patterns.
This hypothefis is ingenious, but not fatisfa£lory. There is no evidence that the myfterious doftrine of Plato
concerning ideas had anywhere been thought of for ages after brute-Avorfhip w as eftabliftied in Egypt. Of the
ftate of Egyptian theology at that early period, Philo, and the other philofophers of the Alexandrian fchool, had
no better means of forming a judgment than we have j and they laboured under many Grecian prejudices, which,
muft have prevented them from judging with our impartiality.
•144
P O L Y T
Erute- city called Lycopolis, becaufe its inhabitants vvorfhipped
. the wolf, while the inhabitants of Thebes, or Heliopolis,
w-f—— pgjj tyjgjj. devotions to the eagle, which was probably
looked upon as facred to the fun. Our author, how¬
ever, holds it as a faft which will admit of no difpute,
that there was not one noxious animal or beaft of prey
Worfhipped by the Egyptians till after the conqueft
of their country by the Perfians. That the earlieft
gods of Egypt were all benevolent beings, he appeals
to the teftimony of Diodorus Siculus; but he quotes
Herodotus and Plutarch as agreeing that the latter
Egyptians worfhipped an evil principle under the name
of Typhon. This Typhon was the inveterate enemy of
XDjins, juft as Ahraman was of Ormuzd; and therefore
he thinks it in the higheft degree probable that the
'Egyptians derived their belief of two felf-exiftent prin¬
ciples, a good and an evil, from their Perfian conquer¬
ors, among whom that opinion prevailed from the ear¬
lieft ages.
From whatever fource their belief was derived, Ty¬
phon was certainly worfhipped in Egypt, not with a
view of obtaining from him any good, for there was
nothing good in his nature, but in hopes of keeping
him quiet, and averting much evil. As certain animals
had long been facred to all the benevolent deities, it
was natural for a people fo befotted with fuperftition as
the Egyptians to confecrate emblems of the fame kind
to their god Typhon. Hence arofe the worfhip oi fer-
vents, crocodiles, bears, and other noxious animals and
beafts of prey. It may indeed feem at firft fight very
inconfiftent to deify fuch animals, after they had been
in the praftice for ages of wor(hipping others for being
their deflroyers; but it is to be remembered that long
before the deification of crocodiles, &c. the real origin
of brute worfhip was totally forgotten by the people,
if they were ever acquainted with it. The crafty prieft
who withes to introduce a gainful fuperftition, muft at
firft employ fome plaufible reafon to delude the multi¬
tude ; but after the fuperftition has been long and firm¬
ly eftablifhed, it is obvioufly his bufinefs to keep its ori¬
gin out of fight.
Such is Mofheim's account of the origin and pro-
grefs of that fpecies of idolatry which was peculiar to
Egypt j and with refpeft to the r;/£ of &wte-worfhip,
it appears perfeftly fatisfadory. But the Egyptians
worfhipped feveral fpecies of vegetables and it furely
could be no part of the policy of wife legiflators to pre-
ferve them from deftruclion, as vegetables are ufeful on¬
ly as they contribute to animal fubfiftence. We are
therefore obliged to call in the aid of W arburton’s hy-
pothefis to account for this branch of Egyptian fuperfti-
^on’ . • *
** Div. Leg. That learned and ingenious author having proved. ,
book iv. with great clearnefs and ftrength of argument, that hie-
feeft 4- roglyphic writing was prior to the invention of alpha¬
betic charaiSers. 5 and having traced that kind of wri-
H E I S M.
ting from fuch rude piftures, as thofe which were in ufe Brute,
among the Mexicans, through all the different fpecies ^°rfliip.
of what he calls eitriologic, tropical, and fymbolic hiero- '
glyphics (fee Hieroglyphics)—fhows, by many quo-continue(i
tatiorrs from ancient authors, that the Egyptian prieftsby the
wrapt up their theology in the fymbolic hieroglyphics, of
after alphabetic characters had banifhed from the tranf-
aCtions of civil life a mode of communicating informa-^
tion neceffarily fo obfeure. Thefe fymbols were the fi¬
gures of animals and vegetables, denoting, from fome
imaginary analogy, certain attributes of their divinities^
and when the vulgar, forgetting this analogy, ceafed to
underftand them as a fpecies of writing, and were yet
taught to confider them as facred, they could not well
view them in any other light than as emblems of the
divinities whom they adored. But if rude fculptures
upon ftone could be emblematical of the divinities, it
was furely not unnatural to infer, that the living ani¬
mals and vegetables which thofe fculptures reprefented
muft be emblems of the fame divinities more ftriking
and more facred. Hence the learned author thinks a-
rofe that wonderful fuperftition peculiar to the Egyp¬
tians, which made them worfhip not only animals and
vegetables, but alfo a thoufand chimeras of their own
creation j fuch as figures with human bodies and the
heads or feet of brutes, or with brutal bodies and the
heads and feet of men.
Thefe two hypothefes combined together appear to us
to account fufficiently for the idolatry of Egypt, mon-
ftrous as it Was. We are perfuaded that with refpeCl to
the origin of brute-worfhip, Mofheim is in the right (c) j
and it was a very eafy ftep for people in fo good train¬
ing to proceed upon the crutches of hieroglyphics to
the worftnp of plants and thofe chimeras, which, as they
never had a real exiftence in nature, could not have
been thought of as emblems of the divinity, had they
not been ufed in that fymbolic writing which Warbur-
ton fo ably and ingenioufly explains.
To this account of the origin of brute-worfhip, we
are fully aware that objections will occur. From a
learned friend, who perufed the article in manufeript,
we have been favoured with one which, as it is exceed-
ingly plaufible, we fhall endeavour to obviate. “ Brute-
wmrftiip was not peculiar to Egypt. The Hindoos, it
is well known, have a religious veneration for the cow
and the alligator j but there is no evidence that in In¬
dia the number of ufeful animals wras ever fo fmall as to
make the interference of the prince and the prieft ne-
ceffary for their prefervation; neither does it appear that
the Hindoos adopted from any other people the worftiip
of a felf-exiftent principle of evil.” Such is the objec¬
tion. To which we reply, . 3r
That there is every reafon to believe that brute-carried
worftiip was introduced into India by a colony of E-bom Egypt
gyptians at a very remote period. That between thefelnt0 Indl8j
two nations there was an early intercourfe, is univerfal-
(c) To prove that it was merely to preferve and increafe the breed of ufeful animals in Egypt, that the prince
and the prieft frjl taught the people to cOnfider fuch animals as facred,. he argues thus : “ Haec ita effe, non ex eo
tantum liquet, quod paulo ante obfervavi, nullas beftias univerfo ^gyptiorum populo facras fin Je, pneter eas, quae
manifeftam region! utilitatem comparent; fed inde quoque apparet, quod longe major ratio habita fuit famellarum
ifiler animalia, quam marium. Boves diis immolare licebat, vaccas nullo modo. Canes foeminee contumulabantur.
non item mares.” Tege HerODOT. Hijlor. lib. ii. cap. 41. & cap. 67.
POLYTHEISM. PLATE f'f'CfWWW
A'////'/ /' i ■ W8<-D.IJizarfEdin r
THE PRINCIPAL IDOLS OF THE SAXONS WORSHIPPED IN BRITAIN.
ISWARA
BRAHMA
INDIAN GODS.
XTSHNIT
Theogony. ly allowed : and tliough the learned prefident of the A-
fiatic Society has laboured to prove, that the Egyptians
derived all that wifdom for which they were famed, as
well as the rudiments of their religious fyilem, from the
natives of Hindoftan, he does not appear to us to have
laboured with fuccefs. To examine his arguments at
length would fwell this article beyond its due propor¬
tion } and we have noticed fome of them el few he re (Tee
Philology, N° 33 and 39). At prefent we fhall on¬
ly obferve, that Seibltris undoubtedly made an inroad
into India, and conquered part of the country, whilft we
nowhere read of the Hindoos having at any time con
POLYTHEISM. i45
fettled in India. To him who is not fatisfied with our Theogony.
reafoning on this fubjedt, we beg leave to recommend
an attentive perufal of Maurice’s Indian Antiquities,
where he will find many fads brought together, which
tend to prove that Egypt has a juft claim to a higher
antiquity than India.
Having thus traced the rife and progrefs of poly-Polytheifts
theifm and idolatry as they prevailed in the mofl cele-ac^now-
brated nations of antiquity, we now proceed to inquire kc^ed 0
iniw ♦■lua *t„  1.'  • ,i iupieme
quered the kingdom of Egypt. Now, though the vic¬
tors have fometimes adopted the religion of the van-
quilhed, the contrary has happened fo much more fre¬
quently, and is in itfelf a procefs fo much more natu¬
ral, that this fingle circumtlance affords a ftrong pre-
fumption that the Egyptian monarch would rather im-
pofe his gods upon the Hindoos than adopt theirs and
carry them with him to Egypt. Brute-worihip might
likewife be introduced into Hindoftan by thole vaft co¬
lonies of Egyptians who took refuge in that country
from the tyranny and oppreflion of the ihepherd kings.
That fuch colonies did fettle on fome occafion or other
in India, feems undeniable from monuments ftill remain¬
ing in that country, of forms which could hardly have
occurred to a native of Alia, though they are very na¬
tural as the work mars (hip of Africans. But we need
not reafon in this manner. We have feen a manufeript
letter from Mr Burt, a learned furgeon in Bengal, and
a member of the Afiatic Society, which puts it beyond
a doubt that great numbers of Egyptians had at a very
•early period not only fettled in Hindoftan, but alfo
brought with them writings relating to the hiftory of
their country. As the ftiepherd-kings were enemies to
The arts and to literature, it is probable that this fettle-
ment took place on their conqueft of Egypt. Mr
Burt’s words are : “ Mr Wilford, lieutenant of engi¬
neers, has extracted moft wonderful difeoveries from the
Shanfcrit records : fuch as the origin and hiftory of the
Egyptian pyramids, and even the account of the ex¬
pence in their building.” Upon our hypothefis there
is nothing incredible in this account ; upon the hypo-
thefts of Sir William Jones, it is not eafy to be con¬
ceived how the hiftory of Egyptian pyramids could have
found a place in the Shanfcrit records.
We may admit that the Hindoos have never adopted
from the Perfians or Egyptians the worfhip of an inde¬
pendent principle of evil, and yet rlifpofe of the other
part of the obje&ion with very little difficulty. It will
be feen by and bye, that the bramins believe a kind of
triad of hypoftafes in the divine nature, of which one is
viewed as the dejlroijer, and known by feveral names,
fuch as Siva and Ifwara. When brute-worlhip was in¬
troduced into Hindoftan, it was not unnatural to con-
lider the alligator as emblematical of Ifwara ; and hence
in all probability it is that the Hindoos believe that a
man cannot depart more happily from this world than
by falling into the Ganges, and being devoured by one
of thole facred animals. Upon the 'whole, the brute-
worfhip of the Hindoos, inftead of militating againft
our^account of that monftrous fuperftition as it prevail¬
ed in Egypt, feems to lend no fmall fupport to that ac¬
count, as there was unqueftionably an early intercourfe
between the two nations, and as colonies of Egyptians
Vol. XVII. Part I.
into the real opinions of thofe nations concerning thc^-y^
nature of the gods whom they adored. And here it is ' ’
evident from the writings of Homer, Hefiod, and the
other poets, who were the principal theologians among
the Greeks and Homans, that though heaven, earth,
hell, and all the elements, were filled with divinities,
there was yet one who, whether called Jove, Ofris, Or-
mux-d, or by any other title, was confidered as lupreme
over all the reft. “ Whence each of the gods tvas ge¬
nerated (fays Herodotus *), or whether they have °alU Lib j; .
exifted from eternity, and what are i\wu-forms, is ac. 51.
thing that was not known till very lately ; for Hefiod
and Homer were, as I fuppofe, not above four hundred
years my feniors j and thefe were they who introduced
the. theogony among the Greeks, and gave the gods
their feveral names.” Now Hefiod f, towards the be- f Verf.
ginning of his theogony, exprefsly invokes his mufe to 104—112.
celebrate in fuitable numbers the generation of the im¬
mortal gods who had fprung from the earth, the dark
night, the ftarry heavens, and the fait fea. He calls up-from^
on her likewife to fay, “ in what manner the gods, tl)e w'lom ft'e
earth, the rivers, ocean, ftars, and firmament, were oe_°!!!er divi~
nerated, and what divine intelligences had fprung from
them of. benevolent difpofitions towards mankind.^ ^ '
From this invocation, it is evident that the poet did
not confider the gods of Greece as felf-exiftent beings :
neither could hz look upon them as creatures ; for of
creation the ancient Greeks had no conception (fee
Metaphysics, N° 264.); but he confidered them as
emanations coeval with the earth and heavens, from
fome fuperior principles ; and by the divine intelligen¬
ces fprung from them, there cannot be a doubt but that
he underftood benevolent darmons. The firft principles
of all things, according to the fame Hefiod, were Chaos,
and Tartarus, and Love ; of which only the laft being
aftive, muft undoubtedly have been conceived by this
father of Grecian polytheifm to be the greateft and on¬
ly felf-exifting god. This we fay muft: undoubtedly
have been Hefiod’s belief, unlefs by Tartarus we here
underftand a felf-exiftent principle of evil; and in that
cafe his creed will be the fame with that of the ancient
Perfians, who, as we have feen, believed in the felf-ex-
iftence as well of AJiraman as of Onnu’zd.
Hefiod is fuppofed to have taken his theology from
Orpheus ; and it is evident that his doftrine concerning
the generation of the gods is the fame with that taught
in certain verfes * ufually attributed to Orpheus, in«
which Love and Chaos are thus brought together.17.
“ We will firft fing (fays the poet) a pleafant and de-edk. Steph,
lightful fong concerning the ancient Chaos, how the
heavens, earth, and feas, were formed out of it j as alfo
concerning that all-wife Love, the oldeft and felf-per-
fe& principle, which actively produced all thefe things,
feparating one from another.” In the original paffage,
Love is faid not only to be TreAt^-n^of much wifdom or
fagacity, and therefore a real intelligent fubftance j but
E alfa
146
Theo'ionv
POLYTHEISM.
alto to be and civT6n\vi$, the o/de/l and felf-
perfoci, and therefore a being of fuperior order to the.
other divinities who were generated together with the
elements over which they were conceived to prelide.
With the theology of Homer onr readers of all de-
fcriptions are fo well acquainted, that we need not fwell
the article with quotations, to prove that the lather of
epic poetry held Jove to be the father of gods and men.
But the do&rine of the poets was the creed of the vul¬
gar Greeks and Romans •, and therefore we may con¬
clude, that thofe nations, though they worthipped gods
and lords innumerable, admitted but one, or at the
moft two (d), felf-exiftent principles ; the one good and
the other evil. It does not indeed appear, that m the
fyttem of vulgar paganifm the fubordinate gods were
accountable to their chief for any part of their condutr,
except when they tranfgrefled the limits of the provinces
affigned them. Venus anight condudl the amours of
heaven and earth in whatever manner die pleafed 5 Mi¬
nerva might communicate or with-hold wifdom from any
individual with or without reafon •, and we find, that in
Homer’s battles the gods were permitted to feparate
into parties, and to fupport the Greeks or I rojans ac¬
cording as they favoured the one or the other nation.
Jove indeed fometimes called them to order •, but his
interference was thought partial, and an inftance of ty¬
rannical force rather than of juft authority, ihe vul¬
gar Greeks, therefore, although they admitted but one,
or at moft two, felf-exiftent principles, did not confider
the inferior divinities as mediators between them and
the fupreme, but as gods to whom their worlhip was on
certain occafions to be ultimately direfted.
The creed of the philofophers feems to have been
different. Such of them as were theifts, and believed
in the adminiftration of Providence, admitted of but one
God, to whom worlhip was ultimately due •, and they
adored the fubordinate divinities as his children and mi-
nifters, by whom the courfe of Providence was carried
on. With refpeft to the origin of thofe divinities,
* Timaus. Plato is very explicit j where he tells us*, that “ when
34
though
each was
} y the vul¬
gar confi-
dered as
unaccount¬
able in his
own pro¬
vince.
35
©reed of
the philofo
phers and
all the gods, both thofe who move vifibly round the Theogony.
heavens, and thofe who appear to us as often as they ^ J
pleafe, were generated, that God, who made the whole
univerfe, fpoke to them after this manner: Ye gods of
gods, of whom I myfelf am father, attend.” Cicero
teaches the very fame doclrine with Plato concerning
the gods-f- •, and Maximus Tyrius, who feems to havef TVyi-.
underftood the genius of polytheifm as thoroughly as fpej- lib.
any man, gives us the following clear account of thatet
fyftem as received by the philofophers. _ Deorum,
“ I will now more plainly declare my fenfe J by thispajfim.
fimilitude : Imagine a great and powerful kingdom or t DiJJert. i,
principality, in which all agree freely and with one
confent to direft their a&ions according to the will and
command of one fupreme king, the oldeft and the bell j ^
and then fuppofe the bounds and limits of this empire
not to be the river Halys, nor the Hellefpont, nor the
Meotian lake, nor the fhores of the ocean } but heaven
above, and the earth beneath. Here then let that great
king fit immoveable, prefcribing to all his fubjefts laws,
in the obfervance of which confift their fafety and hap-
pinefs : the partakers of his empire being many, both
vifible and invifible gods } fome of which that are near-
eft, and immediately attending on him, are in the high-
eft regal dignity, feafting as it were at the fame table $
others again are iheir minifters and attendants ; and a
third fort are inferior to them both : and thus you fee
how the order and chain of this government defcends
down by fteps and degrees from the fupreme god to
the earth and men.” In this paffage we have a plain
acknowledgement of one fupreme U-od, the fovereign of
the univerfe, and of three inferior orders of gods, who
were his minifters in the government of the world :
and it is worthy of obfervation, that the fame writer
calls thefe intelligences tfeouj, kov nxitix? kxi <£><X«vs, go</s,
the fans and friends of gods. He likewife affirms, that ail
ranks of men, and all nations on earth, whether barba¬
rous or civilized, held the fame opinions refpe£ling one
fupreme Numen and the generation of the other gods.
“ If there were a meeting (fays he "*) called of all* IIid.
(D). Plutarch is commonly fuppofed, and we think ju^y uppo.c ^ ^ ^ Of ride) to have been
principles, a good and an evil. I if rs and lawgivers, by poets and‘philofophers. “ Though the
moft ancient and umverfal, and derived fromtUHo e ^ everywhere, that traces of it are to be
** the Se Greeks, lie iS 1 confufed re of good
found in the iacnbces ana my^eri , , . Wherefore it is not one only difpenfer of things,
and evil in every thing, and nothing , 1 j fe feveyral liquors Qf good and evil, mingling them together,
g“d “""fp the caufe ofeva> there be a dift,na prm'
ciple in nature for the produftion of ^ * s to us f0 very evident as to admit of no debate. It
Tl»t this is P4>ahb^;*^i4e“codworthV bt'that author labours to prove that Plutarch tniftook the
appeared m the fame light to the » Anaxabras, and Plato, vhcn he attributed to them the fame opi-
fenfe of Pythagoras, Empedocles Ke^clttu^Anax^ora^r ^ ;t beymd a doubt, that whatever ivae
nions which were held by himfeL. ’ , , -n. of two independent principles, it was taken im-
Plutarch’s belief by L fame motives with
plicitly from the writings of Plat • , p] d plutarch nothing active was underftood by their evil
Cudworth, wiflies to perfuade his readers that ^ ^ato ™ . infeparable from matter. But that fomething
principle, but only that after the words which we have quoted, Plutarch proceeds to
more was meant feems undeniable . tor or, that there are two pods, as it were, of contrary
one l^thejauthor 7‘^ool\ni the’ other of all evil. See Mojkem. ej. CudwrtL
SijJiem. Intelled. lib. i. cap. 4. § 13.
POLYTHEISM.
,35
Indian Bra
mins.
Plate
rheo,rony. tliefe feveral profeflions, a painter, a ftatuary, a poet,
—Y i a phJlofopher, and all of them were required to de¬
clare their fenfe concerning the God; do you think that
the painter would fay one thing, the ftatuary another,
the poet a third, and the philofopher a fourth ? No;
nor the Scythian neither ; nor the Greek, nor the Hy¬
perborean. In other things we find men fpeaking very
difcordantly, all men as it were differing from all. But
amidft this war, contention, and difcord, you may find
everywhere, throughout the whole world, one uniform
law and opinion, that there is ONE God, the king
and father of all, and many gods, the sons of
God, who reign with God. Thefe things both the
Greek and Barbarian affirm, both the inhabitants of the
continent and of the fea-coaft, both the wife and the
unwife.
This account of philofopbical polytheifm receives no
fmall fupport from the Afiatic Refearches of Sir Wil¬
liam Jones. “ It muft always be remembered (fays
that accompliffied fcholar), that the learned Indians, as
they are inftructed by their own books, acknowledge
only one fupreme Being, whom they call Brahme, or
ccccxxxv. THE GREAT ONE, in the neuter gender. They believe
his effence to be infinitely removed from the compre-
henfion of any mind but his own ; and they fuppofe
him to manifeft his power by the operation of his di¬
vine fpirit, whom they name ViSHNOU thepervader, and
Ne'ra'yan or moving on the waters, both in the maf-
culine gender ; whence he is often denominated theJirJl
tnale. When they confider the divine power as exerted in
creating or giving exiftence to that which exifted not be¬
fore, they call the deity Brahma'; when they view
him in the light of dejlroyer, or rather changer of forms,
they give him a thoufand names, of which Siva, Is-
WARA, and Mahadeva, are the moft common; and
when they confider him as the preferver of created
things, they give him the name of Vishnou. As the
foul of the world, or the pervading mind, fo finely de-
fcribed by Virgil, we fee Jove reprefented by feveral
Roman poets; and with great fublimity by Lucan in
the well-known fpeech of Cato concerning the Ammo-
nian oracle, ‘ Jupiter is wherever we look, wherever we
move.’ This is precifely the Indian idea of Vishnou:
for fince the power of preferving created things by a
fuperintending providence belongs eminently to the god¬
head, they hold that power to exift tranfcendently in
the preferving member of the triad, whom they fup¬
pofe to be EVERYWHERE always, not in fubftance,
but in fpirit and energy.” This fupreme god Brah-
ME, in his triple form, is the only felf-exiftent divinity
acknowledged by the philofophical Hindoos. The
other divinities Genesa, Indra, Cuvera, &c. are
all looked upon either as his creatures or his children ;
and of courfe are worlhipped only with inferior adora¬
tion.
It was upon this principle of the generation of the
._ g°ds» and of their acting as minifters to the fupreme
14'
37
Why the
philofo-
diers wor
■hipped the
nferior di-
•'iaitiei.
Numen, that all the pbilofophers of Greece, who were Theogony.
not atheifts, worlhipped many divinities, though they v-'-—
either openly condemned or fecretly defpifed the tradi¬
tions of the poets refpedting the amours and villanies
of Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, and the reft of the tribe.
It was the fame principle fincerely admitted, and notan
ill-timed jeft, as has been abfurdly luppoied, that made
Socrates, after he had 1 wallowed the poifon, requeft his
friend to offer a votive cock for him to Efculapius.
But a theogony was not peculiar to the Greeks, Ro¬
mans, and the Hindoos ; it made part of every fyftem
of polytheifm. Even the Egyptians themfelves, the
groffeft of all idolaters, believed in one felf-exitting God,
from whom all their other divinities defeended by gene¬
ration. This appears probable, from the writings of Ho-
rus Apollo, Jamblicus, Porphyry, and many other an¬
cient authors; but if the inlcription on the gates of the
temple of Neith in Sais, as we have it from Plutarch
and Proclus, be genuine, it will admit of no doubt.
This famous infeription, according to the laft of thefe
writers, was to this purpoie: “ I am whatever is, what¬
ever lhall be, and whatever hath been. My veil no man
hath removed. The offspring which I brought forth
was the fun (e).”
The Perfian magi, as we have feen, believed in two
felf-exiftent principles, a good and an evil: but if Dio¬
genes Laertius deferves to be credited, they held that
fire, earth, and water, which they called gods, were ge¬
nerated of thefe tw.o. It was oblerved in the beginning
of this article, that the firft objedl of idolatrous worftiip
was probably the fun, and that this fpecies of idolatry
took its rife in Chaldea or Perfia. But when it became
the practice of eaftern monarchs to conceal themfelves
wholly from their people, the cuftom, as implying dig¬
nity, was fuppofed to prevail as well in heaven as on
earth ; and Zoroafter, the reformer of the Perfian theo-
logy, taught*, that “ Ormuzd was as far removed from * Plutarch
the fun as the fun is removed from the earth.” Accord- de Ifid. et
ing to this modification of magianifm, the fun was one Ofiride.
of the generated gods, and held the office of prime mi-
nifter or vicegerent to the invifible fountain of light and
good. Still, however, a felf-exiftent principle of evil
was admitted; but though he could not be deftroyed or
annihilated by any power, it was believed that he would
at laft be completely vanquifhed by Ormuzd and his
minifters, and rendered thenceforward incapable of pro¬
ducing any mifehief.
From this fhort view of polytheifm, as we find it de¬
lineated by the beft writers of antiquity, we think our-
felves warranted to conclude, that the whole pagan
world believed in but one, or at moft two, self-exist-
ENT GODS, from whom they conceived all the other di¬
vinities to have defeended in a manner analogous to hu¬
man generation. It appears, however, that the vulgar
pagans confidered each divinity as fupreme and unac¬
countable within his own province, and therefore intit-
led to worfhip, which refted ultimately in himfelf. The
T 2 philofophers,
(e) T* ay]ae, Kta itrouitm, xxi rx yiyoioTX, lyu upu. Tan i/xci %iTMX XTrtxxhv^tv. 'Or lym xxgxur, s5A<aj lamia.
The antiquity of this infeription is admitted by Cudworth, denied by Mofheim, and doubted by Jablonfki. The
reader who wifhes to know their arguments may confult Moffieim’s edition of the Intellectual System, and Jablon-
su’s Pantheon JEgyptiorum,
148
Theogony.
3 s
Vulgar po-
lytbeifts
lefs cul¬
pable than
the philoft)'
phers.
•* Varro
flpud D.
Augnfl. de
Civ. Dei,
P O L Y T
phllofophers, on tlie other hand, feem to have viewed
the inferior gods as accountable for every part of their
conduff to him who was their fire and fovereign, and to
have paid to them only that inferior kind of devotion
which the church of Rome pays to departed faints. The
vulgar pagans were funk in the grofTeft ignorance, from
w hich ftatefmen, prieils, and poets, exerted their utmoft
influence to keep them from emerging 5 for it was a
maxim which, however abfurd, was univerfally received,
that “ there vrere many things true in religion *, which
it was not convenient for the vulgar to know j and fome
H E I s M.
things which, though falfe, it was yet expedient that Theogonp
they fhould believe,” The polytheifm and idolatry of—V—^
the vulgar, therefore, was their misfortune rather than
their fault. But the philofophers were wholly “ with¬
out excufe * j becaufe that when they knew God, they * Rom •_
glorified him not as God, neither were thankful, but 20, 21, xg,
became vain in their imaginations, and their foolifh heart 25.
was darkened. Profeffing themfelves wife, they became
fools, and w or {hipped and ferved the creature more than
the Creator, who is God bleffed for ever.”
Jfolytri-
chum
II
Polvxo.
P O L
POLYTRICHUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index. R he an-
thera is operculated, and placed upon a very fmall apo-
phyfis or articulation ; the calyptra villous ; the ftar of
the female is on a diftindl individual. R'here are 16
fpeejes j the moft remarkable of which, natives of Bri¬
tain, is the commune, or great golden maiden-hair, fre¬
quently to be met with in bogs and wet places. It grows
in patches ; the (talks ere£t, generally fingle and un¬
branched, from three inches to q,foot or even a yard
-high. The leaves are numerous, ftiff, lanceolate, acute,
growing round the ftalk without order, and, if viewed
with a microfcope, appear to have their edges finely fer-
rated. There are two varieties of this mofs: the firft
has much (hotter (talks than the preceding,, and often
branched ; the leaves differ, erect, and more crowded j
in other refpects the fame. The other; has a dalk fcarce-
ly more than half an inch high, terminated with a cluf-
ter of linear, eredt, rigid leaves, for the mod part entire
on the edges, and tipped each with a white hair. The
filament is about an. inch high, and the capfule quad¬
rangular. The female flower, or gem, is of a bright
red colour.
The firit kind, when it grows long enough for the
purpofe, is fometimes ufed in England- and Holland to
make brooms or brufhes. Of the female fort the Lap¬
landers, when obliged to deep in defert places, frequent¬
ly make a fpeedy and convenient bed, in the following
manner : Where the mois grows thick together, they
mark out, with a knife, a piece of ground, about two
yards fquare, or of the fize of a common blanket; then
beginning at one corner, they gently fever the turf from
the ground, and as the roots of the mofs are clofely in¬
terwoven and matted together, they by degrees drip off
the whole circumferibed turf in one entire piece j after¬
wards they mark and draw up another piece, exa&ly
eorrefponding with the fird ; then, diaking them both
with their hands, they lay one upon the ground,, with
the roofs uppermod, indead of a matrafs, and the other
over it, with the mofs downwards, indead of a rug *, and
between the two pieces they enjqy a comfortable deep.
POLYXiENUS, or POLYiENUS. See PoLYiENUS.
POLYXO, a priedefs of Apollo’s temple in Lemnos.
She was likewife nurfe to Queen Hypfipyle. It was by
her advice that the Lemnian women murdered all their
hufbands.—There was another Polyxo, a native of Ar-
5
P O M
gos, who married Tlepolemus fon of Hercules. She fol¬
lowed him to Rhodes after the murder of his uncle Li-
cymnius •, and when he departed for the Trojan war with
the red of the Greek princes, die became the foie midrefs
of the kingdom. After the Trojan war, Helen fled from
Peloponnefus to Rhodes,, where Polyxo reigned.. Polyxo
detained her j and to punifti her as. being the caufe of a
war in which Tlepolemus had perifhed, (he ordered her
to be hanged on a tree by her female iervants, difguifed
in the habit of Furies.
POMACEvE, (•pomum, “ an apple,”) the name af
the 36th order in Linnseus’s Fragments of a Natural
Method, the genera of which have a pulpy efculent fruit,
of the apple, berry, and cherry kind. See Botany,
Natural Orders.
POMATUM, an unguent generally ufed in drefling
the hair. It is alfo employed as a medicine.
POMEGRANATE. See Punica, Botany Index.
POMERANIA, a province in Germany,_ in the
circle of Upper Saxony, having formerly the title of a
duchy. It is bounded on the north by the Baltic fea,
on the eaff by Pruflia and. Poland, on the fouth by the
marquifate of Brandenburg, and on the weft by the
duchy of Mecklenburg ; and is about 250 miles in
length, and in feme places 75 miles and in others 50 in
breadth. It is watered by feveral rivers, the moft con-
fiderable of which are the Oder, the Pene, the Rega,
the Perfant, the Wipper, the Stolp, the Lupo, and the
Lobo. The air is cold ; but the foil abounds in paf-
tures, and produces corn, of which a great deal is ex¬
ported. It is a flat country, containing many lakes,
woods,, and forefts, and has feveral good harbours. It is
divided into the Hither and Farther Pomerania, and the
former territories of the kings of Sweden and Piuflia in
this dachy are divided by the river Pene j but fince the
north of Europe was overrun by the French, Pomerania
has changed matters. See Prussia.
POMFRET, John, an Englifh poet, fen of the rec¬
tor of Luton in Bedfordfhire, was born in 1667, anc^
educated at Cambridge*, after which be took orders,,
and was prefented to the living of Malden in Bedford-
fhire. About 1703 he went to London for inftitution
to a larger and very confiderable living *, but was flop¬
ped fome time by Compton, then biftiop of London, on
account of thefe four lines of his poem, entitled the
Choice: , ,
“ And
Polyxo-
II
Pom fret.
Pomfret
:Pomcemim.
POM [
u And as I near approach’d the verge of life,
Some kind relation (for I’d have no wife),
Should take upon him all my worldly care,
While I did for a better ftate prepare.”
149] POM
the wall upon it.”—Plutarch, in this account, is to be PomoerJufa
underftood as fpeakine of Rome. N ..
j. o Fomneili
POMOERIUM Proferrv, fignifies to extend or enlarge ^ .
a city, which could not be done by any? but thofe who
had taken away fome part of an enemy’s country in war.
The parenthefes in thefe lines were fo malicioufly repre-
fented, that the good bithop was made to believe that
Pomfret preferred a miftrefs to a wife. But he was foon
convinced that this reprefentation was the mere effect
of malice, as Pomfret at that time was a&ually married.
The oppofition, however, which his ilanderers had made
to him had its effe£l j for, being by this obliged to Hay
in London longer than he intended, hecatched thefmall-
pox, and died of it, aged 35.
Pie publifaed a volume of his poems in 1699, with a
very modeft and feniible preface. Two pieces of his
were published after his death by his friend Philalethes j
one intitled Reafon, and written in 1700, when the dif-
putes about the Trinit y ran high •, the other Dies Novif-
fima, or the “ Lad Epiphany,” a Pindaric ode. Plis
verfification is not urvmuilcal 5 but there is not the force
in his writings which is neceffary to conftitute a poet.
A didenting teacher of his name, and who publifhed
fome rhimes upon fpiritual fubiefts, occafioned fanaticifm
to be imputed to him ; but his friend Philalethes has
juftly cleared him from the. imputation. Pomfret had a
very ftrong mixture of devotion in him, but no fanati¬
cifm.
“ The Choice (fays Dr Johnfon) exhibits a fyftem of
life adapted to common notions, and equal to common
expedlations ; fuch a ftate as affords plenty and tranquil¬
lity, rvithout exclufton of intelle&ual pleafures. Per-
liaps no compofition in our language has been oftener
perufed than Pomfret’s Choice. In his other poems
there is an eafy volubility ; the pleafure of fenooth metre
is afforded to the ear, and the mind is not opprefl’ed with
ponderous, or intangled with intricate, fentiment. He
pleafes many 5 and he who pleafes many muft have me¬
rit.”
POM ME, or Pommette, in Heraldry, is a crofs
with one or more balls or knobs at each of the ends.
POMMEL, or Pummel, in the Manege, a piece of
brafs or other matter at the tap and in the middle of the
faddle-bow.
POMMEREULLI A, a genus of plants belonging
to the triandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany In¬
dex.
POMOERIUM, in Roman antiquity, Avas, according
to Livy, that fpace of ground, both Avithin and Avithout
the Avails, which the augurs, at the firft building of ci¬
ties, folenmly confecrated, and on which no edifices Avere
alloAved to be raifed. Plutarch gives this account of the
ceremony of drawing the pomoerium : “ They dug a
trench, and threw into it the firft-fruits of all things, ei¬
ther good by cuftom, or neceffary by nature ; and every
man taking a fmall turf of earth of the country from
whence he came, they caft them in promifeuoufly. Then
making this trench their centre, they deferibed the city
in a circle round it. After this, the founder yoking a
bull and a coav together, ploughed a deep furrorv, with
a brazen ploughfhare, round the bounds. The attend¬
ants took care that all the clods fell inwards, i. e. tovvard
the city. This furrow they called Pomoerium, and built
But this qualification was fometimes difpenfed Avith. Po-
moerium is yuajipone mania, “ behind the AA’alls.”
POMONA, in fabulous hiftory, the tutelar deity of
orchards and fruit-trees. See Vertumnus.
POMPEII (anc. geog.) a toAvn of Campania near
Herculaneum, and deftroyed along with it by the great
eruption of Vefuvius in the time of Titus. See Her¬
culaneum. It is about 13 miles from Naples, and fix
or feven from Portici—So much has been laid and Avrit-
ten on the difeovery of this place, as makes it unnecef-
fary for us to fay much : we (hall therefore only give a
fhort extradl on the fubjeft from an anonymous work
lately publifhed, apparently of confiderable merit. “ On
entering the city (fays our author*), the firft objefl is a* ComRa-
pretty fquare, with arcades, after the prefent manner ofrative
Italy. This Avas, as it is imagined, the quarter of the Sketch of
foldiers ; numbers of military weapons being found here.^J^^,
“ A narroAV, but long ftreet, with feA'eral (hops on
each fide, is now perfectly cleared of its rubbifh, and in quifitions
good prefervation. Each houfe has a court. In fome on Nation-
of them are paintings al frefco, principally in chiaro-1^ AdTan~
feuro ; and their colours not the leaft injured by time/7*0'
The few colours Avhich the ancients knew Avere extract¬
ed only from minerals ; and this may be a fufficient rea¬
fon for their frefhnefs. The ftreet is paved Avith irregu¬
lar tlones of a foot and a half or two feet long, like the
Appian Avay.
“ In difeovering this city, it Avas at firft doubted Avhe-
ther it Avere adtually Pompeii : but the name inferibed
over the gateAvay put it beyond all doubt. The fkele-
tons found Avere innumerable. It is faid that many had
fpades in their hands, endeavouring, probably at firft, to
clear arvay the torrent of afhes Avith Avhich they Avere de¬
luged. Indeed the fatisfa&ion Avhich is felt at the view
of ancient habitations, is much allayed by inevitable re- ■
fle&ions on this frightful feene of de.folation, though at
the diftance of fo many centuries.
“ An ancient villa is alfo feen entire at a little di¬
ftance from Pompeii.. The houfe is really elegant and
fpacious, but only tAvo ftories high.. The pavement of
the chambers is eompofed of teffelated marble, and,
Avhen poliftied,> difplays the defign perfectly Avell.—-
There is fome at the ruufeum of Portici brought from
this place, Avhich the eye Avould really miftake for paint¬
ing. Under the houfe is a fine triangular cellar, of
which each part is. 10© feet long, Avtll filled with am¬
phorae. The fkeletons of 29 perfons were found here,
fuppofed to have fled to it for fafety. Each houfe is
filled Avith aftres : they have almoft penetrated through
every crevice; and it is incredible how fuch a volume
of them could have been throAvn out by Vbfuvius Avith
fufficient force to have reached fo far,” It has been
obferved by feme travellers that fpoons Avere found
among the ruins of Pompeii, but no forks, from Avhich
it is concluded, that table utenfils of the latter deferip-
tion Avere not known to the Romans at that period.
Forks, it is fuppofed, Avere invented at Conftantinople,
and were not in ufe in Italy till about the year 1000 of
the Chriftian era.
P O M [ If
Pompeii. In concluding our account of Herculaneum, it was
Hated that the means attempted for unrolling the ma-
nulcripts found among the ruins, had been unfuccefs-
ful, and that the plan had been dropped. It will not,
we prefume, be a little gratifying to the admirers of an¬
cient literature, to be informed that this difficult labour
lias been refumed under the aufpices of his Royal High-
nefs the Prince of Wales *, and that fix volumes of Pa¬
pyri prefented to his Royal Highnefs by the king of
Naples have reached London.
In the year 1800 the Rev. Mr Hay ter, an excellent
fcholar, with a liberal proviiion from the prince, and
with permilfion of the king of Naples, went to Italy for
the purpofe of unrolling and tranfcribing the Papyri.
The following narrative extracted from a letter addreff-
ed to his royal patron by Mr Hay ter, will, we doubt
not, be interefting to our readers :
“ The numerous fettlements (fays the author) of the
Greeks in Italy received the name of Magna Graecia,
becaufe their mother country wras of a fize confiderably
lefs than that in which they w^ere planted : among thefe
were nearly ail the cities in the province of Campania,
including Naples, the capital of his Sicilian majefty, and
alfo Herculaneum, and Pompeii, which are fuppofed to
boaft a foundation coeval with Hercules himftlf, three
thoufand and fifty years ago, or twelve hundred and fifty
years before the Chridian era. This province, more than
any other part of Magna Gracia, w^as always celebrated
for the ftudious and fuccefsful cultivation of the arts and
fciences. The two cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii
ranked next to that of Naples in every refpeft, as places
. of confiderable note ; they had their public theatres,
with every other attendant of great population,fplendour,
opulence, and general profperity. Thefe, in common
with all the red: of Campania, became the elegant and
favourite refort of the Romans, for the different purpofes
of health, luxury, repofe, and erudition.
“In the ninth year of Nero’s reign, thefe two cities
experienced a molt formidable (hock from an earthquake,
which overthrew a great part of them. Nor had they
recovered altogether from the effedls of this calamity by
their own exertions, and the aid of imperial munificence,
when a fecond calamity, of a different nature, but equal¬
ly unexpected, configned them both at once to the molt
complete oblivion. This calamity Avas the great erup¬
tion of Vefuvius, which happened on the 24th day of
Auguft, tAvo full months from the aecefiion of the em¬
peror Titus Vefpafian. Herculaneum Avas buried under
a mafs of lava, and volcanic matter, to the depth of 24
feet. Pompeii, being more diftant from the mountain,
was overwhelmed principally with a fhoAver of allies, nor
in any place more than half the depth of the other city.
But the fate of both avss fudden and inevitable j and yet
it appears that almoft all of the inhabitants, and, Avhat
is an equally furprifing circumftance, more of the Her-
culanear.s than the Pompeians, efcaped. By the few Ike-
letons Avhich have been found in either place, the rela¬
tion of Dio Caffius, Avho ftates the deftruCHon of the
people Avhile affembled at the theatre, is proved to be
totally erroneous. It may be proper to remark, that
before this eruption the Avhole of Vefuvius Avas in a ftate
of cultivation and fertility, from the top to the bottom j
and though the form and foil of the mountain in one
particular fpot feemed to denote the traces of fome for-
0 ] POM
mer explofion, yet no extant memorial of any kind had Posnpf\i.
recorded it. “'V—-
“ Neither of thefe two cities Avas difcovereclagain till
a long period of lixteen hundred and thirty-four years
had elapfed. It was in the year 1713, that fome la¬
bourers, in finking a well, ftruck their tools againft a
ftatue, which was on a bench in the theatre of Hercu¬
laneum. Forty years afterAvards Pompeii Avas excavat¬
ed with much lefs difficulty, as the incumbent ftratum
Avas neither fo hard nor fo deep as that of the former
city.
“ The number of the manuferipts faved from both
thofe cities is faid to be about 500 ; but, if I am right- '
ly informed by thofe Avhofe official fituation muff give
them a competent knowledge of the fubjeft, your royal
highnefs, by facilitating the developement of thefe vo¬
lumes, Avill probably be the means of further excava¬
tion, and of refeuing from their interment an infinite
quantity of others. About thirty years ago, his Sicilian
majefty ordered the developement, the tranfeription, and
the printing of the volumes Avhich had then been faved,
to be undertaken. This operation was accordingly be¬
gun, and has never been difeontinued till the late inva-
fion of the French. But its mode, hoAvever excellent,
Avas extremely flow •, it has been performed by a Angle
perfon, Avith a ungle frame only, under the diredlion of
the marquis del Vafto, chamberlain to the king, and
prefident of the royal academy.
“ The frame confifts of feveral taper and oblong pieces
of Avood, with parallel threads of filk that run on each
fide, the length of each piece : Avhen the frame is laid
on any volume, each piece of Avood mull be fixed pre-
cifely over each line of the page, while the refpeflive
threads being Avorked beneath each line, and affifted by
the correfponding piece of wood above, raife the line
upAvards, and difclofe the chara£ters to view.
“ The operation feems ingenious, and Avell adapted to
the purpofe : it Avas, I believe, invented by a capuchin
at Naples. The fruits of it are faid to be tAVo publica¬
tions only; one on mufic, by the celebrated Philodemus,
Avho Avas a cotemporary of Cicero 5 and the other on
cookery. The firft is in his majefty’s library, at the
queen’s palace. Through the obliging politenefs of Mr
Barnard, the king’s librarian, I have had the advantage
of perufing it. Indeed I hope your royal highnefs will
not difapprove my acknowledging in this place the very
Avarm and refpedtful intereft which both this gentleman
and the right honourable the prefident of the Royal
Society have expreffed for the furtherance of your royal
highnefs’s great and good defign. Meanwhile, by this
fpecimen of Philodemus, I am convinced that, if the
frames Ihould be multiplied to the propofed extent, feve-
ral pages of thirty different manuferipts might be dif-
clofed and tranferibed within the fpace of one week.
“ But the very period at Avhich the manuferipts Avere
buried, ferves to point out to your royal highnefs that
you may expe6t the recovery of either the Avhole, or at
leaft parts, of the belt Avriters of antiquity, hitherto deem¬
ed irrecoverable. All of thefe, in truth, had Avritten
before that period, if we except Tacitus, Avhofe ineftim-
able works Avere unfortunately not compofed till tAventy
years afterwards, during the reign of Trajan.
“ Nor can it be imagined for a moment, that among
five or fix hundred manuferipts, already excavated, and
efpecially
POM [i
Pompeii, efpecially from the numberlefs ones which further exca-
vations may fupply, loft at fuch a period in two of the
moft capital cities, in the richeft, raoft frequented, and
moft learned province in Italy, each of them an eftablifh-
cd feat of the arts and fciences, each of them the refort
of the moft diftinguilhed Romans, not any part of thofe
illuftrious authors ftiould be difcovered.
“ But the manufcript of Philodemus itfelf makes the
reverfe of fuch an idea appear much more probable. To
the moderns, who have
“ Untwifted all the chains that tie
The hidden foul of harmony,”
'his Treatife on Mufic cannot, indeed, be fuppofed t©
communicate much information; yet the fubjedl is fcien-
tific, and fcientifieally treated. The author himfelf, too,
was one of the inoft eminent men in his time for wit,
learning, and philofophy. But in the reft of the arts
1 and fciences, in hiftory, in poetry, the difcovery of any
loft writer, either in whole or part, would be deemed a
moft valuable acquifttion and treafure, and form a new
era in literature.
“ It is extremely fortunate that the charaflers of thefe
manufcripts, whether they fhould be Greek or Latin,
muft be very obvious and legible. Before the year of
our Lord 79, and feme time after it, the Majufculae or
Unciales Litterae, capital letters, were folely ufed. A
page, therefore, in one of thefe manufcripts, would pre-
fent to your royal highnefs an exa£t image of fome mu¬
tilated infeription in thofe languages on an ancient co¬
lumn, ftatue, or fepulchre.
“ There cannot remain a doubt, even omitting the af-
furances from men of official fituation to thateffedft, that
your royal highnefs’s fuperintendant will receive every
poflible affiftance from the marquis delVafto; and in
that cafe it feems improbable that the objefl of this mif-
fion can be altogether fruitlefs.
“ With fuch a termination of it, however, your royal
highnefs, by having propofed to concur with his Sicilian
majefty in the quicker and more eifeflual developement,
tranfeription, and publication of thefe manufcripts, will
reap the fatisfaflion of having made a moft princely at¬
tempt in behalf of knowledge and literature, on an oc-
eafion where their interefts might be affe&ed moft ma¬
terially, and in a manner of which no annals have afford¬
ed, or can hereafter afford, an example. Your very in-
terpofition will be your glory: your want of fuccefs will
only make the learned world feel Avith gratitude what
you would have done.
“ The interpofition of his royal highnefs has had the
happieft effedl. The fplendid encouragement which he
gave to the work revived the drooping fpirits of the Ita¬
lian literati; and the confequence has been, that the bu-
linefs of unrolling and tranferibing the manufcripts now
proceeds with an alacrity which promifes the moft bril¬
liant fuccefs. In forty-fix years not more than eighteen
• rolls were developed before the interference of our prince.
Under his encouragement, ninety have been recovered
in two years! What new facilities may not now be ex-
pedled when all the vigour of Britifh intelligence is ex¬
erted on the fubjedft !”—See Swinburne’s Travels in the
Two Sicilies, vol. ii. p. 98, &c.; Lady Miller’s Letters,
or De la Lande; Captain Sutherland’s Tour up the
Straits, from Gibraltar to Conjlantinople, p. 75, &c.; Dr
Smith’s Sketch of a lour on the Continent, in 1786 and
Pomum.
51 ] P O M
1787, vol. ii.p. 118, &c.; and Watkin’s Tour through Pompeii
Swijferland, Italy, &c. See alfo Lemaiftre’s Travels
through France, Italy, &c.
POMPEY the Great, Cneius Pompeius Mag¬
nus, the renowned rival of Julius Csefar. Being defeat¬
ed by him at the battle of Pharfalia, owing to the de-
fedlion of his cavalry, he fled to Egypt by lea, where
he wras bafely alfaflinated by order of Theodotus, prime
minifter to Ptolemy the Younger, then a minor, 48
B. C. See Rome.
POMPEYS, Cneius and Sextus, his fons, com¬
manded a powerful army when they loft their illuftrious
father. Julius Cedar purfued them into Spain, and de¬
feated them at the battle of Munda, in which Cneius
wras (lain, 45 B. C. Sextus made himfelf matter of Si¬
cily; but being defeated in the celebrated naval en¬
gagement at Aftium by Auguftus and Lepidus, he fted
to Afia with only feven (hips, the remains of his fleet,
which confifted of more than 350; and from thence,
unable to continue the Avar, he was obliged to retire to
Lefbos, Avhere renewing the war by raifing an army,
and feizing on fome conliderable cities, Marcus Titius,
in the intereft of Mark Antony, gave him battle, de¬
feated him, took him prifoner, and bafely put him t»
death, 35 B. C. See Rome.
POMFE T's Pillar, a celebrated column near Alex¬
andria in Egypt, 114 feet high, and of Avhieh the fhaft,
compofed of a Angle piece of granite, is 90 feet. For
an account ol different opinions concerning the origin
and defignof this pillar, fee Alexandria, p. 596.
POMPONATIUS, Peter, an eminent Italian phi-
lofopher, Avas born at Mantua in 1462. He Avas of fo
fmall a ftature, that he Avas little better than a dAvarf;
yet he poffefled an exalted genius, and Avas confidered as
one of the greateft philofophers of the age in Avhich he
lived. He taught philofophy, firft at Padua and after-
Avards at Bologna, Avith the higheft reputation. He
had frequent difputations Avith the celebrated Achillini,
Avhofe puzzling objeftions Avould ha\'e confounded him,
had it not been for his {kill in parrying them by fome
joke. His book De Immortalitate Animce, publifhed in
1516, made a great noife. He maintained, that the
immortality of the foul could not be-proved by philofo-
phical reafons; but folemnly declared his belief of it as
an article of faith. This precaution did not, hoAvever,
fave him; many adverfaries rofe up againft him, Avho
did not fcruple to treat him as an atheift ; and the
monks procured his book, although he wrote feveral
apologies for it, to be burnt at Venice. His book upon
Incantations was alfo thought very dangerous. He
fhoAvs in it, that he believed nothing of magic and for-
cery ; and he lays a prodigious firefs on occult virtues
in certain men, by Avhich they produced miraculous ef-
fefls. He gives a great many examples of this; but
his adverfaries do not admit them to be true, or free
from magic.—Paul Jovius fays, that he died in 1 525,
in his grand clima&eric. He Avas three times married;
and had but one daughter, to whom he left a large fum
of money. He ufed to apply himfelf to the folution of
difficulties fo veiy iatenfely, that he frequently forgot
to eat, drink, fleep, and perform the ordinary fundlions
of nature: nay, it made him almoft diftraefted, and a
laughing-ftock to every one, as he himfelf tells us.
POMPONIUS MELA. See Mela.
POMUM, an Apple; a fpecies of feed-vefiel, com¬
pofed
PON [ 152 ] PON
Fomum pofed of a fucculent flefoy pulp; in the middle of which
Pon U *S generally f°un^ a membranous capfule, Avith a num-
rherry ^er ce^s» or cavities, for containing the feeds. Seed-
>Tr—_ i veffcls of this kind have no external opening or valve.
At the end oppoiite to the footdalk is frequently a fmall
■cavity, tailed by the gardeners the eye of the fruity and
by botanifts umbilicus, the “ navel,” from its fancied re-
femblance to the navel in animals. Gourd, cucumber,
melon, pomegranate, pear, and apple, furnifh inltances
’of the fruit or feed-veffel in queftion.
POND, or FlSH-Poncl. See FlSlI-Pond.
POND, is a fmall pool or lake of water from whence
no dream ifl'ues. In the. Tranfadlions of the Society in-
flituted at London for the Encouragement of Arts, Ma¬
nufactures, and Commerce, vol. viii. and printed in the
year 1790, there is a (hort account of a machine for
draining ponds without difturbing the mud. It was
communicated, to the fociety, together with a drawing
and model of the machine, by Lieutenant-colonel Dan-
fey. The model was made from the defcription of a
machine ufed by a gentleman near Taunton for many
years before, for fupplying a cafeade in his pleafure-
grounds.—The colonel’s regiment was then lying at
Windfor ; and thinking that the invention might be
ufeful to fupply the grand cafcade at Virginia water, he
made the model, and prefented it to the king, who was
graciouily pleafed to approve of it. In eonfequence of
which, by his majefty’s dtfire, a penffock on that prin¬
ciple was conftrufted from the model at one of the ponds
in the neighbourhood.—The colonel thinks the machine
may be ufeful in the hands of men of fcxence, and ap¬
plicable to filk, cotton, and other mills, where a fteady
and uniform velocity of water is wanted ; which might
be regulated at pleafure, occafioning no current to di-
iturb the mud w fifti, as the ftream conftantly runs from
the furface. He fays he has often made the experiment
by the model in a tub of water.
Of this machine the following is a defcription,
Plate In fig. I. A is the pipe, loaded with a rim of lead, of
CcctKxxvn. fuch weight as ferves to fink it below the furface of the
fig. 1. water. B is the difeharging pipe, laid through the
bank HI. C is the joint on which the pipe A turns
its form, which is (hown fig. 2. D is the ball or float,
which, fwimming on the furface of the pond, prevents
the pipe A from defeending deeper than the length of
the chain by which they are connefted. E is a chain
winding on the windlafs F, and ferving to raife the tube
A above the furface of the water, when the machinery
is not in ufe. G is a ftage. HI is the bank, reprefent-
ed as If cut through at I, to {how the tube B lying
within it. K is a poll to receive the tube A when
lowered, and to prevent its finking in the mud. In
Fl£. 2. 2. A is a caft cylinder, with a plate or cheek, B,
which is faftened to the timber of the tube on one fide,
but not on the other, as the part of the cylinder C turns
in the hollow of the wooden tube when it is immerged,
A piece of itrong foie leather is put infide the brafs-plate
B, to prevent leaking.
PoND-Weed. See PoTAMOGETON, Botany Index.
PONDICHERRY, is a large town of Afia, in tlm
peninfula on this fide the Ganges, and on the coafl; of
Coromandel, Its fituation is low, and the fliips anchor
about a mile and a half from it; nor can the boats or
^canoes come nearer it than a muiket-fliot, on account of
Ike breakers, lb that the blacks come in flat-bottomed
boats to carry the men and merchandifes to the fleet.
The fort is 200 paces from the fea, and very irregular;
built with bricks, and covered with fine plafter, refem- pont.
bling white marble. The huts of the blacks lie here -v«
and there, and the walls are of bamboos mixed with the
branches of trees. The French are greatly addicted to.
women, from whom they catch difeafes that render them
pale, livid, and meagre, with a frightful afpedt. How¬
ever, feveral of the French are married to a fort of Por7
tuguefe women, who are of a mixed breed, being a kind
of Mulattoes. The country about it is barren, and con- •
fequently moft of their provifions are brought from other
places. Their trade confifts of cotton-cloth, filks, pep¬
per, faltpetre, and other merchandifes that are brought
from Bengal. With regard to the religion of the na¬
tives, the moft numerous are the Gentoos ; but there are
Mahometans or Moors who hold a great many ridiculous
opinions. The Gentoos are of difterent fedts, and that
of the Brahmins are priefts. The cuftom of women
burning themfdves with the bodies of their dead huf-
bands was very common, but of late much difeountenan-
ced. The (laves or fervants are very numerous, and their
chief food 5s rice. This place was taken, and the forti¬
fications demoliftied, by Colonel Coote ; it was reftored
to the French by the peace of 1763 ; and was retaken
by the Englifti in 1793* It is 100 miles fouth of Ma¬
dras. E. Long. 79. 38. N. Lat. 11. 42.
PONDICO, an ifland of the Archipelago, lying on
the gulf of Ziton, near the coaft of Negropont. It
is fmall and uninhabited, as well as two others that lie
near it.
PONG-HOU Ijles, in the province of Fo-kien in Chi¬
na, form an archipelago between the port of Emouy
and the ifland of Forroofa. A Chinefe garrifon is kept
here, with one of thofe mandarins who are called //te-
rati, whofe principal employment is to watch the trad¬
ing veffels which pafs from China to Formofa, or from
Formofa to China.
As thefe iflands are only fand-banks or rocks, the in¬
habitants are obliged to import every nectffary of life ;
neither fhrubs nor bufhes are feen upon them ; all their
ornament confifts of one folitary tree. The harbour is
good, and ftieltcred from every wind ; it has from 20
to 25 feet depth of xvater. Although it is an unculti¬
vated and uninhabited ifland, it is abfolutely necefiary
for the prefervation of Formofa, Avhich has no part ca¬
pable of receiving veflels that drarv above eight feet of
water.
PONIARD, a little pointed dagger, very (harp
edged ; borne in the hand, or at the girdle, or hid in
the pocket. The Avord is formed from the French
poignurd, and that from poignee, “ handful.”—The po¬
niard Avas anciently in very great ufe ; but it is now in
a good meafure let afide, except among affaffins.—-
SAVord and poniard Avere the ancient arms of duelifts ;
and are faid to continue ftili fo among the Spaniards.
The praflice of fword and poniard ftill make 3 part of
the exercife taught by the tnafters of defence.
PONS, a town of France, in Saintogne, very famous
in the time of the Huguenots. It is feated on a hill,
near the river Suigr.e, 10 miles from Saintes. W. Long,
o. 30. N. Lat. 45. 36.
PONT-du-gard, is a bridge of France, in LoAver
Languedoc, built over the river Garden, Avhieh ferved
for an aqueduct. It is a very remarkable and a moft
magnificent
PON [ i53 ] PON
‘Pont magnificent work, and was railed by the ancient Ro-
Ponfon rnans* I* confifts of three bridges, one above another j
- ' ■ the uppermoft of which was the aqueduft, to convey
water to the city of Nifmes, which is eight miles to the
fouth. They are altogether 192 feet high, and the up-
permoft 580 feet long. They are confiru£ted between
two rocks. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 43. 58.
PONTEDERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the fixth order, Enfatce. See Botany Index.
PONTEFR ACT, or Pomfret, a town of the weft
riding of Yorklhire in England, fituated on the river
Are. It is faid to take its name from a broken bridge,
which is fuppofed to have been laid anciently over that
marlhy fpot called the Wafh. Here are the ruins of a
noble old caftle, where Richard II. was barbaroufly mur¬
dered, and two of Edward V.’s uncles. The collegiate
chapel of St Clement, which had a dean, three preben¬
daries, &c. is ftill diftinguifhable in it. This town has
a good market, and fairs for horfes, fheep, and other
cattle. It is a corporation, governed by a mayor, re¬
corder, aldermen, and burgeffes, and gives title of earl
to the family of Fermor. In the reign of Queen Eli¬
zabeth, 2oal. was left by George Talbot, earl of
Shrewfbury, to be lent for ever, at 5I. a time, on pro¬
per fecurity, for three years, to the poor artificers of the
town ; and Thomas Wentworth, Efq. anceftor to the
marquis of Rockingham, left 200I. to the charity-fchool.
A branch of the great Roman military way called Er-
min-Jlreet, which palfed from Lincoln to York, may be
traced betwixt this town and Doncafter. The adjacent
country yields plenty of limeftone, together with li¬
quorice and fkirrets. W. Long. 1. 18. N. Lat. 53. 42.
PONTIFEX, Pontiff, or High-priejl, a perfon
who has the fuperintendence and direttion of divine
worftiip, as the offering of facrifices and other religious
folemnities. The Romans had a college of pontiffs j
and over thefe a fovereign pontiff, or pontifex maximus,
inftituted by Numa, whofe funftion it was to prefcribe
the ceremonies each god was to be worfhipped withal,
compofe the rituals, dire£! the veftals, and for a good
while to perform the bufinefs of augury, till, on fome
fuperftitious occalion, he was prohibited intermeddling
therewith. The office of the college of pontiffs was to
affift the high-prieft in giving judgment in all canfes
relating to religion, inquiring into the lives and man¬
ners of the inferior priefts, and punching them if they
faw occafion, Sec. The Jews, too, had their pontiffs;
and among the Romanifts, the pope is ftill ftyled the fo¬
vereign 'pontiff.
PONTIFICATE, is ufed for the ftate or dignity
of a pontiff or high-prieft j but more particularly in mo¬
dern writers for the reign of a pope.
PONTIUS Pilate. See Pilate.
PONTON, or Pontoon, in War, a kind of flat-
bottomed boat, whofe carcafe of wood is lined within
and without with tin : they ferve to lay bridges over
rivers for the artillery and army to march over. The
French pontoons, and thofe of moft other powers, are
made of copper on the outfide : though thefe coft more
at firft, yet they laft much longer than thofe of tin ;
and when worn out, the copper fells nearly for as
Vol. XVII. Part I.
(0 This country, together with the adjacent provinces
much as it coft at firft j but when ours are rendered Ponton
ufelefs, they fell for nothing. Our pontoons are 21 i!
feet long, five feet broad, and depth within two feet 1. 5  
inches. ' ' ^
PONTOON-Carriage, is made with two wheels only,
and two long fide-pieces, whofe fore-ends are fupported
by a limber ; and ferves to carry the pontoon, boards,
crofs-timbers, anchors, and every other thing neceffary
for making a bridge.
PONTOON-Bridge, is made of pontoons flipped into
the water, and placed about five or fix feet afunder j
each fattened with an anchor, when the river has a
ftrong current ; or to a ilrong rope that goes acrofs the
river, running through the rings of the pontoons. Each
boat has an anchor, cable baulks, and chefts. The
baulks are about fire or fix inches fquare, and 21 feet
long. The chefts are boards joined together'by wooden
bars, about three feet broad and 12 feet long. The
baulks are laid acrofs the pontoons at fome diftance from
one another, and the chefts upon them joined clofe ;
which makes a bridge in a very Ihort time, capable of
fupporting any weight.
PONT St Esprit, is a town of France, in Langue¬
doc, in the diocefe of Ufez. It is feated on the river
Rhone, over which is one of the fineft bridges in France.
It 840 yards long, and confifts of 26 arches. Each
pier is pierced with an aperture, in order to facilitate
the paffage of the water when the river is high. The
town is large, but the ftreets are narrow and ill built.
It formerly contained feveral churches and convents. It
is 17 miles fouth of Yiviers, and 55 north-eaft of Mont¬
pelier. E. Long. 4. 46. N. Lat. 44. 13.
PON PUS, the name of an ancient kingdom of Alia,
originally a part of Cappadocia 5 bounded on the eaft
by Colchis, on the weft by the river Halys, on the
north by the Euxine fea, and on the fouth by Armenia
Minor, Some derive the name of Pontus from tireEtyrn^0gy
neighbouring fea, commonly called by the Latins of the c'
Euxinus; others from an ancient king named Pontus,™™'
who imparted bis name both to the country and the lea j
but Bochart deduces it from the Phoenician word botno,
fignifying a filberd, as if that nut abounded remarkably
in this place. But this derivation feems to be very far
fetched \ and the common opinion that the country de¬
rived its name from the fea, feems by far the moft pro¬
bable. The kingdom was divided into three parts; the
firft, named Pontus Galaticus, extending from the river
Ilalys to the Thermodon ; the fecond, named Pontus
Polemonaicus, extended from the Thermodon to the
borders of Pontus Cappadocicusand this laft extended
from Pontus Polemonaicus to Colchis, having Armenia
Minor and the upper ftream of the Euphrates for its
fouthern boundary.
It is commonly believed, that the firft inhabitants of
Pontus were defeended from Tubal 5 but in procefs of
time mixed with Cappadocians, Paphlagonians, and
other foreign nations, befides many Greek colonies
which fettled in thofe parts, and maintained their liberty
till the time of Mithridates the Great and Pharnaces. 5
The firft king of this country whom we find mentioned Artaba3^"
in hiftory is Artabazes, who had the crown bellowed onthe firft
him by Darius (a) Hyftafpes. The next was Rhodo-kins‘ ‘
II bates,'
, was in different periods under the dominion of the Af-
fyrians,
PON
[ >5+ 1
PON
Fontus.
3
Mithri-
dates I.
4
Mithri-
dates IT.
fliakes off
the Vlai.e-
dooian
yoke.
bates, who reigned in the time of Darius Nothus. Af¬
ter him came Mithridates, who, refufing to pay the
ufual tribute to the Perfians, was defeated by Artaxerxes
Mnemon; but a peace was foon after concluded by the
mediation of Tiffaphernes Befides this, we hear nothing
of him farther than that he was treacheroufly taken pri-
foner by Clearchus afterwards tyrant of Heraclea, and
obliged to pay a large fum for his ranfom.
Mithridates I. was fucceeded by Ariobarzanes, who
being appointed by Artaxerxes governor of Lydia, Io¬
nia, and Phrygia, employed the forces that were under
his care in the extending of his own dominions, and fub-
duing thole of his natural prince. The king of Perfia
fent one Autophrodates again ft him *, but Ariobarzanes,
having with great promifes prevailed on Agefilaus and
Timothaeus the Athenian to come to his alii dance, ob¬
liged Autophrodates to retire. He then rewarded Age¬
filaus with a great fum of money, and beftowed on I i-
mothaeus the cities of Seftos and Abydos, which he had
lately taken from the Perfians. He ufed his utmoft en¬
deavours to reconcile the Lacedaemonians and 1 hebans ;
■but not being able to bring the latter to.any reafonable
terms, he aflifted the Lacedaemonians with vaft fums of
money. The Athenians {bowed fo much refpedft for
this prince, that they not only made him free of their
city, but granted both him and his children whatever
they afked of them. He was murdered in the 28th
year of his reign by one Mithridates, whom authors
fuppofe to have been his fon. This happened at the
time that Alexander the Great invaded Afia, fo that
Pontus for a time fell under the power of the Macedo¬
nians.
In the reign of Antigonus, Mithridates the fon of
Ariobarzanes {hook off the Macedonian yoke j the par¬
ticulars of which event are related as follow. Antigo¬
nus having dreamed that he had a field in which gold
grew after the manner of corn, and that Mithridates
cut it down and carried it into Pontus, began to be very
jealous of him, and ordered him to be put to deatli pri¬
vately. But Mithridates, having got notice of the
king’s intention, withdrew into Paphlagonia, attended
only by fix horfemen. Here, being joined by many
others, he poffeffed himfelf of Ciniatum, a ftronghold
fituated near Mount Olgafys •, from whence, as his army
continually increafed, he made an irruption into Cappa¬
docia •, and having driven the commanders of Antigonus
from that part which borders upon Pontus, he entered
his paternal kingdom, which, in fpite of the utmoft ef¬
forts of Antigonus, he held for the fpace of 26 years,
and tranfmitted to his pofterity.
Under the reigns of Mithridates III. Ariobarzanes II.
and Mithridates IV. the immediate fucceffors of Mithri¬
dates II. nothing remarkable happened. But Mithri¬
dates V. made war on the inhabitants of Sinope, a city
on the coaft of Paphlagonia. He made himfelf mailer
of all the adjacent places but finding the whole penm-
fula, on which Sinope itfelf flood, well fortified and gar-
rifoned, not only by the inhabitants, but by their allies
the Rhodians, he abandoned the enterpnfe. He after-
Pontiw.
wards proved a great friend to the Rhodians, and afiifted
them with money to repair the Ioffes they had fuftained "v"——*
by an earthquake. He entered alfo into a ftrift alliance
with Antiocbus the Great, who married one of his
daughters named Laodice. 5
After the death of Mithridates V. his fon Pharnaces I. PharnacesT.
attacking the city of Sinope, unexpe&edly took it by d>ffe^s Wilh
ftorm. On this the Rhodians fent ambaffadors to Rome,^1®^ °*
complaining of the behaviour of the king of Pontus ^
but Pharnaces was fo far from being intimidated by
their threats, that he invaded the territories of Eumenes
their great ally. The latter fent ambaffadors to Rome,
and entered into an alliance with Ariarathes king of
Cappadocia. Pharnaces, in his turn, fent ambaffadors
to Rome, complaining of Eumenes and Ariarathes j up¬
on which fome Romans were, fent into Afia to inquire
into the ftate of matters. Thefe found Eumenes and
his affociates willing to accommodate the difference, but
Pharnaces in a quite oppofite difpofition, which they ac¬
cordingly reported at Rome.
In the mean time a war was commenced between
Eumenes and Pharnaces 5 but the latter, being difap-
pointed of afliftance from Seleucus king of Syria, whom
the Romans would not allow to join him, was at laft
forced to fue for peace •, which was granted him upon ^
the following conditions : 1 hat he ftreuld forthwith Concludes
withdraw his forces from Galatia, and difannul all en- a moft dif-
gagements and alliances with the inhabitants of that advantag;e-
country •, that he fhould in like manner evacuate Pa-ous pe;iCf;>
phlagonia, and fend back fuch as he had from, thence
carried into flavery j that he fliould reftore to Ariarathes
all the places which he had taken during the war, the
hoftages of both kings, all their prifoners without ran¬
fom, and moreover ftiould deliver up to them fuch of
their fubjefts as from the firft breaking out of the war
had fled to him •, that he ftiould return to Morzias, a
. petty king in thefe parts, and to Ariarathes, 900 ta¬
lents which he had feized in the war, and pay down 300
more to Eumenes as a fine for invading his dominions
without provocation. Mithridates, king of Armenia,
having in this war joined Pharnaces, was, by the articles
of the treaty, obliged to pay 300 talents to Ariarathes
for having affifted his enemy contrary to an alliance at
that time fubfifting between them. Soon after Phar¬
naces died, and left the kingdom to his fon Mithri¬
dates VI. more weakened by this peace than by the moll
deftruflive war. _ 7
The new king entered into an alliance with the Ro-His fon
mans, and proved fuch a faithful friend, that he was re- enters^into
■warded by the fenate with Phrygia Major, and honour-
ed with the title of the triend and ally of the people uf ^omanSi
Rome. After a long and profperous reign, he was mur¬
dered by fome of his intimate acquaintance, and was
fucceeded by his fon Mithridates VII. furnamed the
Great. / 8
The new prince, though not exceeding 13 years of Mithridates
age? began his reign with moft inhuman adds of cruelty the Great
to his mother and neareft relations. His father, by his a
laft will, had appointed him and his mother joint heirs1
to
, • „ Medec a-d Perfians ; the laft of whom divided Cappadocia into fatrapies or governments, and beftowed
SiS which W “after;ardS called on one of ,he anceflora of Mithnda.ea Th« regulat.on was e£-
feded in the reign of Darius the fon of Hyftafpes, and has been regarded as the da.e of the kingdom.
Pontus.
9
ijis extra¬
ordinary
qualities.
to
Conquers
fcveral
countries.
<x
Caffes the
king of
Cappadocia
to be mur¬
dered.
PON [i
to the kingdom ; but he, claiming the whole, threw
her into prifon, where (he foon died through the hard
ufage (Ire met with. Thofe to whom the care of Ins
education was committed, obferving him to be of a
cruel and unruly temper, made various attempts on his
life, but could never effect their defign, as the king
was 'always on his guard, and armed, in that tender
age, againft all kind of treachery, without (howing the
leaft diffidence.
In his youth Mithridates took care to inure himfelf
to hardihips, palling whole months in the open air, em¬
ployed in the exercife of hunting, and often taking his
reft amidft the frozen fnow. When he came of age, he
married his filler named Laodice, by whom he had a fon
named Pharnaccs, After this he took a journey through
many different kingdoms of Afia, having nothing lefs in
view than the whole continent. He learned their dif
ferent languages, of which he is faid to have fpoken
22 ; took an eftimate of their ftrength ; and above all
viewed narrowly their ftrongholds and fortified towns.
In this journey he fpent three years $ during which
time, a report being fpread abroad that he was dead,
his wife Laodice had a criminal converfation with one
of the lords of her court, and had a fon by him. When
her hufband returned, (he prefented him with a poifon-
ed bowl; but Mithridates had accuftomed himfelf to
take poifon from his infancy, fo that it had now no
other effefl than to haften the deftrudtion of his wife,
which very foon took place, together with all thofe who
had been any way acceffory to her difloyalty and incon¬
tinence.
The king now began to put in execution his fchemes
of conqueft. However, he certainly took the wrong
method, by attacking firft thofe nations which were im¬
mediately under the protection of Rome, and thus at
once provoking that powerful people to fall upon him.
He began with Paphlagonia, which the Romans had
declared a free (late. This country he eafily reduced,
and divided between himfelf and Nicomedes king of
Eithynia, at that time his ally. The Romans remon-
ftrated $ but Mithridates, inftead of paying any regard
to their remonftrances, invaded Galatia, which was im¬
mediately under their protection. This he alfo reduced,
and then turned his eyes on Cappadocia. But as the
kingdom of Cappadocia was at that time held by Aria-
rathes, who was a great favourite of the Romans, and
married to the fifter of Mithridates, the latter hired an
aflaffin to difpatch Ariarathes, after which he thought
he might fucceed better in bisdefigns. After the death
of Ariarathes, Cappadocia was invaded by Nicomedes
king of Bithynia, who drove out the fon, and married
the widow of Ariarathes. This gave Mithridates a
plaufible pretence for invading Cappadocia ; which he
inftantly did, and drove Nicomedes quite out of the
country. Thus Mithridates gained confiderable repu¬
tation, not only as a warrior, but as a juft and good-
natured prince j for as it was not known that he had any
hand in the murder of Ariarathes, every one imagined
that he had undertaken the war againft Nicomedes,
merely to revenge the quarrel of his nephew, and to re-
ftore him to his right. To keep up the farce a little
longer, Mithridates aCtually withdrew his troops out of
the country, and left the young prince mafter of the
kingdom. In a (hort time, however, he began to prefs
the young king of Cappadocia to recal the affaffin Gor-
ss 1 PON
dius, who had murdered Ins father : but this the king Pontus.
of Cappadocia refufed with indignation *, and Mithri- '' v
dates, being determined on a quarrel at all events, took
the field with an army of 8o,oco foot, io,oco horfe,
and 600 chariots armed with feythes. With this force
he imagined he (liould carry all before him : but finding
the king of Cappadocia ready to oppofe him with a
force no way inferior to his own, he had recourfe to i2
treachery •, and inviting his nephew to a conference, Affaffmates
dabbed him, in the fight of both armies, with a dagger k‘s own ne"
which he had concealed in the plaits of his garment. P evu
This barbarous and unexpedted piece of treachery had
fuch an effect on the Cappadocians that they threw
down their arms, and fuffered Mithridates, without op-
pofition, to feize upon all their ftrongholds. He re-
figned the kingdom, however, to his fon, a child of
eight years of age. The care of the young prince, and
of the whole kingdom, he committed to Gordius 5 but
the Cappadocians, dildaining to be ruled by fuch a
fcandalous affaffin, placed on the throne the brother of
Ariarathes, who had kept himfelf concealed in feme part
of Afia. His reign, however, was of (hort duration j
he being foon after driven out by Mithridates, and
the Cappadocians again reduced. The unhappy prince
died of grief; and in him ended the family of Pharnaces,
who had ruled Cappadocia from the time of Cyrus the
Great. 13
Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, being now greatly Nicomedes
afraid of Mithridates, and fuppofing that his own domi-^‘nS.°f
nions would next fall a prey to the ambitious conqueror, ato“
fuborned a youth of a comely and majtftic afpedl to deceive the
pretend that he was a third fon of Ariarathes, to go to Romans.
Rome, and demand the kingdom of Cappadocia as his
juft right. He was received by the fenate with the
greateft kindnefs, and Laodice the wife of Nieomedes
even confirmed the deceit by her oath. Butin the The deceit
mean time Mithridates having got intelligence of theexpofed
plot, fent notice of it by Gordius to the Romans, fo^^ri“
that the impofture was foon known at Rome alfo. The
confequence of this was, that the fenate commanded
Mithridates to relinquiftr Cappadocia, and Nicomedes
that part of Paphlagonia which he poffeffed ; declaring
both thefe countries free. The Cappadocians protefted
that they could not live without a king ; upon which
they were allowed to choofe one of their own nation.
Mithridates ufed all his intereft in favour of Gordius j
but he being excluded by the Romans, one Ariobarzanes
was chofen by the majority of votes. 13
To enforce this eleddion, Sylla was fent into Cappa-Ariobar.
docia. He had the charadler of an ambaffador, but the^a”e''fe^
real intent of his coming was to difappoint the ambitious throne of
defigns of Mithridates. With a handful of forces he Cappadocia
defeated a numerous army of Cappadocians and Arme-by the Ro¬
mans commanded by Gordius, and fettled Ariobarzanes 1”ans> but
on the throne. But no fooner was Sylla gone than
Mithridates ftirred up Tigranes king of Armenia againft dates,
Ariobarzanes, who, without making any refiftance, fled
to Rome, and Tigranes reftored the kingdom to Aria¬
rathes the fon of Mithridates. At the fame time died
the king of Bithynia ; upon which Mithridates imme¬
diately invaded that country, and drove out Nieomedes
the natural fon of the late king. But the expelled
prince, having fled to Rome, and being aflifted by that
porverful republic, the king ot Pontus was foon obliged
to abandon Bithvnia and Cappadocia*
U 3 m
Pcffltll?.
17
Defeats A.-
riobarzanes
and Aki¬
nins,
andNico-
medes and
Manius A-
qviiiius..
*9
Overruns
Afia Mi-
rt©r«
P O
The Romans now bein
power and ambition of Mithridates, refolved to humble
him at all events. For this purpofe they fent ambaf-
fadors to the kings of Bithynia and Cappadocia, de-
firing them to make frequent inroads into the neigh¬
bouring territories of Mithridates, and behave there as
they pleafed j afluring them of powerful afiifiance in
cafe they Ihould have occafion. Ariobarzanes could not
by any means be induced to provoke fo powerful a
neighbour ; but Nicomedes being induced, partly by
promifes and partly by menaces, to comply, entered
Pontus, where he laid wafte whole provinces with fire
and fword. Mithridates complained to the Roman le¬
gates : but they replied, that he himfelf had been the
firft aggreffor ; that Nicomedes had only paid him in
his own coin, and that they would not allow him to
hurt their friend and ally. Upon this Mithridates, en¬
tering Cappadocia with a numerous army, put to flight
the united forces of Ariobarzanes and Altinius the Ro¬
man legate *, thus making himfelf once more mafter of
this kingdom. In the mean time he fent ambaffadors
to Rome, complaining of the proceedings of Nicomedes:
but his ambafladors met with a very indifferent recep¬
tion ; being enjoined to tell their mafter, that he mult
either reftore the kingdom of Cappadocia to Ariobar¬
zanes, and make peace with Nicomedes, or be account¬
ed an enemy of the Roman people. With this anfwer
they were commanded to depart the city that very day,
and told that no more ambalfadors could be admitted till
fuch time as their commands were obeyed.
In the mean time both parties prepared for war.
The Roman legates in Afia drew together all the forces
they could mufter in Bithynia, Cappadocia, Paphlago-
nia, and Galatia •, and, being joined by Caffius governor
of Afia, took the field againft Mithridates in the year
89 B. C. They divided their army into feveral fmall
bodies : Cafiius encamped on the confines of Bithynia
and Galatia •, Manius Aquilius with his body poffefled
himfelf of the avenues leading from Pontus into Bithy¬
nia \ Quintus Oppius fecured the entrance into Cappa¬
docia j and the admirals Minucius Rufus and C. Popi-
lius lay with a fleet of 300 fail at Byzantium, to pre¬
vent the enemy from entering the Euxine fea. Each of
the generals had under his command an army of 40,000
men ; befides a body of 50,000 foot and 6000 horfe
Brought to their afliftance by Nicomedes.
On the other hand, Mithridates having invited feveral
of the neighbouring nations to join him, collefted an
army of 2 90,000 foot, 50,000 horfe, 130 chariots armed
with feythes ; befides 300 flfips and 100 galleys. Part
of this force he detached againft Nicomedes •, and ut¬
terly defeated him, though much fuperior in number,
as he was taking poffeflion of an advantageous poll by
order of Caflius. Another part he detached againft
Manius Aquilius, whom he alfo defeated with the lofs
of 10,000 killed on the fpot, and 3000 taken prifonersj
on which the other Roman generals abandoned their
polls, the fleet alfo difperfed, and moft of the Ihips were
either taken or funk by the admirals of Mithridates.
The king of Pontus now refolving to improve the
opportunity, and drive the Romans entirely out of A-
fia, overran all Phrygia, Myfia, Afia Proper, Caria,
Lycia, Pamphylia, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia, with all
the reft of the countries which had either belonged to
or. Tided- with the Romans, as far as Ionia. He was re-
N [ 156 ] PON
exceedingly jealous of the ceived everywhere with the greateft demonftrations of Pontiw,
joy ; the inhabitants flocking to him in white garments,l——v—
and calling him their father, deliverer, their god, and
the great and foie lord of all Afia. What gained him
the affedlions of the people was his kind ufage to the
prifoners he had taken in the two engagements above
mentioned ; for he not only fent them all home with¬
out ranfom, but furnilhed them with plenty of provi-
fions, and money fufficient to defray their expences by
the way. Ambaffadors flocked to him from all parts;
and among others, from Laodicea on the Lycus, to
whom the king promifed his protedlion, provided they
delivered up to him Q. Oppius governor of Parophylia,
who had fled thither for protection. This requeft was
readily complied with } Oppius was fent to him in
chains, with liCtors walking before him in derifion of
the Roman pride and oftentation. Mithridates was
overjoyed to fee a Roman general and proeonful in his
power } and his joy was foon after increaled by the ar¬
rival of Manius Aquilius, whom the Lelhians, revolting
from the Romans, fent to him in fetters, together with
many other Romans of diftinftion who had taken Ihel-
ter among them. As he had been the chief author of
the war, Mithridates led him about with him wherever
he went, either bound on an afs, or on foot coupled
with one Baftarnes a public malefaftor, compelling him
to proclaim to the crowds who came to fee him, that he 2Q
was Manius Aquilius the Roman legate. When he Puts AquI-
came to Pergamus, he caufed him firft to be publicly llus
whipped, then to be put on the rack, and laftly meltedt ta
gold to be poured down his throat.
Mithridates being now looked upon as invincible, all
the free cities of Afia received him as their fovereign,
contributing large fums towards the defraying the ex¬
pences of the war 5 by which means he became poffeffed
of fuch treafures as enabled him to keep feveral nume¬
rous armies in the field for five years without levying
any taxes on his fubjefts. As many Roman citizens
were difperfed in the provinces which Mithridates had
fubdued, he confidered thefe as fo many fpies, who would
not fail to fend an account of his proceedings to Rome : 2X
for which reafon he refolved to cut them all off at once Cruelly
by a general maffacre ; which barbarous policy, it ismaffacres
faid, had never been heard of till his time, but has been t^e
fince pra&ifed by other nations. He difpatehed private Afia
letters to all the governors and magiftrates of the cities
where the Romans refided, enjoining them on pain of
death, and the entire deftruftion of their country, to
caufe all the Italian race, women and children not ex¬
cepted, to be murdered on the 30th day from the date
of his letters, and to let their bodies lie unburied in the
open fields. One moiety of their goods was to be for¬
feited to the king, and the other bellowed as a reward-
on the affaffins. Whatever flave murdered his mafter
was to receive his liberty, and one half of the debt was
to be remitted to the debtor that Ihould kill his credi¬
tor. Whoever concealed an Italian, under any pretence
whatever, was to be punifhed with immediate death.
On the fatal day, all the gates of the cities being {hut,
and the avenues kept-with foldiers, the king’s orders
were proclaimed, which caufed an univerfal horror, not
only among the unhappy vi£lims themfelves, but among
thofe who had any feelings of humanity, at feeing them¬
felves obliged either to betray and murder their inno¬
cent guefts, friends, and -relations, or to become liable
to.
PON [ 157 ] PON
Pontus.
Iduces
fc ifland
j<Cos;
JE: fails in
l! attempt
jfoii
libdes.
to a cruel death. However, as moft of the Afiatics
bore a mortal hatred to the Romans, and were more¬
over animated by the promife of an ample reward, the
orders were without delay put in execution. The in¬
habitants of Ephefus, where Mithridates then refided,
dragged fuch as had taken fan&uary in the temple of
Diana from the very ftatue of the goddefs, and put
them to the fword. The Pergamenians difeharged
fhowers of darts upon them as they embraced the ftatues
in the temple of Efculapius. At Adramyttium in
Myfia many were murdered in the water, while they
were attempting, with their children on their backs, to
fwim over to the illand of Lefbos. The Caunians, who
not long before had been delivered from the yoke of
the Rhodians, and reftored to their ancient privileges,
excelled all the relt in cruelty : for, as if they had apo-
flatifed from human nature, they took pleafure in tor¬
menting and butchering the innocent children before
their mothers eyes j feme of them running didrafled,
and others dying with grief at a fight which nature
could not bear. The Trallians were the only people on
the continent who would not have the cruelty to imbrue
their hands in the blood of the innocent Italians.
However, as the king’s orders were peremptory, they
hired one Theophilus a Papblagonian to difpateh the
few Romans that lived among them. He, having (hut
them all up together in the temple of Concord, firfi cut
off their hands as they embraced the ftatues ol the gods,
and then hacked them in pieces. Many Romans were
faved on the floating iflands of Lydia called Culanurue.
where they concealed themfelves till fuch time as they
found an opportunity of efcaping out of Afia. Nt ver-
thelefs, according to Plutarch and Dion, 150,000 Ro¬
man citizens were nwiffacred on that day j but, accord¬
ing to others, only 80,000.
Mithridates having now got rid of tkofe whom he was
in dread of on the continent, embarked great part of his
forces in order to reduce the iflands of the Archipelago.
At Cos he was gladly received, and had delivered up to
him the young Alexander, fon of Alexander king of
Egypt, who being driven out of that country, was kil¬
led by Chareas a fea-eaptain as he was retiring in a
fmall veffel to Cyprus. With the young prince, they
put into the king’s hands vatf fums of money, with all
the golden veffels and jewels, to an immenfe value,
which his grandmother Cleopatra had been amafling for
many years. To the young prince Mithridates gave an
education fuitable for a king’s fon, but kept the treafures
to himfelf. Here likewife he found 8co talents in ready
money, which, at the firfl breaking out of the war, had
been depofited by the Jews of Afia, and were defigned
for the temple of Jerufalem.
From Cos Mithridates fleered his courfe for Rhodes,
where at that time all the Romans who had efcaped
the maffacre above mentioned found a fandluary, and,
amongft others, L. Caflius the proconful. The Rho¬
dians, however, being very expert in maritime affairs,
Mithridates did not think proper to venture an engage¬
ment. As the enemy’s fleet advanced, therefore, he
retired; but fix of the Rhodian fhips coming up with
25 of his, a (harp adlion enfued, in which the Rhodians
funk two of the king’s (hips, and put the reft to flight.
In this encounter, though Mithridates had never feen a
fea fight before, he behaved with great intrepidity 5 but
»ne of the (hips of his own fquadron filling foul of that
4
which carried him, he was very near being taken pri- Pontu?.
loner. From this time forth he abhorred the fea, and
took an averfion to all the Chians, becaufe the pilot of
that fhip was a Chian. However, he again appeared
before the ifland ; but was forced anew to leave it
with difgrace, and to give over all thoughts of reducing
Mithridates now retired into Afia, with a defign toHiSg^ne.
fettle the civil government of the countries which herals reduce
had conquered, committing the care of the war to his all Greece,
generals. Archelaus, his generalifiimo, was fent into
Greece with an army of 120,000 men j where, by
treachery, he made hi safe If mailer of Athens, and either
put to the fword or fent to Mithridates all thofe who
favoured or were fufpecfed to favour the Romans. From
Athens he difpatched parties to reduce the neighbour¬
ing caftles and the ifland of Delos, which they did ac¬
cordingly 5 but Orobius, a Roman general hearing
that the enemy kept no guards, but pafl'ed their time
in caroufing and debauchery, fell upon them unexpect¬
edly, and eut off the whole party, except Apellicon the
commander.
In the mean time Metrophanes, another of the king’s
generals, entering Euboea, laid wafte the whole country,
exerting his rage chiefly againft the cities of Demetrias
and Magnefia, which refufed to open their gates to him.
But as he was failing off with a great booty, Bryttius,
the praetor or governor of Macedonia, coming up with
him, funk fame of his (hips, and took others, putting all
the prifoners to the fword. Mithridates, upon the news
of this lofs, fent his ion Ariarathes with a powerful ar¬
my to invade Macedonia ; which he foon reduced, to¬
gether with the kingdom of Thrace, driving the Ro¬
mans everywhere before him. The generals whom he
fent into other quarters were no lefs fuccefsful 5 fo that
Mithridates had, according to Aulus Gellius, 25 diffe¬
rent nations, who paid him homage. The fame author
adds, that he was (killed in every one of their various
languages, fo that he could converfe with the natives
without an interpreter. Among thefe nations we find
the Rhoxani, now the Ruffians or Mufcovites, whom
Deiphontus, one of the king’s generals, brought under
fubjeClion, after having flain in an engagement 50,000
of the barbarians.
All this time the Romans had been too much taken
up with their own domeftic quarrels to take fuch effec¬
tual meafures as they other wife would have done for
checking the progrefs of Mithridates. But at laft, ha-^
ving received certain advice that the king defigned to a?ainft *
invade Italy, and that he had even been folicited to do him,
fo by feme of the revolted Italians, they fent againft
him Lucius Sylla, who had already given fufficient
proofs of his courage, eondueft, and experience in war.
He had with him only five legions and a few cohorts.
With this inconfiderable force he landed in Attica, and
in a fhort time made himfelf mafter of the capital; Ar¬
chelaus not daring, or, according to others, through
treachery, nor caring, to engage him. As Sylla had
but a few frigates, he fent Lucullus to the ifland of
Rhodes, with orders to the Rhodians to join him with
their fleet. The undertaking was very dangerous, as
the king’s fleet in a manner covered the fea. However,
Lucullus, defpifing all danger, ventured out, and failed,
without meeting with any perverfe accident, to Syria,
Egypt, Libya, and Cyprus 5 from whence he returned
wit hi*
Poiite.
26
who total¬
ly defeats
ids generals
Greece.
27
Flaceus and
Fimbria
Pent into
Afia.
28
Sylla gains
two other
victories in
Greece.
PON
[ 158 ] PON
wit’i fucli fupplies of fliips and experienced mariners, as
enabled Sylla, after their conjundfion with the Rhodi¬
ans, to a£t oft'enfively by fea alfo. Archelaus now dif-
patched meffengers to Taxiles, who commanded in
Thrace and Macedon, deliring him to join him with all
his forces •, which the other readily did, and betw’een
both muftcred an army of 120,000 men. Sylla met
them near Cheronsea with only 15,000 foot and 1500
horfe *, but gave them a moft dreadful overthrow, no
fewer than 110,000 of the Afiatics being flaughtered,
while the Romans loft only 1 2 men.
This fuccefs having raifed envy and jealoufy againft
Sylla in Rome, the fenate fent Lucius Valerius Flaccus,
the conful of that year, with two legions into Aha, in
appearance to attack Mithridates on that fide, but with
private inftru&ions to fall upon Sylla himfelf, if they
found him difaffedfed to the fenate. As Flaccus was
a man of no experience in war, C. Fimbria, a fena-
tor of great repute among the foldiery, was appointed
to attend him with the charadler of legate and lieute¬
nant-general. Sylla was at that time in Boeotia j but,
hearing what had happened at Rome, he marched with
all expedition into Theffaly, with a defign to meet
Flaccus, who, he expedled, was to land in that province.
But no fooner had he left Boeotia, than the country
was overrun by an army of Afiatics, under the com¬
mand of Dorylaus the king’s chief favourite. On this
advice Sylla returned into Boeotia, where he gained two
fignal victories, which put an end to the war in Greece.
In the firft of thefe Dorylaus left 150,000 of his men
according to feme, or 200,000 according to others j
and in the next all the reft. In this laft engagement
20,000 were driven into a river, where they all perifti-
ed ; an equal number were purfued into a marlh, and
entirely cut off; the reft were killed in the heat of the
battle, the Romans giving no quarter to men who had
treated their fellow-citizens after fuch a barbarous man¬
ner in Afia. Plutarch tells us, that the marfties were
dyed with blood ; that the courfe of the river was flop¬
ped by the dead bodies; and that even in his time, that
is, near 200 years after, a great number of bows, hel¬
mets, coats of mail, and fwords, w^ere found buried in
the mud. Archelaus, who had joined Dorylaus with
a body of 10,000 men a few days before the battle, lay
three days ftripped among the (lain till he found a fmall
veffel which carried him to Euboea, where he gathered
what forces he could, but was never again able to ap¬
pear in the field. Indeed Livy tells us, that Archelaus
betraved the king’s caufe ; and Aurelius Vi&or, that
the king’s fleet was intercepted by Sylla through the
treachery of Archelaus : adding, that there was a good
underftanding between the two commanders, as was
plain from Sylla’s beftowing upon Arehelaus 10,coo
acres of land near the city of Chalcis in Euboea. Stra¬
bo alfo informs us, that Archelaus was afterwards
greatly efteemed and careffed by Sylla and the fe¬
nate ; but Sylla himfelf in his commentaries, and Dio,
endeavour to clear Archelaus from all fufpicion of trea¬
chery.
In fhe mean time, Sylla having given up Bceotia to
be plundered bv his foldiers, marched into Theffaly,
where he took up his winter-quarters, caufed his old
ftiips to be refitted and feveral new ones built, in order
to pafs over into Afia in the beginning of the fpring,
that he might drive from thence not only Mithridates,
but his rival Flaccus alfo, whom the fenate, out of op- PontiiS
pofition to him, had appointed governor of that pro-
vince. But before he arrived, fome differences having
arifen between Flaccus and Fimbria, the latter was by 2()
the conful deprived of his command. Upon this Fim- Fimbria
bria, having gained over the foldiery to his fide, made puts Flac-
war on the conful, took him prifoner, put him to death,
and affumed the command of all the Roman forces inGea
Afia. In this ftation, he behaved with the greateft
cruelty, infomuch that his name became more odious
than even that of Mithridates himfelf. This hatred the
king of Pontus endeavoured to improve to his own ad¬
vantage ; and therefore commanded his fon, by name
alfo Mithridates, to join Taxiles, Diophantes, and Me¬
nander, three of his mofl: experienced commanders, to
return at the head of a numerous army into Afia ; not
doubting but the inhabitants, thus haraffed by Fim¬
bria, would {hake off the Roman yoke when they faw
fuch a powerful army in the field ready to proted them.
But Fimbria, diftrufting the Afiatics, marched out to
meet the enemy, and offered them battle before they ^
entered the province. As the king’s army was greatly, Defeats tb
fuperior to the Romans in number, the latter fuffer-f°r5es pf
ed greatly in the engagement, but held out till night (p^n"
parted them, when they withdrew to the oppofite fide
of a river, which was at a fmall diftance from the field
of battle. Here they defigned to entrench themfelves:
but in the mean time a violent ftorm arifing, Fimbria
laid hold of that opportunity to repafs the river and
furprife the enemy : of whom he made fuch havock as
they lay in their tents, that only the commanders and 3I
fome few troops of horfe efcaped. Among thefe was and be.
the king’s fon ; who, attended by a few horle, got fafefifgest1^
to Pergamus, where his father refided. But Fimbria,kmg’
purfuing him night and day without intermiflion, en¬
tered Pergamus {word in hand ; and hearing that both
Mithridates and his fon had fled from thence a few
hours before, he continued his purfuit, and would have
taken the king himfelf, had he not entered Pitane with
a conflderably body of horfe. The place was clofely
inverted by Fimbria ; but as he had no (hips to block
it up by fea alfo, he lent a meffenger to Lucullus, who
commanded the Roman navy in Afia, intreating him,
as he tendered the welfare of the republic, to make
what hafte he could to Pitane, and aflift him in taking
the moft inveterate enemy the Romans had. But Lu¬
cullus, preferring the gratification of a private pique toured by
the good of his country, refufed to come : and thus al-ku^ca“_
lowed the fleet of Mithridates to carry him in fafety to
Mitylene.
Soon after the king’s departure, Fimbria took Pitane
by ftorm, and reduced moft of the cities of Afia, parti¬
cularly Troy, which he alfo took by ftorm in eleven days,
and put moil of the inhabitants to the fword, becaufe
they had fent an embaffy to Sylla, offeiing to fub-
mit to him rather than to Fimbria.—To add to the
misfortunes of Mithridates, his fleet was entirely de¬
feated in two engagements by Lucullus; fo that he be¬
gan to be weary of the war, and therefore defired Ar¬
chelaus to conclude a peace upon as honourable terms ^
as. he could. The king himfelf had afterwards alfo a peace coil-
conference with Sylla, and a peace was concluded included.
8; B. C. on the following terms, viz. That Mithri¬
dates fhould relinquifti all his conquefts, and content
himfelf with hL paternal dominions, which were confin¬
ed
3* ,
who is fuf*
PON [159] PON
fPontui. ed within the limits of Pontus : that he fhould immedi-
ately refign Bithynia to Nicomedes, and Cappadocia to
Ariobarzanes, and releafe without ranfom all the prifo-
ners he had taken during the war : that he fhould pay
to the Romans 2000, or as others will have it 3000, ta¬
lents, and deliver up to Sylla 80 fhips with all their
arms and ammunition, and 500 archers 5 and laftly, that
he fhould not moleft fuch cities or perfons as had du¬
ring the war revolted from him and flded with the Ro¬
mans.
Sylla, having thus concluded the war with great glo¬
ry to himfelf and advantage to the republic, turned his
army againft Fimbria ; but the latter, finding himfelf in
no condition to oppofe his rival by force, had recourfe
to treachery, and attempted to get Sylla murdered.
The plot mifcarried, and Fimbria put an end to his own
life; upon which Sylla, having now an uncontrouled
power in Afia, declared the Chians, Rhodians, Lyci-
ans, Magnefians, and Trojans, free, and friends of the
people of Rome, by way of reward for their having tided
with the Romans: but on the other cities he laid heavy
fines j condemning them in one year to pay 20,000 ta¬
lents, and quartering his foldiers in the houfes of thofe
who had fhown difaffe<Stion to the Romans. Each private
man was to receive from his landlord 16 drachms a-day,
and each officer 90 ; and befides, both were to be fup-
plied with provifions, not only for themfelves, but for
fuch of their friends as they thought proper to invite.
Bv thefe impofitions moft of the people of Afia were
reduced to beggary ; efpecially the inhabitants of Ephe-
fus, who had above all others fhown their hatred to the
Romans. Sylla then, having colle&ed immenfe trea-
fure, fet fail for Italy 5 leaving behind him Lucullus
with the chara&er of qucejlor, and Muraena with that of
prcetor.
The two legions which Fimbria had commanded were
given to Muraena, becaufe Sylla fufpedted them of an
inclination to the faction of Marius, whofe party he was
34 going to crufh at Rome.
Pj' hridates Mithridates in the mean time no fooner returned into
rmces the pontUSj than he fet about the reduction of thofe nations
v ch had revolted from him during the war. He be-
n dted gan with the Colchi; who immediately fubmitted, up
ha him. on condition that Mithridates would give his fon for a
king over them. This was complied with ; but the old
king had thenceforward a jealoufy of his fon, and there¬
fore firft imprifoned and then put him to death. Soon
after this, the king having made great preparations un¬
der pretence of reducing the Bofphori, a warlike nation
who had revolted from him, the Romans began to be
jealous. Their jealoufy was further increafed by Arche-
laus, who fled to them, and affured them that the pre-
35 parations of Mithridates-were not at all defigned againfl:
T Ro- the Bofphori. On hearing this, Muraena invaded Pon-
tus without any farther provocation. The king put
toitories ^^rri roind of the articles of peace concluded with
■wjlout Sylla : but Muraena replied that lie knew of no fuch
phoca- articles ; for Svlla had fet nothing down in writing, but
contented himfelf with the execution of what had been
agreed upon. Having given this anfwer, the Roman
general began to lay wafte and plunder the country,
without fparing even the treafures or temples confecra-
ted to the gods. Having put all to fire and fword on
the frontiers of Pontus towards Cappadocia, he paffed
the river Halys, and on that fide polfelfed hitnfelf of
3
400 villages without oppofition ; for Mithridates was Pontus.
unwilling to commit anv hoftilities before the return of'" 'J,
an ambaiTador whom he had fent to Rome to complain
of the conduct of Muraena. At laft the ambaffador re¬
turned, and with him one Callidius; who, in public af-
fembly,commanded Muraena toforbear molefting afriend
and ally of the Roman people; but afterwards, calling
him afide, he had a private conference with him, in
which it is fuppofed, as he brought no decree of the
fenate, that he encouraged him to purfue the war.
Whatever might be in this, it is certain that Murasna
Hill continued to pra&ife the fame hoftilities, and even
made an attempt on Sinope, where the king refided and
the royal treafures were kept. But as the town was
well fortified, he was forced to retire with feme lofs.
In the mean time Mithridates himfelf taking the field, but ait
appeared at the head of a powerful army, drove the feated.
Romans out of their camp, and forced them with great
daughter to fave themfelves over the mountains into
Phrygia 5 which fudden vidtory again induced many
cities to join Mithridates, and gave him an oppor¬
tunity once more of driving the Romans out of Cappa¬
docia.
In the mean time, Sylla, being created didlator at
Rome, fent a meflenger to Muraena, charging him in.
his name not to moleft Mithridates, whom he had ho¬
noured with the title of a friend and ally of Rome.
Muraena did not think proper to difregard this meffage j
and therefore immediately abandoned all the places he
had feized, and Mithridates again renounced Cappado¬
cia, giving his own fon as an hoftage of his fidelity..
Being then at leifure to purfue his other plans, Mithri¬
dates fell upon the Bofphori; and, having foon fubdued
them, appointed Machares one of his fons king of the
country. But leading his army from thence againft the
Achseans, a people bordering on the Colchi, and origi¬
nally defcended from the Greeks, who returning from
Troy had miftaken their way into Greece and fettled
there, he was defeated with the lofs of three-fourths of
his men. On his return to Pontus, however, he recruit-Engages
ed his army, and made vaft preparations to invade them*0 a new
anew ; but, in the mean time, hearing of Sylla’s death,
Ire came to the imprudent refolution of entering into amans<
fecond war with the Romans. Having therefore indu¬
ced his fon-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia, to invade
Cappadocia, he himfelf entered Paphlagonia at the head
of 120,000 foot difciplined after the Roman manner,
16,000 horfe, and 100 chariots armed with fcythes.
This country readily fubmitted; after which the king
marched into Bithynia, which alfo fubmitted without
oppofition ; the province of Afia followed the example
of the reft ; for thefe countries being oppreffed with ex¬
orbitant taxes, looked upon him as their deliverer. In
entering the cities of Afia, he caufed M. Marius or Va-
rius, whom Sertorius had fent him out of Spain to dif-
cipline his troops, walk before him with the enfigns of
confular dignity as if he was the chief magiftrate j the
king following as one of his attendants. He made fe-
veral cities free j but at the fame time acquainted the
inhabitants, that they were indebted to Sertorius for
their liberty *, and thus, by the connivance of that ge¬
neral, many cities revolted from the Romans without
knowing that they had done fo. But in the mean time
Julius Caefar, being at that time at Rhodes, whither he
had gone to ftudy oratory, and hearing what havock..
the
PON
[
38
Lncullus
and Cotta
39
fuccefiful.
Pont us. the king's officers made in the adjacent countries, he
— 1 collected ivhat troops he could, and falling unexpefted-
ly upon them, drove them quite out of the province of
Alia.
The Roman fenate, now finding a war unavoidable,
» appointed Lucullus to manage it. The other conful
fent agamft ^otta? |iaving fdicited an employment in this war, was
fent with a fleet to guard the Propontis and defend Bi-
thynia. Lucullus having raifed one legion in Italy,
paiTed over with it into Afia, where he was joined by
four others, two of which, as they had fcrved under
Fimbria, proved at firft very mutinous and refra&ory ;
nor were the other two much better, having been im-
merfed in the Afiatic luxuries. The difciplining of
thefe troops took up a confiderable time, which was pre¬
judicial to the Roman affairs; for almoft all the Afiatics
were ready to revolt, and Mithridates was making the
greateft preparations. One of his armies was ordered
to march into Cappadocia, under the command of Dio-
phantus Matharus, in order to oppofe Lucullus if he
fliould attempt to enter PontUs on that fide ; another,
commanded by Mithridates in perfon, confifted of
150,000 foot, 12,000 horfe, and 100 chariots armed
•with fcythes; a third army, commanded by Marius and
Eumachus, two generals of great experience in war,
was encamped in the neighbourhood of Heraclea in
Pontus.
Mithridates The beginning of the war proved favourable to Mi-
is at firft thridates. Cotta being defired by Lucullus to keep his
fleet within the harbour, as being inferior to that of
Mithridates, refolved to take the firft opportunity of
fighting the king by land, not doubting of an eafy vic¬
tory. Having for this purpofe collected all the forces
he could, Cotta difpatched his legate, P. Rutilius, with
a confiderable body to obferve the motions of the ene¬
my. This commander being met by Marius and Eu¬
machus, an engagement enfued, in which the Romans
■were defeated, and the greateft part of them, together
with their commander, cut in pieces. I he fame mif-
fortune befel feveral other officers of diftinftion fent
out to oppofe Mithridates ; who, being elated with
fuccefs, ordered his admiral to fail into the very har¬
bour, and fire the Roman fleet. This. was according¬
ly performed without the leaft oppofition from Cotta;
and 60 fhips were taken, funk, or burnt, on that occa-
fion.
Thefe victories having increafed the rebellious difpo-
fition of the Afiatics, made Lucullus haften his march
in order to flop the progrefs of the enemy. But finding
the kind’s army much more numerous than he expect¬
ed, he thought properto decline an engagement. How¬
ever, feveral flcirmifhes happened, in which the Romans
had always fo much the advantage, that they became
impatient for a general engagement. But Lucullus did
not at this time choofe to run fo great a rilk; and there¬
fore Mithridates, feeing he could not force the Romans
to a battle, decamped in the night-time, and by day¬
break reached Cyzicum, a moft important city, and
greatly attached to the Romans. Lucullus purfued
40 him ; and, falling on his rear, killed 10,000, and took
but is re- 15,000 prifoners. After this, the Roman general, by a
duced to . manoeuvre, gained an important pafs, which enabled
srreat (traits ^ to cut off all communication between the army of
The king,
Fontus
by Lucul-
dus,
4*
Mithridates and the neighbouring country
feeing himfelf thus in danger of famine, redoubled his
160 ] PON
efforts to gain the city ; but finding that he could
not batter down the walls, he refolved to undermine
them. In this alfo he was unfuecefsful; the befieged
funk countermines, and had very near taken the king
himfelf in one of his own mints. In the mean time,
winter coming on, the army of Mithridates was fo di-
ftreffed for want of provifions, that many died of hun¬
ger, while the furvivors were forced to feed on the flefli
of their dead companions. The famine was followed
by a plague ; which deftroyed fuch numbers, that Mith¬
ridates was obliged to think of a retreat; and even this
was become very dangerous. However, he laid hold of
the opportunity when Lucullus went away to befiege
a neighbouring caftle, and fent off the greateft part of
his cavalry in the night; ordering them not to halt till ^
they were out of the reach of the enemy. But Lucul- who cuts
lus having got intelligence of their march, fuddenly re-
turned, and purfued them fo clofe, that he came up Q’
with them as they were palling a river, took 600 horfe,
all their beads of burden, 15,000 men, and put the reft
to the fword. On his return he fell in with Ariftoni-
cus the king’s admiral, whom he took, juft as he was
ready to fail with a large fum of money defigned to
bribe the Roman army. In the mean time, Mithri¬
dates, finding himfelf reduced to the lafi: extremity,,
embarked in the night time with the greateft part of
the forces, while Marius and Eumachus, with 30,000
men, made the bell of their way to Lampfacus. But
being clofely purfued by the Romans, they were over¬
taken at the river ./Efopus, which at that time was
not fordable, by reafon of its having been fwelled by
heavy rains. Twenty thoufand were killed on the fpot;
nor could a fingle man have efcaped, had not the
Afiatics feat tered great quantities of gold and filver iu
the way, that the march of the Romans might be retar¬
ded by their flopping to gather it up. Lucullus on his
return entered Cyzicum amidft the acclamations of the
citizens; who afterwardsanftituted public fports in ho¬
nour of him, which they called Lucul/ea. The city was
declared free, and all the privileges, exemptions, and
immunities, beftowed upon the citizens which were en¬
joyed by tbe inhabitants of Rome itfelf. ^
From Cyzicum, Lucullus marcbed along the coaft of Lusullus
the Hellefpont till he came to Troas ; where he equip-gains a
ped his fleet, and put to fea in queft of Marius, Alex- V1
ander, and Dionyfius, three of the king’s generals, who •'
had a fleet of 50 flops, with 10,000 land forces on
board. Lucullus came up with them near the ifland of
Lemnos, took 32 of their (hips, and put a great num¬
ber of their land forces to the fword. The day after
the engagement the three generals w ere difeovered in a
cave where they had concealed themfelves, and dragged
from thence to Lucullus; who, after having feverely
upbraided Marius for fighting againft his country, cau-
fed him to be put to death. Alexander and Dkmyfius
were referved for the triumph ; but the latter poifoned
himfelf to avoid that difgrace. Lucullus then fleered
his courfe for Bithynia, on receiving intelligence that
Mithridates had appeared with his fleet on thofe coafts:
but the king having notice of his approach, made what
hafte he could to gain Pontus, and arrived at Heraclea
on board a pirate named Seletmts; with whom he
was obliged to truft himfelf, his fleet being difperfed
by a violent florin, and the ffiip that carried him call
away. ,
In
PON
fontus. In the mean time Mithridates \Vas no lefs unfortu-
u «, ■ • ‘ nafe jancj t}-]an by fea> Triarius, one of the officers
■"'arther Lueulius, reduced the cities of Apamea, Prufa, Pru-
ilucceffes of has, and Nicaea. From thence he marched with all ex-
jLuculius. pedition to Nicomedia, where the king himfelf was, and
near which place Cotta lay encamped. But before the
two armies could be joined, Mithridates efcaped, firft
to Keraclea, which was betrayed to him, and from
thence to Sinope. Nor was Lucullus himfelf all this
time inadlive. Having reduced all Paphlagonia and
Bithynia, he marched into Cappadocia, and joined
Cotta and Triarius at Nicomedia, with a defign to in¬
vade Pontus •, but hearing that Heraclea was in the
hands of Mithridates, he difpatched Cotta to reduce
that city. Triarius was ordered with the fleet to the
IHellefpent and Propontis, to intercept the king’s fleet,
which was daily expedited from Spain with fupplies from
Sertorius. Lucullus himfelf, with the main ftrength of
the army, purfued his march into Pontus. Plis army
was greatly haraffed, efpeeially in the narrow pafles be¬
tween Cappadocia and Pontus, by flying parties of the
enemy. But the greateft inconvenience was the want
of provifions, as the king’s troops had laid wafte all the
country around •, infomuch that Lucullus having loft al-
moft all his hearts of burden, was obliged to take along
with the army 30,000 Galatians, each of them carrying
a fack of corn on his back. At laft, however, he gain¬
ed the plains of Pontus 5 where provifions were fo plen¬
tiful, that an ox was fold for a drachma, and every thing
elfe in proportion.
The Roman general having now carried the war into
the enemy’s country, divided his forces, and at the fame
time inverted a very ftrong town named Amifus ; ano¬
ther called Eupatoria, built by Mithridates, and made
the place of his refidence j and another, named Themif-
cyra, fituated on the banks of the Thermodoon. Eu¬
patoria was foon taken, but Themifeyra made a vigo¬
rous refiftance. The townfmen galled the Romans to
fuch a degree, that, not daring to approach the walls
openly, they contented themfelves with undermining
them : but in this too they met with no fmall difficulty ;
for the enemy countermined, and often engaged them
under ground, letting into the mines bears and other
wild hearts, with fwarms of bees, which obliged them
to abandon their works. However, the town was at laft
obliged to furrender for want of provifions. As for
Amifus, Lucullus himfelf fat down before it : but find¬
ing it ftrongly fortified and garrifoned with the flower
of the king’s troops, the Roman general thought proper
to reduce it by famine j and on this occafion his coun¬
trymen firft complained of him as protradling the war
for his own advantage.
In the mean time Mithridates having recruited his
fhattered army, advanced to Cabirae, a city not far di-
ftant from Amifus. Lucullus, leaving part of the army
to continue the fiege, marched at the head of the reft
to oppofe Mithridates. But the king having drawn his
cavalry into a general engagement, defeated them with
confiderable lofs, and drove them back to the moun¬
tains, through the pafles of which Lucullus had lately
marched to attack him. This check obliged the Ro¬
man general to retire to a rifing ground near the city
of Cabirae, where the enemy could not force him to an
engagement. Here provifions beginning to grow fcarce,
Lucullus fent out ftrong parties from his army into Cap-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
P O N
padocia, the only place from whence he could have fup- Pontus.
plies. One of thefe parties entirely defeated Taxiles
and Diophantes, two of the king’s generals, who had
been rtationed there to prevent Lucullus from having
any communication with the country. The king, up¬
on the news of this defeat, refolved to break up his
camp and retire, not queftioning but that Lucullus 44
w'ould attack him as foon as his forces returned. This The army
refolution he no fooner imparted to his nobles, than
they began privately to fend away their moft valuable ^ese\vhieh
goods ; which being found out by the foldiers, they cbliges the
took it in fuch bad part that no intelligence had been king to fly
given them, that they plundered their baggage, and put “i10 Arme-
thofe who had the care of it to the fword. After this ma*
they betook themfelves to flight, crowding out of the
gates in the utmoft confufion. The king haftened to
flop their flight 5 but nobody fltowing him the leaft re-
fpedt, he was carried away by the crowd, and in great
danger of being trampled to death. Having with diffi¬
culty made his efcape, he retired with a fmall retinue,
firft to Cabirae, and then to his fon-in-law Tigranes
king of Armenia. LucuIIhs difpatched the beft part
of his cavalry to purfue the fugitives 5 while he himfelf,
with the reft, inverted the camp of Mithridates, where
thofe remained who could not fly with the reft. The
camp was eafily taken j but moft of the foldiers made
their efcape, while the Romans, contrary to their gene¬
ral’s orders, were bufied in plundering. Lucullus then
purfued hard after the king j who, being overtaken by 1
a company of Galatians, caufed a mule loaded with
part ef his treafures to be driven in among them, by
which means he made his efcape while they quarrelled
about the booty. Mithridates, remembering in his
flight, that he had left his filters, wives, and concubines
at Pharnacia, difpatched an eunuch, named Bacchus or
Bacchides, with orders to put them all to death, left
they ffiould fall into the hands of the enemy ; which was
accordingly done.
After the flight of Mithridates, the Romans no long¬
er met with any oppofition ; the king’s governors
flocking from all parts to put themfelves under the pro-
te&ion of the conqueror. Among thefe was the grand¬
father of Strabo the geographer, whom the king had
difobliged by putting to death his coufin-german Ti-
bias, and his fon Theophilus. He was a man of fuch
credit, that it was no fooner heard that he had aban¬
doned the king’s party, than 15 other commanders de¬
livered up to Lucullus the places with which they had
been intrufted ; and about the fame time Triarius fall¬
ing in with the king’s fleet near the ifland of Tenedos,
obtained a complete viftory, having either taken or
funk 60 of the enemy’s veffels.
All this time Cotta had been employed without fuc-
cefs in befieging Heraclea, which he could never have
reduced without the affiftance of Triarius. That com¬
mander, having defeated the fleet, foon reduced the
town to fuch diftrefs, that a third part of the garrifon
died of hunger j upon which the governor, Conaco-
rix, privately agreed with Triarius to deliver one of
the gates to him. This was accordingly done j and
the Romans, entering, made a terrible (laughter of the
helplefs inhabitants. But in the mean time Cotta pro¬
voked at feeing himfelf deprived both of all (hare of the
booty, and the honour of reducing a place before which
he had fat fo long, fell upon his countrymen as they
X were
[ 161 ]
PON
[ 162 ]
PON
Pontte. were bu*ie4 in plundering} which would ha\re occafion-
 v   ed a great deii'ol aloodlhed, had not Triarius promded
to divide the booty equally. Conacorix, in order to
conceal his treachery, after marching out of Heraclea,
feized on two forts belonging to the Romans ; and Tri¬
arius being fent to recover them, Cotta, in his abfence,
plundered the city anew, ntled the temples which the
other had fpared, nut all the citizens he could meet with
to the iword, and having carried off every thing valuable,
at lalt fet fire t?> the city in feveral places, by which
means it was foon reduced to athes. Cotta then, having
no farther oecafion for his troops, dil'miffed the auxili¬
aries, refigned his legions to Lucullus, and put to fea
himfelf in order to return to Rome. But he had fcarcely
got out of the harbour, when part of his (hips, being
overloaded with the fpoils of the city, funk ; and the
others, driven by a violent north wind, were dallied
againft the fliore, which occafioned the lofs of a great
part of the booty. On his return to Rome, however,
he was highly applauded by the fenate, and honoured
with the title of Ponticus.
Lueullus, having now reduced Pontus, marched
againtf the Chaldeans, Tibarenians, and inhabitants of
Armenia Minor ; who voluntarily fubmitted to him,
and put him in pofftffion of all their ftrongholds.
From Armenia, he returned before Amifus, which
flill held out ; Callimachus, governor of the place, hav¬
ing harafled the Romans to fuch a degree by engines
of his own contriving, that they had given over their
aflaults, and contented themfelves with blocking it up
by land, though the garrifon was at the lame time
plentifully fupplied with provifions by fea. Lucullus,
on his arrival, fummoned the city to furrender, offer¬
ing the inhabitants very honourable terms ; but, being
refufed, he made a general affault at the time when he
knew that Callimachus ufed to draw off great part of
his troops to give them fume refpite. The Romans
applying their fcaling ladders, got over the wall be¬
fore Callimachus could come to the alfiflance of thofe
whom he had left to guard it; however, by fetting
the city on fire, he found means in that conlufion to
make his efcape. Lucullus commanded his men to ufe
their utmoft endeavours to fave the city j but being
intent only upon plundering, they regarded nothing
but the furniture. At lall the fire was extinguilhed
by a violent Ihower *, and Lucullus, having with diffi¬
culty reftrained his foldiers from committing any farther
exceffes, repaired the city in fome meafure before he
left it, and fuffered the inhabitants to enjoy their pof-
feffions in peace.
Nothing was now wanting but the captivity of Mi-
thridates himfelf to put a final period to the war ; and
therefore Lucullus demanded him from his fon-in-law
Tigranes. But though that prince could not be pre¬
vailed to fee Mithridates on account of his mifeon-
duft, he could as little be induced to deliver him up
to his enemies. After this refufal, however, he for
the firft time condefcended to fee his father-in-law, af¬
ter he had refided a year and eight months in his do¬
minions. In a private conference, held by the two
kings, it was agreed, that Tigranes (hould march
again id the Romans, and Mithridates with 10,000 horfe
return into JPontus, where he ffiould make what levies
be could, and rejoin Tigranes, before Lucullus, who
was then employed in the fiege of Sinope, could enter Pontns,.
Armenia. But, in the mean time, Sinope having fur- * 1 'r—'J
rendered, Lucullus with all poffible expedition matched fiRrapies
againfl Tigranes, and, having drawn him into a general defeated by
engagement, gave him an entire defeat, as is related Lucullus,
under the article ARMENIA.
Mithridates was marching to his affiflance, when he
met his fon-in-law flying with a fmall retinue to ffiel-
ter himfelf in fome remote corner of the kingdom. ^
He encouraged him to raife new forces ; not doubting but refolvei
but that another campaign would repair all former to try an-
loffes, provided he would commit to his management otl3er cmB"
every thing relating to the war. To this 1 igranes Pai4,I1‘
agreeing, as he thought him more fit to deal with the
Romans than himfelf, orders were iffued out for raifing
a new army, and all the Armenians able to bear arms
fummoned to meet at the place of the general rendez¬
vous. Out of thefe Mithridates chofe 70,000 foot
and 35,000 horfe ; and having trained them up during
the winter, after the Roman difeipline, in the begin¬
ning of the fpring he left part of them with Tigranes,
and marched himfelf with the reil into Pontus, where
he recovered many important places, and overcame in a
pitched battle M. Fabius, whom Lucullus had appoint¬
ed governor of that province. Being flufhed with his
fuccefs, as foon as the wounds he received in the en¬
gagement fuffered him to move, he purfued labius, and
befieged him in the city of Cabirse, whither he had
retired ; but in the mean time Triarius, who was march¬
ing out of Afia to join Lucullus, hearing what diftrefs
the Romans were in, haftened to their relief, and ap¬
pearing unexpectedly on the neighbouring hill, ftruck
fueh terror into the enemy, that they raifed the fiege,
and made the belt of their way into Cappadocia. Tri¬
arius purfued them, and got fo near them as to be
parted only by a river. Here he halted, with a defign
to pafs the river after he had allowed his men fome
reft, for they were tired out with long marches. But
Mithridates was before-hand with him, and crofting the 4?
river on a bridge, where he had placed a ftrong guard, Mithridatw
attacked the Romans with great refolution before they defeated
had time to refrefli themfelves. The battle was bloody,
and the event doubtful, till the bridge breaking down
with the weight of the multitude that paffed, the
king’s troops, who had engaged relying chiefly on
their numbers, began to lofe courage, feeing they could
receive no farther affiftance, and the Romans charging
them with freffi vigour, they betook themfelves to a
precipitate flight. After this engagement, as winter
came on, botli armies were glad to retire to their winter
quarters.
During the winter, Mithridates raifed new forces-:
and having received confiderable fupplies from Tigranes,
took the field early in the fpring, in hopes of driving
the Romans quite out of Pontus, before Lucullus, who
had work enough on his hands in Armenia, could come
to their affiftance. With this view he marched ftraight
againft Triarius and Sornatius, to whom Lucullus had
committed the care and defence of that province ; and
finding them encamped near the city of Gaziurfa, prof¬
fered them battle ; which they declining, he fet a*
ftrong detachment to befiege a caftle where the Ro¬
mans had left all their baggage, hoping they would
rather venture an engagement to relieve the place, than
lofe
2
Pont us.
43
Defeats
Ixiarius,
PON [1
lofe all they had got with fo much toil and labour du¬
ring the war ; neither was he difappointed in his hopes 5
for though Triarius was keeping clofe in his camp till
the arrival of Lucullus, whom he daily expefted, ha¬
ving acquainted him with the danger, the foldiers hear¬
ing that the caftle was beiieged, declared in a tumultu¬
ous manner, that if he did not lead them they would
march to the relief of the place without his leave.
Triarius being thus forced by his own men to fight,
drew out his forces againft the king, whofe army was
three times his number $ but while they were upon the
point of engagmg, both armies were by a violent ftorm
forced to retire to their refpe&ive camps j but Triarius
receiving that very day intelligence of the approach of
Lucullus, and fearing he would fnatch the victory out
of his hands, refolved to make a bold pufh, and next
morning by break of day attack the king in his camp.
If he conquered, the glory he thought would be entire¬
ly his own ; if he were overcome, the enemy could
reap no great advantage from his viftory, Lucullus be¬
ing at hand with a powerful army. The king, in that
furprife, putting himfelf at the head of a few troops of
his guards, fuftained the brunt of the Romans, till the
reft of his army drawing up came to his relief, and at¬
tacked the enemy with fuch fury, that the Roman foot
were forced to give way, and were driven into a mo-
rafs, where they were furrounded and great numbers of
them cut in pieces.
Their horfe were likewife put to flight, and purfued
with great (laughter, till a Roman centurion in the
king’s fervice, pitying his countrymen, attempted to kill
him. The king’s life was faved by bis breaftplate ; but
as he received a deep wound in the thigh, he was obli¬
ged to give over the purfuit himfelf, and thofe that were
about him caufed the retreat to be founded, which, as
it was unexpected, occafioned a great oonfufion in the
whole army. The centurion was immediately cut in
pieces j but the Roman horle in the mean time getting
the ftart of the enemy, found means to make their ef-
cape. Above‘7000 of the Romans were killed in that
battle : and among them 150 centurions, and 24 tri¬
bunes, the greateft number of officers that had been loft
iMlthelto-in any engagement to that day. Mithridates being
aiansin the cured of his wound, that he might not for the future be
M'T 7^ ©^pofed to fuch dangers, caufed all the Romans that
maflacred68 ^erved in his army to be formed into one body, as if
'they were to be fent out on a party, and then ordered
them to retire to their tents, where they were all to a
man cut in pieces.
The king, however elated with fuccefs, yet would not
engage Lucullus ; but with long marches haftened in¬
to Armenia Minor, and encamped on a hill near the
town of Talura, expefting Tigranes, who was advan¬
cing with a ftrong army to join him. Lucullus, in pur¬
fuit of Mithridates, marched over the Held of battle,
leaving thofe unburied who had fallen in the engage¬
ment, which alienated the minds of the foldiery from
him, and they began to be very mutinous ; being ftir-
red up by Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had turned
out of his command for his vile behaviour, notwit h-
ftanding he wTas nearly related to him, Lucuilus having
married his fifter. The difcontent that prevailed in
the army came to fuch a height, that Lucullus was ob¬
liged to lie ftill in his-camp all that fummer ; the fol-
49
63 ] POM
diers declaring in a mutinous manner, that they would Pontu%
not follow him any longer, nor ferve under a general
who refufed to (hare the booty with them. 50
Thefe complaints, and the general difcontent thatkucuhes
reigned in the army, obliged the fenate to recal Lu-^:1^'^
cullus, and appoint Manius Acilius Glabrio, eonful of brieves tho
that year, in his room. Glabrio arriving in Bithynia,.Hfi us of
gav« notice by public criers to all the cities, that ihe A-uhri-
fenate had difeharged Lucullus and his army, and con-^ate5,
flfcated his goods for protra&ing the war and refuling
to comply with their injunctions. Hereupon Lucullus
was abandoned by the greater part of his army, and
forced to retire into Galatia, not being in a condition
to make head againfl the. joint forces of the two kings j
who, laying hold of that opportunity, recovered the btft
part of Pontus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, and Armenia
Minor : for though Glabrio had haftened into Pontus,
as if he had intended to engage the enemy and rob Lu¬
cullus of the vidlory, yet, upon the firft news of the ap¬
proach of the two kings, he thought fit to retire and
leave the country open on all fides to the enemy. 51
When this was heard at Rome, a law was enabled Poirpey
there by C. Manilius, a tribune of the people, where- aSa”1^’
by the management of the war againft Mithridates and
Tigranes was committed to Pompey, and likewife the
provinces of Cilicia, then under (Quintus'Marcius, and
of Bithynia under Glabrio. By the fame law he was
continued in that unlimited power by fea, with which
he was invefted when he firft fet out againft- the pi¬
rates of Cilicia. In virtue of this law, Pompty, who
had juft then ended the war with the Cilician pirates,
took upon him the command of the army, and direc¬
ted all the allies of the Roman people to join him with
all poflible expedition : but before he took the field,
he renewed the alliance which Sylla and Lucullus had
concluded with Phrahates king of Parthia, and then
fent friendly propofals to Mithridates : who at firft feem-
ed inclined to give ear to them, and accordingly dif-
patched an ambaflador to the Roman army to treat of
a peace. Pompey required of him to lay down his arms
if he was in earneft, and deliver up to him all thofe who
had revolted from the Romans during the war. 1 his de¬
mand wras no fooner reported abroad in the king’s camp,
but the deferters, who were very numerous in the king’s
army, betaking themfelves to their arms, threatened to
put Mithridates himfelf to death ; and would have oc¬
cafioned a great difturbance, had not the king appeafed
the growing tumult, by affuring them, that he had fent
ambafladors, not to treat of a peace, but only to lake,
under pretence of fixing for peace, a view of the ene¬
my’s ftrength. He moreover obliged himfelf, by a fo-
lemn oath in prefence of the whole army, never to en¬
ter into any treaty of friendfhip with the Romans, nor to
deliver up to them fuch as had ever ferved under him.
Pompey, finding his propofals reje&ed, advanced Mithridates
againft the king with an army of 30,000 foot and re.le<T
20,000 horfe, as Plutarch writes, or 30,000, as we read ',r
in Appian, all chofen troops; for he difeharged rrofr
of thofe who had ferved under Glabrio and Lucul¬
lus. As he entered Galatia, he w as met by Lucullus,
w’ho endeavoured to perfuade him to march back, the
war being near finifhed, and even deputies fent by the
republic to fettle the province of Pontus; but not be¬
ing able to prevail with him, after mutual complaints
X 2 againft
PON
[
Pontu’. againfl each other, they parted j and Pompey remo-
' v ving his camp, commanded the troops that were with
Lucullus to join him, except 1600 whom he left to at¬
tend Lucullus in his triumph. From thence Lucullus
fet out for Rome, where he was received by the fenate
with great marks of efteem, moft men thinking him
highly injured by the authors of the Manilian law.
Pompey purfued his march into Pontus ; but finding
that he could not by any means draw the king to a
battle, he marched back into Armenia Minor, with a
defign either to reduce that province, or oblige Mi-
thridates to venture a battle in order to relieve it. Mi-
thridates followed him at fome diftance ; and entering
Armenia, encamped on a hill over againft the Romans,
and, by intercepting their convoys, reduced them to
fuch diftrefs, that they were obliged to remove to a
more convenient place, the king cutting off many in
their rear, and haraffing them with frequent attacks,
till he fell into an ambufcade laid by Pompey, whofe
perfonal courage and prudent condudt on that occafion
confirmed the king in his refolution not to hazard a
general engagement. The two armies encamped over-
againfl: each other } Pompey on one hill, and the king
on another, near the city of Daftira, in the province
of Acifilene, at a fmall dittance from the Euphrates,
which divides Cifilene from Armenia Minor.
S3 Here Pompey, feeing he could neither draw the king
b' Pom e - a battle, nor force his camp, which was pitched on
"’a ileep and craggy mountain, began to block him up
with a ditch which he carried round the bottom of the
hill where the king was encamped ; and meeting with
no oppofition, finilhed his work, and quite cut off the
enemy’s communication with the country. Pompey
was amazed to fee the king thus tamely fuffer himfelf
to be (hut up ; and could not help faying, That he was
either a great fool or a great coward j a fool, if he did
not apprehend the danger he was in ; a coward, if, be¬
ing apprifed of it, he did not to the utmoft of his power
prevent it. Ey this ditch, which was 150 furlongs in
circuit, and defended by many forts raifed at fmall di¬
ll ances from each other, the king was fo clofely befieg-
ed, that he could neither fend out parties to forage, nor
receive the fupplies that came to him from Pontus. He
was thus befieged for the fpace of 45 or 50 days ; and
his army reduced to fuch ftraits, that, having confumed
all their provifions, they were at laft forced to live on
their dead horfes. Hereupon Mithridates refolved at
all events to break through the Roman fortifications:
, and accordingly, having put to the fword all thofe that
tbrorwh the were or difabled, that they might not fall into the
Homan enemy’s hands, he attacked in the dead of the night
lines. the Roman guards •, and having overpowered them w'ith
his numbers, got fafe into the open fields, and continued
his march till night towards Armenia Major, where he
was expe&ed by Tigranes.
Pompey next morning by break of day purfued the
enemy with his whole army •, and having with much ado
overtaken them, found the king encamped on a hill, to
which there was but one afeent, and that guarded by a
ffrong body of foot. The Romans encamped over-
againft them *, but Pompey, fearing the king Ihould
make his efcape in the night-time, privately decamped,
and taking the fame route the enemy were to hold in
order to gain Armenia, poffeffed himfelf of all the emi-
64 ] P O N
nences and defiles through which the king was to pafs. Pontus.
Mithridates thinking that Pompey was returned to his ‘—■“-v-—»«i
former camp, purfued his march, and about the dulk of Is ov^S
the evening entered a narrow valley, which was fur- reached b?
rounded on all fides by fteep hills. On thefe hills the Pompey,
Romans lay concealed, expedling the fignal to fall upon and totally
the enemy and attack them on all fides at once, whil«defea|ed-
they were tired by their march, and feemingly, as they
had fent out no fcouts, in great fecurity. Pompey was at
firft for putting off the attack till the next morning, think¬
ing it not fafe to engage in the night-time among fuch
fteep and craggy mountains ; but was at laft prevailed
upon, by the earneft prayers and intreaties of all the
chief officers of the army, to fall upon the enemy that
very night. It was therefore agreed, that in the dead
of the night all the trumpets fhould at once found the
charge, that this fignal ffiould be followed by an univer-
fal ffiout of the whole army, and that the foldiers Ihould
make what noife they could, by ftriking their fpears
againft the brafs veffels that were ufed in the camp,.
The king’s army at this hidden and unexpefted noife,
which was echoed again by the mountains, imagined at
firft that the gods themfelves were come down from'
heaven to deftroy them ; and the Romans charging them
on all fides with fhowers of ftones and arrows from the
tops of the hills, they took themfelves to a precipitate
flight} but finding all the paffes befet with ftrong bodies'
of horfe and foot, were forced to fly back into the val~-
ley, where, for many hours together, they were expofed
to the enemy’s ffiot, without being able, in that confu-
fion, either to attack them or defend themfelves. They
attempted indeed to make fome refiftance when the moon
rofe j but the Romans running down upon them from the
hills, did not give them time to draw up, and the place
was fo narrow that they had not room even to make ufe
of their fwords. The king loft on that occafion 10,OOO
men according to Appian, but 40,000 according to
Eutropius and others. On Pompey’s fide there fell be¬
tween 20 and 30 private men, and two centurions. ^ -
Mithridates, at the head of 800 horfe, broke through Diftrefs of
the Roman army, and being after this effort abandon- Mithri-
ed by all the reft, becaufe they were clofely purfued bydates>
the enemy, he travelled all night attended by three per.
fons only, viz. his wife, or, as Plutarch calls her, his con¬
cubine, by name Hypjicratia, his daughter Dripetine, and
an officer. At day-break he fell in with a body of mer¬
cenary horfe, and 3000 foot, who were marching to join
him. By thefe he was efcorted to the caftle of Sinoria,
fituated on the borders of the two Armenias. As great
part of his treafures was lodged here, he rewarded very
liberally thofe who accompanied him in his flight j and
taking 6000 talents, withdrew into Armenia. As faon
as he entered the borders, he difpatched ambaffadors to
Tigranes, acquainting him with his arrival; but that
prince, who was then on the point of concluding a fepa-
rate peace with the Romans, clapped his ambafl'adors in
irons, pretending that his fon Tigranes had, at the in-
ftigation of Mithridates, revolted firft to the Parthians,
and then to the Romans. Mithridates finding himfelf
thus abandoned, even by his fon-in-law, left Armenia;
anddirefting his courfe towards Colchis, which was fub-
jed! to him, and not as yet invaded by the Romans, paf-
fed the Euphrates the fourth day, and got fafe into his
own territories.
Pompey
PON [ ]
Pontus. Potnpey fent out feveral parties in purfuit of the king;
■“—v ' but remained himfelf with the main body of the army in
the field of battle, where he built a city, calling it from
that remarkable viftory Nicopo/is. This city, with the
adjoining territory, he beitowed upon fuch of his foldiers
as were old or difabled ; and many Hocking to it from the
neighbouring countries, it became in a Hun t time a very
confiderable place. This battle was certainly attended
with very fatal confequences for Mithridates ; who was
forced, his army being entirely either cut off or difperfed,
3e flies into to abandon his own dominions, and Hy for flielter to the
kythia, moH remote parts of Scythia. Pompey having conclud-
md from ec[ a peace with Tigranes, as we have related in the hi-
ither coun° ^:ory Armenia, and fettled the affairs of that king-
rjeJ dom, began his march in purfuit of Mithridates through
thofe countries that lie about Mount Caucafus. The bar¬
barous nations through which he puffed, chiefly the Alba¬
nians and Iberians, attempted to flop his march, but were
foon put to flight. However, he was obliged, by the ex-
ceflive cold and deep roads, to pafs the winter near the
river Cyrus. Early in the fpring he purfued his march ;
but meeting with great oppofition from the Iberians, a
warlike nation, and entirely devoted to Mithridates, he
was employed moft part of the fummer in reducing
them. In the mean time, Mithridates, who had wintered
at Diofcurias, on the iflhmus between the Euxine and
Cafpian feas, and had been joined there by fuch of his
troops as had made their efcape from the late unfortu¬
nate battle, continued his flight through the countries
of the Achaeans, Zygians, Heniochians, Cercetans,
Mofchi, and Colchians. Of thefe nations fome recei¬
ved him kindly, and even entered into alliance with
him ; through others he was forced to fight his way
with the fword.
Pompey took the fame route, direfting his courfe by
the ftars, efpecially in the northern parts of Scythia,
and carrying with him even a fupply of water* for
the army in the vafi: deferts through which he marched.
Smpey’s He fpent two years in warring with thefe nations, and
rther con- was often in danger of lofing both his life and his army :
but at laft he overcame them all; and believing Mithri¬
dates, of whom he could have no account, to be dead,
he marched back into Armenia Minor, Avhere he allow¬
ed fome reft to his foldiers, who were quite worn out
with the hardfhips they had endured in that expedition.
Having refrefhed his army, he marched into Pontus, to
reduce fome ftrongholds which were ftill garrifoned by
the king’s troops. While he was at Afpis in Pontus,
many of the king’s concubines were brought to him ;
but he fent them all home to their parents, without of¬
fering them the leaft injury, and thereby gained the
affe&ion of the chief lords of Pontus, whofe daughters
they were. The ftrong caftle of Symphori was delivered
up to him by Stratonix, one of the king’s concubines,
upon no other terms than that he would fpare her fon
Xiphares, who was with the king, in cafe he ftiould fall
into his hands. She likewife discovered to him great
treafures hid under ground, which he, with great gene-
rofity, beftowed upon her, referving for himfelf only
feme veffels to fet off his triumph. Having taken an¬
other fort, called the New Cajlle, and to that time look¬
ed upon as impregnable, he found in it great ftore of
gold, filver, and other valuable things, which he after¬
wards confecrated to Jupiter Gapitolinus. Here, in look-
i.
65 ] PON
ing over the king’s manufcripts, he came to difcover Pontus.
where the reft of his treafures were concealed, what *   v—1 ",l
troops he could raife and maintain, what fums were
yearly paid him by his fubjefts and tributaries, &c.
whereby he could make a true eftimate of his whole
power and wealth. Amongft other manufcripts he found
fome books of phyfic, wrote by Mithridates himfelf,
which he commanded Lenaeas, a learned grammarian,
to tranflate into Latin.
Pompey, having thus reduced all Pontus, marched
into Syria, with a defign to recover that kingdom, and
pafling through Arabia to penetrate as far as the Red fea.
But while he was employed in this expedition, news was Mithndates
brought him that Mithridates, whom he believed dead, appears a-
had appeared unexpe&edly in Pontus at the head ef a gain at the
confiderable army, and furprifed Panticapseum, a famous hea‘1,of a
empory at the mouth of the Euxine fea. He had lain able arm
all this time concealed in the territories of a Scythian
prince, adjoining to the Palus Moeotis; but hearing
that Pompey had left Pontus, and was engaged in other
wars, he ventured out of his hiding-place, refolved either
to recover his paternal kingdom, or die in the attempt.
He returned privately into Pontus, and managed mat¬
ters there fo dexteroufly, that the Roman garrifons knew
nothing of his arrival till he appeared with a confiderable
army in the field. He advanced firft to the caftle of
Symphori ; and underftanding that Stratonix had deli¬
vered it up to Pompey, on condition he would fave the
life of her fon in cafe he fliould take him prifoner, the
king immediately caufed the youth, who was in his
army, to be put to death, and his body to be left un¬
buried, Stratonix beholding from the Avails the cruel
and unnatural murder, for he was her fon by Mithri¬
dates, and had ferved him with great fidelity. At the
fame time he fent ambaffadors to Pompey to treat of a
peace, offering to pay a yearly tribute to the republic,
on condition he reftored to him his kingdom. Pompey
replied, that he Avould hearken to no propofals Avhatfo-
ever, Avithout the king came to treat with him in perfon,
as Tigranes had done. This Mithridates looked upon
as nowife confiftent Avith his dignity ; and therefore lay¬
ing afide all thoughts of an accommodation, began to
make what preparations he could for renewing the Avar. 6#
He fummoned all his fubjeds that were able to bear Recovers
arms to meet at an appointed place ; and having chofen ^everal
out of the Avhole multitude 60 cohorts, each confifting P130®6'
of 100 men, he incorporated them with the regular
troops that Avere already on foot. Being noAV in a con¬
dition to a& offenfively, for Pompey had left but a fmall
number of troops in Pontus, he poffeffed himfelf of Pha-
nagorium, Cherfonefus, Theodofia, Nymphteum, and fe¬
veral other important places. But, in the mean time,
Caftor, Avhom Mithridates had appointed governor of
Phanagorium, falling out Avith Tripho, one of the king’s
favourite eunuchs, killed him,and dreading the king’s re-
fentment, ftirred up the inhabitants to a revolt: by which
means Phanagorium was again loft; but the caftle, Avhich
was defended by four of the king’s fons, Artaphernes, Da¬
rius, Xerxes, and Oxathres, held out for fome time. The
king haftened to their relief; but the caftle being fet on
fire by the rebels, they were forced to furrender them-
felves to Caftor before his arrival. Thefefour fons, with one
of the king’s daughters, by name Cleopatra, Caftor fent
to the Romans; and fortifying himfelf in the town, per- -
fuaded -
PON
[
PON
Pontus.
fuaded moft of the neighbouring cities, which were op-
prefffd with heavy taxes, and Itrangely haraffed by the
6l king’s colleftors, to join in the rebellion.
Hisfubjed' Mithridates finding that he could neither rely upon
difcontent- the foldiery, moft of them being forced into the fervice,
■*ed
nor on his other iubjefts, who were diflatisfied by reafon
of the exorbitant taxes, fent ambaffadors to invite the
princes of Scythia to his relief, and with them his daugh¬
ters, to be bedewed in marriage on fuch as (howed
themfelves molt inclined to affift him. But as the am-
baffadors he employed on this occafion were eunuchs, a
race of men no lefs abhorred by the army than favoured
by the king, over whom they had a great afeendant,
efpecially in his old age, the foldiers who were fent to
attend them on their journey, put them all to the fvvord
as foon as they were out of the king’s reach, and de¬
livered his daughters up to the Romans. Mithridates,
finding himfelf thus deprived of his children, betrayed
by his army, and forfaken even by thofe on whom he
chiefly relied, could not yet be induced to fubmit to the
Romans, though Pompey promifed him honourable con¬
ditions, provided he came to treat with him in perfon.
In this defperate condition, he left no ftone unturned to
<*2 flir up the princes of Afia againft the Romans, efpecially
Hisextraor-jRg Parthians ; but finding them aAvedby the great opi-
in" n’on hacl of Pompey, he had recourfe at laft to
vadinj
:Italy.
<*3
His fon
Pharnace?
: revolts.
the European Gauls, whom he underftood to be at war
with the Romans ^ and having fent before fome of his
trufty friends to engage them in his favour, taking leave
of his own kingdom, he began his long march, defign-
ing to pafs through Bofphorus Cimmerius, Scythia, Pa-
nonia, &c. and joining the Gauls, pafs the Alps, and
invade Italy.
This defign was no fooner known in the army, but
the foldiers openly began to complain and mutiny j ex¬
aggerating the boldnefs of the attempt, the length
of the march, and the unfurmountable difficulties that
muft neceffarily attend fuch a defperate enterprife.
The chief commanders did all that lay in their power
to divert him from it 5 reprefenting to him, that if he
was not able to cope with the Romans in his own king¬
dom, much lefs would he be a match for them in Ita¬
ly or Gaul, where they could daily receive new fup-
plies *, whereas he would lofe the greatefl part of his
army in fo long and difficult a march, and the reft per¬
haps in the firft engagement, without any poffibility of
repairing the lofs. But all was to no purpofe j for they
found him fo unalterably fixed in his refolution, that he
caufed thofe to be put to death who with moft warmth
remonftrated againft it, not fparing even his own fon
Exipodras, for dropping fome unguarded expreffions on
that occafion. Thus they w'ere forced to let him pur¬
sue his own meafures, till they found a more proper op¬
portunity to opprtfe them, which foon after offered, as
they were encamped at Bofphorus Cimmerius, on their
march into Scythia.
Here Pharnaces, the king’s favourite fon, whom he
had appointed to fucceed him, obferving the general
difeontent that reigned in the army, began to enter
tain thoughts of placing the crown on his own head ;
and not doubting but the foldiery would ftand by him,
if he declared againft the intended expedition into Ita¬
ly, openly prottfted among the Roman deferters, who
were a confiderable part of the army, that if they
would follow him he would return into Pontus. The
166 ]
Romans, who were well apprifed of the danger that
attended fuch an undertaking, and had moft of all ex¬
claimed againft it, promiied to fupport him to the ut-
moft of their power, and even encouraged him, upon
fome expreflions which he purpofely dropped, to af-
fume the title of king, a title which his father Teem¬
ed determined to hold till he had deftroyed, by his rafti
and defperate attempts, himfelf, his friends, and his
army. Pharnaces, finding he could depend on the Ro¬
mans, engaged the fame night moft of the chief com¬
manders in his party, and by their means the greater
part of the foldiery. It was agreed, that next morn¬
ing by break of day all thofe who had declared in his
favour ftiould appear in arms, and with a loud ihout
proclaim Pharnaces king *, which was done according¬
ly, and the ftiout returned even by thofe whom Phar¬
naces had not thought fit to let into the fecret. The
king, who had taken up his quarters in the city, being
awakened by the noife, fent out fome of his domeftics
to know what had happened in the army. Neither
did the officers or foldiers diffemble the matter, but
boldly anfwered, that they had chofen a young king
inftead of an old dotard governed by eunuchs.
Hereupon Mithridates mounting on horfeback, and
attended by his guards, went out to appeafe the tu¬
mult : but his guards forfaking him, and his horfe be-
Pontns
ing killed under him, he was obliged to fly back into
t:
the city ; from whence he fent feveral of his atten
dants one after another to defire of his fon a fafe con-
dud for himfelf and his friends. But as none of the
meffengers returned, fome being flain, and others fiding
with the new king, Mithridates endeavoured to move
his fon to compaffion, by fignifying to him from the
walls the diftreffed condition he was reduced to by. a
fon whom he had favoured above the reft of his chil¬
dren ; but finding him nowife affeded by his fpeech,
turning to the gods, he befeeched them with many
tears to make his fon know one day by experience the
grief and agony which a father muft feel in feeing his
love and tendernefs requited with fuch ungrateful and
monftrous returns. Having thus fpoken, he thank¬
ed in a very obliging manner thofe who had flood by
him to the laft, and exhorted them to make their fub-
miflion to the new king on the beft terms they could
procure ; adding, that as for himfelf, he was determi¬
ned not to outlive the rebellion of a fon whom he had
always diftinguiftied with particular marks of paternal
affedion. _
After this, he withdrew into the apartment of his Mithridatvs
wives and concubines, where he firft took poifon him- attempts tc
felf, and then prefented it to them, and to his favou-Jf^J.
rite daughters Mithridatis and Niffa, who not longn
before had been betrothed to the kings of Egypt and
Cyprus. To the women it proved immediate death.-,
but on the king, who from his infancy had inured his
conftitution to poifonous potions, it had fo flow an
operation, that he was forced, through fear of falling
into the rebels hands, to -recur to his fword. Neither
did the wound, as he was greatly weakened by the
poifon, prove mortal : fo that the rebels, having in
the mean time ftormed the town, and broke into the
houfe, found the king wallowing in his blood, but
ft ill alive, and in his fenfes which Pharnaces hearing,
fent fome of thofe that were about him to drefs his
wounds, with a defign to deliver him up to the Ro¬
mans,
64
Pontus.
65
A. Gaul
uts an end
a his life
;iUt of com-
66
Jxceffive
oy of the
\ lomans at
is death.
, €7
tbmiffive
nbafly of
tarnaces
f hocojsey;
F U N [ I
mans, and thereby ingratiate himfelf tvith Pompey.—
But, in the mean time, a Gaul, who ferved in the ar¬
my, by name Bii&tus., or Bithocus, entering the king’s
room in queft of booty, and being touched with com-
paffion in feeing him forfaken by all his friends, and
ftruggling on the bare ground with the pangs of death,
drawing his fword, put an end to his prefent agonies,
and prevented the infults which he chiefly apprehend¬
ed if he fhould fall alive into his fon’s hands. The
barbarian is faid, when he firft faw the king, to have
been fo awed with the majefty of his countenance, that,
forgetful of his booty, he fled out of the room ; but
being called back, and earneftly intreated by the dy¬
ing prince to put an end to his mifery, he fummoned
all his courage to perform, as he did, with a trembling
hand, that office j and immediately retired without
touching any thing that belonged to the king, though
the hope of a rich booty was the only motive that had
led him thither.
Pompey, who was at that time engaged in a war with
the Jews, received the firft notice of the death of Mith-
ridates as he was on his march to Jerufalem. The mef-
fenger who brought the joyful tidings was fent by Phar-
naces, and appeared unexpedtedly before Pompey with
the branch of a laurel, as was cuftomary on the like oc-
cafions, twifted round the head of his javelin. When he
heard what had happened at Panticapaeum, he was fo
impatient to impart it to the foldiery, that he could not
even wait till they had raifed him a mount of turf from
whence to fpeak to the army, according to the cuftom
of the camp 5 but ordered thofe who were by him to
form a kind of mount with their faddles, and from thence
acquainted the foldiery that Mithridates had laid violent
hands on himfelf, and his fon Pharnaces was ready to
acknowledge the kingdom as a gift of the people of
Rome, or refign it if they were unwilling he fhould reign.
This news was received with joyful (bouts of the whole
army, and the day folemnized with feafts and facrifices
throughout the camp, as if in Mithridates alone all the
enemies of the republic had died. Pompey difpatched
without delay a meflenger with letters to the fenate, ac¬
quainting them with the death of Mithridates, and the
fubmiffion of his fon Pharnaces. When his letters were
read, the fenators were fo overjoyed, that they appoint¬
ed at the propofal of Cicero, then conful, 12 days for re¬
turning due thanks to the gods, who had delivered them
from fuch an infulting and powerful enemy ; and the
tribunes of the people enadled a law, whereby Pompey,
in confideration of his eminent fervice in the Mithrida-
tic war, was to wear a crown of laurel, with the tri¬
umphal gown at the Circenfian fports, and a purple gown
at the fcenical plays.
Pharnaces, when he heard of his father’s death, cauf-
ed his body to be preferved in brine, propofing to pre¬
fent it to Pompey, who had promifed to return into Pon¬
tus after the reduction of Judaea, and there fettle matters
to his fatisfaftion. And accordingly having taken the
city and temple of Jerufalem, he fet out with two le¬
gions for Pontus ; and being arrived'at Sinope, he was
there met by ambaffadors from Pharnaces, acquainting
him, that their mafter had forebore afluming the title of
king till his will and pleafure were known ; that he put
both himfelf and the kingdom entirely into his hands j
and that he v’as willing to attend him at what time or
place he thought fit to appoint. The fame ambaffadors
67 ] PON
delivered up to Pompey thofe who had taken Manius Pontus.
Aquilius the Roman legate, whom Mithridates had put
to a cruel death, all the prifoners, hoftages, and deferters,
whether Romans, Greeks, or Barbarians, and the body
of Mithridates, with his rich apparel and arms, which
were greatly admired by Pompey and the other Romans.
Both foldiers and officers flocked to fee the king’s body-5
but Pompey declined that fight ; and, faying that all
enmity between that great prince and the people of
Rome was ended with his life, he returned the body to
the ambafladors, and caufed it to be interred with the
utmoft pomp and magnificence among his anceftors in
the burying-place of the kings of Pontus, Pompey de¬
fraying all the charges of that ceremony, which was the
moft coftly and pompous that ever had been feen in
thofe parts. With the body Pompey reftored his wear¬
ing apparel and armour; but the feabbard of his fword,
which coft 400 talents, was ftolen by Rublius a Roman,
and fold to Ariarathes king of Cappadocia j and his cap
or turban, which was a very curious piece of workman-
fhip, was privately taken by one Caius, who prefented it
to Fauftus the fon of Sylla, in whofe houfe it was kept,
and ftiown for many years after among the many rarities
which Sylla had brought out of Afia. 68
Pompey beftowed the kingdom of Bofphorus on Phar* who be-
naces, and honoured him with the title of a friend and (lows upon
ally of the people of Rome. Pharnaces being thus ac-J1!111 t^ie (
knowledged king of Bofphorus, fent orders to all the Bo^homs!
garrifons of Pontus to fubmit themfeltfes, with the caf-
tles and treailires with which they rvere entrufted, to
Pompey, who by that means amaffed an immenfe booty.
In the city of Talaura, which Mithridates ufed to call his
wardrobe, he found 2coo cups of onyx fet in gold, with
fuch (lore of gold and filver veffels, of coftly furniture,
of faddles, bridles, and trappings, fet with jewels and
precious ftones, that the Roman commifl’aries fpent 30
days in taking the inventory of the whole. In another
caftle he found three large tables with nine falvers of
mafly gold, enriched with precious ftones to an ineftim-
able value ; the ftatues of Minerva, Mars, and Apollo,
of pure gold and moft curious workmanlhip *, and a pair
of gaming-tables of two precious ftones, three feet broad,
and four feet long-, on which w7as a moon of gold weigh¬
ing 30 pounds, with their men, all of the fame precious
ftone. In a fort fituated among the mountains, were de¬
livered up to him the king’s ftatue of mafly gold, eight
cubits high, his throne and feeptre, and the bed of Da-*-
rius the fbn of Hyftafpes. Moft of thefe treafures had
been tranfmitted to him from his anceftors, chiefly from
Darius king of Perfia 5 fome belonged to the Ptolemies
of Egypt, and had been depofited by Cleopatra, as we
have hinted above, in the hands of the Coans, who de¬
livered them to Mithridates •, and great part of them
had been collected by the king himfelf, who was very
fond of rich and (lately furniture:
Pompey having thus got entire pofleffion of Pontus,
and reduced it to the form of a Roman province, march¬
ed into slfia properly fo called ; and having wintered at
Ephefus, early in the fpring fet out for Italy, with a fleet
of 700 (hips. As he brought over his army with him,
the fenate was under no fmall apprehenlion left he (hould
make himfelf abfolute, and rule without controui. But
he no fooner landed at Brundufium, than he di(handed
the army, without waiting for any decree either of the
ffeoata or people j what neither his friends nor his ene¬
mies
PON f 168 ] PON
I'ontu'.
6r,
Pharnaces
falls out
with the
Homans,
inics tiad believed. His triumph laded two whole days 5
and though he was attended in his triumphal chariot by
324 captives of didindtion, among whom were five fons
and two daughters of Mithridates, yet he would not dif¬
fer any of them to be put to death, as had been done by
others; but fent them all back, except fuch as were of
royal extraction, to their refpeCtive countries, and even
fupplied them with money to defray the charges of their
journey. After his triumph he delivered into the trea-
fury 20,000 talents, though, at the difmiding of the
army, he had divided 16,000 talents among the tribunes
and centurions, 2000 federtiums among the qiueftors,
and had given to each foldier 50 ledertiums.
Pompey had no fooner left Afia, but Pbarnaces fell
unexpectedly upon the Phanagorenfes, a people of Bof-
phorus, whom Pompey had declared free, becaufe they
had revolted the firlt of all from Mithridates, and by
their example induced others to abandon the king’sparty.
Pharnaces bedeged their chief city Phanagoria, and kept
them blocked up till, for want of provifions, they were
forced to fally out, and put all to the iffue of a battle j
which proving unfuccefsful, they delivered up themfelves
and the city to the conqueror. Some years after, the
civil war breaking out between Cmfar and Pompey, he
laid hold of that opportunity to recover the provinces
which his father had formerly poffeffed j and having
raifed a confiderable army, overran Pontus, Colchis, Bi-
thynia, Armenia, .and the kingdom of Mofchis, where
he plundered, as Strabo obferves, the temple of the god-
defs Leucothea. He took the drong and important
city of Sinope, but could not reduce Amifus. But, in
the mean time, Caefar having got the better of Pompey
and his party, appointed Cn. Domitius Calvinus gover¬
nor of Afia, enjoining him to make war upon Pharnaces
with the legions that were quartered in that province.
Domitius immediately difpatched ambadadors to Phar¬
naces, commanding him to withdraw his troops from Ar¬
menia and Cappadocia. The king returned anfwer, that
he was willing to abandon Cappadocia, but as for the
kingdom of Armenia Minor, it was part of bis hereditary
dominions*, and therefore he would not refign it till he
had an opportunity of laying his pretenfions before Caefar
..lumfelf, whom he was ready to obey in all things. Here¬
upon Domitius drawing together what forces he could,
marched into Cappadocia, which he recovered without
oppofition, Pharnaces having abandoned it to make a
Hand in Armenia, which lay nearer his own dominions.
Thither Domitius purfued him ; and having overtaken
him near Nicopolis, found his army drawn up in battle-
array, and the king ready to come to an engagement ;
?o which Domitius not declining, both armies advanced.
And defeats The king, at the head of a choice body of men, fell
them. Up0n the Romans left wing, confifting moftly of raw
and undifciplined Afiatics; and having with little diffi¬
culty put them to flight, penetrated to the centre, where
the thirty-fifth legion, the only one which Domitius
had, after a faint tefiftance, gave ground, and, retjr-
ing'to the neighbouring mountains, left their allies
to Ihift for themfelves, who were all cut oflf. Domi¬
tius with the remains of his fcattered army marched
back into Cappadocia ; and from thence, winter draw¬
ing on, into the province of Afia. The king being
puffed up with this vitfory, and hearing that Ctefar,
with the flower of the Roman forces, was engaged at
,ihe liege of Alexandria, appointed one Afander gover¬
nor of Bofpboms, and marched himfelf iato Cappado- Pont’vv
cia in purfuit of Domitius, with a defign to invade Afia, 'v ”
and recover all the provinces which had been once lub-
dued by bis father. Bithynia and Cappadocia readily
fubnutted ; but Armenia the Leffer, which was held by
Dejotarus, made fo vigorous a refiftance, that he was
forced to give over the enterprife left the Romans ftieuld
in the mean time ftrengthen themfelves in Afia, vviinher
he was in bafte to march, in hopes of meeting there with
the fame fuccefs as his father Mithridates had done.
But before he reached that province, he was informed
that Afander had revolted, in hopes of gaining thereby
the good will of the Romans, and obtaining of them the
kingdom of Bofpborus for himfelf. At the fame time,
he received intelligence that Caefar, having at laft re¬
duced Alexandria, and fettled the affairs of Syria, was
marching into Armenia. 71
He was not a little difmayed at this news, and there- Attempts
fore without delay difpatched ambaffadors to fue for
peace j hoping that Caefar, who was hailing into Italy ^lUs
with a defign to pafs over into Africa, would willingly
give ear to any propofals of that nature.—Caefar cour-
teoully entertained the ambaffadorsq and though he did
not propofe to agree to their conditions, yet, that he
might come upon Pharnaees.unawares, he ffiewed him¬
felf very defirous of entering into a treaty of peace. But,
in the mean time, he purfued his march with all poffible
expedition ; and arriving on the confines of Pontus, or¬
dered all the troops that were quartered in the neigh¬
bouring provinces to join him j for he had brought from
Alexandria but one legion, namely, the fixth, and that
confifting of 1000 men only, the reft having been kill¬
ed at the fiege of Alexandria. Befides this veteran le-
. gion, he found at the place of general rendezvous three
others, but all of them very indifferently armed, and
worfe difciplined. With thefe forces, however, fuch as
they were, he advanced againft Pharnaces } who being
greatly frightened at his approach, by reafon of the fuc¬
cefs that had attended him in all his expeditions, again
difpatched ambaffadors to him with a crown of gold,
offering him his daughter in marriage, and promifingto
do whatever he ffiould require. T. he ambaffadors took
care to let him know that their matter, though highly
obliged to Pompey, yet had never been prevailed upon
to fend him any fupplies during the civil war, which
Dejotarus, king of Armenia the Leffer, whom he had
honoured with his friendffiip, had done. Csefar return¬
ed for anfwer, that he was willing to conclude a peace
with Pharnaces, provided he retired without delay from
Pontus, returned all the captives and hoftages whether
Roman or their allies, and reftored the goods of the Ro¬
man citizens and publicans which he had feized fince he
firft took up arms. He added, that as to his not fend¬
ing fupplies to Pompey, they ought rather to have con¬
cealed fuch an ungrateful proceeding of their matter,
than alleged it as any merit, fince the forfaking of one
to whom he was indebted for his crown, befpoke him a
man of mean, felfiffi, and unworthy principles.
Pharnaces, upon the return of his ambaffadors, ac¬
quainted Caefar that he agreed to the conditions ; but
finding that C^far’s affairs called him into Italy, he re¬
quired a longer term of time for the performance of
what was ftipulated between them, ftarting daily new
difficulties, in hopes that Caefar would in the meantime
be obliged to depart, and leave the affairs of Pontus in
PON [ 169 ] PON
Fontus. tbe fame pofture he had found them. Csefar feeing
himfelf difappointed, and put off from day to day, could
not longer brook the king’s deceitful behaviour. Where¬
fore he determined to put himfelf at the head of his
fmall army, and attack the enemy in his camp, when he
lead expefted it. And accordingly, marching out in
the night, he came by break of day in fight of the king’s
army j and uttering thefe words, Shall this treacherous
parricide go unpunijhed ? broke into the camp at the
head of 1000 horfe. The king’s chariots, which were
armed with fcythes, caufed fome fmall diforder among
Caefar’s horfe ; but in the mean time the reft of his army
doming up, he put the enemy to flight, and obtained a
by whom complete viftory. This battle was fought near the place
be is en- where Mithridates had routed with great flaughter the
tirely de- ftoriian army under the command of Triarius. Moft of
the king’s army were either taken or cut in pieces; but
Pharnaces himfelf had the good luck to make his efcape
while the Romans were bufy in plundering the camp.
This victory wras fo quick, that Ccefar, in a letter to his
friend Aminitius, or Anltius, at Rome, expreffed it in
three words, thus: “ I came, I faw, I conquered.” He
ever afterwards ufed to call Pompey a fortunate rather
than a great commander, fince he had gained his chief
glory in the Mithridatic war, fighting with fo cowardly
an enemy. Pie divided the rich booty and the fpoils of
the camp among his fiddlers; and becaufe Mithridates
had erected a trophy near that place as a monument of
his victory over Triarius, which Caefar, a£ it was confe-
crated to the gods, did not think lawful to pull down,
he let up another over againft it to tranfmit to pofterity
his vidlory over Pharnaces. After this viftory he re¬
covered and reftored to the allies of the people of Rome
all the places which Pharnaces had poflefied himfelf
of during the war, declared Amifus a free city, and ap¬
pointed Mithridates Pergamenus king of Bofphorus in
the room of Pharnaces.
Having thus fettled the aftairs of Pontus, he fet fail
for Italy ; leaving Dornitius Calvinus to purfue the wTar
againft Pharnaees, if he ftiould appear again in the field.
Pharnaces had retired after the battle to Sinope with
1000 horfe, where he was quickly befieged by Domitius,
to whom he furrendered the town, upon no other condi¬
tion than that he fhould be fuffered to retire into Bof¬
phorus with the fmall body that attended him. This
Domitius willingly granted; but caufed all the king’s
horfes to be killed, fince he had alked a fafe conduct on¬
ly for his horfemen. With thefe and a band of Scythians
and Sarmatians he attempted to recover the kingdom of
Bofphorus, but being met between Theodociaand Pau¬
ls killed in ticapeum, both which cities he had reduced, by Afander,
another en-who was ftill in pofleflion of the kingdom, a (harp en¬
gagement. gagernent enfued, wherein the king’s men, as not being
ufed to fight on foot, were put to flight, and Pharnaces
himfelf, who remained alone in the field, was furround-
ed by the enemy, and cut in pieces, after having reign¬
ed in Bofphorus Cimmerius, the kingdom which Pompey
had bellowed upon him, according to Appian, fifteen
74 years, according to others, feventeen.
Pontus Upon the death of Pharnaces the kingdom of Pontus
again made was again reduced to the form of a province, and fo
hv AlIrk11 contini,efl to tA** triumvirate of Mark Antony, who after
Antony. t^e battle at Philippi conferred it upon Darius the fon
of Pharnaces for his fervices during the civil war. He
Vol. XVII. Part I.
continued faithful to the Romans; but did nothing dur* Pontus.
ing his reign worth mentioning. .
Darius was fucceeded in the kingdom by Polemon,
likewile preferred to that honour by Mark Antony.
He was the fon of Zeno, a famous orator of Laodicea,
and greatly favoured by Antony. From him that part
of Pontus which borders on Cappadocia borrowed the
name of Polemonaicus. He attended Mark Antonv in
his expedition againft the Parthians : and being taken
prifoner in that unfuccefsful battle fought by Statianus,
he was fent by the king of the Medes, an ally of the
Parthians, to conclude a peace with the Romans. In
which embafly he acquitted himfelf fo well, that Anto¬
ny added the kingdom of Armenia to his own domi¬
nions. In the war between Antony and Auguftus he
joined the former: but after the battle of Attium
he was received into favour by the latter ; and being
lent by Agrippa againrt Scribonius, who upon the death
of Afander had ufurped the kingdom of Bofphorus, he
overcame him, and reduced the kingdom of Colchis,
which vvas bellowed upon him by Agrippa, who like-
wife honoured him with the title of friend and alii/ of
the people of Rome. He afterwards waged war with
the neighbouring barbarians refufing to live in fubjec-
tion to the Romans; but was overcome, taken, and
put to death, by the Afpungitani, a people bordering,
according to Strabo, on the Palus Moeotis.
Upon his death his fon Polemon II. was by the em¬
peror Caligula raifed to the throne of Bofphorus and
Pontus. But the emperor obliged him to exchange the
kingdom of Bofphorus with part of Cilicia; and Nero,
with his confent, reduced that part of Pontus which he
enjoyed to the form of a province. He iell in love with
Berenice, daughter to Agrippa king of Judaea ; and in
order to marry her embraced the Jewiftr religion. But
as fire foon became tired of his riotous way of living, and
returned to her father ; fo he renounced his new reli¬
gion, and again embraced the fuperftitions of Paganifm.
Polemon dying without iflue, the ancient kingdom ofj 75
Pontus was parcelled out into feveral parts, and added0u,;nt* *
to the provinces of Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia,feveral pm-
only that part of it which was called Pontus Polemonai- vinces.
cus retaining the dignity of a diflindf and feparate pro¬
vince. During the civil difeords between Vefpafian and
Vitellius, one Anieetus, firft a Have, afterwards freed-
man to King Polemon, and laftly commander of the
royal navy, took up arms with a delign to refeue the
kingdom from the Roman bondage; and being joined
by great multitudes drawn together with the profpedf of
fpoil, overran the country, and poffeffed himfidf of
Trapefund, a city founded by the Grecians on the ut-
moft confines of Pontus. Here he cut in pieces a cohort
made up of the inhabitants, but which had been former¬
ly prefented with the privilege of Roman citizens. He
likewife burnt the fleet, and with fcorn and infults
fcoured the ft:a ; Mucianus having called to Byzantium
moft of the Roman galleys. Hereupon Vefipafian, who
was at that time in Syria, lent Verdius Gemnius into
Pontus with a choice body of auxiliaries from the le¬
gions. He afiailing the enemy while they were in dif¬
order, and roaming afunder in purfuit of prey, drove
them into their veffels; then with fome galleys chafed
Anicetus into the mouth of the river Chobus, where be.
thought himfelf fafe under the proteftion of Sedochus
^ king
PON
[
Pontus
II
Ponza.
king of the Lazians, whofe alliance he had purchafed,
with large fums and rich prefents. Sedochus at firft
refufed to deliver him up to the Romans; but was foon
prevailed upon, partly by threats, partly by prefents, to
furrender both him and all the other fugitives who had
taken fanftuary in his dominions. Thus ended that
fervile war j and the kingdom of Pontus continued to
be a province of the empire till the time of David and
Alexis Comneni, who being driven from Conftantinople
by the French and Venetians A. D. 1204, under the
command of Baldwin earl of Flanders, lettled, the one
at Heraclea, the other at Trebifond. The troubles that
arofe among the Latins gave Alexis Comnenus an op¬
portunity of creating here a new empire, which com¬
prehended great part of Pontus, and was known by the
name of the empire of Trebifond. The Comneni held it
about 2^0 years, till the time of Mohammed II. who
carried David Comnenus, the laft emperor of Trebifond,
prifoner to Coaftantinople, A. D. 1462, with all his
family, and fubie&ed his empire to that of Conftanti-
nopie ; in which abjeft ilavery Trebifond and all Pon¬
tus have continued ever fince.
PONTYPOOL, a town of Monmouthfhire in Eng¬
land, feated between two hills. It is a fmall place ; but
noted for its iron-mills, and great manufaflure of japanned
veffels, calledPontypool. W. Long. 3. 6. N. Lat. 51.42.
PONZA, or Pont I A, is a fmall ifland pf the Tufcan
fea, well known to be the place to whiclvmany illuftri-
ous Romans were formerly banifhed. It is fituated on
the coaft of Italy near Terracina, and in the neighbour¬
hood of other fmall iflands or rocks named Palmarole,
Zannone, &c. between the ifland of Ventotienne and
Monte Circello. All thefe iflands were vifited by Sir
William Hamilton in the year 1785 5 and an account of
his journey is given in a letter to Sir J. Banks, which
appeared in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxvi. p. 365. Sir
William arrived at Ponza on the 20th Auguft 5 and,
according to his account, it lies about 30 miles fiom
Ventotienne. On the 21ft he went round it in a boat.
Its length is about five miles, but its breadth is nowhere
above half a mile, and infome places not more than 500
feet. It is furrounded by a multitude of detached rocks,
fome of them very high, and moft of them compofed
of a compaft lava. There are many irregularly formed
bafaltes, but none in large columns. In fome places
they have a reddifh tinge from iron ochre, are very
fmall, and irregularly laid over one another. Some
Hand perpendicularly, others obliquely, and fome lie
horizontally. The rocks themfelves in which thefe
maffes are found are lava of the fame nature with the
bafaltes. At firfl fight they appear like the ruins of
ancient Roman brick or tyle buildings. One rock is
compofed of large fpherieal bafalts, and in other places
our author found the lava inclined to take the
fpherical form, though on a much fmaller feale, fome of
the former bafalts being near two feet in diameter. All
thefe rocks, in our author’s opinion, have been detached
by the fea from this ifland, which is entirely compofed
of volcanic matter, lavas, and tufas of various qualities
and colours, as green, yellow, black, and white. Some
of thefe matters are more compact in their texture than
others 5 and in fome parts great tradls feem to have un¬
dergone fimilar operations, which Hill fubfift at a fpot
called the Pifciorellly on the outfide of the Soliatara,
near Puzzole, and where a hot fulphureous vitriolic
5
Ponza
I!
Pool.
yo ] POO
acid vapour converts all which it penetrates, whether
lavas, tufas, volcanic allies, or pumice-ftones, into a pure
clay, moftly white, or with a tint of red, blue, green, or
yellow.
In one part of this ifland there is a fort of tufa re¬
markably good for the purpofe of building. It is as
hard as Bath-ftone, and nearly of the fame colour, with¬
out any mixture of lava or pumiee-ftone, which ufually
abound in the tufas of Naples, Baia, and Puzzoli.
The ifland of Palmarole, which is about four miles
from Ponza, is not much more than a mile in circum¬
ference. It is compofed of the fame volcanic matter,
and probably was once a part of Ponza 5 and in our
author’s opinion it looks as if the ifland of Zannone,
which lies about the fame diftance from Ponza, was once
likewife a part of the fame *, for many rocks of lava
rife above water in a line betwixt the two laft-mention-
ed iflands, and the water there is much more {hallow
than in the gulf of Terracina.
Zannone is much larger and higher than Palmarole ;
and that half of it next the continent is compofed of a
lime-ftone fimilar to that of the Apennines near it 5 the
other half is compofed of lavas and tufas, refembling in
every other refpeft the foil of the iflands juft defcribed.
Neither Palmarole nor Zannone are inhabited *, but the
lattFr furnilhes abundance of brulhwood for the ufe of
the inhabitants of Ponza, whofe number, including the
garrifon, amounts to near 1700. 1 he uninhabited ifland
of St Stefano in like manner furnilhes wood for the peo¬
ple of Ventotienne. It is probable that all thefe iflands
and rocks may in time be levelled by the adlion of the
fea. Ponza, in its prefent ftate, is the mere fkeleton of
a volcanic ifland 5 little more than its hard or vitrified
parts remaining, and they feem to be flowly and gradu¬
ally mouldering away. The governor of the caftle ot
Ponza, who had refided there 53 years, told our author
that the ifland was ftill fubjeft to earthquakes j that there
had been one violent {hock there about four years be¬
fore 5 but that the moft violent one he ever felt was on
the very day and at the hour that Lilbon was deftroyed.
Two houfes out of three which were then on the ifland
were thrown down. “ This (fays our author) feems to
prove that the volcanic matter which gave birth to thefe
iflands is not exhaufted.”
Fig. 1. is a plan of the ifland of Ponza as it is given
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions. < Fig. 2. is a view ofccccxxxvL
the infide of the harbour of the ifland. A. in the fame
figure is a rock of lava. In many parts it is formed in¬
to regular bafaltes of a reddifti colour, tinged in all pro¬
bability with fome ochre. Moft of the detached rocks
of the ifland referable this. BE reprefents a traft oi
volcanic country, converted by a hot fulphureous vitrio¬
lic acid vapour into a pure clay, the ground colour of
which is moftly white—Fig. 3. is a view from the out-Fig. 3*
fide of the harbour, near the lighthoufe. C is a rock of
volcanic matter converted to pure clay 5 D is a rock of
the fame kind, with ftrata of pumice-ftone. E is a rock
of lava, inclining to take bafaltic forms j and F is a rock
compofed of fpherical bafaltes.
POOD is a Ruflian weight, equal to 40 Ruflian or
36 Englifli pounds.
POOL is properly a refervoir of water fupplied with
fprings, and difcharging the overplus by fluices, defen¬
ders, weirs, and other caufeways.
Pool, a fea-port town of Dorfetlhire in England.
It
Plat*
1SLANJJWPONZA . PLATE CCCCXXXVI.
Fig A.
Dnittn & £ngnive<l fo- Jf 'A: D.Zizanr Idmburffh.
—
POO
[ 17* ]
POO
fool
Poor.
It is furrounded on all lides by the Tea, except on the
north, where there is an entrance through a gate. It
was formerly nothing but a place where a few fifher-
men lived; but in the reign of Henry VI. it was greatly
enlarged, and the inhabitants had the privilege to wall
it round. It was alfo made a county of itfelf, and fent
two members to parliament. It is governed by a mayor,
a fenior bailiff, four other juftices, and an indeterminate
number of burgeffes. The number of inhabitants in
1801 was eftimated at 4761; and the number ofveffels
belonging to this port is ftated at 230. It is 47 miles
weft-fouth-weft of Winchefter, and 110 weft-by-fouth
of London. W. Long. 2. O. N. Lat. 50. 42.
POOLE, Matthew, a very learned writer in the
17th century, was born at York in 1624. He was
educated at Emmanuel-college, Cambridge, and after¬
wards incorporated in the univerfity of Oxford. He
fucceeded Dr Anthony Tuckney in the redlory of St
Michael de Quern, in London, about 1648. In 1658
he fet on foot a projedl for maintaining youths of great
parts at the univerfities, and had the approbation of the
heads of houfes in both of them. He folicited the
affair with fo much vigour, that in a (hort time pool.
per annum was procured for that purpofe; but this de-
fign was laid alide at the Reftoration. In 1662 he was
ejedled from his living for nonconformity. He was ten
years employed in compofimg his Synopjts Criticorum,
&c. Befides this great work he publilhed feveral
other pieces. When Dr Oates’s depofitions concerning
the popilh plot were printed, our author found his name
in the lift of thofe who were to be cut off, on the ac¬
count (as was fuppofed) of what he had written againft
the papifts in his Nullity of the Rornifh Faith. So that
he was obliged to retire to Holland, where he died in
1679, and left behind him the character of a very able
critic and cafuift.
POOP, the ftern of a Ihip; or the higheft, upper-
moft, and hinder part of a fhip’s hull. See STERN.
POOR, in law, an appellation given to all thofe who
are in fuch a low and mean condition, that they either
are or may become a burden to the parifti.
They who rank pity amongft the original impulfes
of our nature rightly contend, that when it prompts us
to the relief of human mifery, it indicates fufficiently the
Divine intention, and our duty. Indeed, the fame con-
clufion is deducible from the exiftence of the paflion,
whatever account be given of its origin. Whether it
be inftimR, or a habit founded in affociation (fee Pas¬
sion), it is in fa£l a property of our nature which God
appointed: and the final caufe for which it was appoint¬
ed is to afford to the miferable, in the compaflion of
their fellow-creatures, a remedy for thofe inequalities
and diftreffes to which many are neceffarily expofed
under every poflible rule for the diftribution of proper¬
ty. That the poor have a claim upon the rich, found¬
ed in the law of nature, can be queftioned by no
man who admits the benevolence of the Deity, and con-
fiders his purpofe in creating the world (fee Theolo¬
gy, Part I. Se£t. ii.); and upon this claim the Chrif-
tian Scriptures are more explicit than almoft upon any
other.
The rights of the poor, however, to be relieved by
the rich, as they originate in nature, and are fan&ioned
by Chriftianity, are evidently of that kind which is call¬
ed bnperfeB (See MORAL Philofophy, N° 151.). It is
furely needlefs to warn our readers in this place, that
imperfect rights are in themfelves as facred, and the
duties refulting from them as obligatory in foro confcien-
tue, as the moft rigid claims of juftice. Every one
knows, that they are called imperfeEi only becaufe the
extent of them in particular inftances cannot be afcer-
tained by pofitive laws, nor the breach of them be pu-
niftied by the civil magiftrate. Hence the apoftle, though
he enjoins a weekly contribution to be made for the
poor in the church of Corinth, yet leaves the fum to
be contributed by each individual wholly undetermined.
“ Now concerning the colledtion for the faints, as I
have given order to the churches of Galatia, even fo do
ye. Upon the firft day of the Week let every one of
you lay by him in ftore as God hath profpered him.'1' By
which St Paul certainly recommends to every man to
contribute, not a fixed fum, but as much as, from a de¬
liberate comparifon of his fortune, with the reafonable
expences and expectations of his family, he finds he can
fpare for charitable purpofes.
It is well known that thofe weekly contributions
were laid at the feet of the apoftles, who transferred the
management of the fund thence ai ifing to deacons eleCl-
ed by the people, and ordained by them to fee that the
money was properly diftributed. Hence, under Chri¬
ftianity, the maintenance of the poor became chiefly an
ecclefiaftical concern; and when that holy and benevo¬
lent religion was eftabliftied in the Roman empire, a
fourth part of the tithes was in fome countries of Eu¬
rope, and particularly in England, fet apart for that
purpofe. Afterwards, when the tithes of many pariflies
were appropriated to the monafteries, thefe focieties
were the principal refource of the poor, who were far¬
ther relieved by voluntary contributions. Judge Black-
ftone obferves, that till the ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. cap.
26. he finds no compulfory method for providing for
the poor; but upon the total diffolution of the mona¬
fteries, abundance of ftatutes were made in the reign of
King Henry VIII. Edward VI. and Elizabeth, which
at laft eftabliftied the
POOR'S Rate, or legal affeffment for the fupport of
the poor. The fums that had been appropriated for
charitable ufes before the reformation w'ere immenfe,
and the wealth that had- been accumulated through a
fucceftion of ages by mendicant orders of religious per-
fons was inconceivably great; nor was it in the power of
any laws to confine men who were in the poffeflion of
fuch wealth from gratifying thofe defires which money
can fo eafily find means of fupplying. Yet among the
various abufes to which this opulence had given rife,
thefe religious orders had never fo far loft fight of their
original inftitution as ever to negleft the poor. Thefe
were indeed provided for by them with an indifcrimi-
nate profufion of largeffe, better proportioned to their
own opulence than to the wants of the claimants, who
were too often, without examination, all equally ferved,
whether deferving or undeferving of that bounty which
they claimed.
When the religious houfes, as they were called, were
entirely fuppreffed at the reformation, and the wealth
that belonged to them was diverted into other channels,
the poor, who had been in ufe to receive their fupport
from thence, were of courfe left entirely deftitute; and
this foon became a grievance fo intolerable not only to
the poor themfelves, but to the whole nation, as to
Y 2 excite
Poor.
—y—.
POO [17
Poor. excite- an univerfal defire to have it remedied. Accord-
""v-—~ ingly, by the 14 Eliz. cap. 5. power was given to the
juftices to lay a general affeliment ; and this hath con¬
tinued ever fmce. For by 43 Ehz. cap. 2. the church¬
wardens and overfeers of the poor of every pariftg or
the greater part of them (with the confent of two juf¬
tices, one of whom is of the quorum, dwelling in or
near the parifh), are empowered to raife weekly, or
otherwife, by taxation of every inhabitant, parfon, vi¬
car, and other, and of every occupier of lands, houfes,
&c. materials for employing the poor, and competent
f'ums for their relief. Notice {hall be given. in church
of every iuch rate the next Sunday after it is allowed,
which may be infpecied by every inhabitant, paying is.
and copies of it granted on demand, 6d. being paid
for every 24 names •, and a church-warden or overleer
rcfufing, (hall forfeit 20I. to the party aggrieved. The
rate is to be levied by diftrefs on thofe who refufe to pay
it; and, by 17 Geo. II. cap. 2. cap. 38. appeals again!!
it are allowed.
If the juitices find that the inhabitants of any panfh
are not able to levy among themfelves fufficient turns
for the purpofes fpecified in the adt, they may aflefa any
other parifli within the hundred } and if the hundred be
unable to grant neceffary relief, they may rate and affefs
any parifh within the county. 43 Eliz. cap. 2.
In order to compel hufbands and patents to maintain
their own families, the law hath provided, that all pei-
fons running away out of their pariihes, and lea\ mg
their families upon the parifh, (hall be deemed and iuf-
fer as incorrigible rogues (7 Jac* cap. 4.). And if a
perfon merely threatens to run away and leave his wife
and children upon the parifh, he {hall, upon conviction,
before one juftice by confefficn, or oath of one witnefs,
be committed to the houfe of correction for any time
not exceeding one month (17 Geo. II. cap. 5.). For
the farther maintenance of the poor, there are many fines
and forfeitures payable to their ufe j as for fwearing,
drunkennefs, deftroying the game, &c. _ And alfo parts
of waftes, woods, and paftures, may be inclofed for the
growth and prefervation of timber and underwood for
their relief. See WORK-Houfe.
The famous ftatute of the 43d of Elizabeth, which
is the bafis of all the poor-laws in England, was con-
ftrudted with a cautious forethought that can perhaps
be equalled by few laws that ever were enadted j and if
^ profpedtive reafoning alone were to be relied on in mat¬
ters of legiflation, it feemed impoffible to amend it: yet
experience has now proved, with a molt demonltrative
certainty, that it is not fo falutary as was undoubtedly
qpijg perfons w7ho compofed that law had before their
eyes fuch a recent proof of the abufe that had been
made of the charitable beneficence of individuals, that
they feem to have been chiefly felicitous to obviate fi-
milar abufes in future 5 and to guard againft that par¬
tial kind of feduflion, they rather chofe to eftablilh a
defpotic power which ftiould be authorifed to wreft
from every individual in the nation whatever fums it
mioht think proper to call for, trufting to a few feeble
devices which they contrived, for curbing that power
which was virtually armed with force fufficient to let all
thefe afide whenever it plea fed. I he confequence has
been, that the fums levied for the relief of the poor,
■which were at firlt but fmall, are now enorntousj and
4
2 ] POO
that the demands are increafing in fuch a rapid manner Poor,
as to give rife to the molt ferious and well-grounded
apprehenfions. In the year 1774, parliament inftilu-
ted an inquiry into the amount of the poor’s-rates in
England and Wales, and again in 1783. On compa¬
ring thefe together, the rife during Uiat fliort period
was found to be in England upwards of 850,000!. per
annum, being nearly in the proportion of one-third of
the rate at the firlt period. In Wales, during the fame
period of time, the rates were more than doubled. Nor
was this a temporary Hart, but a part only of a gradual
progreffion. IVIr Wendeborn, in his View ot England,
obferves, that “ in the year 1680 the poor’s-rates pro¬
duced no more than 665,390!. in 1764 ^7 fto°d at
1,200,cool, and in 1773 were eftimated at
3,000,000!.” It is a known faS (fays Mr Beaufoy,
in the debate on Mr Gilbert’s poor bill, April 17th
1788), that within the laft nine years, the poor’s-rates
have increafed one-third, and fliould they continue in¬
creafing in the fame proportion for 5c or 53 years, they
wmuld amount to the enormous fum of 11,230,000!. a
burden which the country could not poffibly bear. . It
was therefore, he added, highly neceffary that fomething
fhould be attempted to prevent this alarming addition,
if not to annihilate the prefent glaring mifcondufl in the
management of the poor.
Such has been the fate of England with regard to
poor laws.
In Scotland, the reformation having been carried for¬
ward with a {till more violent precipitancy than in Eng¬
land, and the funds of the regular clergy being more
entirely alienated, the eale of the poor there became
Hill more feemingly defperate, and the clamours were
alfo there confiderable at that time. Then alfo it was
that the Scottiffi court, imitating as ufual at that time
the practice of England, made feveral feeble attempts
to introduce a fyftem of compullory poor’s-rates into
that country, but never digefted the fyftem fo thorough¬
ly as to form a law that could in any caie be carried in¬
to effect. Many crude laws on this head were indeed
enafted •, but all of them fo evidently inadequate for the
purpofe, that they never were, even in one inftance that
we have heard of, attempted at the time to be earned
into effect. Indeed it feems to have been impoffible to
carry them into effe£t } for they are all fo abiurd and
contradiaory to each other, that hardly a fingle claufe
of any one of them can be obeyed without tranfgreffing
others of equal importance.
The laft ftatute which in Scotland was enaaed on
this fubjea bears date September ift 1691, William and
Mary, pari. 1. feff. 7. chap. 21. and it “ ratifies and
approves all former aas of parliament and proclama¬
tions of counoil for repreffing of beggars, and maintain¬
ing and employing the poor.” If this law therefore
were now in force, and it never was repealed, no perfon
could with impunity countervail any one of thofe ftatutes
which it ratifies ; but to be convinced how impoffible it
is to obferve them all, the attentive reader needs only to
confider thofe laws and proclamations with refpea to the
following particulars, viz.
1. The perfons appointed to make up the poor's roll.
By the aft 1 579 this duty is entrufted to the provoft
and bailies within burgh, and the judge conftitute be
the king’s commiffion in paroches to landwart. By aft
1663, it is the heritors of each parifh. By aft 1672,
POO [173] POO
Poor, jt is the minifters and elders oi’ each parith who are to
mak.e up this lift. By the proclamation of 1692, it is
the heritors, minifters, and elders of * ry pariih. By
that of 1693, it is the magiftrates of royal burghs, and
the heritors of vacant [country] parifties; in both cafes
without either minifter or elders. Among this chaos
of contradictions how is it poffible to a£t without tranf-
grefling fome law.
2. Not lefs contradictory are the enaCtments in regard
to the perfons who are to pay, and the mode of appor¬
tioning the fums among them. By aCt 1579, the haill
inhabitants of the parochin fhall be taxed and ftented
according to the eftimation of their fubtlance, without
exception of perfons. By that of 1663, the orte-half is
to be paid by the heritors, and the other half by the te¬
nants and poffeffors, according to their means and fub-
fiance. By the proclamation of 1692, the one-half is
to be paid by the heritors, the other by the houfeholders
of the pariih. By that of 1693, in burghs royal, the
magiftrates are to ftent themfelves, conform to fuch or¬
der and cuftom ufed and wont in laying on ftents, an¬
nuities, or other public burdens, in the refpedive burgh,
as may be moft effeftual to reach all the inhabitants ;
'and the heritors of feveral vacant [landwart] pariihes
^ to ftent themfelves for the maintenance of the refpeClive
poor.
3. A ftill greater diverfity takes place in regard to
the application of the fums fo fen ted. By the act
1579, it would feem that the whole of the money af-
fefled was to be applied to the ufe of the helplefs poor
alone, and no part of it for the relief of thofe who were
capable of working. By the aCt 1663, on the contrary,
the whole of this affeffment is to be applied for the
fupport of thofe only who are able to work. This is
ftill more fpecially provided for by the ad 1672; where
the poor who are unable to work are to be fupported
by the weekly collections at the kirk doors; and the
Itented afleffments to be applied to the fupport of thofe
in the correction houfes.
It would be tirefome to enumerate all the contradic¬
tions that thefe laws authorife. In regard to the per¬
fons who are required to carry thefe a bis into execution.
It is at different times the chancellor; magiftrates; com-
miffioners of excife ; (heriffs; juftices of the peace; mi¬
nifters and elders; the prefbyteries; heritors, minifters,
and elders; heritors alon^; commiffioners nominated by
prefbyteries and appointed by the king ; the lords of
the privy council: in fhort, no two laws can be found
that do not vary from each other in this relpeCl one
way or other.
The fame variations take place with regard to the
building of correCtion-houfes, confinement and punifh-
rnent of vagrants, application of their work, awarding
their fervices and thofe of children. In ftiort, there is
not one particular in which thefe laws do not vary from
and .contradict each other; .fo that, let any perfon try
to aCt in virtue of any one of them, it is impofiible for
him to avoid going in direCt oppofition to the enact¬
ments of fome other law which is of equal force with
that he has chofen for his guide. In thefe circum-
itances, it is fo far from being furprifing that thefe aCts
have been fuffered to remain in perpetual defuetude,
that it would have been truly wonderful if this had not
been the cafe. They have, however, been permitted to
rtmajn on the ftatute-book as a difgrace to the times
when they wrere formed, and as a ftumbling-block to
thofe that were to follow. That not one of them is
now in force, wras lately proved by a learned and public-
fpirited gentleman, to whom his country is on that and
many other accounts deeply indebted. Refilling to pay
the poor’s tax, with which he was affeffed by the over-
feers of the parith in which he happened to relide, he
Rood an aCtion in the court of feftion, and prevailed, up¬
on the broad ground, that there is no law IN FORCE in
Scotland by which an INVOLUNTARY poor's rate can be
efablijhed in any parifb.
But how, it will be atked by our Englilh readers, are
the poor in Scotland really maintained? We anfwer, by
the private alms of individuals, and by certain funds un¬
der the management of the kirkfefions (fee Presby¬
terians). It is the univerfal praCtice, each Lord’s
day, in every parith, for fuch of the audience as are in
eafy circumftances, to give to the poor fuch an offering
of alms as they tliall deem proper. This offering is ge¬
nerally dropped into a bafon placed at the church-door,
and under the immediate care of an elder. When the
fervice is begun, the elder removes with the bafon, which
he keeps under his charge till the congregation be dif-
miffed. The fetfion then meets, and the money is told
over, its amount marked down in the feftion account
book, and depofited in a box kept for that purpofe. This
box has ufually a fmall Hit in the top, through which
the pieces of money can be dropped without opening it;
and it is clofed with two locks, the key of one of which
is ufually kept by the minifter, and the other by the
kirk-treafurer, fo that it can never be opened but in the
prefence of thefe two at lea ft.
A kirk-feffion, when regularly conftituted, muft al¬
ways confift of the minifter, elders, feffion-clerk, and
kirk-treafurer. None of thefe ever receive any falary
except the feftion-clerk, who is ufually the fchoolmafter
of the parifh, and has a fmall falary allowed for minut¬
ing the tranfadlions. The kirk-treafurer is for the moft:
part one of the elders; and he is an important member
of this court. Without his intervention no diftribution
of the poor’s funds is deemed legal; nor can any pay¬
ments be made, receipts granted, or money transferred,
but by him; the minifter and feftion being perfonally
liable to make good all money that may other wife be
given away, ftiould it ever afterwards be challenged by
any heritor in the parifh.
The precautions taken for the diftribution of the
poor’s funds are like wife fimple and excellent, and are
as follow:
No money can be legally iffuedfrom the poor’s funds
even by the treafurer and feflion, unlefs legal proof can
be brought that public intimation has been given from
the pulpit immediately after divine fervice, and before
the congregation has difperfed, that a diftribution of
poor’s money is to be made by the feftion, at fuch a
time and place, fpecifying the fame, and inviting all
who have intereft in the cafe to attend if they {hall in¬
cline. This intimation muft be made a full fortnight
before the time of diftributior ; and as every heritor
(owner of landed property) in are parifh has a right to
vote in the diftribution of the poor’s funds, they may
all, if they fo incline, then attend and exercife that
right; but if none of them (hould attend, which is
often the cafe, the feflion has then a right to proceed;
and whatever they (hall thus do, is deemed ftridlly le-
- . gaV.
POO [ I
Poor. gal, andis liable to no cliallenge. But (hoiild they pro-
—v ' ceed without having given this previous intimation, they
may, if the heritors ihould afterwards challenge it,. be
made to repay out of their own pockets every (hilling
they {hall have fo iffued. It fometimes happens, that
young miniifers, through heedlefsnefs in this refpeft,
expofe themfelves and families to confiderable trouble
and lofs, which by attention might be eafily avoided.
In the fame way, fhould a miniller and feflion, without
the intervention of a treafurer regularly conftituted, lend
upon bond or otherwife any of the poor’s funds, and
(hould the perfon fo borrowing afterwards fail, thefe
lenders are perfonally liable to make good the whole,
and any heritor in the parilh who choofes it can com¬
pel him to do fo.
The members of the feflion are alfo liable to pay all
Ioffes, and to account for all fums that it can be in-
ftruded they received, if they negle&ed to keep regular
books, in which every tranfa&ion (hall be entered, or
if thefe books have not been revifed and approved of by
the prefbytery (a) j but if they (hall have been fo re¬
vifed, they cannot be challenged for omiflion of forms,
and can only be made to account for errors, or frauds,
or evident dilapidations.
Under this wife and-economical Fyftem of manage¬
ment, it has been found by the experience of more than
■200 years, that in the low parts of the country, where
the parifhes are in general of fuch moderate extent as
to admit of the people of every part of the parifti gene¬
rally to attend divine fervice every ‘Lord’s day, the or¬
dinary funds have been amply fufficient tofupply all the
real demands of the poor, and in moft parilhes a fund
has been accumulated from the favings of ordinary years
to help the deficiencies that may arife in years of un¬
common fcarcity.
Befides the weekly colleaions, the extra offerings at
the adminiftration of the Lord’s fupper, the pious do¬
nations of charitable individuals, which are all voluntary,
together with fome fmall fees paid for the ufe of a mort-
doth (a black velvet pall) at funerals, which is generally
purchafed with the poor’s money, go to make up this
parochial fund. Nor muft any one believe that the mo¬
ney which comes through the hands of the adminiftra-
tors of the poor’s funds is all that is beftowed upen
the poor in Scotland ; far from it: there are a thou-
fand other channels through which the indigent derive
confolation and fupport, all of them tending to produce
the happieft effeds upon fociety. A Ton feels himfelf
afhatned to think that his parents (hould require the af-
fiftance of another to fupport them •, lie therefore drains
every nerve, when in the vigour of life, to fpare a little
of his earning to render their old age more eafy than it
might have been; and fweet to a parent is the bread that
is given by the pious attention of a child. If there
are feveral children, th#y become emulous who (hall dif-
cover moft kindnefs. It is a pious contention which
74 ] P O P
ferves to unite them the clofer to each other, by com¬
manding their mutual efteem.
Diredly contrary to this is the effed of the poor _
laws in England, where, in London at lead, it is not
uncommon to fee men in good bufinefs neglecting their
aged and difeafed parents (or no better reafon than that
the parifti is bound to find them bread. Thefe laws
have other pernicious confequences ; for they are ob-
vioufly fubverfive of induftry as well as morality among
the lower orders of the people. “ 1 his is a heavy
charge, but not lefs true than heavy. Fear of want is
the only effe&ual motive to induftry with the labouring
poor : remove that fear, and they ceafe to be induftri-
ous. The ruling paflion of thofe who live by bodily
labour, is to leave a pittance for their children, and for
fupporting themfelves in old age. Stimulated by defire
of accompliihing thofe ends, they are frugal and induf-
trious 5 and the profpeft of fuccefs is a continual feaft
to them. Now, what worfe can malice invent againft
fuch a man, under colour of friendftiip, than to fecure
bread to him and his children whenever he takes a dif-
like to work j which effectually deadens his foie ambi¬
tion, and with it his-honed induftry ? Relying on the
=certainty of a provifion againft Want, he relaxes gra¬
dually till he finks into idlenefs ; idlenefs leads to pro¬
fligacy ; profligacy begets difeafe $ and the wretch be¬
comes an object of public charity before he has run
half his courfe. Wifely therefore is it ordered by Pro¬
vidence, that charity (hould in every inftance be volun¬
tary, to prevent the idle and profligate from depending
on it for fupport. During the reign of Elizabeth when
the monafteries were recently fupprefled, and all their
revenues fquandered, fome compulfion might be necef-
fary to prevent the poor from ftarving. A temporary
.provifion for this purpofe, fo contrived as not to fuper-
fede voluntary charity, but rather to promote it, wouM
have been a meafure extremely proper. Unlucky it is
for England that fuch a meafure was overlooked ; but
the queen and her parliaments had not the talent of fore-
feeing confequences without the aid of experience. A.
perpetual tax for the poor was impofed, the moft perni¬
cious tax, fays Lord Karnes (b), that ever was impofed
in any country.”
POPA-madre, is a town of South America, in
Terra Firma. In this place there is a convent and cha¬
pel dedicated to the Virgin Mary, to whofe image the
Spaniards in thdfe parts go in pilgrimage, particularly
thofe who have been at fea. It is feated on a high moun¬
tain, 50 miles eaft of Carthagena. W. Long. 74. 32.
N. Lat. 10. 15.
POPiE. See Victimarius.
POP AY AN, a province of South America, in the
kingdom of New7 Granada, between the audience of Pa¬
nama, that of Quito, and the South fea ; 4®1-1 miles t**
length, and 300 in breadth. A chain of barren moun¬
tains runs through the country from north to fouth ;
5m <3
Poor
11
Popayan.
(a'I The nrefbytery is by law appointed auditor of the poor’s accounts of the feveral parifhes within its
bounds ; and if they find any difficult cafe occur in the difeharge of this duty, they may lay it before the fynod
B)VlSee Sketches of Man, 'book ii. fketch 10. vrhere many other arguments equally forcible are urged againft
all involuntary poor-rates, and where many ingenious expedients are propofed for gradually abohfhing them where
they are eftabliffied.
POP [ I
IPopayan, and near the fea the foil is fo foaked with almoft conti-
PoP®| | nual rains, that few care to refide there, except for the
¥ fake of the gold that is met with in great plenty in the
fands of the rivulets. This bewitching metal brings
many in fearch of it, though it is a great doubt whether
they ever return back alive or not. For this reafon the
favage Americans are ftill mailers of a great part of it,
and continually annoy the Spaniards.
Pop ay an, the capital town of a province of that
name in South America, with a bilhop’s fee, a Spanilh
governor, and where the courts of jultice are held. The
inhabitants are almoft all Creoles. It is 2 20 miles
north-eaft of Quito. W. Long. 75. 55. N. Lat. 2. 35.
POPE, a name which comes from the Greek word
UetTrct, and fignifies Father. In the eaft this appellation
is given to all Chriftian priefts •, and in the weft, bilhops
were called by it in ancient times : but now for many
centuries it has been appropriated tothebifhop of Rome,
whom the Roman Catholics look upon as the common
father of all Chriftians.
Much has been faid, much written, and many warm
difputes have been carried on concerning the pope, and
the power belonging to him, within thefe two or three
laft centuries. We fhall here, without entering into
controverfy, lay down diftinflly, from the belt authori¬
ty, what the Roman Catholics really believe concerning
the pope, after having defcribed the manner of his elec¬
tion j and we fliall give fome other particulars relating
to this fubject that feem to deferve notice, and are in
this country not generally known.
All in communion with the fee of Rome unanimoufly
hold, that our Saviour Jefus Chrift conftituted St Peter
the apoftle chief paftor under himfelf, to watch over his
whole flock here on earth, and to preferve the unity of
it; giving him the power requifite for thefe ends. They
alfo believe, that our Saviour ordained, that St Peter
fhould have fucceflors with the like charge and power,
to the end of time. Nowt, as St Peter refidtd at Rome
for many years, and fuffered martyrdom there, they con-
lider the bifhops of Rome as his fucceflors in the dignity
and office of the univerfal paftor of the whole Catholic
church. There have been fome varieties in the manner
of choofing the biftiop of Rome in different ages, as al¬
terations may be made in difcipline *, but ftill the clergy
of Rome have juftly had the chief part in that eleftion:
and that clergy is now reprefented by, or in fome man¬
ner confifts of, the cardinals, who have for feveral cen¬
turies been the foie electors of the pope.
Thefe cardinals or principalperfons of the church of
Rome are 70 in number, when the /acred college, as it is
called, is complete. Of thefe fix are cardinal bifhops,
the biftiops of Oftia, of Porto, Albano, Sabino, Tufcu-
lum or Frafcati, and Pnenefte or Paleftrina ; which are
the fix fuburbicarian churches ; 50 are cardinal priefts,
who have all titles from parifli churches in Rome; and
fourteen are cardinal deacons, who have their titles from
churches in Rome of lefs note, called Diaconias or Dea-
conries. Thefe cardinals are created by the pope when
there happen to be vacancies ; and fometimes he names
one or two only at a time •, but commonly he defers the
promotion until there be ten or twelve vacancies or
more 5 and then at every fecond fuch promotion the
emperor, the kings of Spain and France, and of Bri¬
tain, when Catholic, are allowed to prefent one each,
to be made cardinal, whom the pope always admits if
•5 3 POP
there be not fome very great and evident obje&ion. Pope.
Thefe cardinals are commonly promoted from among '““■““V"
fuch clergymen as have borne offices in the Roman
court j fome are aflumed from religious orders j emi¬
nent ecclefiaftics of other countries are likewife often
honoured with this dignity, as the archbifhops of To¬
ledo and Vienna are at prefent cardinal priefts of Rome.
Sons of fovereign princes have frequently been members
of the facred college; and there ends the direfl line of
the royal family of Stuart. Their diftin&ive drefs is
fcarlet, to fignify that they ought to be ready to (bed
their blood for the faith and church, when the defence
and honour of either require it. They wear a fcarlet
cap and hat : the cap is given to them by the pope if
they are at Rome, and is fent to them if they are ab-
fent ; but the hat is never given but by the pope’s own
hand. Thefe cardinals form the pope’s Handing coun¬
cil or confiflory for the management of the public affairs
of church and ftate. They are divided into different
congregations for the more eafy difpatch of bufinefs j and
fome of them have the principal offices in the pontifi¬
cal court, as that of cardinal-vicar—penitentiary—chan¬
cellor—camerlingo or chamberlain—prefed of the fig-
nature ofjuftice—prefed of memorials—and fecretary
of ftate. They have the title given them of eminence
and mojl eminent. But here we confider them princi¬
pally as the perfons entrufted with the choice of the
pope. See Cardinal.
On the demife of a pope his pontifical feal is imme¬
diately broken by the chamberlain, and all public bufi-
nefs is interrupted that can be delayed : meffengers are
difpatched to all the Catholic fovereigns to acquaint
them of the event, that they may take what meafures
they think proper j and that the cardinals in their do¬
minions, if any there be, may haften to the future elec¬
tion if they choofe to attend 5 whilft the whole attention
of the facred college is turned to the prefervation of
tranquillity in the city and ftate, and to the neceffary
preparations for the future eledion. The cardinal cham¬
berlain has, during the vacancy of the holy fee* great
authority ; he coins money with his own arms on it,
lodges in the pope’s apartments, and is attended by
body-guards. He, and the firft cardinal bifhop,- the
firft cardinal prieft, and the firft cardinal deacon, have,
during that time, the government almoft entirely in
their hands. Ihe body of the deceafed pope is carried
to St Peter’s, where funeral fervice is performed for
him with great pomp for nine days, and the cardinals
attend there every morning. In the mean time, all ne¬
ceffary preparations for the eledion are made $ and the
place where they affemble for that purpofe, which is
called the conclave, is fitted up in that part of the Vati¬
can palace ivhich is neareft St Peter’s church, as this
has long been thought the moft convenient fituation.
Here is formed by partitions of wood a number of cells
or chambers equal to the number of cardinals, with a
fmall diftance between every two, and a broad gallery
before them. A number is put on every cell, and
fmall papers with correfponding numbers are put into a
box : every cardinal, or fome one for him, draws out
one of thefe papers, which determines in what cell he
is to lodge. The cells are lined with cloth \ and there
is a part of each one feparated for the conelavifts or at¬
tendants, of whom two are allowed to each cardinal,
and three to cardinal princes. They are perfons of
P O T
[ 176 ]
POP
**ope. fume rank, and generally of great confidence ; but they
muft carry in their matter’s meals, ferve him at table,
and perform all the offices of a menial fervant. J. wo
phyficians, two furgeons, an apothecary, and fome other
neceffary officers, are chofen for the conclave by the car¬
dinals.
On the icth day after the pope’s death, the cardinals,
who are then at Rome, and in a competent date of
health, meet in the chapel of St Peter’s, which is called
the Gregorian chapel, where a fermon on the choice of
a pope is preached to them, and mafs is faid for invok¬
ing the grace of the holy Ghoft. J. hen the cardinals
proceed to the conclave in proceffion two by two, and
take up their abode. When all is properly fettled, the
conclave is {hut up, having boxed wheels or places of
communication in convenient quarters : there are alfo
ftrong guards placed all around. When any foreign
cardinal arrives after the inclofure, the conclave is open¬
ed for his admiffion. In the beginning every cardinal
figns a paper, containing an obligation, that if he {hall
be raifed to the papal chair he will not alienate any part
of the pontifical dominion j that he will not be pro¬
digal to his relations •, and fuch other ftipulations as may
have been fettled in former times or framed for that oc-
cafion.
We come now to the election itfelf j and that this
may be effectual, two-thirds of the cardinals prefent mud
vote for the fame perfon. As this is often not eafily ob¬
tained, they fometimes remain whole months in the con¬
clave. They meet in the chapel twice every day for
giving their votes •, and the election may be effeduated
by fcrutiny, acceffion, or acclamation. Scrutiny is the
ordinary method •, and confids in this : every cardinal
writes his own name on the inner part of a piece of pa¬
per, and this is folded up and fealed \ on a fecond fold
of the fame paper a conclavid writes the name of the
perfon for whom his mader votes. This, according to
agreements obferved for fome centuries, mud be one of
the facred college. On the outer fide of the paper is
written a fentence at random, which the voter mud
well remember. Every cardinal, on entering into the
chapel, goes to the altar and puts his paper into a large
chalice.
When all are convened, two cardinals number the
votes ; and if they are more or lefs than the number of
cardinals prefent, the voting mud be repeated. When
that is not the cafe, the cardinal appointed for the pur-
pofe reads the outer fentence, and the name of the car¬
dinal under it, fo that each voter hearing his own fen¬
tence and the name joined with it, knows that there is
no midake. The names of all the cardinals that are
voted for are taken down in writing, with the number
of votes for each j and when it appears that any one
has two-thirds of the number prefent in his favour the
ele&ion is over : but when this does not happen, the
voting papers are all immediately burnt without open¬
ing up the inner part. When feveral trials of coming
to a conclufion by this method of fcrutiny have been
made in vain, recourfe is fometimes had to what is call¬
ed acceffion. By it, when a cardinal perceives that one
or very few votes are wanting to any one for whom he
had not voted at that time, he may fay that he accedes
to the one vffio has near the number of votes requifite -,
and if his one vote fuffices to make up the two-thirds,
bx if he is followed by a diffident number of acceders or
new voters for the faid cardinal, the eleflion is accom-
plidied. Ladly, a pope is fometimes ele&ed by accla-
mation ; and that is, when a cardinal, being pretty fure
that he will be joined by a number diffident, cries out
in the open chapel, that fuch a one {hall be pope. If
he is fupported properly, the eledion becomes unani¬
mous \ thofe who would perhaps oppofe it forefeeing
that their oppofition ■would be fruitlefs, and rather hurt¬
ful to themfelves. It is to be obferved, that the empe¬
ror of Germany and the kings of France and Spain
claimeda rightof excluding one cardinal from being pope
at every eleftion. Hence, when the ambaflador at Rome
of any of thefe fovereigns perceived that any cardinal,
difagreeable to his mailer, aceoiding to the inl rudlions
he had received, was likely to be made pope, he demand¬
ed an audience of the conclave, was admitted, and there
declared his mailer’s will, which was always attended to
for the common good. But each of thofe fovereigns was
allowed thus to exclude only one at one time •, and they
unwillingly and feldom put this right in execution.
When a pope is chofen in any of the three above-
mentioned ways, the eledlion is immediately announced
from the balcony in the front of St Peter’s, homage is
paid to the new pontiff, and couriers are fent off with
the news to all parts of Chriftendom. The pope ap¬
points a day for his coronation at St Peter’s, and tor
his taking poffeffion of the patriarchal church of St John
Lateran ; all which is performed with great folemnity.
He is addreffed by the expreffion of Hohnefs, and mojl
holy Father. .
Let us now proceed to fee what authority Roman
Catholics attribute to the pope thus chofen. They be¬
lieve then, that the biffiop of Rome is, under Chriff,
fupreme paftor of the whole church ; and as luch is not
only the firft bifhop in order and dignity, but has alfo
a power and jurifdidlion over all Chriftians, in Older to
preferve unity and purity of faith and moral do&rine,
and to maintain order and regularity in all churches.
Wherefore they hold, that when the. pope underftands
that any error has been broached againft faith or man¬
ners, or that any confiderable difference on fuch fubjedls
lias arifen in any part of Chriftendom, it belongs to him,
after due deliberation and confultation, to ihue out his
paftoral decree, condemning the error, clearing up the
doubt, and declaring what has been delivered down, and
what is to be believed. Some Catholic divines are of
opinion that the pope cannot err, when he thus ad-
dreffes himfelf to all the faithful on matters of doRrine.
They well know, that as a private do&or he may fall
into miftakes as well as any other man 5 but they think,
that when he teaches the whole church Providence m.uft
preferve him from error j and they apprehend, that this
mav be deduced from the promifes ot Chrift to Si Pe¬
ter, and from the writings of the ancient fathers. How¬
ever, this infallibility of the pope, even when he pro¬
nounces in the moft folemn manner, is only an opinion,
and not an article of Roman Catholic faith. Where¬
fore, when he fends for the doftrinal decrees, the other
biffiops, who are alfo guardians of the faith in an infe¬
rior degree, may, with due refpeft, examine thefe de¬
crees •, and if they fee them agree with what has been
always taught, they either formally fignify their accep¬
tance, or they tacitly acquiefce, which, confidering their
duty, is equivalent to a formal approbation. When the
acceptation of the generality of the bilhops has been
obtained,
pop C 177 1 pop
Pope, obtained, either immediately or after foffie mutual cor-
reipondence and explanation, the decrees of the pope
thus accepted come to be the fentence of the whole
church, and are believed to be beyond the poffibility of
error !
-Sometimes it may happen that the difputes and dif¬
ferences may be fo great and intricate, that to the end
it may be feen more clearly what has really been deli¬
vered down, and to give all pofliole fatisfaftien, it may
appear proper to convene all the bifhops who can conve¬
niently attend to one place, to learn from them more
1 -diftinftly what has been taught and held in their refpec-
tive churches. Roman Catholics believe that it belongs
to the pope to call fuch general councils, and to prefide
in them in perfon or by his legates. They likewife hold,
that when the pope has approved the decrees of fuch
councils concerning faith or manners, fuch decrees are
then final, and muft be received as fuch by all Catho¬
lics. In all this they believe, that the particular af-
iiftance of the Holy Ghoft is with the pallors of the
church, that fo the gates of hell ?nay never prevail againjl
her.
The fee of R< >me, according to Roman Catholics, is
the centre of Catholic unity. All their bilhops com¬
municate with the pope, and by his means with one an¬
other, and fo form one body. However dilfant their
particular churches may be, they all meet at Rome ei¬
ther in perfon or by their delegates, or at leaft by their
letters. And, according to the difeipline of the latter
ages, though they are prefented to the pope for their
office from their refpe&ive countries, yet from him they
mull receive their bulls of confecration before they can
take poffeffion of their fees.
In matters of church difeipline, the pope, as chief
pallor, not only ought to take care that the canons
aftually in force be obferved in all churches, but he may
alfo make new canons and regulations when he lees it
•neceflary or expedient for the fpiritual benefit of the
faithful, according to times and circumllances. But in
doing this he mull not infringe the ellabliffied rights or
culloms with injury to any perfon ; which if, through
millake or wrong information, he ffiould ever do, the
perfons who think themfelves aggrieved may remonftrate
with refpeft and fue for redrefs. He may ellablilh new
epifcopal fees, where there have been none before ; and
he may alter the limits of former diocefes ; but in fuch
alterations he always of courfe confults the temporal fo-
vereign, if in Communion with him. He fends pallors
to preach the gofpel to all countries where the Catholic
■religion is not by law ellabliffied ; and to him appeals
may be made from all parts of ChriRendom In ecclefi-
rallical caufes of great importance.
The pope may difpenfe with the obfervation of ec-
elefiallical canons when there are.jull reafons for it, as
may frequently happen \ he may alfo difpenfe with vows
when they are made with that exprefs or tacit condi¬
tion (a) that he really may difpenfe with them'; he may
alio on feme occafions declare that obligations have
really ceafed when that is truly the cafe, from a great
alteration of circumllances : Rut he can never grant any
difpenfation, to the injury of any third perfon, and can
Vol. XVII. Part i.
never allow any one to do what is unjull, or to fay what
he knows to be falfe, whatever advantage might be ex¬
pelled from it.
The pope is alfo a temporal prince, and poflefles con-
fiderable dominions in the middle part of Italy, belides
Avignon, which the Trench have lately taken from him,
and the duchy ot Benevento inclofed within the king¬
dom of Naples. It is alfo fuppofed that the kingdoms
of Naples and Sicily, and the duchies of Parma and Pla¬
centia, are Hill held of him in fief as they were before.
His predeceffors have acquired thefe pofleffions at differ¬
ent times and on different occafions, by various donations,
conceffions, treaties, and agreements, in like manner as
has happened with regard to the eftablilliment of other
fovereignties ; and his title to them is like to that of
other potentates to their refpedlive, poffeffions. The re¬
venue arifing from this eiiate, and what he receives for
various reafons from Catholic countries, which is now
much reduced, is employed for the fupport of govern¬
ment, in falaries to the officers of his court, for the edu¬
cation of clergymen, and for the maintaining of miffion-
aries in infidel countries. Great funis are particularly
expended for the propagation of the Chrillian faith in
different parts of Afia, efpecially in Armenia, Syria, and
China. Nor is it much to be wondered at, if the fami¬
lies, of which the fovereign pontiffs happen to have been
born, acquire greater riches and fplendour from that con-
neftiom The princely families of Barberini, Borghefe,
Chigi, Corfini, Albani, are examples of this kind : but
regulations have been made In later times to prevent ex-
ceffive nepotifm. Beyond the limits of his own tempo¬
ral dominions the pope has no temporal power or jurifdic-
tion, excepting what any nation may be pleafed to allow
him : when any thing of that kind has been granted or
brought in by cuftom, it is evident that it ought not to
be taken away rafiily nor without juft reafon. But, as
chief pallor of the church, he. has no right to any tem¬
poral jurifdidlion over his flock. As fuch, his power is
entirely fpiritual, and has no means of coercion original¬
ly or neceffarily connected with it, but only ecclefiafti-
cal cenfures. It muft be owned, that the popes, in fome
ages, fometimes imagining that they could do much good,
fometimes by the confent, or even at the defire, of the fo-
vereigns, and fometimes no doubt out of ambitious views,
-have interfered a great deal in the temporal affairs of the
different kingdoms of Europe, which has frequently given
fcandalanddoneharm toreligion. But It is known to thofe
moft verfant in hiftory, that their faults of this kind have
been exaggerated, and their conduct often mifunderflood
or mifreprefented. However, in this a Roman Catholic
is not obliged to approve what they have done ; nay,
without adling contrary to his religion, he may judge "of
them freely, and blame them if he think they deferve
it; only he will do it with refpedt and regret. Thus a
Roman Catholic may either apologife, if he think he can
do it,for the condudl of Innocent III. in depofing King-
John of England ; or, without being guilty of any of¬
fence againft Ins religion, he may blame the pontiff for
what he did on that occalion ; becaufe the power of the
pope to depofe princes, or to abfolve fubjt £ls from their
allegiance, was never propofed as an article of faith, or
Z made
PneM
*
? -O Any other man may unquefiionably do the fame when they are made with that expreis cemlition.
POP
C 178 ]
POP
pope. made a term of communion with the church of Rome.
Some Catholic divines, indeed, efpecjally among the Je-
luits, are univerfally known to have held this extrava¬
gant and dangerous opinion j but by far the greater
part of them condemn and abhor it as abfurd and im¬
pious : and furely it is but fair and juft to allow them
to know beft what they themfelves believe. And here,
to conclude, we (hall add, that it is very delirable that
Chriftians of all denominations endeavour to underftand
one another better than they have often done j and in-
ftead of fuppofing imaginary differences, ftrive to remove
real ones, for the general good of mankind, for the glory
of God, and honour of religion 5 and that all vie with
one another to excel in juft and charitable fentiments,
language, and behaviour.
The reader, who wifties to know what can be urged
for and againft the fupremacy of the pope,^ and who is
fitted by his knowledge of ecclefiaftical hiftory to un¬
derftand the nature of the queftion at iffue, may confult,
on the one hand, the works of Bellarmine, together
with a fmall trad lately publiflied in Englifli, under the
title of The Divine Economy of Chriji in his Kingdom or
Church; and on the other, Barrow’s treatife on the
Pope's Supremacy, together with Chihngworth’s Reli¬
gion of Protejlants, &c.
POPE, Dominions of, or Ecclefafical States, a coun¬
try of Italy, bounded on the north by the gulf of Ve¬
nice and the Venetian dominions, on the fbuth by the
Mediterranean, on the eaft by the kingdom of Naples
and the Adriatic, and on the weft by Tufcany and Mo¬
dena. It is 400 miles long on the coaft of the Adriatic
from Naples to the Venetian territory. It is but nar¬
row, however, from north to fouth, not being more
than 80 miles broad from the gulf of Venice to the
Tufcan fea. . .
The foil, in general, of the pope’s dominions is very
fertile, but ill cultivated ; and there are many fens and
marftiy grounds which are very prejudicial to. the air.
That the"lands are badly cultivated and inhabited, the
air bad, and the inhabitants poor, idle, lazy, and
grofsly fuperftitious, is owing to a variety of cauies.
With refpeft to the accommodations of life, this country
but in a very indifferent condition j for, notwithftand-
* r  r:*,. r~:i fituation fa
CJ U w A1. X C* \ m. J ■* # —
ing the fertility of its foil, its advantageous fituation tor
traffic, the large fums fpent in it by travellers, or remitted
to it from foreign countries, and its having, for its ruler,
the fueceffor of St Peter, the prince of the apoftles, and
the vicar of Jefus Chrift; yet it is poor and thin ot in¬
habitants, ill cultivated, and without trade and manu-
feftures. This is partly owing to the great number
of holidays, of fturdy beggars called and of
bofpitals and convents, with the amazing but perhaps.ule-
lefs wealth of churches and convents, and the inquintion .
but the chief caufe is the feverity of the government,
and the grievous exaftions and hardthips to which the
fubiefe are expofed. The legates, though moflly cler-
pymen, whole thoughts (hould be chiefly employed a-
bout layino- up treasures in heaven, and who ought to
l-t an example to the laity of diflntereflednefs and a
contempt of this world, too often it is fa.d fcruple no
kind of rapacioufnefs: even the holy father himfelf, and
the cardinals, frequently make tA enriching of their ne¬
phews and other relations, and the aggi andizing their
families, ton much the bufmefs of their lives. 1 he exten-
ftte elaims and great pretenfions of the pope are well
’ ' 3
known, and, by a large part of Chriftendom, are no^V Pope,
treated with contempt and mockery. The Reforma-
tion gave a great blow to his fpiritual power j and the
French revolution has leffened it ft ill more. His tem¬
poral dominions, however, ftill continue much the fame j
though how long this may be the cafe, confidering how
much he hath loft, and is daily lofing, of his ghoftly em¬
pire, and the veneration in which he was formerly held,
it is difficult to fay. See Pope.—The Campania of
Rome is under the pope’s immediate government j but
the other provinces are governed by legates and vice-le¬
gates, and there is a commander in chief of the pope’s
forces in every province. The pope is chofen by the
cardinals in the conclave : See this particularly delbrib-
ed above. The pope holds a confiftory of cardinals on
ecclefiaftical affairs 5 but the cardinals do not meddle
with his civil government. The pope’s chief minifter is
the cardinal-patron, ufually his nephew, who amaffes an
immenfe eftate, if the reign be of any long duration.
The cardinal that is chofen pope muft generally be an
Italian, and at leaft 55 years of age. The fpiritual
power of the pope, though far ftiort of what it was be¬
fore the Reformation, is ftill confiderable. It is com¬
puted that the monks and regular clergy, who are abfo-
lutely at his devotion, do not amount to lefs than
2,000,000 of people, difperfed through all the Roman
Catholic countries, to affert his fupremacy over princes,
and promote the intereft of the church. The revenues
of thefe monks do not fall ftiort of 20,000,0001. fter-
ling, befides the cafual profits arifing from offering*,
and the people’s bounty to the church, who are taught
that their falvation depends on this kind of benevo¬
lence.
The pope’s revenues, as a temporal prince, may
amount to about 1,000,oool. fterling per annum, ari¬
fing chiefly from the monopoly of corn, the duties on
wine and other provifions. Over and above thefe, vaft
fums are continually flowing into the papal treafury from
all the Roman Catholic countries, for difpenfations., in¬
dulgences, canonizations, annates, the pallia, and inve-
ftitures of archbiftiops, biftiops, &c.
The pope has a confiderable body of regular forces,
well clothed and paid j but his fleet confifts only of a
few galleys. His life guards are 40 Switzers, 75 cuiraf-
fiersf and as many light horfe. Since the beginning of
the French revolutionary war he had at one time a guard
of Englifli horfe. But what has now beenfaid of the re¬
venue and conftitutions of the papal Hates muft refer to-
the circumftances in which they were previous to the time
when they were feized and plundered by the rapacity of
the French-, and the pope muft now be confidered, along
with aim oft every other continental power, as complete¬
ly under the fubjeblion and controul of Bonaparte. See
France and Italy.
Pope, Alexander^ a celebrated Englifli poet, defcend-
ed from a refpeaable family, was born the 8th of
June 1688, at London, w here his father was then a
confiderable merchant. He was taught to read very
early by an aunt j and learned to write without any ai-
fiftance, by copying printed books. 1 he.family being
of the Romifti religion, he was put, at eight years of
age, under one Taverner, a prieft, who taught him the
rudiments of the Latin and Greek tongues together j
and foon after was fent to a Popifti femmary at
chefter, from whence he was removed to a fchool a,
Hyde-
POP [ J79 1 POP
Hvde-Park Corner. He difcovereil early an Inclination pletely publillied in 1712. The former excelled in the, ^
to verfifying; and the tranflations of Ogilby and San- didaftic way, for which he was peculiarly formed j a clear
dys from Virgil and Ovid firft falling in his way, they head, ftrong fenfe, and a found judgment, being his cha-
were his favourite authors. At twelve he retired with raaeriftical qualities j but it is the creative power of the
his parents to Binfield, in Windfor Foreft ; and there imagination that conftitutes what is properly called a
became acquainted with the writings of Spenfer, Wal- poet; and therefore it is in the Rape of the Lock that
ler, and Dryden. Dryden ftruek him moft, probably Pope principally appears one, there being more
becaufe the call: of that poet was moft: congenial with imaginandi difplayed in this poem than perhaps in all
his own } and therefore he not only ftudied his works his other works put. together. In he gave .out
intenfely, but ever after mentioned him with a kind of propofals for publifhing^ a tranflation of Homer s Iliad,
rapturous veneration. He once obtained a fight of him by fubfeription $ in which all parties concurred fo hear-
at a coffee-houfe, but never was known to him : a mif- tily, that he acquired a confiderable fortune by it.
fortune which he laments in thefe ftiort but expreflive The fubfeription amounted to 6000I. befides 1200I.
words, Virgilium tantwn vidi. Though Pope had been which Lintot the bookfeller gave him for the copy,
under more tutors than one, yet it feems they were fo Pope’s finances being now in good condition, he pur-
infufficient for the purpofe of teaching, that he had learn- chaled a houfe at Fwrickenham, whither he remove
ed very little from them: fb that, being obliged afterwards with his father and mother in 1715" where the for-
to begin all over again, he may juftly be confidered as mer died about two years after. .-A-5 he was a.Papift,
one of the *t/W**]w or felf-taught. At fifteen he had he could not purchafe, nor put his money to intereft
acquired a readinefs in the two learned languages j to on real fecurity ; and as he adhered to the caufe of
which he foon after added the French and Italian. He King James, he made it a point of eonfcience not to
bad already fcribbled a great deal of poetry in various lend it to the new government j fo that, though he was
ways \ and this year fet about an epic poem called Al- worth near 20$oool. when he laid afide bufinefs, yet, li*
eunder. He long after communicated it to Atterbury, ving afterwards upon the quick ftock, he left but a flen-
with a declared intention to burn it; and that friend der fubfiftence to his family. Our poet, however, did not
f concurred with him : “ Though (adds he) I would fail to improve it to the utmoft : he had already acquit
have interceded for the firft page, and put it, with your red much by his publications, and he.was all attention
leave, among my curiofities.” What the poet himfelf to acquire more. In 1717* publiihed a collection
obferves upon thefe early pieces is agreeable enough j of all he had printed feparately ; and proceeded to give
and ftiows, that though at firft a little intoxicated with a new edition of Shakefpeare : which, being publiihed
the waters of Helicon, he afterwards arrived to great in 1721, difeovered that he had confulted his fortune-
fobriety of thinking. “ I confefs (fays he) there was more than his fame in that undertaking. The Iliad
a time when I was in love with myfelf; and my firft being finiihed, he engaged upon the like footing to
productions were the children of Self-love upon Inno- tindertake the Odyffey. Mr Broome and Mr Fenton
cence. I had made an epic poem, and panegyrics on did part of it, and received 500I. of Mr Pope for their
all the princes j and I thought myfelf the greateft ge- labours. It was publiftied in the fame manner, and on
•jnius that ever was. I cannot but regret thefe delight- the fame conditions to Lintot *, excepting that, inftead
ful vifions of my childhood, which, like the fine colours of 1200I. he had but 600I. for the copy. This work
we fee when our eyes are ftmt, are vanifhed for ever.” being finiftied in 1725* he was afterwards employed
His paftorals, begun in 1704, firft introduced him to with Swift and Arbuthnot,. in. printing fome volumes
the wits of the time j among which were Wycherly and of Mifcellanies. About this time he narrowly efcapcd
Walfti. This laft gentleman proved a fincere friend to lofing his life, as he was returning home in a friend’s
him y and foon difeerning that his talent lay, not fo chariot •, which, on pafling. a bridge, happened to be
much in ftriking out new thoughts of his own, as in overturned, and thrown with the horfes into the river,
improving thofe of other men, and in an eafy verfifica- The glaffes were up, and he was not able to break them :
tion, told him, among other things, that there was one fo that he had immediately been drowned, if the po-
way left open for him to excel his predeceffors in, which ftillion had not broke them, and dragged him out .to
was corre&nefs : obferving, that though we had feve- the bank. A fragment of the glafs, however, cut him
ral great poets, yet none of them were correCL Pope fo defperately, that he ever after loft the ufe of two of
took the hint, and turned it to good account; for no his fingers. In 1727 his Dunciad appeared in Ireland j
doubt the diftinguiftiing harmony of his numbers was and the year after in England, with notes by Swift,
in a great meafure owing to it. The fame year, 1704, under the name of Scriblerus. This edition was pre-
he wrote the firft part of his Windfor Foreft, though fented to the king and queen by Sir Robert Walpole j
the whole was not publiftied till 1710. In 1708, he who, probably about this time, offered to procure Pope
wrote the Effay on Criticifm : which production Was a penfion, which however he refufed, as he had for-
juftly efteemed a mafterpiece in its kind, and ftiowed merly done a propofal of the fame kind made him by
not only the peculiar turn of his talents, but that thofe Lord Halifax. He greatly cultivated the fpirit of in¬
talents, young as he was, were ripened into perfection, dependency j and “ Unplac’d, unpenfion’d, no man’s
He was not yet twenty years old ; and yet the matu- heir or flave,” was frequently his boaft. He fome-
rity of judgment, the knowledge of the world, and the where obferves, that the life of an author is a ftate of
penetration into human nature, difplayed in that piece, warfare : he has ftiown himfelf a. complete general in
were fuch as would have done honour to the greateft this way of warring. He bore the infults and injuries
abilities and experience. But whatever may be the of his enemies long *, but at length, in the Dunciad,
merit of the Effay on Criticifm, it was ftill furpaffed, made an abfolutely univerfal flaughter of them : fol¬
ia a poetical view, by the Rape of the Lock, firft com- even Cibber, who was afterwards advanced t6 be the
Z 2 hero
POP [180] POP
Pope- hero of it, could not forbear owning, that nothing was
ever more perfect and finidit d in its kind than this poem.
In 1729, by the advice of Lord Bolingbroke, he turn¬
ed his pen to fubje&s of morality •, and accordingly
■we find him, with the affiftance of that noble friend,
who furniihed him with the materials, at work this year
upon the Effay on Man. The following extrad of a
letter to Swift difcovers the reafon of his lordihip’s
advice : “ Bid him (fays Bolingbroke) talk to you of
the,work he is about, I hope in good earneft ; it is a
fine one, and will be, in his hands, an original. His
foie complaint is, that he finds it too eafy in the exe¬
cution. This flatters his lazinefs : it flatters my judge¬
ment j who always thought, that, univerfal as his ta¬
lents are, this is eminently and peculiarly his, above all
the writers I know, living or dead 5 I do not except
Horace.” Pope tells the dean in the next letter, that
“ the work Lord Bolingbroke fpeaks of "with fuch
abundant partiality, is a lyflem of ethics, in the Ho-
ratian way.” In purfuing the fame defign, he wrote
his Ethic Epiflles: the fourth of which, upon Tafte,
giving great offence, as he was fuppofed to ridicule the
duke of Chandos under the chara&er of Timon, is
faid to have put him upon writing fatires, which he
continued till 1739. He ventured to attack perfons of
the higheft rank, and fet no bounds to his fatirical
rage. A genuine collodion of his letters were publifh-
ed in 1737* Lr 1738, a French tranflation of the
Effay on Man, by the Abbd Refnel, was printed at
Paris •, and Mr Croufaz, a German profeffor, animad¬
verted upon this fyftem of ethics, which he reprefented as
nothing elfe but a fyftem of naturalifm. Mr Vv arburton,
afterwards bifhop of Gloucefter, wrote.a commentary
upon the Effay 5 in which he defends it againft Crou¬
faz, vvhofe objedions he fuppofes owing to the faulti-
nefs of the Abbe Refnel’s tranflation. The poem was
republifhed in 1740, with the commentary. Our au¬
thor now added a fourth book to the Dunciad, which
- was firft printed feparately in 174.'2 : but the year af¬
ter, the whole poem came out together, as a fpecimen
of a more corred edition of his works. He had made
fome progrefs in that defign, but did not live to com-
plet it. He had all his life long been fubjedl to the
headach •, and that complaint, which he derived from
his mother, was now greatly increafed by a dropfy in
his breaft, under w'hich he expired the 30th of May
3744, in the 56th year of his age. In his will, dated
December 11. 1743, Mifs Blount, a lady to whom he
was always devoted, was made his heir during her life:
and among other legacies, he bequeathed to Mr War-
burton the property of all fueh of his worksr already
printed, as he had written, or fhould write commenta¬
ries upon, and which had not otherwife been difpofed of
or alienated 5 with this condition, that they were pub-
lifhed without future alterations. In difcharge of this
truft, that gentleman gave a complete edition of all Mr
Pope’s works, 1751, in nine vols. 8vo. A work, enti¬
tled, An E(fay on the Writings and Genius of Pope, by
Mr Warton, two vols. 8vo, will be read with pleafureby
thofe who defire to know more of the perfon, charac¬
ter, and writings of this excellent poet. Lord Orrery’s
account of him Is very flattering : “ If we may judge
of him by his works (fays this noble author), his chief
aim was to be efteemed a man of virtue. His letters
are written in that ftylej his laft volumes are all of the
moral kind j he has avoided trifles, and confequently Pope,
has efcaped a rock which has proved very injurious to
Swift’s reputation. He has given his imagination full
fcope, and yet has preferved a perpetual guard upon
his condudl. The conftitution of his body and mind
might really incline him to the habits of caution and re-
ferve. The treatment which he met with afterwards,,
from an innumerable tribe of adverfaries, confirmed this
habit} and made him flower than the dean in pronoun¬
cing his judgment upon perfons and things. His profe-
Avritings are little lefs harmonious than his verfe \ and
his voice in common eonverfation was fo naturally mu-
fical, that I remember honeft Tom Southern ufed to
call him the little nightingale. His -manners were deli¬
cate, eafy, and engaging; and he treated his friends
with a politenefs that charmed, and a generofity that
was much to his honour. Every gueft was made happy
within his doors; pleafure dwelt under his roof, and
elegance prefided at his table.”
Yet, from Dr Johnfon’s account of his domeflic ha¬
bits, we have reafon to doubt the latter part of thb
character. His parfimony (he informs us) appeared
in very petty matters, fuch as writing his compofitions
on the backs of letters, or in a niggardly reception of
his friends, and a fcantinefs of entertainment—as the
fetting a fingle pint on the table to two friends, when,
having himfelf taken two fmall glalTes, he would retire,
faying, I leave you to your wine. He fometimes.
however, the Do<ftor acknowledges, made a fplendid
dinner; but this happened feldom. He was very full
of his fortune, and frequently ridiculed poverty ; and
he feems to have been of an opinion not very uncom¬
mon in the world, that to want money is to want every
thing. He was almoft equally proud of his connexion
with the great, and often boafled that he obtained then-
notice by no meannefs or fervility. This admiration of
the great increafed in the advance of life; yet we muft
acknowledge, that he could derive but little honour
from the notice of Cobham, Burlington, or Boling¬
broke.
By natural deformity, or accidental diftortion, his
vital functions were fo much difordered, that his life
was a long difeafe ; and from this caufe arofe many of
his peculiarities and weaknefles. He flood conftantly
in need of female attendants; and to avoid cold, of
which he was very fenfihle, he wore a fur doublet undt^
his ftiirt, &c. The indulgence and accommodation
which his ficknefs required, had taught him all the un-
pleafing and unfocial qualities of a valetudinary man.—
When he wanted to fleep, he nodded in company ; and
once (lumbered at his own table when the prince of
Wales was talking of poetry. He was extremely trou-
blefome to fuch of his friends as afked him out, which
many of them frequently did, and plagued the fervants
beyond defcription. His love of eating is another fault,
to which he is faid to have fallen a facrifice. In all
his intercourfe with mankind, he had great delight in
artifice, and endeavoured to attain all his purpofts by
indirect and unfufpefted methods.
In familiar converfation it is find he never excelled ;
and he was fo fretful and (o eafily difpleafed, that he
would fometimes leave Lord Oxford’s filently without
any apparent reafon, and was to be courted back by
more letters and meffages than the fervants were will¬
ing to carry.
PGP [i
Pope, Dr Johnfon alfo gives a view of the intelleftual cha-
Popery. rafter of Pope, and draws a parallel between Dryden
» '' and him. For particulars, however, we mull refer our
readers to Johnfon's Lives of the Poets.
POPERY, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, comprehends the
religious doftrines and praftices adopted and maintain¬
ed by the church of Rome. The following fummary1,
extrafted chiefly from the decrees of the council of
Trent, continued under Paul III. Julius III. and Pius
IV. from the year 1545 to 1563, by fucceflive feflions,
and the creed of Pope Pius IV. fubjoined to it, and
bearing date November 1564, may not be unacceptable
to the reader. One of the fundamental tenets, ftre-
nuoufly maintained by Popilh writers, is the infalli¬
bility of the church of Rome ; though they are not
agreed whether this privilege belongs to the pope or a
general council, or to both united ; but they pretend
that an infallible living judge is abfolutely neceffary to
determine controverfies, and to fecure peace in the
Chriftian church. However, Proteftants allege, that
the claim of infallibility in any church is not juftified
by the authority of Scripture j much lefs does it per¬
tain to the church of Rome ; and that it is inconfiftent
with the nature of religion, and the perfonal obliga¬
tions of its profeffors ; and that it has proved ineffec¬
tual to the end for which it. is fuppofed to be granted,
fince popes and councils have difagreed in matters of
importance, and they have been incapable, with the
advantage of this pretended infallibility, of maintaining
union and peace.
Another effential article of the popifli creed is the
fupremacy of the pope, or his fovereign power over the
univerfal church. See Pope.
Farther, the doftrine of the leven facraments is a pe¬
culiar and diftinguifhing doftrine of the church of Rome ;
thefe are baptifm, confirmation, the eucharilt, penance,
extreme unftion, orders, and matrimony.
The council of Trent (feff 7. can.,i.) pronounces
an anathema on thofe who fay, that the facraments are
more or fewer than feven, or that any one of the above
number is not truly and' properly a facrament. And
yet it does not appear that they amounted to this num¬
ber before the 12th century, when Hugo de St Vic-
tore and Peter Lombard, about the year 1144, taught
that there were feven facraments. The courfcil of
Florence, held in 1438, was the firft council that de¬
termined this number. Thefe facraments confer grace,
according to the decree of the council of Trent, (feff.
7. can. 8.) ex opere operato, by the mere adminiffration
of them; three of them, viz. baptifm, confirmation,
and orders, are faid, (can. 9.) to imprefs an indelible
charafter, fo that they cannot be repeated without fa-
crilege and the efficacy of every facrament depends
on the intention of the prieft by whom it is admini-
ftered (can. 11.). Pope Pius expref-ly enjoins, that
all thefe facraments (hould be ad mi niff ered according
to the received, and approved rites of the Catholic
church. With regard to the euchariff in particular, we
may jiere obferve, that the church of Rome holds the
doftrine of tranfubffantiation ; the neceffity of paying
divine worfhip to Chrift under the form of the confe-
crated bread, or hoft ; the propitiatory facrifice of the
mafs, according to their ideas of which Chrift is truly and
properly offered as a facrifice as often as the prieft fays
mafs; it praftifes likewife folitary mafs, in which the
I ] POP
prieft alone, who confecrates, communicates, and allows Popery-
communion only in one kind, viz. the bread, to the laity. —“*
Seffi 14.
The doftrine of merits is another diftinguifhing tenet
of popery; with regard to which the council of Trent
has exprefsly decreed (feff. 6. can. 32.) that the good
works of juftified perfons are truly meritorious; deferv-
ing not only an increafe of grace, but eternal life, and
an increafe of glory; and it has anathematized all who
deny this doftrine. Of the fame kind is the doftrine
of fatisfaftion ; which fuppofes that penitents may truly
fatisfy, by the affliftions they endure under the difpen-
fations of Providence, or by voluntary penances to
which they fubmit, for the temporary penalties of fin,
to which they are fubjeft, even after the remiftion of
their eternal punifhment. Seffi 6. can. 30. and feffi 14.
can. 8. and 9. In this conneftion we may mention the
popifh diftinftion of venial and mortal fins: the greateft
evils arifing from the former are the temporary pains of
purgatory ; but no man, it is faid, can obtain the par¬
don of the latter without confefling to a prieft, and per¬
forming the penances which he impofes.
1 he council of J rent (feff. 14. can. 1.) has exprefsly
decreed, that every one is accurfed, who (hall affirm that
penance is not truly and properly a facrament, inftituted
by Chrift in the univerfal church, for reconciling thofe
Chriftians to the divine majefty, who have fallen into fin
after baptifm : and this facrament, it is declared, con-
fifts of two parts, the matter and the form ; the matter
is the aft ot the penitent, including contrition, confef-
fion, and fatisfaftion ; the form of it is the aft of abfo-
lution on the part of the prieft. Accordingly it is en¬
joined, that it is the duty of every man, who hath fallen
after baptifm, to confefs his fins once a year, at lead, to
a prieft : that this confeffion is to be fecret; for public
confeffion is neither commanded nor expedient; and that
it muft be exaft and particular, including every kind
and aft of fin, with all the circumftances attending it.
When the penitent has fo done, the prieft pronounces an
abfolution ; which is not conditional or declarative on-
ly, but abfolute and judicial. Fhis fecret or auricular
confeffion was fir ft decreed and eftablifhed in the fourth
council of Lateran, under Innocent III. in 1215, (cap.
21.). And the decree of this council was afterwards
confirmed and enlarged in the council of Florence, and
in that of Trent; which ordains, that confeffion was in¬
ftituted by Chrift, that by the law of God it is neceffary
to falvation, and that it has been always praftifed in the
Chriftian church. As for the penances impofed on the
penitent by way of fatisfaftion, they have been common¬
ly the repetition of certain forms of devotion, as pater-
nofters, or ave-marias, the payment of ftipulated fums,
pilgrimages, falls, or various fpecies of corporal difeipline.
But the moll formidable penance, in the eftimation of
many who have belonged to the Romifii communion,
has been the temporary pains of purgatory. But under
all the penalties which are infiifted or threatened in the
Romifh church, it has provided relief by its indulgences
and by its prayers or maffes for the dead, performed pro-
feffedly for relieving and refeuing the fouls that are de¬
tained in purgatory.
Another article that has been long authoritatively en¬
joined and obferved in the church of Rome, is the celi¬
bacy of her clergy. This was firft enjoined at Rome
by Gregory VII. about the year 1074, and eftablilhed
m
POP [ i3
Popery, in England by Anfelm archbiftiop ofCanterbuiy about
the year H75j though his predeceffor Lanfranc had
impofed it upon the prebendaries and clergy that lived
in towns. And though the council of Trent was re¬
peatedly petitioned by feveral princes and dates to abo-
IHh this reftraint, the obligation of celibacy was rather
eftablidied than relaxed by this council j for they de¬
creed, that marriage contraaed after a vow of _ contin¬
ence, is neither lawful nor valid j and thus deprived the
church of the poflibility of ever reftoring marriage to
the clergy. For if marriage, after a vow, be in itfelt
unlawful, the greateft authority upon earth cannot dil-
penfe with it, nor permit marriage to the clergy, who
have already vowed continence.
To the doarines and praaices above recited may be
farther added the worfliip of images, of which Proteft-
ants accufe the Papifts. But to this accufation the Pa-
Fapijl mif- replies, that he keeps images by him to preferve in
reprefented hig mind ^ memory of theperfons reprefented by them j
and repre-  , tVip. memnrv of their de-
fented.
-ibid.
as people are wont to preferve the memory of their de-
eeafed friends by keeping their piaures. He is taught
Ihe fays) to ufe them fo as to call his.eyes upon the
piaures or images, and thence to raife his heart to t re
things reprefented, and there to employ it in meditation,
love, and thankfgiving, defire of imitation, &c. as the
objea requires. ... .
Thefe piaures or images have this advantage, that
they inform the mind by one glance of what in reading
might require a whole chapter. There being no other
difference between them, than that reading reprefents
leifurely and by degrees-, and a piaure, all at once.
Hence he finds a convenience in faying his prayers with
fome devout piaures before him, he being no looner
diftraaed, but the fight of thefe recals his wandering
thoughts to the right objea-, and as. certainly brings
fomething good into his mind, as an immodelt piaure
difturbs his heart with filthy thoughts. And becauie
be is fenfible that thefe holy piaures and images repre-
fent and bring to his mind fuch objeas as in his heart
he loves, honours, and venerates; he cannot but upon
that account love, honour, and refpea, the images them-
ielves. •
The council of Trent likewife decreed, that.all bifhops
and pallors who have the cure of fouls, do diligently in-
ftrua their flocks, that it is good and profitable, to defire
the inter cefiion of faints reigning with Chrijlm heaven.
And this decree the Papifts endeavour to defend by the
following obfervations. They confefs that we have but
one Mediator of redemption; but affirm that it is ac¬
ceptable to God that we ftiould have many mediators of
interceffion. Mofes (fay they) was fuch a mediator for
the Ifraelites; Job for his three friends; Stephen for his
perfecutors. The Romans were thus defired by St Paul
to be his mediators; fo were the Corinthians, fo the
Ephefians, Ep. ad Rom. Cor. Eph. fo. almoft every fick
man defires the congregation to be his mediators, by re¬
membering him in their prayers. And fo the Pap.ft
defires the bleffed in heaven to be his mediators; that
is that they would pray to God for him. But between
thefe living and dead mediators there is no fimilarity :
the living mediator is prefent, and certainly hears the
requeft of thofe who defire him to intercede for them ;
the dead mediator is as certainly abfent, and cannot poi-
fibly hear the requefts of all thofe who at the fame in-
ftant may be begging him to intercede for them, unleis
2 ] POP
he be poffeffed of the divine attribute of omniprefence ; Popery,
and he who gives that attribute to any creature is un-, op'tam_
queftionably guilty of idolatry. And as this decree is
contrary to one of the firft principles of natural religion,
fo does it receive no countenance from Scripture, or any
Chriftian writer of the three firft centuries. Other prac¬
tices peculiar to the Papifts are the religious honour and
refpeft that they pay to facred relicks; by which they
under ft and not only the bodies and parts of the bodies
of the faints, but any of thofe things that appertained to
them, and which they touched; and the celebration of
divine fervice in an unknown tongue: to whichpurpofe
the council of Trent hath denounced an anathema on
any one who ffiall fay that mafs ought to be celebrated
only in the vulgar tongue; feff. 25. and feff. 22. can. 9.
Though the council of Eateran under Innocent III. in
1215 (can. 9.) had exprefsly decreed, that becaufe in
many parts within the fame city and diocefe. there are
many people of different manners and rites mixed toge¬
ther, but of one faith, the bifhops of fuch. cities or dio-
cefes ftiould provide fit men for celebrating divine of¬
fices, according to the diverfity of tongues and rites, and
for adminiftering the facraments.
We {hall only add, that the church of Rome main¬
tains, that unwritten traditions ought to be added to the
holy Scriptures, in order to fupply their defed, and tt>
be regarded as of equal authority; that the books of the
Apocrypha are canonical fenpture; that the vulgate
edition of the Bible is to be deemed authentic; and that
the Scriptures are to be received and interpreted accord¬
ing to that fenfe which the holy mother church, to whom
it belongs to judge of the true fenfe, hath held, and doth
hold, and according to the unanimous confent of the fa-
theSuch are the principal and diftinguiffiing doarines of
Popery, moft of which have received thefanaion of the
council of Trent, and that of the creed of Pope Pius IV.
which is received, profeffed, and fworn to by every one
who enters into holy orders in the church of Rome; and
at the clofe of this creed, we are told that the faith con¬
tained in it isfo abfolutely and indifpenfably neceffary,
that no man can be faved without it.
Many of the doarines of Popery were relaxed, and
very favourably interpreted by M. de Meaux, biftiop of
Condom, in his Expofition of the DoaHne of the Ca¬
tholic Church, firft printed in the year 1671: but this
edition, which was charged with perverting, in endea¬
vouring to palliate, the doarine of the church, wascen-
fured by the doaors of the Sorbonne, and aaually fup-
preffed; nor does it appear that they ever teftified their •
approbation in the ufual form of fubfequent and. alter¬
ed editions. It has, however, been pubhftied in this
country, by a clergyman of the Romifh church, whole
integrity, "piety, and benevolence, would do honour to
any communion. .
PGPHAM, Sir John, lord chief juftice ot the com¬
mon pleas in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the
eldeft fon of Edward Popham, Efq. of Huntworth m
Somerfetfhire, and born in the year 1531. He was fome
time a ftudent of Baliol college in Oxford; “ being
then (fays Ant. Wood) given at leifure hours to many
{ports and exercifes.” After quitting the umverfity,.he
fixed in the Middle Temple ; where, during his noviti¬
ate he is faid to have indulged in that kind of diiiipa-
tion to which youth and a vigorous conftitution more
-POP [ 183 ] P O R
Popliam naturally incline than to the ftudy of voluminous re-
II . ports: but, fatiated at length with what are called the
emulation. vleafures of the town, he applied feduloufly to the ftudy
> of his profeflion, was called to the bar, and in 1568 be¬
came fummer or autumn reader. He was foon after
made ferjeant at law, and folicitor-general in 1579. In
1581 he was appointed attorney-general, and treafurer
of the Middle Temple. In 1592 he was made lord
chief juftice of the king’s bench, and the fame year re¬
ceived the honour of knighthood. In the year 1601 his
lordfhip was one of the oouncil detained by the unfor¬
tunate earl of Eflex, when he formed the ridiculous pro-
je£t of defending himfelf in his houfe: and, on the earl’s
trial, he gave evidence againft him relative to their de¬
tention. He died in the year 1607, aged 765 and was
buried in the fouth aide of the church at Wellington in
Somerfetihire, where he generally redded as often as it
was in his power to retire. He was thought fomewhat
fevere in the execution of the law againft capital offen¬
ders: but his feverity had the happy effedt of reducing
the number of highway robbers. He wrote, 1. Reports
and cafes adjudged in the time of Queen Elizabeth.
2. Refolutions and judgments upon cafes and matters
agitated in all the courts at Weftminfter in the latter
end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign.
POPLAR. See Populus, Botany Index.
POPLIT-AiiUS, in Anatomy, a fmall mufcle o-
bliquely pyramidal, fituated under the ham. See Ana¬
tomy, Table of the Mufc/es.
POPPY. See Papaver, Botany Index, and O-
nuM, Materia Medica Index.
POPULAR, fomething that relates to the common
people.
POPULATION, means the ftate of a country with
refpedl to the number of people. See Bills of M.OR-
TALITT, and POLITICAL Arithmetic.
The queftion concerning the number of men exifting
upon earth has been varioufly determined by different
writers. Riccioli ftates the population of the globe at
IOOO millions, Voflius at 500 ; the journalifts of Tre-
voux at 720 ; and the editor (Xavier de Feller) of the
fmall Geographical Uidtionary of Vofgien, reprinted
at Paris in 1778* at 370 millions. This laft eftimate is
perhaps too low, although the writer profeffes to have
taken confiderable pains to afcertain the point with as
much accuracy as the nature of the fubjedt will admit.
It may, perhaps, not be deemed unworthy the attention
of the curious fpeculatift to obferve, that affuming the
more probable ftatement of the learned Jefuits of Tre-
voux, and that the world has exifted about 6006 years
in its prefent ftate of population, then the whole number
of perfons who have ever exifted upon earth fince the
days of Adam amounts only to about one hundred and
thirtythoufand millions-, becaufe 720,000,000 X 182(the
number ofgenerationsin6oo6years):r: 131,040,000,000.
See on this fubjedt the authors above mentioned, as like-
wife Beaufobre’s Etude de la Politique.
With regard to the population of England, the rea¬
der may confult, together with our article POLITICAL
Arithmetic, An Inquiry into the prefent State of Popu¬
lation, &c. by W. Wales, F. R. S.; and Mr Hewlett’s
Examination of Dr Price’s Effay on the fame fubjedl.
But for a later account of the population of England,
fee the different counties under their proper names j for
that of Scotland, fee the different counties, and for the Population
general population, fee Scotland. N .
POPULUS, the Poplar, a genus of plants belong- . °rc^ clinj 1
ing to the dicecia clafs j and in the natural method
ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
The poplar, one of the moft beautiful of the aquatic
trees, has frequently been introduced into the poetical
defcriptions of the ancients j as by Virgil, Eel. vii. 66.
ix. 41. Georg, ii. 66. iv. 511. JEn. viii. 31. 276. j by
Ovid, Amom. Parid. 27.j by Horace, Carm. ii. 3. and
by Catullus, Nupt. Phil, et Thet. 290, &c. &c.
POQUELIN, or Pocquelin, John Baptist. See
Moliere.
PORANA, a genus of plants belonging to thepent-
andria clafs. See Botany Index. t
PORCELAIN, in its more general fignification,Nature, ©f
comprehends all kinds of earthen ware, which are white, porcelain,
femitranfparent, and have fome degree of a vitreous tex¬
ture. Hence, in this extenfive meaning of the term, it
includes all kinds of pottery, ftoneware, delft ware,
&c.: but in a more Limited fenfe, the word Porcelain
is employed to denote only the finer kinds of earthen
ware; and becaufe this kind of ware has been, from,
time immemorial, manufactured in the greateft degree
of perfection in China, it has obtained the name of
Chinefe Porcelain, or China Ware. 2
In the Chinefe language, porcelain is denoted by the Derivation
word tfe-ki, fo that the derivation of the term is not to t*le
be fought for in that language j and hence it is luppof-
ed to be of European extraction, and to be derived from
the Portuguefe language-, for in this language the word
porcellana fignifies a cup or veffel. 3
The firft porcelain which was feen in Europe was Porcelain
brought from Japan and China. Its whitenefs, tranf-
parency, finenefs of texture, with its elegance and ^^Vh/na'1
beautiful colours, foon introduced it as an ornament of and after-’
the tables of the rich and powerful, while at the fame wards mad*
time it excited the admiration and induftry of the Eu-^n EuroPe'
ropean manufacturer. Accordingly attempts were made
to imitate this kind of ware, in different countries of Eu¬
rope. Thefe attempts have fucceeded fo well, that the
produce of the manufacture has acquired the name of
Porcelain. The firft European porcelains were made in
Saxony ; the manufacture was afterwards introduced in¬
to France, and fucceflively into England, Germany and
Italy, where it has arrived at various degrees of perfec¬
tion, according to the nature of the materials which can
be obtained, and the induftry and ingenuity of the ar-
tift who fuperintends and direCts it-, but after all, to
whatever degree of perfection the manufacture of this
ware has reached in Europe, it muft ftill yield, in ex¬
cellence and perfection, to the porcelain *of eaftern
countries.
Of the antiquity of the manufacture of porcelain in Antiquity
China, little precife information can be expeCted from a of the thi-
people who have always ftiown themfelves fo extremely manu”
averfe to the freedom of intercourfe with other nations 5 laC^or^
but it is faid that the village or town of King-te-ching
has furniftied the emperors of China with porcelain fince
the year 442 of the Chriftian era, and that it is an ob-
jeCt of fo much attention to the Chinefe government,
that the manufa&ure is carried on under the fuperin-
tendance of one or two mandarins fent from court.
l.
FOR
Porcelain.
Orofier's
general
defc> ipt.
of China.
[
I. HiJlonj of the MamifaBure of Porce/ain in China.
and hiftory
of it.
The fullell account which has yet been received in
Europe of the manufa&ure of Chinefe porcelain, has
been given by Father D’Entrecolles, a Romilh miffion¬
ary, who lived for fome time in the village or town
where the principal manufaftory is eftablilhed. The ac¬
count which is given of this village, and of the manu¬
facture of porcelain, by this author, is the following :
This village or town which is celebrated as producing
the beft porcelain of China, is in the province of Kiang-
fi, and it is faid to be a league and a half in length,
containing not lefs than 1,000,000 of inhabitants.^ Other
manufactories, indeed, have been eftabliftied in different
parts of the Chinefe empire, and particularly in thofe
places which are convenient for the European trade, as
in the provinces of Fo-kien and Canton ^ but the por¬
celain produced at thefe manufactories is faid to be held
in inferior eftimation. A Chinefe emperor wiftiing to
have a manufacture of porcelain under his own infpec-
tion at Pekin, ordered workmen to be colleCted for the
purpofe, with all the neceffary materials and implements ;
but after eroding furnaces and other expenfive opera¬
tions, the attempt failed, fo that King-te-tching, in the
time of our author, continued to be the moft celebrated
place in China for beautiful porcelain, and from this it
was tranfported to all parts of the world.
The chief ingredients which enter into the compofition
employed in 0f fine porcelain are petuntfe and kaolin, two kinds of
its compofi-eart]1 from the mixture of which the pafte is obtained,
tion. petuntfe is 0f a pure white, and, when fully pre¬
pared, is in the form of an impalpable powder, fo that it
is very fine to the touch. The kaolin, he obferves, is
intermixed with fmall (hining particles. Thefe materi¬
als are carried to the manufactory in the ffiape of bricks.
The petuntfe is originally the fragments of rock dug out
from certain quarries, and reduced to powder, and the
colour of the ftone which anfwers the purpofe beft, ac¬
cording to the Chinefe, inclines foineuhat to green.
The fragments of rock are broken to pieces with a large
iron club •, they are then put into mortars, and by means
of levers headed with hard ftone, ftrongly fecured with
Preparation iron, they are reduced to the ftate of fine powder. The
6
Materials
r reparation 1 ,.
tf petuntfe, levers, it is fcarcely neceffary to obferve, are moved ei¬
ther by the labour of men, or by water. The powder,
which is afterwards colleCled, is thrown into a large
veffel of water, which is ftrongly agitated with an iron
{hovel. When this mixture has been allowed to fettle
for fome time, a fubftance refembling cream rifes to the
top, which is Ikimmed off, and poured into another vef¬
fel alfo filled with water. The water in the firft veffel
is again agitated, and the frothy fubftance which nfes
to the furface is colleded as before, and the fame ope¬
ra! ion is repeated till it appear that nothing remains but
a coarfe fediment which falls to the bottom by its own
weight. This fediment is carefully colleded, and again
fubjeded to the procefs of pulverization.
The ffuid in the fecond veffel is allowed to remain at
reft till a fediment is produced, forming a kind of cruft
at the bottom •, and when the water above feems to be
quite tranfnarent, it is poured off by gently inclining
the veffel, that the fediment may not be difturbed. 1 he
pafte is then put into large moulds, and allowed to dry
{lowly } but before it becomes quite hard, it is divided
184 ] FO R
into fmall fquare cakes, which are fold by the hundred. Porcelain.
This is the fubftance which is called by the Chinefev
tuntfe, and the name is faid to be.derived from the colour
and form of this paflo. < 8
The kaolin, the other fubftance which is employed in and of
the fabrication of porcelain, requires fewer operations in kaolin,
its preparation than the former, as it is found in nature
in a ftate almoft ready for the manufacturer. Of this
fubftance it is laid, that there are exteniive mines in
certain mountains 5 the external ftrata of which are
compofed of a kind of red earth. The kaolin is found
in thefe mines in fmall lumps, and it is formed into
bricks by being fubjeCted to a fimilar procefs with the
petuntfe, &c. < , «
The fine porcelain, it has been obferved, derives itsNatur4ef
fabric and texture from the kaolin. It is to this that the the finer
qualities ■ .ch it poffeff s of refifting the moil power-porcelain,
ful agents is owing } and it has been remarked as an
extraordinary cireumdance, that a foft earth fhould
communicate ftrength and conuftency to the petuntfe,
which is obtained from fome of the. hardeft rocks. The
author ielates an anecdote which he received from a
rich Cimieie merchant, that the Englifh and Dutch,
having purchafcd a quantity of pelumfe, conveyed it to
Europe for the purpofe of manufacturing porcelain j but
having procured none of the kaolin, the attempt failed.
They wanted, added the Chinefe with a fmile, to form
a body, the flefh of which would fupport itfelf without
bones. 10
It is faid that the Chinefe have difeovered of late Subftitut*
years a new fubftance which may be employed in thefor kaolin,
compofition of porcelain. This ftone is called hoa-che,
the firft part of the word fignifies glutinous, becaufe it
is of a faponaceous quality. Porcelain made with this
fubftance is very rare, and bears a much higher price
than any other. The grain is extremely fine, and the
painting with which it is ornamented, when compared
with that of common porcelain, feems to exceed it as
much as vellum furpaffes paper. This variety of porce¬
lain, it is added, is alfo remarkable for its lightnefs. It
is befides much more brittle, and it is found difficult to
hit upon the proper degree of heat for tempering it.
This fubftance, we are farther informed, is but rarely
employed in the fabrication of the body of the porce.
lain 5 the reafon of this perhaps is, the fcarcity and high
price of this precious article, in confequence of which
the workman is contented with making it into ^ a fine
fize, into which the veffel is immerfed when it is dry,
that it may receive a coat before it is painted and
glazed 5 and by this procefs he finds that he can com¬
municate to the ware a high degree of beauty. The
previous proceffes in the preparation of this fubftance
are fimilar to thofe which are followed in the prepara¬
tion of kaolin. When hoa-ehe is dug out from the
mine, it is vvaffied in rain or river water, for the purpofe
of feparating a yellowifti earth with which it is con¬
taminated. It is then reduced to powder, thrown into
a veffel filled with water, and then formed into cakes.
The hoa-che prepared in this manner, without the ad¬
dition of any other earth, is faid to be alone fufficient
in the fabrication of porcelain. It is employed, as has
been already noticed, as a fubftitute for kaolin ; but, on
account of its fcarcity, is much dearer. The price, of
the former is three times that of the latter, and from
this circumftance the value of porcelain made with hoa-
P O R [i
Porcelain, clik Is much higher than that which is manufactured
^ with kaolin.
Material Pr*nc’Pa^ ingredients in the fabrication of porce-
for glazing l3"1 are petuntfe and kaolin ; but to thefe muft be added
porcelain, the glaze or varnifh, or, as it is called in the account
given of Chinefe porcelain, the oil, on which depend its
fplendour and whitenefs. This varnifh is of a whitifh
colour, and is obtained from the fame kind of ftone
which yields the petuntfe •, but for this purpofe the
whiteft ftone is always preferred. The glaze is ob¬
tained by a procefs fimilar to that which is followed in
the preparation of petuntfe. This ftone is firft wafhed and
reduced to powder *, it is then thrown into a veflel with
water, and after being purified, a frothy matter rifes to
the furface. To 100 pounds of this matter, one pound
of a fubftance called che-kao, is added. This latter
is a faline fubftance, fomewhat like alum, which is put
into the fire, and allowed to remain till it become red
hot, when it is reduced to powder. By the addition of
this fubftance the glaze acquires a greater degree of
confiftence, but at the fame time a proper degree
of fluidity muft be preferved. The glaze prepar¬
ed in this manner is not employed alone. Another
glaze is mixed with it, which is obtained from lime
and allies; to 100 pounds weight of which is alfo added
one pound of che-kao, or the aluminous fubftance men¬
tioned above. When the two fubftances are mixed, it is
neeeffary to attend that they be nearly of the fame con-
fiftence, and the workman afcertains this point by dip¬
ping into each of them fome cakes of petuntfe j and by
a clofe examination of their furfaces after they are
drawn out, he is able to judge of the confiftence of the
fluids. The proportions of the two which are ufually
employed, are 10 parts of the glaze obtained from the
ftone, to one of that which is prepared from the lime
and from afhes.
In the manufacture of the Chinefe porcelain, the
firft procefs after the feparate preparation of the mate¬
rials, is a fecond purification of the petuntfe and kao¬
lin •, and when they are found to be in a ftate of fuffi-
u cient purity, the workmen proceed to mix the two in-
Proportion gi'edients together. The proportions employed for the
and mix- finer kinds of porcelain are equal parts of kaolin and
ture of the petuntfe 5 for an inferior kind, four parts of kaolin to
.ngredients. petuntfe are employed ; and in fome kinds of por¬
celain, only one part of the former is added to three of the
latter. This is the fmalleft proportion of kaolin which
is employed in the Chinefe manufactories. When the
proportions are fixed, and the mixture finiftied, the mafs
is thrown into a large pit, which is well paved and ce¬
mented. It is then trodden upon, and kneaded till it
become hard. This is the moft fatiguing part of the
labour, for it muft be continued without intermiflion.
From the mafs prepared in this manner the workmen
detach different pieces, which they fpread out upon large
flates, where they knead and roll them in all directions,
taking care that no vacuum be left, and that there be
no mixture of any foreign body. The whole work
would be entirely fpoiled by the addition of a hair, or a
particle of fand. When the parte has been properly
prepared, the porcelain, when expofed to heat in the
furnace, retains its form without becoming foft, or en¬
tering into fufion, and becomes femitranfparent, with¬
out exhibiting cracks or fuperficial fiffures j but when
there is any defeCt in the mixture or preparation, the
Vol. XVII. Part I.
85 ] P O Pv
porcelain cracks, and becomes warped, or melts in the Porcelain,
furnace.
The pafte being thus prepared, the next operation is yiethoil of
to form the veffels for which it is defigned. All kindsforming
of plain ware are formed with the wheel. When a cup,porcelain
for inftance, has undergone this operation, the outfideware*
of the bottom is quite round. The workman firft gives
it the requifite height and diameter, and it comes from
his hands almoft the moment he has received it. Great
dexterity and expedition are abfolutely neceffary, on ac¬
count of the low price of labour in thefe manufactories.
A workman, it is faid, fcarcely receives a farthing per
board, each board containing no lefs than 26 pieces.
The cup then paffes to a fecond workman, by whom
the bafe is formed ; it is then delivered to a third, who
applies it to the mould, and gives it the proper form.
When it is taken off the mould, it muft be turned care¬
fully, and not preffed more to one fide than the other;
for without this neceffary precaution it would become
wrarped or disfigured. The bufinefs of the fourth work¬
man is to polifli it with the chifel, efpecially round the
edges, and diminifh the thicknefs, to give it the proper
degree of tranfparency. Having at length paffed through,
the different hands from whom it receives its form and
various ornaments, it then comes to the laft workman,
who forms the bottom with a chifel. It is wonderful,
it is faid, to fee with how much dexterity and expedi¬
tion the workmen convey the veffels from one to an¬
other ; and it is added, that a fingle piece of porcelain,
before it is completely finiflied, muft pafs through the
hands of no fewer than 70 different workmen. It is
indeed, we may obferve, to this minute divifion of la¬
bour that its low price is owing; and on the fame circum-
ftance the remarkable dexterity and expedition which
have been noticed, depend.
In the execution of large works of porcelain, different Of large
parts are firft formed individually; and when all the pieces works,
are finilhed, and nearly dry, they are put together and
cemented with a pafte formed of the fame fubftance, and
foftened with water. Some time after, the feams are po-
lifhed with a knife on both fides of the veffel,fo that when
it is covered with a varnifh, or glazed, they are fo com¬
pletely concealed, that the leaft trace of them is not per¬
ceptible. It is in this way that fpouts, handles, rings, and
other parts of a fimilar nature, are united. In this way
particularly are fabricated thofe pieces which are formed
upon moulds, or by the hand, fuch as emboffed works,
grotefque images, idols, figures of trees or animals, and
hurts. All thefe are formed of four or five pieces joined
together, which are afterwards brought to perfection by
means of inftruments proper for carving, polifhing, and
finifhing the different traces which the mould has left
imperfect. Flowers and ornaments which are not in re¬
lief, are either engraved, or the impreflxon is made by
means of a ftamp ; but ornaments in relief are prepared
fepavately, and added to the pieces of porcelain to which
they are deftined.
The piece of porcelain being prepared according to Painting,
the operations now deferibed, is next conveyed to the
painter : and in this art it is obferved that the Chi¬
nefe workmen follow no certain rule, and feem to be
unacquainted with any of the principles of perfpeflive.
Their knowledge is the effedrt of practice, guided often
by a whimfical imagination. The labour of painting
porcelain in the Chinefe manufaiftories is alfo divided
A 3 among
Fwne'ain. •
16
Veined por
celain and
fret-'.eork.
*1
Singular
kind of
porcelain.
iS
fdiinefe
furnaces.
P O R t 1
among a great number of hands. 1 he bufinefs of one
man, for inilance, is folely limited to tracing out the
firft coloured circle with which the brim of the veffel is
adorned j another defigns the flowers, and a third paints
them. One delineates waters and mountains, while it
is the province of another to draw and paint birds and
other animals. Of the painting on Chinefe porcelain,
it has been obferved, that the human figure is often moft
indifferently executed. _
. A peculiar kind of glaze or varnifli, we are informed,
is obtained from white flint. This glaze, it is laid, has
the lingular property of making the pieces of porcelain
to which it is applied exhibit the appearance of veins
diftributed in all dire&ions. Veffels glazed with this
material feem as if the furface were cracked, without the
fragments being feparated or difplaced. The colour of
this glaze is whitilh gray } and when it is applied to
porcelain having an azure blue ground, it communi¬
cates a beautifully variegated appearance. V ales ot Chi¬
nefe porcelain are fometimes fabricated in a different
manner. They are ornamented with a kind of fret¬
work, which has fomething of the appearance of fine
lace, in the middle of which is placed a cup proper for
holding any liquid j which conftitutes one body with the
fur rounding fret-work. r
We are informed that the Chinefe workmen formerly
poffeffed the fecret of fabricating a kind of porcelain of
a more Angular nature. On the fides of the veffel thus
formed were painted the figures of fifties, mfeas, end
other animals, which could not be feen unlefs the veffel
was filled with water. It is faid that this fecret is in a
great meafure loft j but the following is given as part of
the procefs of preparing this kind of porcelain. 1 he
veffel which is to be painted, for the purpofe of produ-
cino- this peculiar effeft, mull be extremely thin and de-
licate. When it is dry, the colour is laid on, not on
the outfide, however, as is ufually the cafe, but on
the infide of the veffel, and it is laid on pretty thick.
The figures which are painted upon it are ufually fifties,
as being more charaaeriflic of the element in which
they live. When the colour is perfedly dry, it is coated
over with a kind of glaze, compofed of porcelain earth,
fo that the azure is thus inclofed between twro layers ot
earthy matter ; and when the glaze becomes dry, the
workman pours feme oil into the veffel, and putting it
upon a mould, applies it to the lathe. _ Porcelain fabri¬
cated in this manner, having received its confiltence and
body within, it is the objea of the workmen to make it
as thin as poflible on the outfide, without penetrating to
the colour. The ex mal furface. is then dipped into a
mixture for glazing, and when it is dry it is baked in a
common furnace. This kind of porcelain is known by
the name of kia-tftng, fignifying preffed azure. It is
fuppofed that the Chinefe do not at prefent poffels the
art of making porcelain of this defcnption, which re-
,mires a great deal of dexterity and delicate manage¬
ment ; and it is added, that they have imperfeflly fuc-
eeeded in the attempts which have been occahonally
made to difeover the fecret of this curious procefs. . .
The next procefs iq the manufa&ure of porcelain is
baking; but before we deferibe the method of arranging
and managing the furnaces employed for this purpofe, we
{ball give a fliort account of their .conftruchon. I be
Chinefe furnaces for baking porcelain are furnilhed with
a long porch, for the purpofe of conveying air, and m
86 ] FOR
fome meafure as a fubftitute for bellows. This porch Porcelain,
anfwers the fame purpofes as the arch of a glafs-houfe j w v J
but the furnaces which, as the author from whom the
account is taken obferves, were formerly only fix feet in
height, and the fame in length, are now conftrufted
upon a much more extenfive plan. They are 12 feet
high, and nearly four broad ; and the roof and fides are
fo thick, that the powerful heat which is applied inter¬
nally does not penetrate to the outfide, at leail lo much,
as to be inconvenient to bear it on the application ot the
hand. The dome or roof is in the form of an inverted
funnel, having a large aperture at the top by which the
fmoke cfcapes. Befide the principal aperture, there are
five others of fmaller dimenfions, which are covered with
broken pots in fuch a manner that the workman can in-
creafe or diminifti the heat as. he finds it neceffary.
Through thefe apertures alfo he is able to fee the. pro-
grefs of the baking of the porcelain, and can judge
when it is completed. By uncovering the hole which is
neareft the principal opening, he opens with a pair of
pincers one of the cafes containing the pieces of porce¬
lain, and if he perceives a bright fire in the furnace, and
all the pieces brought to a red heat, as well as the co¬
lours of the porcelain appearing with a full luftre, he
concludes that the procefs is finilhed. He then dimi-
nifties the fire, and entirely (huts up the mouth of the
furnace for fome time. In the bottom of the furnace
there is a deep hearth about two feet in breadtn, oiei
which a plank is laid, in order that the workman may
enter to arrange the porcelain. When the fire is kin¬
dled on the hearth, the mouth of the furnace is imme¬
diately clofed up, and an aperture is left only fufficient
for the admiffion of faggots, about a foot in length, but
very narrow. The furnace is firft heated for a day and
a night, after which two men keep continually throwing
wood into it, and relieve each other by turns. One
hundred and eighty loads are con famed for one baking.
As the porcelain is burning hot, the workman employs
for the purpofe of taking it out, long fcarfs or pieces oi
cloth, which are fufpended from his neck. I$
Having thus given a concife account of the con-^et},0(j 0f
ftru&ion of the Chinefe furnaces, we proceed now to baking por-
lay before our readers the method of baking porcelain celaiu.
which is followed in that country. After the porcelain
has received its proper form, its colours, and all the m<-
tended ornaments, it is tranfported from the manufac-
tory to the furnace, which is fometimes fituated at the
other end of the village already mentioned. In a kind
of portico, which is erefted before it, may be feen vaft
numbers of boxes and cafes made of earth, for the pur*
pofe of inclofitig the porcelain. Each piece, however
inconfiderable it may be, has its own cafe 5 and.the Chi¬
nefe workman, bv means of this procedure, imitates na¬
ture, which, in order to bring the fruits of the earth to
maturity, clothes them in a covering, to defend them
from the exceflive heat of the fun during the day, and
from the feverity of the cold during the night.
A layer of fine fand is put kto the bottom of thefe
boxes, which is covered over with the powder of kaolin,
to prevent the fand from adhering too clofely to the bot¬
tom of the veffel. The piece of porcelain is then pla¬
ced upon this bed of fand, and preffed gently down, m
order that the fand may take the form of the bottom of
the veffel, which does not touch the fides of its cafe :
the cafe has no cover. A fecond, prepared in the fame
manners,.*
p o ft f; 187 j p o r
P'-relain. manner, and containing its veffel, is fitted into the firft,
W—^'■■■1 ^ r0 tl)at it entirely (huts it, without touching the porce¬
lain which is below; and thus the furnace is filled up
with piles of cafes, which defend the pieces they con¬
tain from the direfl aftion of the fire.
With regard to fmall pieces of porcelain, fuch as
tea-cups, they are inclofed in common cafes about four
Inches in height. Each piece is placed upon a faucer
of earth about twice as thick as a crown-piece, and equal
in breadth to its bottom. Thefe fmall cafes are alfo
fprinkled over with the dull of the kaolin. When the
cafes are large, the porcelain is not placed in the middle,
becaufe it would be too far removed from the fides, and
confequently from the adtion of the fire.
Thefe piles of cafes are put into the furnace, and pla¬
ced upon a bed of coarfe fand fix inches thick ; thofe
by which the middle fpace is occupied are at leaf! feven
feet high. The two boxes which are at the bottom of
each pile remain empty, becaufe the fire acls too feebly
upon them, and becaufe they are partly covered by the
fand. For the fame reafon, the cafe which is placed at
the top of each pile is alfo allowed to remain empty.
The piles containing the fineft porcelain are placed in
the middle part of the furnace ; the coarfeft are put at
its fartheft extremity ; and thofe pieces which have the
tnoft body and ftrongeft colouring are near its mouth.
Thefe different piles are placed very clofely in the
furnace ; they materially fupport each other by pieces
of earth, which bind them at the top, bottom, and
middle, but in fuch a manner, that a free paffage is
left for the flame to infinuate itfelf everywhere around
so the^‘ .... , . : . ,
1 Different The Chinefe divide their porcelain into feveral kinds
kinds of or clalfes, diftinguifhing each according to the different
porcelain. degrees Qf beauty and finenefs. The whole of the firft
or moft perfect kind is referved for the emperor ; none
of it; we are alfured, evef comes into the hands of the
public, unlefs, on account of blemifhes or imperfettions,
it is unworthy of being prefented to the fovereign.
Many have doubted whether at any time the largeft and
fineft porcelain of China has ever been brought to Eu¬
rope. None of that kind, at leaft, is offered to fale at
Canton. The Chinefe, AVho are apt to undervalue the
produdlions of other countries, entertain a favourable
opinion of the Drefden porcelain, and hold in ftill high¬
er eftimation the porcelain which is produced in the
sx French manufactories.
Sir George The following is a fhort account of the Chinefe por-
Staunton’s celain manufactures by Sir George Staunton. “ From
themamf t^ie rivers” ^ays ^e» “ were feen feveral excavations made
fadure of in extracting from the fides of the adjoining hills, the
porcelain petuntfe, ufeful in the manufacture of porcelain. This
Jn China, material is a fpecies of fine granite, or compound of
quartz, feldfpar, and mica, in which the quartz feems
to bear the largeft proportion. It appears from feveral
experiments, that it is the fame as the growan ftone of
the Cornifh miners. The micaceous part, in fome of
this granite from both countries, often contains fome
particles of iron, in which cafe it will not anfwer the
potter’s purpofe. This material can be calcined and
ground much finer by the improved mills of England,
than by the very imperfeCt machinery of the Chinefe,
and at a cheaper rate than the prepared petuntfe of
their own country, notwithftanding the cheapnefs of la¬
bour there*
“ The kaolin, or principal matter mixed with the pe- Porcelain.
tunlfe, is the growan clay alio of the Cornifti miners.
The wha-lhe of the Chinefe is the Englilh foap-rock ;
and the ihe-kan is alferted to be gyplum. It was relat¬
ed by a Chinefe manufacturer in that article, that the
afbeitos, or incombuftible foftil ftone, entered alfo into
the compofition of porcelain. A village, or unwalled
town, called Kin-te-chin, was not very far diftant from
this part of the prefent traveller’s route, in which 3000
furnaces for baking porcelain were faid to be lighted
at a time, and gave to the place at night the appearance
of a town on fire. The genius or fpirit of that element,
is indeed, with fome propriety, the principal deity wor-
fhipped there. The manufaCiure of porcelain is faid to
be precarious, from the want of fome precife method ot
afcertaining and regulating the heat within the furnaces,
in confequence of which their whole contents are baked
fometimes into one folid and ufelefs mafs. Mr Wedg¬
wood’s thermometer, founded on the quality obfervcd
by him, of clay contracting in proportion to the degree
of fire to which it is expofed, might certainly be of ufe
to a Chinefe potter
tQ China,
2. Inquiries of Reaumur into the Nature of Porcelain. "
The firft fcientific inveftigation which was made into
the nature of porcelain, was undertaken by the celebra¬
ted Reaumur; and the refult of his refearches was com¬
municated to the French Academy of Sciences in the 2*.
years 1727 and 1729. It was not the external form or Compoxi-
appearance, nor was it the decorations of painting and t*nri.°^ Por~
gildi,ng, which are by no means effential to porcelain,
that conftituted the obje<ft of his inquiries. His exami¬
nation was particularly dire£led to the peculiar texture
and fabric of this fubftance, with the view of afcer¬
taining the nature and proportions of its conftituent
parts. For this purpofe, he broke to pieces fome of the
Japanefe, the Saxon, and the French porcelains, and
carefully noted the peculiarities and differences in their
texture. The grain or texture of the Japanefe porcelain
appeared to poffefs a confiderable degree of clofenefs and
compaftnefs, with a fmooth and fomewhat ftiining af-
peft. He found that the Saxon porcelain was ftill more
compaft, and that it was fmooth, and fhining like ena¬
mel, but had nothing of the granular texture. In his
examination of the French porcelain, he obferved that
it had not much of a ftiining appearance, and that its
grain was riot fo clofe and fine as that of the oriental
porcelain, having fome refemblance to the grain or tex¬
ture of fugar. Such were the obfervations which occur*
red to the French philofopher at the commencement of
his inquiries into the nature of porcelains, and hence he
juftly concluded, that they were chara&erifed by very
marked differences.
Proceeding in his inveftigation, the fame philofopher EfTeds of
fubje&ed different porcelains to the aftion of heat; and heat on
the refult of his experiments with this powerful agentPorce^n*
proved, that they might be diftinguiftied by ftill more
decifive chara&ers ; for it appeared that the porcelain of
the eaft fuffered no change from the action of the
greateft heat, whereas that of European manufafture
underwent fufion at no vety high temperature. This
remarkable difference between the Chinefe .and Euro¬
pean porcelains, fuggefted to Reaumur an ingenious
thought, which at laft led him to the difcovery of the
A a g true
infufible
matter.
P O Pt
Porcelain, true nature of the compofition of porcelain.
ferved that all porcelains have fome refemblance to glafs
in fome of their general properties, although they are
lefs compaft, he confidered them as in the llate of a fe-
xnivitrified fubftance. An earthy fubftance, he obfer-
ved, may be in a femivitrified Hate in two ways. It
may, in the firft place, be entirely compofed of vitrifi-
able or fufible matters •, and this being the cafe, when
it is expofed to the adtion of fire, provided the heat be
fufficiently ftrong and long continued, it will be melted
or vitrified. But as this change is noteffe&ed inilantly,
particularly where a violent degree of heat is not ap¬
plied ; and as it paffes through different degrees, the
progrefs of which may be more eafily obferved, accord¬
ing as the heat is managed and regulated ; it followed,
that by flopping in proper time the application of the
heat to porcelain prepared in this way, the ware may
be obtained in an intermediate date between thofe of
crude earths and completely vitrified fubftances, while,
at the fame time, it poffeffes the femitranfparency and
other diftinguifhing properties of porcelain. Porcelain
of this nature, it is well known, being expofed to a
ffronger degree of heat, undergoes perfedl fufion and
complete vitrification. All the European porcelains
which were fubjedled to experiment by Reaumur, were
found to be of this fufible nature.
Porcelain But, on the other hand, porcelain may be compofed
eompofed of of fufible or verifiable matter, mixed in certain propor-
fufiblc and tjons w’lth another matter, which is abfolutely infufible
in the ftrongeft heat to which it can be expofed in the
furnace ; and hence, if a mixture of this kind be fub-
jefted to a heat fufficient to melt entirely the vitrifiable
part of its compofition, this will enter into fufion •, but
being mixed with another matter which is infufible, and
which confequently retains its confiftency and opacity,
the whole will form a compound, partly opaque, and
partly tranfparent, or, in other words, a femitranfparent
mafs ; that is, a femivitrified fubftance, or porcelain,
but poffcfling qualities totally diftinft from thofe of the
former. For as the fufible part of the latter has been
brought to its utmoft degree of fufibility during the pro-
cefs of baking, although the compound may be expofed
a fecond time to a ftill ftronger degree of heat, it will
not approach nearer to complete vitrification, that is, it
will retain all the qualities of perfeft porcelain. Reau¬
mur found that the porcelain of the eaft was diftinguiftr-
ed by the properties now defcribed and hence he con¬
cluded, that its component parts were arranged on the
principle above alluded to. This opinion was afterwards
confirmed by the moft incontrovertible fafts, deduced
from a train of the moft fatisfa£lory and well diredted
experiments.
The ingredients which enter into the compofition of
the Chinefe porcelain, namely, the p^untfe and kaolin,
were the next objeft of Reaumur’s inquiries. Having
obtained quantities of each, he fubje&ed them feparate-
3y to a ftrong heat, and he found that the petuntfe en¬
tered into fufion, without addition but it appeared
that the kaolin was abfolutely infufible. He then mix¬
ed the two ingredients, formed them into cakes, and
expofed them in a furnace to the proper degree of heat j
fo that by baking they were converted into porcelain
exaftly fimilar to that of the Chinefe. From thefe ex¬
periments it appeared, that the petuntfe of the Chinefe
was a vitrifiable fubftance, and that the kaolin was of a
25 .
The kaolin
'infufible,
the pe¬
tuntfe a
vitrifiable
matter.
[ 188 ] P O R
Having ob- different nature, quite refradtory, and totally infufible. Porcelain.
After this difcovery Reaumur, it would feem, entertain-
ed hopes that he might find materials in France, capable
of making porcelain, poffefling the fame valuable quali¬
ties as that of China j but whether his refearches in the
difcovery of proper materials in his own country, par¬
ticularly that which correfponds to the petuntfe of the-
Chinefe, or whether he was prevented by other avoca¬
tions from profecuting his inquiries, it does not appear.
But in his fecond memoir upon porcelain, we find, that
he afterwards attempted to compofe an artificial pe¬
tuntfe, by mixing vitrifiable ftones with fuch faline bo¬
dies as were capable of rendering them fufible, or even
by fubftituting for this artificial preparation glafs ready
formed, with the addition of fuch matters as he fuppofed
might be fuccefsfully employed in the place of kaolin j.
but it would appear that he did not at the time profe-
cute his inquiries, for the fubjeft was not refumed till
the year 1739, when he announced the difcovery of a
procefs for converting common glafs to a peculiar kind
of porcelain, which has been fince known by the name
of Reaumur'1 s porcelain. 2(-
Although it muft appear, from the detail now given, ^
that Reaumur was direfted in his refearches by the true Reaumur
fpirit of philofophical inquiry, he feems to have been
mified in certain points. One of his errors was relative
to the Saxon porcelain, which he confounded with the
other fufible porcelains of European manufacture, unlefs
it be fuppofed that the porcelain of Saxony was formerly
compofed of entirely fufible or vitrifiable matters, and
that it was porcelain of this defeription which he exa¬
mined 5 for it is now certain, that all the porcelain of
that country is capable of refitting the moft powerful
heat, and is therefore equally infufible with that of
China or Japan. The appearance of the internal tex¬
ture of the Saxon porcelain may have led the philofo-
pher to this erroneous cenclufion ; for when it is bro¬
ken, the internal furface does not exhibit a granular
texture, but is uniform, fmooth, tliining, and compaCt,
having much refemblance to white enamel. This ap¬
pearance, however, fo far from proving that the porce¬
lain of Saxony is a fufed or vitrified fubftance, thews,
that it is not entirely compofed of fufible matters. The
internal furface of the moft fuffble porcelains, it is well
known to thofe who are acquainted with the fubjeCI, is
alfo the leaft denfe, and the leaft compaft ; for no vi- ^
treous matter can be internally fmooth and denfe, with- relative to
out having been in a ftate of complete fufion. But ifthe Saxon
the denfity and fhining appearance of the porcelain ofporcelaln»
Saxony depended only on the effeCls of the fufion of a
vitreous matter, how is it to be fuppofed, that veffels
formed of that fufible matter fhould have fuftained the
neeeffary degree of heat for producing the denfity and
ftiining appearance, without having entirely loft their
{Rape ?
This peculiar quality of the Saxon porcelain, it is in¬
ferred, muft then depend on another caufe. Like every
other porcelain, efpecially that of China and Japan, it
contains a fufible fubftance, which has been in a ftate
of complete fufion during the procefs of baking. The
denfity and the internal luftre depend chiefly on this
fufed matter 5 but it is alfo certain, that the Saxon por¬
celain contains a large proportion of a fubftance which
is abfolutely infufible, and from which it derives its
beautiful white appearance, its firmnefs and folidity,
during
P O It [
jforcelairt. during the procefs of baking. It is this infufible fub-
.—y—1 ftance which is to be confidered as the fubftitute for the
kaolin of China, and which poffefles the property of con-
fiderably contra&ing its dimenfions, while it unites with
the fufible material. According to the obfervation of
Macquer, if it be fubjefted to the moft decifive trial,
namely, the aftion of a violent fire, which is capable of
melting every porcelain compofed only of fufible mate¬
rials, it appears as the refult of numerous experiments,
that it remains infufible, unlefs it be expofed to a heat
which is alfb capable of melting the belt and moft per¬
fect porcelain of Japan. The Saxon porcelain, there¬
fore, is not to be confounded with porcelain manufac¬
tured of vitreous and fufible materials *, for it feems to
be equally excellent as that of Japan, and in fome of its
properties perhaps fuperior, as will appear from an ex¬
amination of the qualities which conftiiule the peculiar
£ excellence of porcelain.
mk! with Reaumur feems alfo to have taken an erroneous view
regard to of the nature of the Chinefe kaolin. According to his
the Chinefe account, this matter is a fine talky powder, from the
taolin. mixture of which with petuntfe, the porcelain of the
eaft is manufactured. It is not impofiible, it has been
obferved, that a porcelain fimilar to the Chinefe might
be produced from a talky fubftance of this nature mixed
with petuntfe •, but it is wTell known to thofe who are at
all familiar with the manufacture of any porcelain, that
no veffels can be formed, unlefs the pafte of which they
are made poffefs that degree of duCHlity and tenacity
which renders them fit for being worked upon the lathe,
or faftiioned in the mould. But fubftances of a talky
nature, to whatever degree of finenefs they may be re¬
duced, never acquire the requifite duClility and tenacity
which clays of all earthy fubftances only poffefs. But
as it appears that the Chinefe porcelain has been turned
upon the lathe, it is obvious that they muft have been
formed of a very tenacious pafte ; and hence it is con¬
cluded, that kaolin is not purely a talky matter, but
mixed with clay, otherwife the petuntfe and kaolin, ac¬
cording to the fuppofition of Reaumur, are not the only
ingredients which enter into the compofition of Chinefe
porcelain ; but the addition of a certain proportion of
fome matter of a tenacious quality is abfolutely requi¬
fite.
3. Peculiar Properties of Porcelain.
It may be worth while now to confider the properties
which eonftitute the perfeftion of porcelain ; and here
it is neceffary, carefully to difcriminate between the
29 qualities which are to be regarded as only contributing
Effential to the external decoration, and the intrinfic and e«Tential
qualities of properties in which the fabric and perfection of porce-
wrcelam. jajn confjftt Thofe who have been occupied in experi¬
ments on this fubjeft, have not found it difficult to form
compofitions which are very white, beautifully femi-
tranfparent, and covered with a fliining glazing j but
which are extremely deficient in the more effential pro¬
perties, as it appears they cannot be fubjefted to the ne¬
ceffary operations for want of a proper degree of tena¬
city *, are not fufficiently compadl 5 are quite fufible,
fubjeft to break by the fuddcn application of heat or
cold, and from the foftnefs of the glazing, which cracks
and becomes rough, are foon deprived of their luftre.
On the other hand, it is by na means difficult to form
5
189 ] 1? O R
compofitions of paftes, which are very tenacious, and Porcela.hu
which are capable of being eafily worked and well “nr"*-'
baked, and in the procefs of baking, which acquire the
requifite degree of hardnefs and denfity j which are in¬
fufible, and capable of refilling the effedts of fudden
changes of heat and cold, and, in fhort, which poffefs
all the qualities of the moft excellent porcelain, except¬
ing its whitenefs and beauty. Materials fit for the com¬
pofition of fuch porcelains, it will appear, may be found
abundantly in moft countries j but the difficulty in the
manufadlure of this ware is to unite beauty and good-
nefs in one compofition. The materials fit for the ma¬
nufadlure of the finer and more perfedl porcelains, feem
to be fparing produdlions of nature 5 and therefore the
bell kind of porcelain, it is prefumed, will always be re¬
garded as a valuable and high-priced commodity. ,0
It may be obferved, that the potteries called Nature of
ware, poffefs all the effential qualities of the JapanefeHoneware.’-
porcelain 5 for, excepting the wliitenefs^ on which alone
the femitranfparency depends, if we compare the pro¬
perties of Japanefe porcelain with thofe of our ilone-
ware, little difference is found to exift between them.
Both feem to poffefs the fame granular texture; both
have the fame fonorous quality, when (truck with a
hard body ; both have the fame denfity j they poffefs
alfo the fame hardnefs, by which they ftrike fire with
fteel 5 they can refill the eftedts of the heat of boiling
liquors without breaking, and are equally infufible
when fubjedted to violent heat. Hence it is inferred,
that if the earth which enters into the compofition of
ftoneware, were free from foreign colouring matters,
which prevent the whitenefs and femitranfparency, and
if the veffels were carefully formed and coloured with a
fine glaze, they would not be lefs perfedl than the por¬
celain of the eaft.. Earths fit for the produdlion of the
more perfedl kinds of porcelain, are fuppofed to be more
rare in Europe than in Japan and China y and hence
probably it has happened, that, from the want of thefe
earths, the firft manufadlurers of the porcelain in Eu¬
rope confined themfelves to an external imitation, by
employing only vitrifiable matters with fufible falls, and
a fmall quantity of white earth, from which fufible and
vitreous porcelains were compofed. Such might not
improperly be denominated falfeporcelains; but great
improvements have taken place fince the firft introduc¬
tion of the manufadlure of porcelain into Europe. Ge¬
nuine white porcelains have been long ago produced in
Germany, and efpecially in Saxony. Thefe porcelains
are in no refpedl inferior to thofe of China or Japan.
They are found even to be confiderably fuperior in
beauty and whitenefs'to the produdUons of the eaft cm
manufadlories of modern times -, for in thefe qualities
the porcelains of the latter have greatly degenerated.
And in one of the moft valuable qualities of porcelain,
namely, the property of refilling the effedls of fudden
changes of heat and cold, the European porcelain ex¬
ceeds that of China or Japan. The quality of porce¬
lain, it is to be obferved, is not to be judged of by a
flight trial ; for as numerous circum(lances concur to
render a piece of porcelain capable or incapable of re¬
filling the effedls of heat or cold, boiling water may be
at the fame time poured into two veffels, one of which
is good porcelain, and the other of an oppofite quality,
it is not impoffible that the former may break, and the
latter .may remain entire. The true method of difcover-
ing
fcrtcelrun.
7,1
^ipanefe
porcelain
reckoned
the moft
perfed?-,
3 2
hut not
Juperior to
that of
Saxony.
P O fv [19
jng what is good porcelain, is to examine feveral pieces
of it which are in daily ufe } ana it has beeti found,
that in many fuch pieces of porcelain oi oriental manu¬
facture, which have been long ufed, cracks are always
feen in the direction of their height, which are never
perceived in the more perfect porcelains of European
manufafture.
It has long been a very general opinion, that the Ja-
panefe porcelain is the moft perfect; it has indeed con¬
tinued to be the objeft of admiration and emulation,
and has been held up as a model for the European ma-
nufa&urer; a model which has not yet Deen equaih.d,
and which, according to the opinion of fome, cannot be
equalled. In deciding on this fubjeft, the Saxon porce¬
lain is confidered as inferior to the Japanefe, on account
of its greater frnootbnefs, luftre, and lefs granular afpeft
of its internal texture, qualities in which it ought really
to be regarded as fuperior to the porcelain fiom Japan.
This furface has a near refemblance to that of glafs, and
it is luppofed that this fimiiarity has fuggefted the °pi*
nion ; and it would be well founded, if the denfity and
luftre of the European porcelain depended on the fufible
and vitreous property of the ingredients of which it is
compofed : but this not being the cafe, and the Saxon
porcelain being equally fixed and intufible as that of Ja¬
pan, its fuperior denfity muft be admitted as a valuable
property. For in the coroparifon of different porcelains
which are equal in other properties, that which is moft
firm and compaft certainly claims the fuperiority. Hence
it is that the internal texture of the Japanefe porcelain
is held in greater eftimation, becaufe it poffeffes a great¬
er degree of denfity, compaftnefs and luftre, than the
European porcelain which is compofed only of vitreous
fand or fritt. For a fimilar reafon the fuperior denfity
of the Saxon porcelain ought to obtain for it a prefer¬
ence to that which is imported from the eaft. It is fup-
pofed befides, that it would be no difficult matter to
communicate to the Saxon porcelain the granuiar tex¬
ture of the Japanefe, by mixing with the pafte a certain
proportion of fand or filiceous earth* But in this point,
in producing by thefe means a nearer refemblance to
the Japanefe porcelain, thofe who conduced and brought
to perfe&ion the Saxon manufa&ures, were not infenfi-
ble that their porcelain would fink in its valuable pro¬
perties.
4. Porcelain Manufactories in different parts of Europe.
Manufa&ories of porcelain have been long eftabliffied
in almoft every country of Europe. Befides that of Saxo¬
ny, which was the firft eftabliftred in Europe, porcelain
is made to a confiderable extent at Vienna, at Franken-
ftal, and in the neighbourhood of Berlin, and in other
places of the German ftates. The German porcelains
are fimilar to thofe of Saxony, and are compofed of fimi¬
lar materials, although from differences in the propor¬
tions, or in the modes of managing the mahufa&ories,
confiderable differences arife in the porcelains manufac¬
tured at different places. Italy alfo is celebrated for
its porcelain manufa&ures, the chief of which, it is faid,
are carried on at Naples. When M. de la Condamine
travelled into Italy, he vifited a manufafture of porce¬
lain eftabliffied at Florence, by the marquis de la Ginor,
who was then governor of Leghorn. -The French tra¬
veller was particularly ftruck with the large fize of
o 1 P O R
forne of the pieces of this porcelain. Statue?, and even Forcehb.
groups of figures half as large as nature, and modelled '
from fome of the fineft antiques, were formed of it.
The furnaces, he obferved, in which the porcelain was
fubjected to the procefs of baking, were conftructed with
a great deal of ingenuity, and were lined with bricks
made of the fame materials as thofe which entered into
the compofition of the porcelain itfelf; and hence they
were able to refill the effefts of high degrees of heat'
The pafte of the porcelain manufa&ured at Florence
appeared to be extremely beautiful, and to poffefs all
the qualities of the bell oriental porcelain. The glazing
employed in this manufactory feemed to be inferior in
whitenefs, a circumftance which is fuppofedtobe owing
to the defire of ufing thofe materials only which are
found in the country. _ 35
In France a .’-eater number of manufactories of por- Mamifac-
celaih has been eltabliffied than in any other country ;
and it muft be allowed that the French havehad won-^rance,
derful fuccefs in the improvement and perfection of this
manufacture. Some time even before Reaumur commu¬
nicated the refult of his inquiries, porcelain was manu¬
factured at St Cloud, and in the fuburb of St Antoine
at Paris. This porcelain indeed was of the vitreous or
fufible kind, but at the fame time poffeffed no inconfi-
derable degree of beauty. Since the period to which we
allude, extenfive manufactories of porcelain have been
eltabliffied at Villeroy, Chantilly, and Orleans, and at
thofe places the manufa&ure has been brought to a great
degree of perfection. But the productions of the cele¬
brated porcelain manufactory at Sevres, on account of
the pure ffiining white, the fine glazing and coloured
grounds, the fplendour and magnificence of the gilding,
and the elegance and tafte difplayed in the lhape and
figures, are univerfally allowed to furpafs every thing of
the kind which 4>as yet appeared.
In fpeaking of the French porcelain, we may notice
the refult of fome refearches which were made on this
TubjeCt by Guettard, and of which an account appeared
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for the
year 1765. In the neighbourhood of Alen^on, Mi
'Guettard difeovered a whitiffi argillaceous earth, in
which mica confiderably predominated. This earth he
employed as a fubftitute for kaolin. Ihe fubftance
which he ufed in place of the petuntfe, he obtained from
a hard Hone, which is deferibed as a quartzofe gritt
ftone, very abundant in that countryand with which
the ftreets of Alen5on are paved. With thefe materials
Guettard inftituted a feries of experiments on porcelain*
previous to the year 1751, and was affociated in his in¬
quiries with the duke of Orleans. For many years the
count de Lauraguais, a member of the Academy of
Sciences, was keenly engaged in profecuting experi¬
ments to difeover the true nature of porcelain, and the
means by which the manufacture might be improved
and perfected. To obtain the objeCt of his refearches,
which was to produce porcelain that in its efiential qua¬
lities might be equal to that of eaftern countries, he
fpared no trouble or expence j and it would appear that
he was not unfuccefsful in his labours; for in the year
1766, when he exhibited fome fpecies of porcelain from
his manufactory to the members of the Academy of
Sciences, the perfons who were appointed by that learn¬
ed body to examine their properties, delivered it as their
opinion, that of all the porcelain made in France, that
FOR
t 19' ]
FOR
34 ,
i England.
35
ii Stafford
IPorcelaln. of the count de Lauraguais approached moft nearly in
y—' the eflfential properties of folidity, texture and infufibili-
ty, to that of China and Japan. It is faid, however,
that it was considerably deficient in whitenefsand luftre,
when compared with the ancient porcelain of japan.
The manufadfure of porcelain has been brought to a
great degree of perfection in England. In many of the
elTential qualities, and particularly in the beauty and
richnefs of the paintings, as well as in the elegance of
the forms, the Englifti porcelain is little inferior to that
of any other country. Manufactories of this ware have
been eftablifhed in different parts of England. This
manufacture was firft eftablifhed at Derby about the
year 1750, by a Mr Duefbury, who is faid to have been
a very ingenious artift. Since his death the manufacto¬
ries received very confiderable improvement, and chiefly
in the judicious methods purfued in the preparation of
the paite, and increafing the beauty of the ornaments.
The ware itfelf is faid not to equal in finenefs that which
is manufactured in Saxony and France, although it is
greatly fuperior in refpeCt of decoration and workman-
fliip. The paintings in general are rich, and executed
with tafte, and the gilding and burnifhing are extremely
beautiful. The body of the femi-vitreous kind, which
is formed of a fine white clay, in combination with va¬
rious proportions of different fufible matters, has obtain¬
ed the name of porcelain. The beft kind is wholly in-
fufible, and is glazed with a vitreous fubftance which
has not a Angle particle of lead in its compofition.
The molt famous manufactory of ftone-ware, as well
as of other kinds of pottery, is at Burflem in Stafford-
fhire. This can be traced with certainty at leaft two
centuries back ; but of its firft introduction no tradition
remains. In 1686, as we learn from Dr Plot’s Natural
Hiftory of Staffordfhire pubiiftied in that year, only the
coarfe yellow, red, black, and mottled wares, were made
in this country ; and the only materials employed for
them appear to have been the different coloured clays
which are found in the neighbourhood, and which form
fome of the meafures or ftrata of the coal-mines. Thefe
clays made the body of the ware, and the glaze ■was pro¬
duced by powdered lead-ore, fprinkled on the pieces be¬
fore firing, with the addition of a little manganefe for
fome particular colours. The quantity of goods manu¬
factured was at that time fo inconfiderable, that the
chief fale of them, the DoCtor fays, was “ to poor crate-
men, who carried them on their backs all over the coun¬
try.”
About the year 1690, two ingenious artifans from
Germany, of the name of Eller, fettled near Burilem,
and carried on a fmall work for a little time. They
brought into this country the method of glazing ftone-
ware, by calling fait into the kiln while it is hot, and
tome other improvements of lefs importance ; but find¬
ing they could not keep their fecrets to themfelves, they
left the place rather in difguft. From this lime various
kinds of ftone-ware, glazed by the fumes of fait in the
manner above mentioned, were added to the wares be¬
fore made. The white kind, which afterwards became,
and for many fucceeding years continued, the ftaple
branch of pottery, is faid to have owed its origin to the
following accident. A potter, Mr Aftbury, travelling
to London, perceived fomething amifs with one of his
fiorfc’s eyes j an hoftler at Dunftable faid he could foon
cure him, and for that purpofe put a common black Porcelain,
flint ftone into the fire. The potter obferving it, when
taken out, to be of a fine white, immediately conceived
the idea of improving his ware by the addition of this
material to the whiteft clay he could procure : accord¬
ingly he fent home a quantity of the flint Hones of that
country, where they are plentiful among the chalk, and
by mixing them with tobacco-pipe clay, produced a
white ftone-ware much fuperior to any that had been
feen before.
Some of the other potters foon difcovered the fource
of this fuperiority, and did not fail to follow his example.
For a long time they pounded the flint ftones in private
rooms by manual labour in mortars ; but many of the
poor workmen fuffered feverely from the dull of the
flint getting into their lungs, and producing dreadful
coughs, confumptions, and other pulmonary diforders.
Thefe difafters, and the increafed demand for the flint
powder, induced them to try to grind it by mills of va¬
rious conftrudtions ; and this method being found both
effedlual and fafe, has continued in pradlice ever fince.
With thefe improvements, in the beginning of the pre-
fent century, various articles were produced for tea and
coffee equipages. Soon after attempts were made to
furnifti the dinner table alfo j and before the middle of
the century, utenfils for the table were manufactured in
quantity as well for exportation as home confumption.
But the fait glaze, the only one then in ufe for this
purpofe, is in its own nature fo imperfect, and the pot¬
ters, from an injudicious competition among therafelves
for cheapnefs, rather than excellence, had been fo inat¬
tentive to elegance of form and neatnefs of workman-
Ihip, that this ware was rejeCted from the tables of per-
fons of rank ; and about the year 1760, a white ware,
much more beautiful and better glazed than ours, be¬
gan to be imported in confiderable quantities from
France. ^
The inundation of a foreign manufaClure, fo much Improved
fuperior to any of our own, mull have had very bad ef-l,y Wedg-
feCts upon the potteries of this kingdom, if a new one, wooc**
Hill more to the public tafte, had not appeared foon af¬
ter. In the year Mr Jofiah Wedgwood, who had
already introduced feveral improvements into this art,
invented a fpecies of earthen Avare for the table quite neAv
in its appearance, co\rered Avith a rich and brilliant glaze,
bearing fudden alterations of heat and cold, manufadlur-
ed with eafe and expedition, and confequently cheap,
and having every requifite for the purpofe intended. To
this new manufacture the queen was pleafed to give her
name and patronage, commanding it to be called Queen’s Queen’s
ware, and honouring the inventor by appointing him ware,
her majefty’s potter.
The common clay of the country is ufed for the ordi¬
nary forts ; the finer kinds are made of clay from De-
vonfhire and Dorfetfhire, chiefly from Biddeford ; but
the flints from the Thames are all brought rough by fea,
either to Liverpool or Hull, and fo by Burton. The
convenience of plenty of coals, which abound in that
part of the country, is fuppofed, and Avith good reafon,
to be the chief caufe of the manufadlure having been
eftablilhed here.
The flints are firft ground in mills, and the clay pre¬
pared by breaking, Avalhing, and lifting, and then they
are mixed in the requifite proportions. The flints are.
bought
P O R
•Porcelain, bought firft by the people about the country, and by
 v—- them burnt and ground, and fold to the manufafturers
by the peck. _ ^
The mixture is then laid in large quantities in kilns
• to evaporate the moifture ; but this is a nice work, as it
-muft not be too dry : next it is beaten with large wooden
hammers, and then is in order for throwing, and is
moulded into the forms in which it is to remain *, this
‘is the moft difficult work in the whole manufacture.
A boy turns a perpendicular wheel, which by means
of thongs turns a fmall horizontal one, juft before the
thrower, with fuch velocity, that it twirls round the
lump of clay he lays on it into any form he direCts it
'with his fingers.
There are 300 houfes, which are calculated to em¬
ploy upon an average twenty hands each, or 6000 in
•the whole •, but of all the variety of people that work
in what may be called the preparation for the employ¬
ment of the immediate manufacturers, the total number
cannot be much ffiort of 10,000, and it is increafing
every day. Large quantities are exported to Germany,
Ireland, Holland, Ruffia, Spain, the Eaft Indies, and
•much to America j feme of the fineft forts to France.
Different Proceffes in the Manufa&ure of Porcelain.
Vitreous or The bafis of thofe porcelains which are known by the
falible por- name of vitreous or fufible, and fometimes falfe porce-
aeluin. Js denominated by the workmen a fritt. This is a
mixture of fand or powdered flints, with a faline fub-
ftanoe, capable of bringing it to a ftate of fufion when
•the mixture is expofed to a fufficient degree of heat.
-The fritt is then mixed with a proper proportion of clay
or argillaceous earth, fo that it may have fuch a degree
of tenacity as to make it capable of being worked upon
the wheel. The whole mixture is, after being well
ground in a mill, to be made into a pafte, which is to be
formed, either upon the wheel or in moulds, into pieces
of fuch forms or figures as may be required. Each of the
• pieces, when it is fufficiently dried, is put into a cafe
made of earthen ware, and placed in the furnace, that
it may be fubjeCted to the procefs of baking. Thefe
cafes are known among the Englifti potters by the name
offeggars or fag^ars, and they are generally formed of
a coarfer kind of clay, but this clay muft polfefs the pro¬
perty of refilling the aftion of heat neceflary for the
baking of porcelain, without being fufed. The porce¬
lain contained in the cafes is thus prote£ted from the
fmoke of the burning fuel: the whitenefs of the porce¬
lain depends greatly on the purity of the clay of which
it is made, fo that being of a more compaft texture, the
fmoke is more effeftually excluded. Thefe cafes are
arranged in the furnace or kiln in piles, one upon the
other, to the very top of the furnace.
The furnaces are chambers or cavities of various
forms and fizes, and they are fo conftrufted that the
fire-place is fituated on the outfide, oppofite to one or
more openings, which have a communication with the
furnace internally. The flame of the fuel is drawn
within the furnace, the air of which being rarefied, de¬
termines a ftrong current of air to the infide, as is the
cafe in other furnaces. A fmall fire is firft made, that
the furnaces may be gradually heated, and it is to be
increafed more and more, till the procefs of baking is
.completed } that is, till the porcelain lhall have acquir-
p o m
ed a proper degree of hardnefs and tranfparency. To Pbrcelaiji
afcertain this point, a good deal of attention is neceftary ; ''““’-V’H
and this is done by taking out of the furnace from time
to time, and examining, fmall pieces of porcelain placed
for that purpofe in the cafes, which have lateral openings
to render them acceffible. When it appears from the
examination of thofe pieces, that the porcelain is fuffi¬
ciently baked, the fire is no longer to be fupplied with
fuel •, the furnace is allowed to cool gradually, and the
porcelain is afterwards taken out. In this ftate the por¬
celain has the appearance of white marble, having
nothing of that fhining furface which it acquires by
covering it with a vitreous compofition known by the
name of glaring, a procefs which is afterwards to be de-
fcribed; but in the mean time we fhall fpeak of the in-
fufible porcelains.
The materials which enter into the compofition of
the infufible porcelains, and fuch as approach to the na¬
ture of ftone ware, are firft to be ground in a mill, and
the earths or clays being well Waftied, are next to be
carefully mixed and formed into a pafte. The pieces at
firft receive a rude form from the wheel or lathe of the
potter, according to their nature and magnitude. As
the wheel and lathe are the principal machines employ¬
ed in the manufafture of porcelain or pottery, we fhall
here give a ffiort defcription of their iconftru£tion. The
potter’s wheel, which is ufed for larger works, confifts
principally in the nut, which is a beam or axis, whofe
foot or pivot plays perpendicularly on a free-ftone foie or ^ !
bottom. From the four corners of this beam, which Potter’s
does not exceed tvro feet in height, arife four iron bars, wheel,
called the fpohes of the wheel; which forming diagonal
lines with the beam, defcend, and are faftened at bottom
to the edges of a ftrong wooden circle, four feet in dia¬
meter, perfectly like the felloes of a coach-wheel, ex¬
cept that it has neither axis nor radii, and is only joined
to the beam, which ferves it as an axis, by the iron bars.
The top of the nut is flat, of a circular figure, and a
foot in diameter ; and on this is laid the clay which is
to be turned and fafhioned. The wheel thus difpofed is
encompafled with four fidcs of four different pieces of
wood faftened on a wooden frame ; the hind-piece,
which is that on which the workman fits, is made a
little inclining towards the wheel 5 on the fore-piece
is placed the prepared earth ; on the fide pieces he refts
his feet, and thefe are made inclining to give him more
or lefs room. Having prepared the earth, the potter
lays a round piece of it on the circular head of the nut,
and fitting down turns the wheel with his feet till it has
got the proper velocity ; then, wetting his hands with
water, he preffes his fift or his fingers-ends into the
middle of the lump, and thus forms the cavity of the
veffel, continuing to widen it from the middle ; and
•thus turning the infide into form with one hand, while
he proportions the outfide with the other, the wheel
conftantly turning all the while, and he wetting his
hands from time to time. When the veffel is too thick,
he ufes a flat piece of iron, fomewhat ffiarp on the edge,
to pare off what is redundant j and when it is finiffied,
it is taken off from the circular head by a wire paffed
under the veffel.
The potter’s lathe is alfo a kind of wheel, but more Potter’s
fimple and flight than the former: its three chief mem-lathe,
bers are an iron beam or axis three feet and a half
high, and two feet and a half diameter, placed horizon¬
tally
[ 192 ]
P O R [ 1
Porcelain, tally at the top of the beam, and ferving to form the
veffel upon : and another large wooden wheel, all of a
piece, three inches thick, and two or three feet broad,
fattened to the fame beam at the bottom, and parallel
to the horizon. The beam or axis turns by a pivot at
the bottom of an iron ftand. The workman gives the
motion to the lathe with his feet, by pufhing the. great
wheel alternately with each foot, ftill giving it a great¬
er or letter degree of motion as his work requires. He
works with the lathe with the fame inttruments, and
after the fame manner, as with the wheel. The mould¬
ings are formed by holding a piece of wood or iron
cut in the form of the moulding to the veffel, while
the wheel is turning round j but the feet and handles
are made by themfalves and fet on with the hand ; and
if there be any fculpture in the work, it is ufually done
in wooden moulds, and ftuck on piece by piece on the
outfide of the veffel. The lathe is employed for fmaller
works in porcelain.
After the firft application of the pieces of porce¬
lain to the wheel or lathe, they are allowed to become
nearly dry j and to give the requifite form, or a greater
degree of accuracy and perfe£Hon, they are again fub-
jefted to the fame operation. They are afterwards in¬
troduced into the furnace, not, however, for the pur-
pofe of baking them completely, but only to apply a
fufficient heat, to give them that firmnefs and folidity
that they may undergo the various neceffary manipula¬
tions without being disfigured or broken. In this ftate
they are ready for the procefs of glazing. As the pieces
of porcelain, after being fubjedled to this moderate de¬
gree of heat, are very dry, they readily imbibe water,
and it is this property of abforbing water, which greatly
aflitts in the application of the glazing; and having re¬
ceived this covering, the pieces of porcelain are again
put into the furnace, to complete the procefs of baking.
The heat is gradually raifed, and at laft brought to that
degree that all the objefts within the furnace (hall be
white, and the cafes (hall be fcarcely diftinguilhed from
the flame. To afeertain when the porcelain is fufficient-
ly baked, finall pieces are taken out in the manner al¬
ready deferibed, after which the fire is withdrawn, and
the furnace allowed to cool gradually. If the procefs
of baking have fucceeded properly, the pieces of porce¬
lain will, after this operation, be fonorous, compact, ha¬
ving a moderate degree of luftre, and covered exter¬
nally with a fine coat of glaze. If this porcelain is de-
ftined to receive the ornaments of painting and gilding,
thefe operations are performed in the manner to be after¬
wards delcribed.
After the porcelain has been fubje&ed to the procefs
of baking, and before it is glazed, it is faid to be in the
ftate of bifciiit, in which it poffeffes various degrees of
beauty and perfe&ion, according to the nature and pro¬
portions of the materials employed. For particular pur-
pofes, the porcelain is fometimes allowed to remain in
this ftate, and particularly when it is employed in
fmaller and finer pieces of fculpture, where the finenefs
of the workmanfhip and the fliarpnefs of the figures are
wifhed to be preferved, as it is well known that thefe
Vol. XVII. Part I.
41
Unglazed
porcelain
’-ailed bif-
:uit.
93 ] P O Ft
will be greatly injured by being covered with a coat of Porcelain,
glazing. The celebrated manufactory of Sevres in —"V"—^
France has been long diftinguifhed for figures or fmall
ftatues, and even for larger works, as ornamental vales,
&c. which are left in the ftate of bifeuit. The Englifti
manufactories, and particularly that of Mr Wedgwood,
are probably not inferior in the delicacy and accuracy
of execution of ornamental productions of this kind.
The next operation in the manufacture of porcelain of
is the procefs of glazing. This procels confifts in cover-glazing por¬
ing the porcelain with a thin coat of vitreous or fulible celain.
matter, which adds greatly to its beauty, by its luftre
or fliining appearance. In preparing and applying the
materials fit for glazing porcelain, it has been found
that the fame kind of glafs will not admit of general
application j for it appears that a glafs which forms A
fine glazing for one kind of porcelain, will not anfwef
the fame purpofe when applied to another. In the
former it may have all the neceffary requifites, but in
the latter it may crack in many places, may have no
luftre, and may contain bubbles or be apt to fcale off.
The firft thing then is to prepare a glafs which fhall be
fuited to the nature of the porcelain for which it is in¬
tended. The glazing muft be appropriated to each kind
of porcelain, that is, to the ingredients which enter
into its compofition, or to the degree of hardnefs or den-
fity of the ware. The materials of which the glazing
is compofed are prepared by p:evioufiy fufing together
all the fubftances of which they confift, and thus form¬
ing a vitreous mafs (a). This mafs of vitrified matter
is to be finely ground in a mill, and the vitreous powder
thus obtained is to be mixed with a fufficient quantity
of water, fo that the liquor (hall have the confiftence of
cream of milk. The pieces of porcelain are to be cover¬
ed with a thin coating of this matter, which is done bv
immerfing them haftily in the liquid, and as they
greedily imbibe the water, there remains on the furface
a uniform covering of the glazing materials. This co¬
vering, which it is neceffary to obferve, fliould be very
thin j in a ffiort time becomes fo dry, that it does not
adhere to the fingers, when the pieces are handled.
When they are fufficiently dry, they are replaced in the
furnace in the fame manner as in preparing the bifeuit,
and the heat is continued till the glazing be completely
fufed ; but the degree of heat neceffary for that pur¬
pofe is far inferior to that which is requifite in baking
the pafte. The pieces of porcelain which are intended
to remain white, are now finiffied, but thofe which are
to be ornamented with painting and gilding muft go
through various other operations, of which the follow¬
ing is a general account.
The colours which are employed in painting porce-Ofpamting,
lain are fimilar to thofe which are applied in the paint¬
ing of enamel. They are all compofed of metallic
oxides or calces, combined with a very fufible, vitreous
matter. The different colours are obtained from differ¬
ent metals. The oxides of iron afford a red colour ;
gold precipitated by means of tin, furnifties a purple and
violet colour; copper precipitated from its folution in
acids by means of an alkali, gives a fine green : cobalt
B b ’
(a) The proportion of the materials employed for common white pottery-ware are 6o parts of litharge,
clay, and 20 of ground flint.
10 of
P O II [ 194 ] P O R
porcelain, or when combined with vitreous matter, as it is
w—v called, yields a fine blue. Earthy matters which are
{lightly ferruginous, produce a yellow colour, and brown
and black colours are obtained from iron in different
{fates, and from manganefe. A coloured glazing has
*EJaycn been recommended by O’Reilly*, which may be.ap-
bleaching, plied to coarfe articles of earthen ware. It is obtained
Phil. Mag. from t})e refiduum after the diftillation of oxymuriatic
^ a0°' acid. The manganefe contained in this refiduum is laid
to communicate a blackifh appearance like that of bronze,
which, fays the author, is far from being difagreeable
to the eye. This glazing he employed feveral times by
way of trial, firft fufing it with fand in a potter’s fur¬
nace, throwing it into cold water to facilitate its divi-
fion, and grinding it in a mill, that it may be more
completely diffufed in water. This glazing is attended
with the advantage of being free from thofe dangerous
qualities fo common in all preparations made from the
oxides of lead. Whatever colouring matters are em¬
ployed, they are finely ground with gum water, or with
feme eflfential oil, in which (late they are fit to be em¬
ployed for the painting of porcelain with figures of
flowers, or any other defign with which it is intended
to be adorned.
and elfding. In giving porcelain, the oxide or calx of gold (b) is
fc'employed, and it is applied nearly in the fame manner
as the coloured enamels. The gold, which is in the Rate
of very minute divifion, is mixed with gum water and
borax, and in this ftate is applied to the clean furface of
the porcelain with a fine camel’s hair pencil. 1 he
painted and gilded porcelains are then expofed to fuch a
degree of heat in the furnace as is capable of fufing the
vitreous matter with which the metallic colours are mix¬
ed. The gold is fixed by means of the borax undergo¬
ing the procefs of vitrification, and thus ftrongly adher¬
ing to the porcelain. Moft of the metallic colouring
matters exhibit all their beauty when the porcelain is
taken from the furnace; but to bring out the luftre and
beauty of the gold, thofe parts of the porcelain which
have been gilt are afterwards fubje&ed to the operation
of burniftiing.
4S ^ The ufe of platina in porcelain painting has been re¬
tina in co* commended by Klaproth ; and experiments have been
louring; or-made on the fubjeft by that celebrated chemift, with
celain. the view of afeertaining its effefts for this purpofe. I he
following is the conclufion of his obfervations.
41 The procefs which I employ in the application of
platina to painting on porcelain is fimple and eafy : it is
as follows:—I diffolve crude platina in aqua regia, and
precipitate it by a faturated folution of fal ammoniac in
water. The red cryftalline precipitate thence produced
is dried, and being reduced to a very fine powder is
{lowly brought to a red heat in a glafs retort. As the
volatile neutral fait, combined with the platina in this
precipitate, becomes fublimated, the metallic part re- Purcelam.
mains behind in the form of a gray foft powder. ’—v——J |
This powder is then fubjedled to the fame procefs as
gold j that is to fay, it is mixed with a fmall quantity
of the fame flux as that uftd for gold, and being ground
with oil of fpike is applied with a brufli on the porce¬
lain ; after which it is burnt-in under the muffle of an
enameller’s furnace, and then poliflied with a burnifh-
ing tool.
“ The colour of platina burnt into porcelain in this
manner is a filver white, inclining a little to a fteel
gray. If the platina be mixed in ditferent portions with
gold, different {hades of colour may be obtained; the
gradations of which may be numbered, from the w’bite
colour of unmixed platina to the yellow colour of gold.
Platina is capable of receiving a confiderable addition of
gold before the tranfition from the white colour to yel¬
low is perceptible. Thus, for example, in a mixture of
four parts of gold and one of piatina, no figns of the
gold were to be obferved, and the white colour could
fcarcely be diftinguilhed from that of unmixed platina :
it was only when eight parts of gold to one of platina
were employed that the gold colour affumed the fupe-
riority.
“ I tried in the like manner, different mixtures of pla¬
tina and filver 5 but the colour produced was dull, and
did not feem proper for painting on porcelain.
“ Befides this method of burning-in platina in fub-
ftance on porcelain, it may be employed alfo in its dif-
folved ftate 5 in which cafe it gives a different refult
both in its colour and fplendour. The folution of it in
aqua regia is evaporated, and the thickened refiduum is
then applied feveral times in fucceffion to the porcelain.
The metallic matter thus penetrates into the lubftance
of the porcelain itfelf, and forms a metallic mirror of
the colour and fplendour of poliflied fteel.”
The fame {ubftance has been applied as a glazing to
porcelain in fome of the Engliih manufaflories, but how¬
ever valuable and important the application of platina
to this purpofe may be, the fcarcity of that metal, and
its confequent high price, muft always prevent it from
coming into very general ufe. ^
We have already noticed the eftablifhment of the ma- Manufao
nufa&ure of porcelain in Derby. 1 he following is ature ofpor-
fhort detail of the method of conducing that manufac-
ture. After the pafte has been properly prepared, by
grinding and other neceffary operations, it is delivered to
the workmen, by whofe dexterity the (hapelefs mafs is
converted into various beautiful forms. Veffels of a
round form are ufually made by a man called a thrower,
by whom they are worked on a circular block moving
horizontally on a vertical fpindle. They are next car¬
ried to the lathe j and being fixed on the end of a hori¬
zontal fpindle, they are reduced to the proper form and
thicknefs.
(b) A powder of gold is prepared for this purpofe in other two different ways. By one of thofe methods a
quantity of gold leaf is put into a glafs or earthen mortar, with a little honey or thick gum water-, and ground till
the gold is reduced to very minute particles; a little warm water is then added, which will wafti out the honey or
gum and leave the gold behind : but the proeefs by which the fineft ground gold is obtained, is by gradually heat¬
ing a gold amalgam in an open earthen veffel, and continuing the heat till the mercury is entirely evaporated, ftir-
ring the mixture with a glafs rod, or tobacco pipe, that the particles of gold may be prevented from adhering as
the mercury flies off. The gold remaining after the evaporation of the mercury is then ground with a little water
3$ a. Wedgwood-ware mortar, and after being dried is fit for uib*
FOR r 195 1 FOR
47
.Glazing'
48
PainJv.ig.
?ferc«5lain. tliicknefs. They are afterwards finiilied, and handled
w—■ v —■J other perfons, if that (hould be neceffary, and are
then introduced into a Rove, where the moifture is en¬
tirely evaporated, and they become fit for the procefs
of baking. Veffels of an oval figure, fuch as tea-pots,
tureens, &c. acquire their form by being preffed with
the hand into moulds of plafter or gypfum. The pieces
of porcelain being thus prepared, are put into the fag-
gars or cafes, which are of various lizes and dimenfions,
and thefe are let in the kiln or furnace, one upon the
other, till they are filled up nearly to the top, in the
manner already defcribed. The furnace being full, the
ware is baked, and after this firft baking, the porcelain
is in the Rate of bifcuit.
The next procefs is the glazing, which, according to
the defcription already given, is performed by dipping
the pieces of porcelain in glaze of the confiftence of
cream. They are then conveyed to the glaze furnace,
where they are again baked, but in a degree of heat in¬
ferior to that neceflary for the firft baking.
If the pieces of porcelain are to receive the additional
ornaments of painting and gilding, they are next de¬
livered to another fet of workmen. The colouring mat¬
ters, as already noticed, are extrafted from mineral
bodies, and after proper preparation, they are applied
to the ware by the painters, in the form of landfeapes
or figures, according to the requifite pattern. After
this procefs the ware is again conveyed to the furnace,
and the colours are vitrified, to give them the proper
degree of fixation and luftre. After every coat or layer
of colour, a frefh burning is neceffary. In the common
kind of porcelain, once or twice is found fufficient for
the ornaments it requires j but in the finer decorations,
the colours muft be laid on feveral times, and as often
fubjedled to the aflion of heat, before the full effe£l; can
be produced. This completes the proeefs for thofe ar¬
ticles of porcelain in which glazing and painting only
are required.
But when the pieces of porcelain are to be farther
decorated with gilding, they are pencilled with a mix¬
ture of oil and gold, difiblved or thrown down by
quickfilver with the aid of heat, and are again intro¬
duced to the furnace. Here the gold returns to its folid
ftate, but comes out with a dull furface •, and to recover
its luftre and ufual brilliancy, it is burniftied with blood-
ftones, and other polifhing fubftances. Much care and
attention are neceffary in the latter part of the procefs j
for if the gold be not fufficiently burnt, it will be apt to
feparate in thin flakes, and if it have been expofed to
too great a heat, it is not fufceptible of a fine polifti.
In this manufa&ory, when pieces of porcelain are to
be finiftied in the higbeft ftile, they are frequently re¬
turned to the enamel furnace, where the colours are
fluxed fix or feven different times •, and having gone
through the proceffes now defcribed, the porcelain is fit
for the market.
White ware, or bifcuit figures, are made at this ma-
nufaftory, which are fuppofed to be equal in beauty and
delicacy to any European produfHons of a fimilar kind.
In this kind of porcelain, the lathe is of no ufe, for the
figures are caft in moulds of plafter or gypfum. The ma¬
terials of which they are compofed being properly pre¬
pared, and previoufty reduced to a liquid of the appear¬
ance and confiftence of thick cream, are poured into
the moulds, which from the abforbent property of the
49
Gilding.
. s»
•Bifcuit fi¬
gures.
plafter, imbibe the water contained in the mixtui'e, fo
that the pafte foon becomes fufficiently hard to part
freely from the mould. The different parte of figures,
as the head, arms, legs, &c. are call in feparate moulds,
and after being dried and repaired, they are joined by
a pafte of the fame kind, but of a thinner confiftence.
The porcelain pieces thus formed are then conveyed to
the furnace, and after being fubje&ed for a proper length
of time, to a regular and continued heat, they come out
extremely white and delicate.
Porcelain manufactories have been long eftabliftied at^amifac-.
Tournay in Flanders; one of thefe manufactories fur-t°rya*
nifties all Flanders with blue and white porcelain. Atlouriia^*
this manufactory they have a particular procefs in form¬
ing cups and ether veffels, which is fomewhat fimilar to
that now defcribed. They are neither turned on the
lathe, nor is the clay compreffed in a mould ; but aftef
being diluted in water, and when the liquid has acqui¬
red a proper confiftency, the workmen pour it into
moulds, two or three hundred of which are arranged
together. When they have filled them all, they return
to the firft in the row. The liquid part is drawn off
by a gentle inclination ; the furplus adheres to the
fide of the veffel, and thus forms the piece which it is
intended to make. The piece is detached from the mould
by means of a flight ftroke, and after being fufficiently
dried, is conveyed to the furnace, to undergo the procefs
of baking.
In the manufacture of utenfils for chemical purpofes, Utenfils fot
where they are to be fubjeCted to the effefts of powerful chemical
agents, greater attention is neceffary. Veffels of this de-Puri>0^e5*
feription fhould be infufible at any degree of heat; pof-
fefs a fufficient compaCtnefs of texture, to retain faline
and other fluxes in fufion, without undergoing any
change ; and ftiould bear hidden changes of tempera¬
ture, particularly hidden heating, without cracking, or
in any degree giving way. It has been found impracti¬
cable to have the three requifites now mentioned united
in the fame ware, fo that it becomes neceffary to feleft
the kind of ware according to the purpofe for which
they are intended. For bearing high degrees of heat,
Heffian crucibles are found to anfwer beft ; they are
compofed of a very refraCtory clay, mixed with fand, of
which the fineft part is feparated by a fieve, and thrown
away. Thefe veffels are made by mixing the clay with
a fmaller proportion of water than ufual, fo that a ftiffer
mafs is obtained, and the veffel brought to the requifite
ftiape by ramming the clay ftrongly into an iron mould.
In tliis way they are very compaft, and for a confider-
able time retain faline fluxes. Ordinary crucibles, it is
found, are rendered more retentive by lining them on
the infide, before they are quite dry, with a thin coat¬
ing of pure clay, without the addition of any other mix¬
ture. But the moft refraClory material known is a mix¬
ture of unburnt with burnt clay. Veffels made of this
material are found capable of refifting the effefts of fa¬
line fluxes longer than any other, and hence this material
is employed in making large crucibles for glafshoufes.
One of the moft valuable qualities of porcelain ware,
is to bear fudden changes of heat and cold ; but in this
quality fome of the moft perfeCf kinds of ware in other
refpefts are extremely deficient, and can fcarcely be
fubje&ed, without danger of cracking, to the draught
of a wind furnace, even when the heat is flowly and gra¬
dually applied. This happens to the celebrated porce-
B b 2 lain
PorerjiainV.
t
P O II
r 195 ]
P o u
Porcelain lain fire ware invented by an enlightened and plnlofophi-
   cal manufacturer, the late Mr Wedgwood. This effeCt
WetU cracking, on hidden changes of temperature, feems to
wood’s por- depend on the hardnefs and clofenefs of texture •, and the
celain. clofenefs of texture is found to be in proportion to the
minute divifion of the materials before baking. The
clay and flint of Wedgwood’s ware are brought to a
moA impalpable powder before mixture, fo that the tex¬
ture is uncommonly hard and clofe. It may be worth
while to mention, that Wedgwood’s porcelain refifls the
*effefts of hidden heat and cold much better, by being
covered with a thin coating of Windfor loam, or of a
fire lute compofed of coarfe fand and clay, and tow or
horfe-dung. When crucibles are intended merely for
the fufion of metals, they are greatly improved by a
mixture of black lead. This fubfiance being involved
in the clay, is protedled from the accefs of air, and is
then incombufiible. It has no affinity for the earths at
any temperature, and being abfolutely infufible, it ena¬
bles the clay to bear, without melting, the greateA de¬
gree of heat. The mixture of this fubflance, as a ma¬
terial for crucibles, has another advantage, that no part
of the melted metal is detained in the crucible, as is the
eafe in the common rough ware. It alfo bears fudden
heating and cooling better than any other.
6. General Principles of the ManufaElure of Porcelain.
Convinced that every accurate and fcientific invefli-
gation into the nature and proceffes of any important
art, will always be deemed of fome value to the philo-
fophic obferver, or the enlightened manufafturer, we
(hall introduce the following obfervations on the prin¬
ciples of the manufafture of porcelain.
Obfervations by Vauquelin.
According to this celebrated chemifi, four things may
occafion difference in the qualities of earthen-ware : xy?,
The nature or compofition of the matter ; 2^, The mode
of preparation •, jr/, The dimenfions given to the veffels j
4///, The baking to which they are fubje&ed. By com¬
pofition of the matter, the author underAands the na¬
ture and proportions of the elements of which it is form¬
ed. Thefe elements, in the greater part of earthen
ware, either valuable or common, are filex, argil, lime,
and fometimes a little oxide of iron. Hence it is evi¬
dent that it is not fo much by the diverfity of the ele¬
ments that good earthen-rvare differs from bad, as by the
proportion in which they are united. Silex or quartz
makes always two-thirds at leaA of earthen-ware j argil
or pure clay, from a fifth to a third ; lime, from 5 to
20 parts in the hundred *, and iron from o to 12 or 15
parts in the hundred. Silex gives hardnefs, infufibility,
and unalterability $ argil makes the pafie pliable, and
renders it fit to be kneaded, moulded, and turned at
pleafure. It poffeffes at the fame time the property of
being partially fufed by the heat which unites its parts
with thofe of the filex •, but it muff not be too abun¬
dant, as it would render the earthen-ware too fufible
and too brittle to be ufed over the fire.
Hitherto it has not been proved by experience that
lime is neceffary in the compofition of pottery : and if
traces of it are conflantly found in that fubAance, it is
becaufe it is always mixed with the other earths,
from which the wafliings and other manipulations have
54
2^ ature of
the compo.
nent parts
of porce-
not been able to feparate it. When this earth, how- Porcelain,
ever, does not exceed five or fix parts in a hundred,
it appears that it is not hurtful to the quality of the
pottery ; but if more abundant, it renders it too fu¬
fible.
The oxide of iron, befides the inconvenience of com¬
municating a red or brown colour, according to the de¬
gree of baking, to the veffels in which it forms a part,
has the property of rendering them fufible, and even in
a greater degree than lime. g-
As fome kinds of pottery are deflined to melt very Mode*of
penetrating fubAances, fuch as falls, metallic oxides,PreParat1^
glafs, &c. they require a fine kind of paffe, which is
obtained only by reducing the earths employed to very
minute particles. Others defiined for melting metals,
and fubflances not very penetrating, and which muA
be able to fupport, without breaking, a fudden tranfi-
tion from great heat to great cold, require for their
fabrication a mixture of calcined argil with raw argil.
By thefe means you obtain pottery, the coarfe pafie of
w'hich refembles breche, or fmall grained pudding-Aone,
and which can endure fudden changes of tempera¬
ture. 56
The baking of pottery is alfo an objeft of great im- Baking,
portance. The heat muA be capable of expelling hu¬
midity, and agglutinating the parts which enter into
the compofition of the paffe, but not flrong enough to
produce fufion *, which, if too far advanced, gives to
pottery a homogeneoufnefs that renders it brittle. The
fame effeft takes place in regard to the fine pottery, be¬
caufe the very minute divifion given to the earths re¬
duces them nearly to the fame flate as if this matter
had been fufed. This is the reafon -why porcelain
Arongly baked is more or lefs brittle, and cannot eafily
endure alternations of temperature. Hence coarfe por¬
celain, in the compofition of which a certain quantity
of calcined argil is employed, porcelain retorts, cruci¬
bles, tubes, and common pottery, the paffe of which
is coarfe, are much lefs brittle than difhes and faucers
formed of the fame fubAance, ground with more la¬
bour. _ F57
The general and refpe&ive dimenfions of the different Dimenfions:
parts of veffels of earthen-wrare have alfo confiderable in- of the dif-
fluence on their capability to Aand the fire.
In fome cafes the glazing or covering, efpecially
when too thick, and of a nature different from the body
of the pottery, alfo renders them liable to break. Thus,
in making fome kinds of pottery, it is ahvays effential,
if, To follow the be A proportion in the principles-, 2d,
To give to the particles of the pafle, by grinding, a
minutenefs fuited to the purpofe for which it is intend¬
ed, and to all the parts the fame dimenfions as far as
poffible ; ^d, To carry the baking to the highefi de¬
gree that the matter can bear without being fufed 4th,
To apply the glazing in thin layers, the fufibility of
w’hich ought to approach as near as poffible to that of
the matter, in order that it may be more intimately
united.
C. Vauquelin, being perfuaded that the quality of
good pottery depends chiefly on ufing proper propor¬
tions of the earthy matters, though it might be of
importance, to thofe engaged in this branch of manu-
fafture, to make known the analyfis of different natural
clays employed for this purpofe, and of pottery produ¬
ced by fome of them, in order that,, when a new earth
15
ferent parts
. of vefiels.
FOR [i
Porcelain, is difcovered, it may be known by a fimple analyfis
whether it will be proper for the fame objeft, and to
what kind of pottery already known it bears the great-
ell: refemblance.
97 1
FOR
Silex .
Argil .
Lime .
Oxide of iron
Water . .
Heffian
Crucibles.
69 .
21.5 .
I
8 .
Argil of
Dreux.
43-5
33-*
3-5
1
18
Porcelain Wedgwood’s
Capfules. Pyrometer’s.
6l
28
6
o*5
64.2
23
6
0.2
6.2
Raw kaolin 100 parts.—Silex 74, argil 16.5, lime 2,
water 7. A hundred parts of this earth gave eight of
alum, after being treated with the fulphuric acid.
Walked kaolin 100 parts.—Silex 55, argil 27, lime
2, iron 0.5, water 14, This kaolin, treated with the
fulphuric acid, gave about 45 or 50 per cent, of alum.
Petuntze.—Silex 74, argil 14.5, lime 5.5, lofs 6. A
hundred parts of this fubftance, treated with the ful¬
phuric acid, gave feven or eight parts of alum. But
this quantity does not equal the lofs fuftained.
Porcelain of retorts.—Silex 64, argil 28.8, lime 4.55,
iron 0.50, lofs 2.77. Treated with the fulphuric acid,
this porcelain gave no alum.
There is a kind of earthen veflels, called Alcarrexes,
ufed in Spain for cooling the water intended to be
jg drunk. Thefe veflels conlift of 60 parts of calcareous
orous earth, mixed with alumina and a little oxide of iron,
vare’ and 36^- of filiceous earth, alfo mixed with alumina and
the fame oxide. The quantity of iron may be eftima-
ted at almoft one hundredth part of the whole. This
earth is firft kneaded into a tough pafle, being for that
purpofe previoufly diluted with water j formed into a
cake of about fix inches in thicknefs, and left in that
ftate till it begin to crack. It is then kneaded with
the feet, the workman gradually adding to it a quantity
of fea-falt, in the proportion of feven pounds to a hun¬
dred and fifty : after which it is applied to the lathe, and
baked in any kind of furnace ufed by potters. The al-
carrezes, however, are only about half as much baked
as the better kinds of common earthen ware ; and being
exceedingly porous, water oozes through them on all
fides. Hence the air, which eomes in contaft with it,
by making it evaporate, carries off the caloric contained
in the water in the veffel, which is thus rendered remar¬
kably cool.
Obfervaticnis of Brongniart,
The author of the following obfervations is fuperin-
tendant of the celebrated porcelain manufa&ory at Sev¬
res in France. The extenfive views he has taken of the
fubjedt, and the general principles which he has advan¬
ced, will, we doubt not, be favourably received by the
intelligent manufafturer, and meet with attention and
confideration adequate to their importance and utility,
aamd of ^ art employing metallic oxides for colouring
ie anci- by fufion different vitreous matters, is of very great an-
3ts. tiquity : every body knows that the ancients manufac¬
tured coloured glafs and enamel, and that this art wras
praftifed in particular by the Egyptians, the firft peo¬
ple who in this manner imitated precious ftones. The
pradlice of this art in modern times has been carried to
a high degree of perfe&ion : but the theory has been
negle&ed ; it is almoft the only one of the chemical arts Ponjelain.
in which no attempt has yet been made to apply the f
new principles of that fcience.
“ It is well known that all vitrifiable colours have for
their bafis metallic oxides j but all the metallic oxides
are not proper for this purpofe : befides, as they are not
vitrifiable by themfelves, they can fcarcely ever be em¬
ployed alone. 6o
“ Highly volatile oxides, and thofe rvhich adhere little Metallic
to the great quantity of oxygen they contain, eitheroxicles en’-
cannot be employed in any manner, as the oxide j^jours for
mercury and that of arfenic, or are employed only as porcelain
agents. The colour they prefent cannot be depended
on, fince they muft lofe it in the flighteft heat by lofing
a part of their oxygen : fueh are the puce-coloured and
red oxides of lead, the yellow oxide of gold, Stc. Ox¬
ides in which the proportions of oxygen are fufceptible
of varying with too much facility are rarely employed :
the oxide of iron, though black, is never employed for
that colour $ and the green oxide of copper is, under
many circumftances, very uncertain. I have faid that
oxides alone are not fufceptible of fufion : however, as
they are deftined to be applied in thin ftrata on vitrifi¬
able fubftances, they may be attached to them by a vio¬
lent heat. But, except the oxides of lead and bifmuth,
they would give only dull colours. The violent heat,
often neceffary to fix them, would change or totally de-
ftroy the colours. A flux then is added to all metallic
oxides.
“ This flux is glafs, lead, and filex ; glafs of borax, or
a mixture of both. Its general efteft is, to give fplen-
dour to the aolours after their fufion ; to fix them on the
article which is painted, by promoting more or lefs the
foftening of its furface j to envelope the metallic oxides,
and to preferve their colour by ftieltering them from the
contact of the air : in a word, to facilitate the fufion
of the colour at a low temperature not capable of de-
ftroying it. 6t
“ I fhall fpeak here only of the application of metal- Nature of’
lie colours to vitreous bodies or to vitreous furfaces. the iub-
Thefe bodies may be divided into three clafles, very ftai!ces to
diftinft by the nature of the fubftances which compofe ^1^1
them, the effefts produced on them by the colours, and ^ ^
the changes they experience. Thefe claffes are: i/?t
Enamel, foft porcelain, and all crufts, enamels, or glafs,
that contain lead in a notable quantity. 2d, Hard por¬
celain, or porcelain which has a cruft of feldfpar. 3*/,
Glafs in the compofition of which no lead enters, fucii
as common window-glafs.
“ I lhall here examine in fucceflion the principles
of the compofition of thefe colours, and the general
phenomena they exhibit on thefe three kinds of bo¬
dies.
“ It is well known that enamel is glafs rendered opake
by the oxide of tin, and exceedingly fufible by the oxide
of lead. It is the oxide of lead, in particular, contained
in it, that gives it properties- very different from thofe
of the other excipients of metallic colours. Thus all
glafs and glazing that contain lead will participate in
the properties of enamel ; and what we lhall fay of one
may be applied to the reft with very trifling differ¬
ences.
Such are the white and tranfparent glazing of ftone
ware, and the glazing of porcelain called foft g/az-
ing.
“ Enamel:
I
FOB [ 198 ] FOR
Porcelalo. “ Enamel or foft porcelain colours require lefs flux
' v—than others, becaufe the glafson which they are applied
Flux^for foft becomes lufficiently foft to be penetrated by them. This
porcelain flux may be either glafs of lead and pure filex, called
colours. rocaille, or the fame glafs mixed with borax. Montamy
alferts that glafs of lead ought to be baniflied from
among the enamel fluxes j and he employs only borax.
He then dilutes his colours in a volatile oil. On the
other hand, the painters of the manufa&ory of Sevres
employ only colours without borax, becaufe they dilute
them in gum •, and borax does not dilute well in that
fubftance. I have found that both methods are equally
good ; and it is certain that Montamy was wrong to
exclude fluxes of lead, fince they are daily employed
without any inconvenience, and as they even render the
application of colours eafler.
“ I have faid that in the baking of thefe colours, the
cruft, foftened by the fire, fullers itfelf to be eafily pe¬
netrated by them. This is the firft. caufe of the change
which they experience. By mixing with the cruft they
become weaker, and the firft heat changes a figure
which appeared to be finilhed into a very light Iketch.
The two principal caufes of the changes which co¬
lours on enamel and foft porcelain are fufceptible of ex¬
periencing do not depend in any manner on the compo-
fition *f thefe colours, but on the nature of the glafs to
which they are applied. It follows from what has been
faid, that painting on foft porcelain has need of being
feveral times retouched, and of feveral heats, in order
that it may be carried to the necefiary degree of ftrength.
Thefe paintings have always a certain faintnefs; but they
are conftantly more brilliant, and they never are attend¬
ed with the inconvenience of detaching themfelves in
feales.
“ Hard porcelain, according to the divifion which I
have eftablilhed, is the fecond fort of excipient of metal¬
lic colours. This porcelain, as is well known, has for
its bafe a very white clay called kaolin, mixed with a
filiceous and calcareous flux, and for its covering feld-
fpar fufed without an atom of lead.
Colours ap- “ This porcelain, which is that of Saxony, is much
plied to newer at Sevres than the foft porcelain. The colours
hard porce- app]je(j to it are 0f two kinds: the firft, deftined to re-
prefent different obje&s, are baked in a heat very infe¬
rior to that neceffary for baking porcelain. They are
exceedingly numerous and varied, d he others, deftined
to be fufed in the fame heat as that which bakes porce¬
lain, lay themfelves flat, and are much lefs numerous.
The colours of painting are made nearly like thofe def¬
tined for foft porcelain ; they only contain more flux.
Their flux is compofed of glafs of lead and borax.
When porcelain is expofed to heat in order to bake the
colours, the covering of feldfpar dilates itfelf and opens
its pores, but does not become foft: as the colours do
not penetrate it, they experience none of thofe changes
which they undergo on foft porcelain. It muft how¬
ever, be faid that they lofe a little of their intenfity by
acquiring that tranfparency which is given to them by
fufion.
« One of the greateft inconveniences of thefe colours,
efpecially in the manufa&ory of Sevres, is the facility
with which they fcale off when expofed feveral times in
the fire^
“ To remedy this defe<ft without altering the quality
of the pafte, I was of opinion that the cruft only ought
to be foftened by introducing into it more filiceous or PofcefaSt
calca reous flax, according to the nature of the feldfpar. " ' v"*"—1
This method has fucceeded •, and for about a year paft
the colours might be expofed two or three times to the
fire without fealing, if not overcharged with flux, and if
not laid on too thick.
“ The third lort of excipient of vitrifiable metallic
colours is glafs without lead.
64
“ The application of thefe colours to glafs conftitutesand to gki
painting on glafs j an aft very much practifed fome cen*
turies ago, and which was fuppofed to be loft becaufe
out of faihion 5 but it has too dire£l a dependence on
painting in enamel and porcelain to be entirely loft.
“ The matters and fluxes which enter into the com-
pofition of the colours employed on glafs are in general
the fame as thofe applied to porcelain. Neither ef them
differ but in theif proportions 5 but there are a great
number of enamel or porcelain colours which cannot be
applied to glafs, where they are deprived of the white
ground which ferves to give them relief.
Of Colours in particular.
“ After collecting the general phenomena exhibited
by each clafs of vitrifiable colours, confidered in regard
to the body on which they are applied, I muft make
known the moft interefting particular phenomena exhi¬
bited by each principal kind of colours employed on
foft porcelain and glafs in a porcelain furnace.
Of Reds, Purples, and Violets, made from Gold.
Carmine red is obtained by the purple precipitate of
caflius : it is mixed with about fix parts of its flux ; and
this mixture is employed direClly, without being fufed.
It is then of a dirty violet, but by baking it acquires a
beautiful red carmine colour : it is, however, exceed¬
ingly delicate ; a little too much heat and carbonaceous
vapours eafily fpoil it. On this account it is more beau¬
tiful when baked with charcoal than with wood.
“ This colour and the purple, which is very little dif¬
ferent, as well as all the (hades obtained from it, by
mixing it with other colours, really change on all por¬
celain and in every hand. But it is the only one that
changes on hard porcelain. Its place may be fupplied
by a rofe-colour from iron which does not change j fo
that by fupprefling the carmine made with gold, and
fubftituting for it the rofe oxide of iron here alluded to,
you may exhibit a palette compofed of colours none of
which change in a remarkable manner. This rofe-co-
loured oxide of iroa has been long known ; but it was
not employed on enamel, becaufe on that fubftance it
changes too much. As the painters on enamel, how¬
ever, have become the painters ®n porcelain, they have
preferved their ancient method.
“ It might be believed that, by firft reducing to a:
vitreous matter the colour called carmine already mixed
with its flux, it might be made to affume its laft tint.
But the heat neceffary to fufe this vitreous mafs deftroys
the red colour, as I have experienced. Befides, it is
remarked that, to obtain this colour very beautiful, it
muft be expofed to the fire as few times as poflible.
“ The carmine for foft porcelain is made with fulmi¬
nating gold flowly decompofed, and muriate of filver ‘r
no tin enters into it j which proves that the combination
of the oxide of this metal with that of gold is not necef¬
fary to the exiftence of the purple colour.
4
Violet
P 0 R [ 199 3 FOR
rtelain. “ Violet is made alfo with purple oxide of gold. A
-y~-greater quantity of lead in the flux is what gives it this
colour, which is almoft the lame crude or baked.
“ Thefe three colours totally difappear when expofed
to a great porcelain heat.
Carmine and purple have given us in glafs tints
only of a dirty violet. The violet, on the other hand,
produces on glafs a very beautiful effeft, but it is liable
to turn blue. I have not yet been able to difcover the
caufe of this lingular change, which I faw for the firfl
time a few days ago.
Reel, Rofe, and Brown Colours, extruded from Iron.
“ Thefe colours are made from red oxide of iron pre¬
pared with nitric acid. Thefe oxides are further cal¬
cined by keeping them expofed to the adtion of heat.
If heated too much, they pafs to brown.
“ Their flux is compofed of borax, fand, and minium,
in fmall quantity.
“ Thefe oxides give rofc and red colours capable of
fupplying the place of the fame colours made with oxide
of gold. When properly employed on hard porcelain,
they do not change at all. I have caufed rofes to be
painted with thefe colours, and found no difference be¬
tween the baked flower and that not baked, except
what might be expedted to refult from the brilliancy
given to colours by fulion.
“ Thefe colours may be employed indiferiminately,
either previoufiy fufed or not fufed.
“ In a great heat tliey in part difappear, or produce
a dull brick red ground, which is not agreeable.
“ The compofition of them is the fame both for foft
porcelain and for glafs. They do not change on the
latter 5 but on foft porcelain they difappear almoft en¬
tirely on the firft expofure to heat, and to make any
thing remain they muft be employed very deep.
“ This Angular effedt muft be aferibed to the pre¬
fence of lead in the cruft or glazing. I affured myfelf
of this by a very Ample experiment. I placed this co¬
lour on window glafs, and having expofed it to a ftrong
baking, it did not change.
“ I covered feveral parts of it with minium ; and
again expoflng it to the Are, the colour was totally re¬
moved in the places where the red oxide of lead had
been applied.
“ By performing this operation on a larger fcale in
clofe veffels, a large quantity of oxygen gas was diten*
gaged.
“ It appears tome that this obfervation clearly proves
the adlion of oxidated lead on glafs as a deftroyer of co¬
lour : it is feen that it does not aft, as was believed, by
burning the combuftible bodies, which might tarnilh the
glafs, but by diffolving, difcolouring, or volatilizing
with it the oxide of iron, which might alter its tranf-
parency.
'Yellows.
“ Yellows are colours which require a great deal of
care in the fabrication on account of the lead which they
contain, and which, approaching fometimes to the me¬
tallic ftate, produces on them black fpots.
“ The yellows for hard and foft porcelain are the
fime : they are compofed of the oxide' of lead, white
aside of antimony, and fand.
w’Qxide of tin is fometimes mixed with them 5 and;
when it is required to have them livelier, and nearer Porcelain..
the colour dufouci, red oxide of iron is added, the too *
great rednefs of which is diftipated in the previous fu-
Aon to which they are expofed by the aftion of the lead
contained in this yellow. Thefe colours, when once
made, never change : they difappear, however, almofl:
entirely when expofed to a porcelain heat.
“ Thefe yellows cannot be applied to glafs : they
are too opake and dirty. That employed by the old
painters on glafs has, on the contrary, a beautiful tranf-
parency, is exceedingly brilliant, and of a colour which
approaches near to that of gold. The proceffes which
they gave clearly fliowed that Alver formed part of their
compoAtion ; but, when exaftly followed, nothing fa-
tisfaftory was obtained. C. Miraud, whom I have al¬
ready had occaAon to mention, has found means to make
as beautiful paintings on glafs as the ancients, by em¬
ploying muriate of Alver, oxide of zinc, white argil, and
yellow oxide of iron. Thefe colours are applied on glafe
merely pounded, and without a flux. The oxide of iron
brings the yellow to that colour which it ought to have
after baking, and contributes with the argil and oxide of
zinc to decompofe the muriate of Alver without deoxida¬
ting the Alver. After the baking, there remains a dull
which has not penetrated into the glafs, and which is-
eaAly removed.
“ This yellow, when employed thicker, gives darker-
{hades, and produces a ruffet.
Blues.
“ It is well known that thefe are obtained from the^
oxide of cobalt. All chemifts are acquainted with the-
preparation of them. Thofe of Sevres, which are juftly
efteemed for their beauty, are indebted for it only to the'
care employed in manufafturing them, and to the qua¬
lity of the porcelain, which appears more proper for re¬
ceiving them in proportion to the degree of heat which
it can bear.
“ I remarked refpefting the oxide of cobalt a faft
which is perhaps not known to chemifts : it is volatile
in a violent heat : it is to this property we mull aferibe
the blueilh tint always affumed by white in the neigh¬
bourhood of the blue. I have placed exprefsly on pur-
pofe, in the fame cafe* a white piece clofe to a blue one,
and found that the fide of the white piece next the blue
became evidently blueilh.
“ The blue of hard porcelain, deftined for what is
called the ground for a great heat (les fonds au grand
feu) is fufed with;feldfpar •, that of foft porcelain has
for its flux Alex, potalh, and lead : it is not'volatilized
like the preceding •, but the heat it experiences is very
inferior to that of hard porcelain.
“ Thefe colours, when previoufly fufed* do not change
at all in the application.
“ Blues on glafs exhibit the fame phenomena as thofe
on foft porcelain. .
Greens.
“ The greens employed in painting are made with
green oxide of copper, or fometimes with a mixture of
yellow or blue. They muft be previoufly fufed with their
flux, otherwife they will become black j but after this
firft fufion they no longer change.
“ They cannot ftand a ftrong heat, as it would make
them difappear. entirely,. Green, grounds for a ftrong
heat i
P O R [ 200 ] P 0 R
Porcelain heat are compofed with the oxides of cobalt and nic-
   ' kel, but a brovvnilh green only is obtained.
“ Blueifh greens called celeJHal blues, which were
formerly colours very much in vogue, can be applied
only upon foft porcelain ; on hard porcelain they con-
ftantly become fcaly, becaufe potalh enters into their
-compolition.
“ Thefe greens cannot be applied on glafs : they
give a dirty colour. To obtain a green on glafs, it is
neceflary to put yellow on one fide, and .blue, more
or lefs pale, on the other. This colour may be made
alfo by a mixture of blue with yellow oxide of iron.
I hope to obtain from oxide of chrome a direft green
colour. The trials I have made give me reafon to hope
for fuceefs. Pure chromate of lead, which I applied to
porcelain in a ftrong heat, gave me a pretty beautiful
green of great intenfity and very fixed.
Biflres and Rujfets.
“ Thefe are obtained by mixtures in different pro¬
portions of manganefe, brown oxide of copper, and ox¬
ide of iron from ombre earth. They are alfo previoufly
fufed with their flux, fo that they do not change in any
manner on foft porcelain, as lead has not the fame ac¬
tion on oxide of manganefe as on that of iron, as I af-
fured myfelf by an experiment fimilar to that already
mentioned.
“ This colour fades very fpeedily on glafs.
“ Rulfet grounds in a great heat, known under the
name oi tortoife-Jhe/lgrounds, are made in the fame man¬
ner. Their flux is feldfpar : no titanium enters into
their compofition, though faid fo in all printed works.
Titanium was not known at the manufa&ory of Sevres
when I arrived there. I treated this Angular metal in
various ways, and never obtained but grounds of a pale
dirty yellow, and very variable in its tone.
Blacks,.
“ Blacks are the colours moft difficult to be obtained
very beautiful. No metallic oxide gives alone a beauti¬
ful black. Manganefe is that which approaches neareft
to it. Iron gives an opake, dull, cloudy black, which
changes very eafily to red : the colour-makers, there¬
fore, to obtain a black which they could not hope for
from the bell theorifl, have united feveral metallic ox¬
ides which feparately do not give black, and have ob¬
tained a very beautiful colour, which, however, is liable
to become fcaly and dull.
“ Thefe oxides are thofe of manganefe, the brown
oxides of copper, and a little of the oxide of cobalt.
The gray is obtained by fuppreffing the copper, and in-
creafing the dofe of the flux.
“ The manufactory of Sevres is the only one which
has hitherto produced beautiful blacks in a ftrong heat.
This is owing rather to the quality of its pafte than to
any peculiar proceffes, fince it does not conceal them.
It is by darkening the blue by the oxides of manganefe
and iron that they are able in that manufactory to ob¬
tain very brilliant blacks.
“ Having here made known the principles of the fs-
brication of each principal colour, it may be readily
conceived that by mixing thefe colours together all the
lhades poflible may be obtained. It is evident alfo that
care in the preparation, choice in the raw materials, and
2, juft proportion of dofes, muft produce in the refults
differences very fenfible to an eye accuftomed to paint- Porcelain", j
ing. A mere knowledge of the compofition of the co- t
lours does not give the talent of executing them well.
“ In recapitulating the fadls above mentioned, to pre-
fent them under another general point of view, it is feen,
“ ift, That among colours generally employed on Fafts rela.
hard porcelain one only is fufceptible of changing, viz. j;lve t0 co-
carmine, and the tints into which it enters: ^hat its*0^^1'
place may be fupplied by the reds of iron, and that no1 '
colour then changes.
“ I have prefented to the Inftitute a head not baked,
executed according to this method : and the painting of
two rofes, that of the one baked, and that of the other
not baked. It has been feen that there w'as no differ¬
ence betAveen them.
“ 2d, That among the colours for foft porcelain and
enamel, feveral change in a confiderable degree. Thefe
are principally the reds of gold and iron, the yellows,
the greens, the browns. They have not been replaced
by others, becaufe this kind of painting has been almoft
abandoned.
“ 3d, That feveral of the colours on glafs change
alfo by acquiring complete tranfparency. Thefe in par¬
ticular are the yellows and greens.
“ 4th, That it is neither by calcinating the colours in
a higher degree, nor previoufly fufing them, as fuppofed
by fome, that they are prevented from changing, fince
thefe means really alter the changing colours, and pro¬
duce no effedt on the reft. The change which feveral
colours experience on foft porcel&in and on glafs does
not then depend on the nature of their compofition, but
rather on that of the body on which they are applied.
“ Confequently, by fuppreffing from the colours of
hard porcelain the carmine of gold, which is not indi-
fpenfably neceffary, we (hall have a feries of colours
which do not change.” 66
As it muft be of no fmall importance to the chemical Refults of
manufadlurer to be acquainted with the refults of ex- exP^r™*!'j
periments on fhe effecls of heat, when applied to dif-forpor* j
ferent proportions of the materials employed in making ceiain im.
porcelain, or other analogous ware, we {hall infert the portant.
following tables, exhibiting thofe refults. The firft ta¬
ble contains the refults of the numerous experiments of
Achard and Morveau on the vitrification of earths wdth
faline bodies. The mixture of the earths and falts was
made in a clay crucible, and, in the experiments of Mor¬
veau, the crucible was expofed for two hours to a heat
from 22° to 26° of Wedgwood’s pyrometer; but in thofe
of Achard, the crucible was kept for three hours in the
heat of a ftrong wind furnace, in which the tempera¬
ture was probably higher than the former.
The fecond table prefents a view of the effefrs of the
vitrification of earths by means of metallic oxides. The
mixtures were expofed in earthen crucibles to the heat
of a porcelain furnace during the whole time required
to bake porcelain ware.
In the third table are exhibited the curious refults of
the effefts of vitrifying materials on the crucibles in
which the vitrification takes place. It is to be obferv-
ed, that the effe6ls of the fame materials, and in the
fame proportions, are very different, in different veffels $
and without attending to this circumftance, very erro¬
neous conclufions will be drawn in eftimating the action
of vitrifiable fubftances on each other. This diverfity
of the effe&s of the fame materials iu different crucibles,
was
P O R t 201 ] P O R
foKe'nin. was firft noticed by Pott. The fubjefl: was ftlll farther
profecuted by Gerrard, who made a number of experi¬
ments, from which he obtained the refults expreffed in
the table. He expofed various natural minerals to a de¬
gree of heat fufficient to melt call iron for an hour, un¬
der precifely the fame circumftances, with this difference Porcelain*
only, that one fpecimen of each mineral was inclofed in ' ^ " ''
a crucible of clay, another in one of chalk, and a third
in one of charcoal. The difference of the refult which
is given in the tables was particularly hoticed.
Mixture.
A. Silex
Carbonate of potafli
M. Silex
Carbonate of foda (dry)
A. Silex
Carbonate of potafli
A. Silex
Carbonate of potafli
M. Silex
Borax (calcined)
A. Silex
Boracic acid
A. Silex
Boracic acid
Table I. Shewing the Refults of the Vitrification of Earths with Saline Bodies.
Refults.
j ^ A yellow glafs, not hard enough to give fparks with fteel.
2 ^ A colourlefs trahfparent glafs, but deliquefeent from the excefs of alkali,
jA yellow glafs, not fcintillant.
A vitriform mafs, yellow, hard, and fcintillant.
^ A beautiful tranfparent glafs, not at all foluble in water*
J A white porcellanous mafs, fcarcely feintillant.
jj- A hard tranfparent glafs—-fcintillant.
j ’A white opake melted porous mafs—fcintillant*
3* J A tranfparent glafs—hard and fcintillant.
j ^ A mafs refembling agate—but perfeftly fufed and fcintillant.
j ‘ A green fcintillant glafs.
^ A foft green tranfparent glafs.
2* Scoria—the crucible entirely deftroyed*
Phofphate of foda and ammonia 2]} A wWte °Pake’ P11^ vitreous mafs, deliquefeent, and reddening litnus*
2* ^ A wh*te fpongy opake mafs, crumbling between the fingers.
1 1 ^ar^7 fufed—the reft pulverulent—the crucible ftrongly corroded-
2* ^ A well-fufed, poliftied, black fcintillant glafs.
A. Silex
Boracic acid
A. Silex
Calcined borax
A. Silex
Calcined borax
A. Silex
Sulphate of foda
A. Silex
Nitre
A. Silex
Common fait
M. Silex
M. Lime
Carbonate of foda
A. Chalk
Carbonate of potafli
A. Chalk
Carbonate of potafli
A. Chalk
Carbonate of potafli
M. Lime
Borax
A. Chalk
Borax
A. Chalk
Borax
A. Chalk
Boracic acid
Voi. XVII. Part L
4’ ^ Remained a white powder.
*A fine tranfparent yellowifti glafs—the crucible ftrongly corroded,
j ^ A well-fufed, black, fcintillant, poliftied mafs.
1 ^ A yellow fcintillant glafs.
2 ^ A yellow glafs—run through the crucible.
Cc
Porctilain.
p o n
Mixture.
[ 202 ]
FOB,
A.
A.
A.
A.
M.
M.
A.
A.
jvi.
A.
A.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
Refult,
Porcelain,
A hard yellow fcintillant glafs.
A hard brown fcoria—the crucible totally deftroycd.
jA hard yellow glafs.
^ A yellow fcintillant glafs—the crucible entirely deftroyed.
Chalk
Sulphate of foda
Chalk
Sulphate of foda
Chalk
Nitrate of foda
Chalk
Common fait
Jr.111!-6! c "r i J- A white opake crumbly mafs.
Phofphate of foda and ammonia 2. j r
Alumine - * X’ 7- A pray opake ill-fufed fritt, not cohering to the crucible and deliquefeentv
Carbonate of foda - 2. j 6 J r
Alumine - - 4-T
Carbonate of foda and potato in >■ Remained unmelted and uncohering,
all proportions from I to I2.J
Alumine
Carbonate of potato
Alumine
Borax
Alumine
Borax
Alumine
Boracic acid
^ Partially melted, but foft and friable.
* ‘ A fine tranfparent clear green glafs.
X^ Remained pulverulent.
X’ ^-Part unfufed and remaining pulverulent, the reft partially melted.
Alumine " " . 1 ’ 7^ A green fritt eafily friable.
Phofphate of foda and ammonia 2. 3 &
X ’ ^ A white opake uncohering mafs.
1. T A femi-tranfparent fomewhat milky glafs of a gelatinous appearance, but
2. j very hard and brilliant on the furface.
 o- . . , , . I* {• A white mafs a little agglutinated but not adhering to the crucible.
Phofphate of foda and ammonia 2. 3 ^
X’ ^ A very hard femi-vitrified mafs, of a clear green.
1.7 A beautiful tranfparent glafs with a faint yellow tinge, ftrongly adhering
2. 3 to the crucible.
Magnesia
Carbonate of foda
Magnefia
Borax
a
Magnefia
Barytes (pure)
Carbonate of foda
ijarytes - - -
Borax -
Barytes - - - . 1 ‘ f A remarkably fine tranfparent glafs.
Phofphate of foda and ammonia 2. J '
Table II. Containing the Refults of the Vitrification of Earths by Metallic Oxides.
Mixture.
Silex
Oxide of iron
Sjlex
Oxide of iron
Silex
Oxide of iron
Silex
Oxide of copper
Silex
Oxide of copper
Refult.
Scoria
Not fufed
^ Scoria run through the crucible
1}
Not fufed.
Not fufed.
Colour and Texture.
Black and poliftied—hard, giving fparks-
with fteel.
Black and friable.
Black and hard—fcintillant..
Sile*
p
porcelain,
Mixture,
Silex
Oxide of lead
Silex
Oxide of lead
Silex
Oxide of lead
Silex
Oxide of tin
Silex
Oxide of tin
Silex
Oxide of bifmuth
Silex
Oxide of bifmuth
Silex
Oxide of antimony
Silex
Oxide of antimofiy
Silex
Oxide ef zinc
Silex
Oxide of zinc
Silex - '
Oxide of zinc
Lime (carbonated)
Oxide of iron
Lime
Oxide of copper
Lime
^Oxide of copper
Lime
Oxide of copper
Lime
Oxide of lead
Lime
Oxide of lead
Lime
Oxide of lead
Lime
Oxide of tin
Lime
Oxide of tin
Lime
Oxide of tin
Lime
Oxide of tin
Lime
Oxide of bifmuth
Ligie
Oxide of antimony
OB [ 203 3
Rcfult,
A folid mafs but not fufed
*’*j- Fufed, porous, and ferai-vitrified
-j
Perfeft glafs
1‘ >• A coherent mafs
i-A
*' Vitrified
^-Remained in powder.
;:}
I
1. 3
Perfeft glafs
\ Glafs
r.}
Not melted » . -
Remained in powder. - «.
Melted only where touching the crucible.
X Perfectly fufed
I
2-3
I.
3* 3
j A melted porous mafs
1. '*3 Melted, polilhed in the frafture, part of the
i.j copper reduced
3’ Melted, but porous
4'^. Part only melted, the reft pulverulent
'•|Glafs - - . -
Glafs rtm through the crucible
Remained in powder.
I’ ?• Semi-vitrified
1.3
Glafs
Melted only where touching the crucible
4* | Glafs - -
^ Vitriform mafs - * -
Glafs penetrating the crucible *
FOR
Colour and Texture,
White and hard.
Yellow—not fcintillant.
'Green—not fcintillant.
Gray—eafibly friable.
Greenilh yellow—not fcintillanf-.
Deep yellow—not fcintillant.
1
Colourlefs—fcintillant.
Gray and friable.
White—hard.
Gray—^fcintillank.
Black—fcintillant.
Red—fcintillant.
The fame.
Gray.
Greenifh yellow—fcintillant;
Yellow—fcintillant.
Yellow—fcintillant.
Greenilh yellow—fcintillant.
Gray.
Greenilh yellow—fcintillant.
Green.
Y ellow—fcintillant.
1
C p a
porcelain.
Lime
Porcelain. Mixture.
Lime
Oxide of antimony
Lime
Oxide of antimony
Lime
Oxide of antimony
Lima
Oxide of zinc
Alumine
Oxide of iron
Alumine
Oxide of iron
FOR t 204 3
'Refult.
jRemained in powder.
1.
4-J
[■ Glafs penetrating the crucible
^ A femi-tranfparent polifhed mafs
| Glafs
Alumine
Oxide of copper
Alumine
Oxide of copper -
Alumine
Oxide of lead
Alumine
Oxide of lead
Alumine
Oxide of lead
Alumine
Oxide of tin
Alumine
Oxide of bifmuth
Alumine
Oxide of antimony
Alumine
Oxide of zinc
Magnesia
Oxide of iron
Magnefia
Oxide of copper
Magnolia
Oxide of lead
Magnefia
Oxide of lead
Magnefia
Oxide of antimony
**^J- Only partially fufed.
^ A melted porous mafs
^ Only partially fufed.
^j- The fame.
Remained in powder.
P O R
Colour and Texture.
Deep yellow—fcintillant.
Gray yellow—fcintillant.
Deep yellorv—fcintillant.
Black-—fcintillant.
Porcelain.
3:}
The fame.
Glafs
A melted porous mafs, not polilhed in the 7
frafture £
Deep yellow—-fcintillant;
Gray—feint illan t.
I.
^ ^ Partially fufed.
^ Only partially fufed.
Remained in powder.
^ Half fufed, but not cohering.
A porous half-fufed mafs
Gray—fcintillan h
I]
2 ^ Beginning to fufe
Not fufed.
A porous melted mafs, part of the oxide re¬
duced.
Gray—fcintillant.
Table III. Shewing the ASlion of the Vitrifying matters on the Crucibles that contain them.
Subjlances ufed.
Common flint.
f.H
Gypfum.
Refult in the Clay crucible Refult in the Chalk crucible
(A).
(B).
Opake and milk-white,but Opake and white, but with As in A.
Refult in the Charcoal-
crucible (C).
without fufioo.
Run into a green glafs.
Run into a radiated green No change*
glafs.
beginning fufion where in
contact with the cruci¬
ble.
No chang*.
No change.
No change.
Fluey
Porcelain
P
Subjlances ufe3.
Porcupine- Fluor f
Man. *■
OR [. 4°5 3. p
Refult in the Clay crucible Refult in the Chalk crucible
(A.) (B).
Melted and ran through Melted down with the cru-
the crucible. cible to a tough flag.
Porcelain clay.
Ditto, another kind.
Reddle.
Jafper.
Mufcovy talc.
Spanifli chalk.
Bafalt.
Compact, white and no figns
of fufion.
A compadl mafs partially
melted.
A black glafs covered with
a cruft of reduced iron.
No fufion, but the colour
changed to brown.
A black glafs with inter-
fperfed grains of iron.
Only hardened.
Brown-yellow glafs with a
cruft of iron.
Run into a hard blue clear
glafs.
A perfectly black glafs.
A femitranfparent apple-
green glafs.
Completely fufed in theparts
touching the crucible.
The whole crucible was pe¬
netrated with a fcoria fo
as not to fall to powder
on expofure to air.
Agrayfemitranfparent glafs
A green fcoria, alfo with a
cruft of iron.
O R
Refult in the Charcoal cru¬
cible (C).
Scarcely altered, except
flight fufion at the
edges.
As in A.
Porcelain
II
Porifm.
As in A.
A brown fcoria containing
grains of iron.
As in A.
As in A
As in A.
A green glafs with many
grains of iron.
For an account of fome valuable experiments of a fi-
milar nature, which were made by the celebrated Kla¬
proth, in crucibles of clay and charcoal, in which the
differences of the refults are very ftriking, the reader is
referred to his Analyt. Effays, or to Aikin’s Di£tionary
®f Chemiftry and Mineralogy.
PORCELAIN-Shellj a fpecies of Cypr^a. See Cy-
PRJEA, Conchology Index.
PORCH, in Architedhire, a kind of veftibule fup-
ported by columns j much ufed at the entrance of the
ancient temples, halls, churches, &c.
A porch, in the ancient architecture, was a veftibule,
or a difpofition of infulated columns ufually crowned
with a pediment, forming a covert place before the
principal door of a temple or court of juftice. Such is
that before the door of St Paul’s, Covent-Garden, the
work of Inigo Jones. When a porch had four columns
in front, it was called a tetrafyle ; when fix, hexafyle;
when eight, o&ofyle, &c.
Porch, in Greek a public portico in Athens',
adorned with the piftures of Polygnotus and other emi¬
nent painters. It was in this portico that Zeno the phi-
lofopher taught ; and hence his followers w7ere called
Stoics. See Stoics and Zeno.
PORCUPINE. See Hystrpx, Mammalia Index.
PORCUPINE-Man, the name by which one Edward
Lambert, who had a diftempered fldn, went in Lon¬
don. We have the following account of him in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1755, by Mr Henry
Baker, F. R. S. “ He is now (fays he) 40 years of age,
and it is 24 years fince he wras firft fliown to the focie-
9 ty. The {kin of this man, except on his head and face,
the palms of his hands, and the foies of his feet, is co¬
vered with excrefcences that referable an innumerable
company of warts, of a brown colour and cylindrical fi¬
gure $ all rifing to an equal height, which is about an
inch, and growing as clofe as poflible to each other at
their bafis ; but fo ftiff and elaftic as to make a ruft-
ling noife when the hand is drawn over them. Thefe
excrefcences are annually fhed, and renewed in fome of
the autumn or winter months. The new ones, which
are of a paler colour, gradually rife up from beneath as
the old ones fall off j and at this time it has been found
weceffary for him to lofe a little blood, to prevent a flight
I
ficknefs which he had been ufed to fuffer before this pre¬
caution was taken. He has had the fmallpox, and he has
been twice falivated, in hopes to get rid of this difagree-
able covering ; but though juft when the puftules of the
fmallpox had fcaled off, and immediately after his fali-
vations, his Ikin appeared white and fmooth, yet the
excrefcences foon returned by a gradual increafe, and his
Ikin became as it was before. His health, during his
whole life has been remarkably good •, but there is one
particular of his cafe, more extraordinary than all the
reft ; this man has had fix children, and all of them"
had the fame rugged covering as himfelf, which came
on like his own about nine weeks after the birth. Of
thefe children only one is now living, a pretty boy,
who was fhown with his father. It appears therefore^
as Mr Baker remarks, that a race of people might bo
propagated by this man, as different from other men as
an African is from an Englilhman ; and that if this
ftiould have happened in any former age, and the acci¬
dental original have been forgotten, there would be the
fame objections againft their being derived from the
fame common ftock with others : it muff therefore be
admitted poflible, that the differences now fubfifting
between one part of mankind and another may have
been produced by fome fuch accidental caufe, long af¬
ter the earth has been peopled by one common proge¬
nitor.”
PORE, in Anatomy, a little interftice or fpace be¬
tween the parts of the {kin, ferving for perfpiration.
PORELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index.
PORENTRU, a town of Switzerland, in Elfgaw,
and capital of the territory of the bifhop of Bafle, which
is diftinguiftied only by its caftle and cathedral. The
bifhop was formerly a prince of the empire. It is feated
on the river Halle, near Mount Jura, 22 miles fouth of
Bafle. E. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 47. 34.
PORISM, in Geometry, is a name given by the an¬
cient geometers to two claffes of mathematical propefi-
tions. Euclid fgives this name to propofitions w'hich
are involved in others which he is profeffedly inveftiga-
ting, and which, although not his principal objeCl, are
yet obtained along with it, as is expreffed by their name
porifmuta^ “ acquifitions.” Such propofitiyns are now
called i
FOR [ 2c6 ] FOR
PSrifm. called corollaries. But lie gives tlie fame name, by way
““’“v of eminence, to a particular clafs of propofitions which
he collected in the courfe of his refearches, and leledled
from among many others on account of their great fub-
ferviency to the bufinefs of geometrical invelligation in
general. Thefe proportions were fo named by him,
either from the way in which he difeovered them, while
he was inveftigating fomething elfe, by which means
they might be conlidered as gains or acquifitions, or from
'■‘heir utility in acquiring farther knowledge as fteps in
the In\\“digation. In this fenfe they are ponfmataj for
ligniheS both to inveftigate and to acquire by in-
vettigation. Theie propofitions formed a collection,
which was familiarly known to the ancient geometers
by the name of Euclid’s porifms; and Pappus of Alex¬
andria fays, that it was a moft ingenious oolledtion of
many things conducive to the analyfis or folution of the
molt difficult problems, and which afforded great delight
to thofe who were able to underltand and to inveltigate
them.
Unfortunately for mathematical fcience, this valua¬
ble colledtion is now loft, and it ftill remains a doubtful
queftion in what manner the ancients condufted their
refearches upon this curious lubje£t. We have, howe¬
ver, reafon to believe that their method wras excellent
both in principle and extent j for their analy fis led them
to many profound difeoveries, and vras reftri&ed by the
fevereft logic. The only account we have of this clafs
of geometrical propofitions, is in a fragment of Pappus,
in which he attempts a general defeription of them as a
fet of mathematical propofitions, diftinguilhable in kind
from all others; but of this defetiption nothing remains,
except a criticifm on a definition of them given by fome
geometers, and with which he finds fault, as defining
them only by an accidental circumfiance, “ A Porifm
is that which is deficient in hypothefis from a local theo¬
rem.'I'>
Pappus then proceeds to give an account of Euclid’s
porifms; but the enunciations are fo extremely defective,
at the fame time that they refer to a figure now loft,
that Dr Halley confeffes the fragment in queftion to be
beyond his comprehenfion.
The high encomiums given by Pappus to thefe pro-
pofftions have excited the curiofity of the greateft geo¬
meters of modern times, who have attempted to dif-
cover their nature and manner of inveftigation. M.
Fermat, a French mathematician of the J 7th century,
attaching himfelf to the definition which Pappus cri-
tifes, publifhed an introdmftion (for this is its modeft
title) to this fubjeft, which many others tried to eluci¬
date in vain. At length Dr Simfon, Profeffor of Ma¬
thematics in the Univerfity of Glafgow, was fo fortu¬
nate as to fucceed in reftoring the Porifms of Euclid.
The account he gives of his progrefs and the obftacles
he encountered will always be interefting to mathema¬
ticians. In the preface to his treatife De Porifmutibus,
he fays, “ Poftquam vero apud Pappuro legeram Porif-
mata Euclidis Colle&ionerrt fuiffe artificiofiffimam mul-
tarum rerum, quse fpe&ant ad analyfin difficiliorum el
•generalium problematum, magno defiderio tenebar, alb
quid de iis cognofeendi ; quare faepius et multis variifque
vns turn Pappi prepofitionem generalem, mancam et im-
perfeftam, turn primum lib. I. porifma, quod, ut diftum
ffiit, folum ex omnibus in tribus libris integrum adhuc
roanet, inteliigere et reftituere conabar ; fruftra tamen,
■2
nihil enim proficiebam. Cumque cogitationes de hac re Poiifm,
multum mihi temporisconiumpferiut, atque tandem mo-
leftae admodurn evaferint, firmiter animum induxi nun-
quam in pofterum inveftigare ; pnefertim cum optimus
Geometra Halleius fpem omnem de iis intelligendis ab~
jeciffet. Unde quoties menti oeeurre&ant, toties eas
arcebam. Poftea tamen aecidit ut improvidum et pro-
pofiti immemorem invaferint, meque detinuerint donee
tandem lux-quEedam eliulferit quse fpem mihi faciebat
inveniendi faltem Pappi piopuationem generalem, quam
quidem multa inveftigatimie tandem reftitui. Hsec au-
tem paulo poft una cum Poriimate prime lib. I. impreffa
eft interTranfaftionesPhiioophieas anni 1723, N0i77.”
Dr Simfon’s Reftoration ha all the appearance of be-
irg juft; ir preciltly cornfpond- to Pappus’s defeription
of them. AH the lemmas which Pappus has given for
the better underftartding of Euclid’s propofitions are
equally applicable to thofe of Dr Simfon, which are
found to differ from local the: re ms precifely as Pappue
affirms thofe of Euclid to haw done. They require a
particular mode ol analyfis, and are of immenfe fervice
in geometrical inveftigation; on which account they
may jultly claim our attention.
While Dr Simfon was employed in this inquiry, he
carried on a correfpondence upon the fubjedl with the
late Dr M. Stewart, profeffor of mathematics in the
univerfity of Edinburgh; who, befides entering into Dr
Simfon’s views, and communicating to him many curi¬
ous porifms, purfued the fame fubjeft in a new and very
different direction. He publilhed the refult of his in¬
quiries in 1746, under the title of General Theorems,
not wiftiing to give them any other name, left he might
appear to anticipate the labours of his friend and for¬
mer preceptor. The greater part of the propofitions
contained in that work are porifms, but without de-
monftrations; therefore, whoever wifties to invefligate
one of the moft curious fubjefts in geometry, will there
find abundance of materials, and an ample field for dif-
cuffion.
Dr Simfon defines a porifm to be “ a propofition, in
which it is propofed to demonftrate, that one or more
things are given, between which, and every one of in¬
numerable other things not given, but affumed accord¬
ing to a given law, a certain relation deferibed in the
propofition is fhown to take place.”
This definition is not a little obfeure, but will be
plainer if expreffed thus: “ A porifm is a propofition
affirming the poffibility of finding fuch conditions as
will render a certain problem indeterminate, or capable
of innumerable folutions.” This definition agrees with
Pappus’s idea of thefe propofitions, fo far at leaft as
they can be underftood from the fragment already men¬
tioned; for the propofiiions here defined, like thofe
which he deferibes, are, ftri&ly fpeaking, neither theo¬
rems nor problems^ but ol an intermediate nature be¬
tween both; for they neither fimply enunciate a truth
to be demonftrated, nor propofe a queftion to be refol-
ved, but are affirmations of a truth in which the deter¬
mination of an unknown quantity is involved. In as
far, therefore, as they affert that a certain problem may
become indeterminate, they are of the nature of theo¬
rems; and, in as far as they feek to difeover the condi¬
tions by which that is brought about, they are of the
nature of problems.
We ftiall endeavour to make our readers underhand
this
FOR [ 207 ] ' FOR
Porifm. this fubjeft diftin&ly, by confidering them in the
» ' 1' way in which it is probable they occurred te the an¬
cient geometers in the courfe of their refearches : this
will at the fame time (how the nature of the analyfis
peculiar to them, and their great ufe in the folution of
problems.
It appears to be certain, that it has been the folution
of problems which, in all Hates of the mathematical fci-
ences, has led to the difcovery of geometrical truths :
the firft mathematical inquiries, in particular, muft have
occurred in the form of queftions, where fomething was
given, and fomething required to be done j and by the
reafoning neceffary to anfwer thefe queflions, or to dif-
cover the relation between the things given and thofe
to be found, many truths were fuggelled, which came
afterwards to be the fubjedt of feparate demonftra-
tions.
The number of thefe was the greater, becaufe the an¬
cient geometers always undertook the folution of pro¬
blems, with a fcrupulous and minute attention, infomuch
that they would fcarcely fuffer any of the collateral truths
to efcape their obfervation.
Now, as this cautious manner of proceeding gave an
opportunity of laying hold of every collateral truth con-
nedled with the main objedt of inquiry, thefe geometers
foon perceived, that there were many problems which
in certain cafes would admit of no folution whatever, in
confequence of a particular relation taking place among
the quantities which were given. Such problems were
faid to become impoflible ; and it was foon perceived,
that this always happened when one of'the conditions
of the problem was inconfiftent with the red. Thus,
when it was required to divide a line, fo that the redl-
angle contained by its fegments might be equal to a
given fpace, it was found that this was poffible only
when the given fpace was lefs than the (quare of half
the line ; for when it was otherwife, the two conditions
defining, the one the magnitude of the line, and the
other the redtangle of its fegments, were inconfiftent
with each other. Such cafes would occur in the folution
of the moft fimple problems ; but if they wrere more
complicated, it rnuft have been remarked, that the con-
ftrudtions would fometimes fail, for a reafon directly con¬
trary to that juft now aftigned. Cafes would occur,
where the lines, which by their interfedtion were to de¬
termine the thing fought, inftead of interfedting each
other as they did commonly, or of not meeting at all, as
in the above-mentioned cafe of impoffibility, would co¬
incide with one another entirely, and of courfe leave the
problem unrefolved.( It would appear to geometers up¬
on a little refledtion, that fince, in the cafe of determi¬
nate problems, the thing required was determined by the
interfedlion of the two lines already mentioned, that is,
by the points common to both ; fo in the cafe of their
coincidence, as all their parts were in common, every one
of thefe points muft give a folution, or, in other words,
the folutions muft be indefinite in number.
Upon inquiry, it would be found that this proceeded
from fome condition of the problem having been invol¬
ved in another, fo that, in fadt, the two formed but one,
and thus there was not a fufficient number of independ¬
ent conditions to limit the. problem to a (ingle or to any
determinate number of folutions. It would foon be per¬
ceived, that thefe cafes formed very curious propofitions
of an intermediate nature between problems and theo¬
rems $ and that they admitted of being enunciated in a
manner peculiarly elegant and coneife. It was to fuch
propofitions that the ^ancients gave the name of porijhis.
This dedudtion requires to be illuftrated by an example :
fuppofe, therefore, that it were required to refolve the
following problem.
A circle ABC (fig. 1.), a ftraight line DE, and a
point F, being given in pofition, to find a point G in the
ftraight line DE fuch, that GF, the line drawn from it
to the given point, (hall be equal to GB, the line drawn
from it touching the given circle.
Suppofe G to be found, and GB to be drawn touch¬
ing the given circle ABC in B, let H be its centre, join
HB, and let HD be perpendicular to DE. From D
draw DL, touching the circle ABC in L, and join
HL 5 alio from the centre G, with the diftance GB or
GF, defer!be the circle BKF, meeting HD in the points
K and Kk It is evident that HD and DL are given in.
pofition and magnitude : alfo becaufe GB touches the
circle ABC, HBG is a right angle} and fince G is the
centre of the circle BKF, HB touches that circle, and
confequently HB* or HL* —KHxHK'j but becaufe
KK' is bife&td in D, KH x HK' -J- DK * — DH%
therefore HL*-J-DK* —DH*. But HL*-f-LD* —
DH *, therefore DK * =: DL * and DK — DL. But
D L is given in magnitude, thereforeDKis given in mag¬
nitude, and confequently K is a given point. For the fame
reafon K' is a given point, therefore the point F being-
given in pofition, the circle KFK' is given in pofition,
I he point G, which is its centre, is therefore given in
position, which was to be found. Hence this eonltrudtion:
Having drawn HD perpendicular to DE, and DL
touching the circle ABC, make DK and DK' each
equal to DL, and find G the centre of the circle de-
feribed through the points K'FK j that is, let FK' be
joined and bifefted at right angles by MN, which meets
DE in G, G will be the point required j or it will
be fuch a point, that if GB be drawn touching the
circle ABC, and GF to the given point, GB is equal
to GF.
Foriftn,
Plate
CCCCXXXVJT*
fig- 1*
The fynthetical demonftration is ealily derived from
the preceding analyfis; but it muft be remarked, that
in fome cafes this conftrudtion fails.. For, lirft, if Ffall
anywhere in DH, as at F', the line MN becomes paral¬
lel to DE, and the point G is nowhere to be found ; or,
in other words, it is at an infinite diftance from D.—
This is true in general •, but if the given point F coin¬
cide with K, then MN evidently coincides with DE 5
fo that, agreeable to a remark already made, every point
of the line DE may be taken for G, and will fatisfy the
conditions of the problem ; that is to fay, GB will be
equal to GK, wherever the point G is taken in the line
DE : the fame is true if F coincide with K. Thus we
have an inftance of a problem, and that too a very fimple
one, which, in general, admits but of one folution ; but
which, in one particular cafe, when a certain relation
takes place among the things given, becomes indefinite,
and admits of innumerable folutions. The propofition
which refults from this cafe of the problem is a porifm,
and may be thus enunciated :
“ A circle ABC being given by pofition, and alfo a
ftraight line DE, which does not cut the circle, a point
IC may be found, fuch, that if G be any point whatever
in
FOR
t
Porlfm
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3-
in DE, the flraight line drawn from G to the point K
fliall bt equal to the ftraight line drawn from G touch¬
ing the given circle ABC.’'
The problem which follows appears to have kd to
the difcovery of many porifms.
A circle ABC (fig. 2.) and two points D, E, in. a
diameter of it being given, to find a point F in the cir¬
cumference of the given circle1, from which* if ftraight
lines be drawn to the given points E, D, thefe ftraight
lines ftiall have to one another the given ratio of « to/S,
which is fuppofed to be that of a greater to a lefs.- —
Suppofe the problem refolved, and that F is found, fo
that FE has to FD the given ratio of a to ^ ; produce
EF towards B, bifed the angle EFD by FL, and
DFB by FM : therefore EL : LD :: EF : FD, that
is in a given ratio, and fince ED is given, each of the
fegments EL,LD, is given, and the point L is alfo
given •, again, becaufe DFB is bife&ed by FM, EM :
MD :: EF : FD, that is, in a given ratio, and therefore
M is oiven. Since Dt L is half of DtE, and DFM
half of DFB, therefore LFM is half of (DI E-f-DFB),
that is, the half of two right angles, therefore LFM is
a right angle 5 and fince 4;he points L, M, are given,
the point F is in the circumference of a circle defcribed
•upon LM as a diameter, and therefore given in pofition.
Now the point F is alfo in the circumference of the
given circle ABC, therefore it is in the interfe£lion of
the two given circumferences, and therefore is found.
Hence this conftruftion : Divide ED in L,fo that EL
may be to LD in the given ratio of * to /3, and pro¬
duce ED alfo to M, fo that EM may be to MD in the
fame given ratio of «c to $ ; bifedl LM in N, and fr01^1
the centre N, with the diftance NL,defcribe the iemi-
circle LFM; and the point F, in whichit in ter feds
the circle ABC, is the point required.
The fynthetical demonftration is eafijy derived from
the preceding analyfis. It muft, however, be remarked,
that the conftru&ion fails when the circle LFM falls
either wholly within or wholly without the circle ABC,
fo that the circumferences do not interfeft ; and in thefe
cafes the problem cannot be folved. It is alfo obvious
.-that the conftru&ion will fail in another cafe, viz. -when
the two circumferences LFM, ABC, entirely coincide.
In this cafe, it is farther evident, that every point in the
circumference ABC will anfwer the conditions of the
problem, which is therefore capable of numberlefs folu-
tions, and may, as in the former inftances, be converted
into a porifm. We are now to inquire, therefore, in
what circumftances the point L will coincide wdth A,
and alfo the point M with C, and of confequence the
circumference LFM with ABC. If we fuppofe that
they coincide* JFA.: AD :: os: £ :: EC : CD, and EA
: EC :: AD : CD* or by converfion, EA: AC :: AD:
CD AD :: AD : 2DO, O being the centre of the
circle ABC ; therefore, alfo, EA : AO : : AD : DO,
and by compofition, EO : AO :: AO : DO, therefore
EO xODrrAO1. Hence, if the given points E and
D (fig. 3.) be fo fituated that EO X OD X AO% and
at the fame time^os : /3 :: E A : AD :: EC : CD, the
problem admits of numberlefs folutions; and if either of
the points D or E be given, the other point, and alfo
the ratio which will render the problem indeterminate,
may be found. Hence we have this porifm :
“ A circle ABC, and alfo a point D being given,
another point E may be found, fuch that the two lines
oS ] ? O 11
inflected from thefe points to any point in the circim Pfirifn,.
ference ABC, ihall have to each other a given rtio,y—
which ratio is alfo to be found.” Hence alfo we nve
an example of the derivation of porilms from one no-
ther; for the circle ABC, and the points D and Lre-
maining as before (fig. 3.), if, through D we raw
any line whatever HDB, meeting the circle in Brad
H"; and if the lines EB, EH be alfo drawn, thefe bes
will cut off equal circumferences BF, HG. LetFC
be drawn, and it is plain from the foregoing antrHis,
that the angles DEC, CEB, are equal ; therefo* if
OG, OB, be drawn, the angles BOC, COG, arudfo
equal ; and confequently the angles DOB, DOG. In
the fame manner, by joining AB, the angle DB^ ic¬
ing bifeaed by BA, it is evident that the angle A)F
is equal to AOH, and therefore the angle FOj to
HOG ; hence the arch FB is equal to the arch IG.
It is evident that if the circle ABC, and either o'the
points DE were given, the other point might be fund.
Therefore we have this porifm., which appears to ave
been the laft but one of the third book of Euclid’sL'or-
iims. “ A point being given, either within or witbut
a circle given by pofition. If there be drawn, anyow
through that point, a line cutting the circle intfro
points; another point may be found, fuch, that ii wo
lines be drawn from it to the points in which th ane
already drawn cuts the circle, thefe two lines wilvut
off from the circle equal circumferences.”
The propofition from which we have deduced tefe
two porifms alfo affords an illuftration of the reia.k,
that the conditions of a problem are involved inone
another in the porifmatic or indefinite cate ; for her :e-
veral independent conditions are laid down, by th . eip
of which the problem is to be refolved. T-Wo point D
and E are given, from which two lines are to be inccl-
ed, and a circumference ABC, in which thefe line are
. to meet, as alfo a ratio which thefe lines are to hav to
each other. Now thefe conditions are all indepenent
of one another, fo that any one may be. changed witout
any change whatever in the reft. 'I his is true in cne-
ral ; but yet in one cafe, viz. when the points are i re¬
lated to another that the re&angle under their diftaces
from the centre is equal to the fquare of the radis of
the circle ; it follows, from the preceding analyfisjbat
the ratio of the inflefted lines is no longer a mattr of
choice, but a neceffary confequence of this difpofitin ot
the points.
From what has been already faid, we may trac i e
imperfeft definition of a porifm which Pappus alf'.oes
to the later geometers, viz. that it differs from a jeal
theorem, by wanting the hypothefis affumed in bat
theorem.—Now, to underftand this, it muft be obiered,
that if we take one of the propofitions called loc: »nd
make the conftrudlion of the figure a part of the bpo-
thefis, we get what was called by the ancient georec :rs,
a local theorem. If, again, in the enunciation c .n.o
theorem, that part of the hypothefis which contair
conffruftion be fuppreffed, the propofition thence oring
will be a porifm, for it will enunciate a truth, an d
require to the full underftanding and inveftigatin or
that truth, that fomething ftiould be found, viz. tc ' ir-
cumftances in the conftrudtion fuppofed to be. omLc.
Thus, when we fay, if from two given points 1 k
(fig. 3.) two ftraight lines EF, FD, are infleftec - aFig.3*
third point F, fo as to be to one another in a give a*
r tio*
/cm fit *
fo
P O R
[ 209 ]
P O R
Porlfm. Uo, the point F is in the circumference of a gi ven circle,
we have a locus. But when converfely it is faid, if a
circle ABC, of which the centre is O, be given by po-
fition, as alfo a point E ; and if D be taken in the line
EO, fo that EO X OD—AO* } and if from E and D
the lines EF, DF be inflected to any point of the cir¬
cumference ABC, the ratio of EF to DF will be given,
viz. the fame with that of EA to AD, we have a local
theorem.
Laflly, when it is faid, if a circle ABC be given by
pofition, and alfo a point E, a point D may be found,
fuch that if EF, FD be infle&ed from E and D to any
point F in the circumference ABC, thefe lines (hall
have a given ratio to one another, the propolition be¬
comes a porilm, and is the fame that has juft now been
inveftigated.
Hence it is evident, that the local theorem is changed
into a porifm, by leaving out what relates to the deter¬
mination of D, and of the given ratio. But though all
proportions formed in this Way from the converlion of
loci, are porifms, yet all porifms are not formed from
the converlion of loci j the firft, for inftanee, of the pre¬
ceding cannot by convevfion be changed into a locus ;
therefore Fermat’s idea of porifms, founded upon this
circumftance, could not fail to be imperfecl.
To confirm the truth of the preceding theory, it may
be added, that Profeffor Dugald Stewart, in a paper read
a eonfiderable time ago before the Philofophical Society
of Edinburgh, defines a porifm to be “ A propofition
affirming the poffibility of finding one or more condi¬
tions of an indeterminate theorem j” where, by an in¬
determinate theorem, he means one which exprefies a
relation between certain quantities that are determinate
and certain others that are indeterminate *, a definition
which evidently agrees with the explanation which has
been here given.
If the idea which we have given of thefe propofitions
be juft, it follows, that they are to be difcovered by
confidering thofe cafes in which the conftruflion of a
problem fails, in confequence of the lines which by
their interfe&ion, or the points which by their pofi¬
tion, were to determine the problem required, happen¬
ing to coincide with one another. A porifm may there¬
fore be deduced from the problem to which it belongs,
juft as propofitions concerning the maxima and minima
of quantities are deduced from the problems of which
they form limitations •, and fuch is the rnoft natural and
obvious analyfis of which this clafs of propofitions ad¬
mit-.
The following porifm is the firft of Euclid’s, and the
firft alfo which was reftored. It is given here to exem¬
plify the advantage which, in inveftigations of this kind,
may be derived from employing the law of continuitij in
its utmoft extent, and purfuing porifms to thofe extreme
cafes where the indeterminate magnitudes increafe ad
infinitum.
This porifm may be confidered as having occurred in
the folution of the following problem : Two points A, B,
S' 4* (fig. 4.) and alfo three ftraight lines DE, FK, KL, be-
ing given in pofition, together with two points Hand M
in two of thefe lines, to infledt from A a^d B to a point
in the third line, two lines that {hall cut off from KF
and KL two fegments, adjacent to the given points H
and M, having to one another the given ratio of « to /3.
Now, to find whether a porifm be connedled with this
VOL. XVII. Part I.
problem, fuppofe that there is, and that the following
propofition is true. Two points A and B, and two
ftraight lines DE, FK, being given in pofition, and
alfo a point H in one of them, aline LK may be found,
and alfo a point in it M, both given in pofition, fuch
that AE and BE infledled from the points A and B
to any point whatever of the line DE, Ihall cut off from
the other lines FK and LK fegments HG and MN ad¬
jacent to the given points H and M, having to one an¬
other the given ratio of a. to /3.
Firft, let AE', BE', be infiedted to the point E', fe
that AE' may be parallel to FK, then fhall E'B be pa¬
rallel to KL, the line to be found ; for if it be not pa¬
rallel to KL, the point of their interfedlion muft be at
a finite diftanee from the point M, and therefore mak¬
ing as /3 to #, fo this diftance to a fourth proportional^
the diftance from H at which AE' interfedls FK, will
be equal to that fourth proportional. But AE' does
not interfedl FK, for they are parallel by conftrudtion $
therefore BE' cannot interfedl KL, which is therefore
parallel to BE', a line given in pofition. Again, let
AE", BE", be infledted to E", fo that AE" may pafs
through the given point H : then it is plain that BE'*
muft pafs through the point to be found M ; for if not,
it may be demonftrated juft as above, that AE" does
not pafs through H, contrary to the fuppofition. The
point to be found is therefore in the line E"B, which is
given in pofition. Now if from E there be drawn EP
parallel to AE', and ES parallel to BE', BS : SE :: BL
SEXBL . .ppF ,rrr PExAF
“BS and A P: PE:: AF: FG=—^p— i
PExAF SE x BL
Porifm.
LN:
therefore FG : LN ::
PExAF
AP BS
X BS : SE X BL X AP •, wherefore the ratio of FG to
LN is compounded of the ratios of AF to BL, PE to
ES, and BS to AP ; but PE : SE :: AE': BE', and
BS : AP :: DB : DA, for DB : BS :: DE' : E'E::
DA : AP ; therefore the ratio of FG to LN is com¬
pounded of the ratios of AF to BL, AE' to BE', and
DB to DA. In like manner, becaufe E" is a point in
the line DE and AE", BE" are infledted to it, the
ratio of FH to LM is compounded of the fame ratios
of AF to BL, AE' to BE', and DB to DA j there¬
fore FH : LM :: FG : NL (and confequently) HG
: MN ; but the ratio of HG to MN is given, being by
fuppofition the fame as that of « to /3 ; the ratio of FH
to LM is therefore alfo given, and FH being given,
LM is given in magnitude. Now LM is parallel to
BE', a line given in pofition 3 therefore M is in a line
QM, parallel to AB, and given in pofition ; therefore
the point M, and alfo the line KLM, drawn through it
parallel to BE', are given in pofition, which were to be
found. Hence this conftrudlion : From A draw AE'
parallel to FK, fo as to meet DE in E'3 join BE’, and
take in it BQ, fo that * : /3 :: HF : BQ, and through
Q draw OM parallel to AB. Let HA Ire drawn, and
produced till it meet DE in E", and draw BE", meet-
ing QM in M 3 through M draw KML parallel to
BE', then is KML the line and M the point which
were to be found. There are two lines which will an-
fwer the conditions of this poiifm 3 for if in QB, produ¬
ced on the other fide of B, there be taken B^^BQ,
and if <7 to be drawn paiallel to AB, cutting MB in ni;
and if to* be drawn parallel to BQ, the part to//, cut
D a
Torifm.
Fi£- 7-
P OR [2i
oS" bv EB produced, will be equal to ?vIN, and have
' to HG the ratio required. It is plain, that whatever
be the ratio of « to /3, and whatever be the magnitude
of FH, if the other things given remain the fame, the
lines found will be all parallel to BE. But if the ratio
of « to /8 remain the fame likewife, and if only the point
H vary, the pofition of KL will remain the fame, and
the point M will vary.
Another general remark which may be made on the
analyfis of porifms is, that it often happens, as in the
laft example, that the magnitudes required may all, or
a part of them, be found by eonfidering the extreme
cafes ; but for the dilcovery of the relation betwreen
them, and the indefinite magnitudes, we muft have re-
courfe to the hypothefis of the porifm in its mod gene¬
ral or indefinite form } and muft endeavour fo to con-
dudl: the reafoning, that the indefinite magnitudes may
at length totally difappear, and leave a propofition af-
ferting the relation between determinate magnitudes
only.
For this purpofe Dr Simfon frequently employs two
jftatements of the general hypothefis, which he compares
together. As for inftance, in his analyfis of the laft po¬
rifm, he afiumes not only E, any point in the line DE,
but alfo another point O, anywhere in the fame line,
to both of which he fuppofes lines to be infiefted from
the points A, B. This double ftatement, however,
cannot be made without rendering the inveftigation long
and complicated ”, nor is it even necelfary, for it may be
avoided by having recourfe to fimple porifrns, or to /ocz,
or to propofitions of the data. The following porifm is
given as an example where this is done with fome diffi¬
culty, but with confiderable advantage both with re¬
gard to the fimplicity andffiortnefsof the demonftration.
It will be proper to premife the following lemma. Let
AB (fig. 7.) be a ftraight line, and D, L any two points
in it, one of which D is between A and B ; alfo let
CL be any ftraight line. I hen ffiall
^•ad.+^-bd-=H-al-
JABLMAbL-
o ]• • P O R
the firft, fecond, and fifth of thefe propofitions, it is ma^- Porian
nifeft that ^
1 It T A A R
flii.LAH-^f-LB’+^r'LD’rrABxLE+EKxGH.
JL< jLj
Again, becaufe
CL: LA:: (LB: LE:: DB: DG^DB* :DE xDG,
and hence LB X LE:
LA
CL
•LB*.
therefore DB xDG=
LA
CL
DB*.
And becaufe
CL:LB::(LA:LE::DA:DH::)DA*:DAxDH,
I B
therefore D A X DH = ~-j—DA*. From, the rcfult of
thefe two laft propofitions we have
^-•DA*+ ^-•DB*=D A x DH + DB x DG ;
but DA X DHr: twicetrian. ADH, and DB x DG~
twice trian. BDG, and therefore DAxDH-f-DBx
DG~2 {trian. ADH-f-/nhw. BDG} =r 2 {trian. AEB
trian. HEG)=AB x LE-f-EK xHG. Now it has^
been proved, that DAxDH-j-DB xDG—-^jj-'DA*
+L^.BD% and that AB x LE+EK x HG=if
CL
•LA*-]-^^t:*LB*+:^^'LD*, therefore AD* -f
CL
LA
CL
BD*:
CL
LB-ALs+ i^-BL*
CL
AB
CL
CL
CL
DL*, as
For place CL perpendicular to AB, and through the
points A, C, B defcribe a circle, and let CL meet the
circle again in E, and join AE, BE. Alfo draw DG
parallel to CE, meeting AE and BE in H and G, and
draw EK parallel to AB. Then, from the elements of
geometry,
CL : LB:: (LA : LE ::) LA*: LA X LE,
LB
and hence LAx LErrj--’LA*.
Alfo CL : LA :: (LB : LE LB*: LB x LE,
Now CL : LB :: LA : LE :: EK or LD : KH,
and CL : LA :: LB : LE :: EK or LD : KG,
therefore, (Geom. Se£l. III. Theor, 8.)
CL : AB :: (LD : GH ::) LD*: EK XGH,
AB
and hence EK X GH=^■•LD*.
^from the three equations which we have deduced from
was to be demonftrated.
Porism. Let there be three ftraight lines AB, AC,
CB given in pofition (fig. 5.) j and from any point
whatever in one of them, as D, let perpendiculars be
drawn to the other two, as DF, DE, a point G may be
found, fuch, that if GD be drawn from it to the point
D, the fquare of that line thall have a given ratio to the
fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars DF and DE,
which ratio is to be found.
Draw AH, BK perpendicular to BC and AC ; and
in AB take L, fo that AL : LB :: AH* : BK* ::
AC* : CB*. The point L is therefore given $ and if
a line N be taken, fo as to have to AL the fame ratio
that AB* has to AH*, N will be given in- magnitude.
Alfo, fince AH* : BK* :: AL : LB,and AH* : AB*::
AL : N, ex equo, BK* : AB* :: LB : N. Draw LO,
LM perpendicular to AC, CB ; LO, LM are there¬
for given in magnitude. Now, becaufe AB*:BK*::
AD*: DF*, N : LB :: AD* : DF*, and DF*=^
AL
•AD* } and for the fame reafon DE*= -r^--BD* $ but,
LB
N
AL
by the preceding lemma, -^-‘AD*-}-——-,BD*=
LB
N
•al*+4^-bl*
AB
-DL*; that is, DE*-j-DF*=
N
LO* + LM*-{-^--DL*. Join LG, then by hypothe-
AB
fis LO*+LM* has to LG*, the fame ratio as DF*-|-
t)E* has to DG*; let it be that of R to N* then LO*-j-
LM*
FOR
[ 2ii ] FOR
LM1=r-^’LG1} and therefore DE1-}-DFirr^'LG14.
:^?-DL* j but DE*-^-DFI=:~•DG,; therefore,
.LG*+^DL*=|-DG*and
LG1) ; therefore DG1—LG2 has to DL* a eonftant
ratio, viz. that of AB to R. The angle DLG is there¬
fore a right angle, and the ratio of AB to R that of
equality, othervvife LD would be given in magnitude,
eontrary to the fuppofition. LG is therefore given in
pofition : and lince R : N :: AB : N :: LOl-j-LMx :
LG2 ■, therefore the fquare of LG, and confequcntly
LG, is given in magnitude. The point G is there¬
fore given, and alfo the ratio of DE2-f-I)I2 to DG2,
which is the fame with that of AB to N.
The conlfru&ion eafily follows from the analyfis, but
it may be rendered more fimple •, for fince AH2 : AB*
:: AL : N, and BK* : AB2:: BL : N; therefore AH*
-f-BK2 : AB2 :: AB : N. Likewife, if AG, BG, be
joined, AB : N :: AH2 : AG2, and AB : N :: BK2 :
BG2 •, wherefore AB : N :: AH2-j-BK2 : AG2-|-BGS,
but it was proved that AB : N :: AH2-j-BK* : AB*,
therefore AG*-f-BG2~AB*; therefore the angle AGB
is a right one, and AL : LG :: LG : LB. If there¬
fore AB be divided in L, fo that AL : LB :: AH* :
BK2 ; and if LG, a mean proportional between AL
and LB, be placed perpendicular to AB, G will be the
point required.
The Rep in the analyfis, by which a fecond intro¬
duction of the general hypothefis is avoided, is that in
which the angle GLD is concluded to be a right angle ;
which follows from DG2—GL* having a given ratio to
LD*, at the fame time that LD is of no determinate
magnitude. For, if poflible, let GLD be obtufe (fig. 6.),
and let the perpendicular from G to AB meet it in V,
therefore V is given : and fince GD2—LG2r=LD*-b.
2DL xLV; therefore, by the fuppofition, LD*-{-2DL
X LV mufi have a given ratio to LD2 ; therefore the
ratio of LD* to DLxVL, that is, of LD to VL, is
given, fo that VL being given in magnitude, LD is al¬
fo given. But this is contrary to the fuppofition *, for
LD is indefinite by hypothefis, and therefore GLD
cannot be obtufe, nor any other than a right angle.
The conclufion that is here drawn immediately from the
indetermination of LD would be deduced, according to
Dr Simfon’s method, by afiuming another point D'
any how, and from the fuppofition that GD'2—GL* :
LD'* :: GD*—GL*: LD2, it would eafily appear that
GLD mufl be a right angle, and the ratio that of equa¬
lity.
Thefe porifms facilitate the folution of the general
problems from which they are derived. For example,
let three flraight lines AB, AC, BC (fig. 5.), be given
in pofition, and alfo a point R, to find a point D in one
of the given lines, fo that DE and DF being drawn
perpendicular to BC, AC, and DR, joined; DE*-j-DF*
may have to DR* a given ratio. It is plain, that hav¬
ing found G, the problem would be nothing more than
to find D, fuch that the ratio of GD2 to DR*, and
therefore that of GD to DR, might be given, from
which it would follow, that the point D is in the cir¬
cumference of a given circle, as is well known to geo¬
meters.
The fame porifm alfo aflifts in the folution of another
problem. For if it were required to find D fuch that DE*
-f-DF2 might be a given fpace ; having found G, DG*
W’ould have to DE2-t-DF* a given ratio, and DG
would therefore be given ; whence the folution is ob¬
Porifin.
vious.
The connexion of this porifm with the impoffible cafe
of the problem is evident; the point L being that from
which, if perpendiculars be drawn to AC and CB, tho
fum of their fquares is the lead pofiible. For fince
DF2-f-DE* : DG* :: L02+LM2 : LG* ; and fince
LG is lefs than DG, LO*-(-LM* mufi be lefs than
DF2-j-DE2.
It is evident from what has now appeared, that in
fome inftane.es at leaft there is a clofe connection be¬
tween thefe propofitions and the maxima or minima, and
of confequence the impoflible cafes of problems. The
nature of this ^connection requires to be farther invefti-
gated, and is the more interefting becaufe the tranfition
from the indefinite to the impoflible cafe feems to be
made with wonderful rapidity. Thus in the firft propo-
lition, though there be not properly fpeaking an impof¬
fible cafe, but only one where the point to be found
goes off ad infinitum, it may be remarked, that if the
given point F be anywhere out of the line HD (fig. 1.),
the problem of drawing GB equal to GF is always pof-
fible, and admits of juft one folution ; but if F be In
DH, the problem admits of no folution at all, the point
being then at an infinite diftance, and therefore impofli¬
ble to be afligned. There is, however, this exception,
that if the given point be at K in this fame line, DH is
determined by making DK equal to DL. Then every
point in the line DE gives a folution, and may be taken
for the point G. Here therefore the cafe of numberlefs
folutions, and of no folution at all, are as it 'were conter¬
minal, and fo clofe to one another, that if the given
point be at K the problem is indefinite ; but if it re¬
move ever fo little from K, remaining at the fame time
in the line DH, the problem cannot be refolved. This
affinity might have been determined d priori: for it is,
as we have feen, a general principle, that a problem is
converted into a porifm when one or when two of the
conditions of it neceffarily involve in them fome one of
the reft. Suppofe, then, that trvo of the conditions are
exaftly in that ftate which determines the third ; then
while they remain fixed or given, ftiould that third one
vary or differ ever fo little from the ftate required by
the other two, a contradiction will enfue : therefore if,
in the hypothefis of a problem, the conditions be fo re¬
lated to one another as to render it indeterminate, a po¬
rifm is produced ; but if, of the conditions thus related
to one another, fome one be fuppofed to vary, while the
others continue the fame, an abfurdity follows, and the
problem becomes impoffible. Wherever, therefore, any
problem admits both of an indeterminate and an impoffibie
cafe, it is certain, that thefe cafes are nearly related to
one another, and that fome of the conditions by ’which
they are produced are common to both.
It is fuppofed above, that two of the conditions of a
problem involve in them a third ; and wherever that
happens, the conclufion which has been deduced will
invariably take place. But a porifm may in fome cafes
be fo fimple as to arife from the mere coincidence of one
condition with another, though in no cafe whatever any
inconfiftency can take place between them. There are,
D d 2 however,
Porifm.
P O R [ 2i:
however, comparatively few porifms fo fimple in their
' origin, or that arife from problems where the conditions
are but little complicated ; for it dually happens that a
problem which can become indefinite may alio become
impoflfible ; and if fo, the connexion already explained
never fails to take place.
Another fpecies of impoflibility may frequently arife
from the porifmatic cafe of a problem which will afftdl
in fome meafure the application of geometry to aftrono-
my, or any of the fciences depending on experiment or
obfervation. For when a problem is to be refolved. by
means of data furnifhed by experiment or obfervation,
the fir ft thing to be confidered is, whether the data fo
obtained be fufiicient for determining the thing fought j
and in this a very erroneous judgment may be formed,
if we reft fatisfied with a general view ot the fubjedl j
for though the problem may in general be refolved from
the data with which we are provided, yet thefe data
may be fo related to one another in the cafe under con-
fideration, that the problem will become indeterminate,
and inftead of one folution will admit of an indefinite
number. This we have already found to be the cafe in
the foregoing propofitions. Such cafes may not indeed
occur in any of the practical applications of geometry j
but there is one of the fame kind which has aftually oc¬
curred in aftronomy. Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Princi-
pia, has confidered a fmall part of the orbit of a comet
as a ftraight line defcribed with an uniform motion.
From this hypothefis, by means of four obfervations
made at proper intervals of time, the determination of
the path of the comet is reduced to this geometrical
problem : Four ftraight lines being in pofition, it is re¬
quired to draw a fifth line acrofs them, fo as to be cut
by them into three parts, having given ratios to one an¬
other. Now this problem had been conftru&ed by Dr
Wallis and Sir Chriftopher Wren, and alfo in three dif¬
ferent ways by Sir Ifaac himfelf in different parts of his
•works ; yet none of thefe geometers obferved that there
was a particular fituation of the lines in which the pro¬
blem admitted of innumerable folutions : and this hap¬
pens to be the very cafe in which the problem is appli¬
cable to the determination of the comet’s path, as was
firft difcovered by the abbe Bofcovich, who was led to
it by finding, that in this way he could never deter¬
mine the path of a comet with any degree of cer-
taintv.
Befides the geometrical there is alfo an algebraical
analyfis belonging to porifms •, which, however, does not
belong to this place, becaufe we give this account of
them merely as an article of ancient geometry ; and the
ancients never employed algebra in their inveftjgations.
Mr Playfair, formerly profeffor of mathematics, and
wow of natural philofophy in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh, has written a paper on the origin and geometri¬
cal inveftigation of porifms, which is publiftied ni the
third volume of the Tran factions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, from which this account of the fubjeft is
taken. He has there promifed a fecond part to his pa¬
per, in which the algebraical inveftigation of porifms is
to be confidered. This will no doubt throw confider-
able light upon the fubjeft, as we may readily judge
from that gentleman’s known abilities, and from the
fpecimen he has already given us in the firft part. .
Such as are defirous of knowing more of this fubjett
snay confult Dr Sunfon’s treatife De Porifmatibus, which
4
I’onib
Forlock,
2 ] FOR
is contained in his Opera Re/iqua, publiftied after his
death at the foie expence of the earl of Stanhope. We
have already mentioned Dr Stewart’s General Theorems,
which contain many beautiful porilms, but without de-
monftrations. A confiderable number of them, how¬
ever, have been demonftrated by the late Dr R. Small,
of Dundee, in the Tranf. R. S. Edin. vol. ii. There is
alfo a paper upon the fubjedl of porifms by Mr W.
Wallace, now of the Royal Military College, in the
fourth volume of the fame work, entitled SW/e Geome¬
trical Porifms, with examples of their application to the
Solution of Problems.
PORK, the fleftr of fwine killed for the purpofes of
food. See Sus.
The hog is the only domeftic animal that we know
of no ufe to man when alive, and therefore feems pro¬
perly deligned for food. Befides, as loathfome and ugly
to every human eye, it is killed without reluftance.
The Pythagoreans, whether to preferve health, or on
account of compaffion, generally forbade the ufe of ani¬
mal food ; and yet it is alleged that Pythagoras referved
the ufe of hog’s fleftr for himfelf. The Jews, the
Egyptians, &c. and other inhabitants of warm countries,
and all the Mahometans at prefent, rejett the ufe of
pork. It is difficult to find a fatisfa&ory reafen for this,
or for the precept given to the Jews refpedting it,
though unqueftionably there was fome good one for it.
The Greeks gave great commendations to this food ;
and Galen, though indeed that is fufpefted to be from a
particular fondnefs, is everywhere full of it. The Ro¬
mans confidered it as one of their delicacies and if fom®
of the inhabitants of the northern climates have taken an
averfion to it, that probably arofe from the uncultivated
ftate of their country not being able to rear it. Pork
is of a very tender ftrufture j increafed perhaps from a
peculiarity in its economy, viz. taking on fat more
readily than any other animal. Pork is a white meat
even in its adult ftate, and then gives out a jelly in y^ry
great quantity. On account of its little perfpirability
and tendernefs it is very nutritious, and was given for
that intention to the athletce. With regard to its alka-
lefcency, no proper experiments have yet been made j
but as it is of a gelatinous and fucculent nature, it is
probably lefs fo than many others. Upon the whole, Qunep5
it appears to be a very valuable nutriment j and the rea- Mat.
fon is not very obvious why it was in fome countries
forbid. It is faid that this animal is apt to be difeafed *,
but why were not inconveniences felt on that account
in Greece ? Again, it has been alleged, that as Pale-
ftine would not rear thefe animals, and as the Jews had
learned the ufe of them in Egypt, it was neceffary they
ffiould have a precept to avoid them. But the Egyp¬
tians themfelves did not ufe the meat •, and this reli¬
gious precept, indeed, as well as many others, feems to
have been borrowed from them. Poffibly, as pork is
not very perfpirable, it might increafe the leprofy, which
was faid to be epidemic in Paleftine ; though this is far
from being certain.
PORLOCK, in the county of Somerfet in England,
is a fmall fea-port town fix miles weft from Minehead.
This whole pariffi, including hamlets, contains about
no houfes, and nearly 6oo inhabitants. The fituation
of the town is very romantic, being nearly furrounded
on all fides, except towards the fea, by fteep and lofty
hills, interfered by deep vales and hollow glens. Some
OX;
P O R [21
of the hills are beautifully wooded, and'Contain numbers
of wild deer. The valleys are very deep and pi&urefque *
the fides being deep, fcarred with wild rocks, and patch¬
ed with woods and forelt flirubs. Some of them are well
cultivated and ftudded with villages or tingle farms and
cottages, although agriculture here is very imperfectly
underftood. Mott of the roads and fields are fo fteep, that
no carriages of any kind can be ufed ; all the crops are
therefore carried in with crooks on horfes, and the ma¬
nure in wooden pots called dojfels. Many of the poor
are employed in fpinning yarn for the Dunfter manufac¬
tory. W. Long. 3. 32. N. Lat. 51. 14.
PORO. See Calauria.
PORPESSE. See Delphinus, Cetology Index.
PORPHYRIUS, a famous Platonic philofopher, was
born at Tyre in 233, in the reign of Alexander Seve-
rus. He was the difciple of Longinus, and became
the oxnament of his fchool at Athens ; from thence he
went to Rome, and attended Plotinus, with whom he
lived fix years. After Plotinus’s death he taught phi-
lofophy at Rome with great applaufe \ and became well
{killed in polite literature, geography, aflronomy, and
mufic. He lived till the end of the third century, and
died in the reign of Dioclefian. There are ftill extant
his book on the Categories of Ariftotle ; a Treatife on
Abftinence from Flefh *, and feveral other pieces in
Greek. He alfo compofed a large treatife againft the
Chriftian religion, which is loft. That work was an-
fvvered by Methodius bifliop of Tyre, and alfo by Eu-
febius, Apollinarius, St Auguftin, St Jerome, St Cyril,
and Theodoret. The emperor Theodofius the Great
caufed Porphyrius’s book to be burned in 338. Thofe
of his works that are ftill extant were printed at Cam¬
bridge in 1655, 8vo, with a Latin verfion.
“ Porphyrius (fays Dr Enfield) was, it muft be own¬
ed, a writer of deep erudition ; and had his judgment
and integrity been equal to his learning, he would have
deferved a diftinguilhed place among the ancients. But
neither the fplendour of his didion, nor the variety of his
reading, can atone for the credulity or the difhonefty
which filled the narrative part of his works with fo many
extravagant tales, or intereft the judicious reader in the
abftrufe fubtilties and myftical flights of his philofophi-
cal writings.”
PORPHYRY, a compound rock, effentially confift-
ing of fome bafe or ground, in wThich are interfpevfed
cryftals of fome other fubftance, as when an argillace¬
ous ftone, or a pitehftone, has cryftals of feldlpar or
quartz interfperfed in it, and hence is denominated an
argillaceous or pitchftone porphyry. See Geology
Index. Porphyry is ftill found in immenfe ftrata in
Egypt. The hard red-lead coloured porphyry, va¬
riegated with black, white, and green, is annoft beauti¬
ful and valuable fubftance. It has the hardnefs and all
the other characters of the oriental porphyry ; and even
greatly excels it in brightnefs, and in the beauty and
variegation of its colours. It is found in great plenty
in the ifland of Minorca } and is well worth importing,
being greatly fuperior to all the Italian marbles. i he
hard, pale-red porphyry, variegated with black, white,
and green, is of a pale-flefti colour •, often approaching
to white. It is variegated in blotches from half an
inch to an inch broad. It takes a high polith. and emu¬
lates all the qualities of the oriental porphyry. It is
found in immenfe ftrata in Arabia Petrsea, and in the
3 3 . p 0 11 . .
Upper Egypt \ and in feparate nodules in Germany, Porphyn%
England, and Ireland.
Ficoroni takes notice of two exquifitely fine columns
of black porphyry in a church at Rome. In Egypt
there are three celebrated obelilks or pillars of porphy¬
ry, one near Cairo and two at Alexandria. J he French
call them agug/ias, and in England they are called Cleo¬
patra's needles.
The art of cutting porphyry, praflifed by the an¬
cients, appears now to be loft. Indeed it is difficult
to conceive what tools they ufed for fafhioning thofe
huge columns and other porphyry works in fome of the
ancient buildings in Rome. One of the molt confi-
derable of thefe, ftill entire, is a tomb of Conftantia, the
emperor Conftantine’s daughter. It is in the church of
St Agnes, and is commonly called the tomb of Bacchus.
In the palace of the Thuilleries there is alfo a buft of
Apollo and of twelve emperors, all in porphyry. Some
ancient pieces feem to have been wrought with the ehif-
fel, others with the faw, others with wheels, and others
gradually ground down with emery. Yet modern tools
will fcarcely touch porphyry. Dr Lifter therefore
thinks *, that the ancients had the fecret of tempering *P/;*7q/o/>A.
ft eel better than we •, and not, as fome imagine, that ^^’or
they had the art of foftening the porphyry j though itis^J^j0
probable that time and air have contributed to increafe^r^. VoJ.
its hardnefs. Mr Addifon fays, he faw a workman alii. p. 560,
Rome cutting porphyry j but his advances rvere extreme¬
ly flow and almoft infenfible. The Italian fculptors work
the pieces of old porphyry columns ftill remaining (for
the porphyry quarries are long fince loft) with a brafs
faw without teeth. With this faw, emery, and water,
they rub and wear the ftone with infinite patience. Many
perfons have endeavoured to retrieve the ancient art, and
particularly Leon Baptifta Alberti j who, fearching for
the necefl'ary materials for temper, fays, he found goats
blood the beft of any j but even this avails not much 5
for in working with chiflels tempered with it, fparks of
fire came much more plentifully than pieces of the
ftone. The fculptors were thus, however, able to make
a flat or oval form ; but could never attain to any thing
like a figure.
In the year 155?, Cofmo de Medicis is faid to have
diftilled a water from certain herbs, with which his fculp-
tor Francefco Tadda gave his tools fuch an admirable
hardnefs and fo fine a temper, that he performed fome
very exquifite works with them *, particularly our Sa¬
viour’s head in demi-relievo, and Cofmo’s head and his
duchefs’s.. The very hair and beard, how difficult fo-
ever, are here well conduced j and there is nothing of
the kind fuperior to it in all the works of the ancients;
but the fecret appears to have died with him. The
French have difcovered another mode of cutting por¬
phyry, viz. with an iron faw without teeth, and gre*,
a kind of free ftone pulverized, and water. The au¬
thors of this invention fay, .that they could form the
whole contour of a column hereby if they had matter to
wrork on. Others have propofed to harden tools fo as
to cut porphyry, by fteeping them in the juice of the
plant called bear's-breech or branhurjine. See Birch’s
Biji. R. S. vol. i. p. 238. vol. ii. p. 73, &c. Mr Boyle
fays, that he caufed porphyry to be cut by means of
emery, fteel faws, and water •, and obferves, that in his
time the Engtifti workmen were ignorant of the man¬
ner of working porphyry, and that none of them would
undertake-.
P O R [2:
Porphyry undertfice to cut or polifli it. See his Works abr. vol. i.
p. 11.
. , Da Cofta fuppofes, and perhaps with reafon, that
the method ufed by the ancients in cutting and engra¬
ving porphyry was extremely fimple, and that it Was per¬
formed without the aid of any fcientific means that are
now loft. He imagines, that, by unwearied diligence,
and with numbers of common tools at great expenoe,
they rudely hewed or broke the ftone into the intended
figure, and by continued application reduced them into
more regular defignsj and that they completed the
work by poliftiing it with great labour, by the aid of
particular hard fands found in Egypt. And he thinks,
that in the porphyry quarries there were layers of grit
or loofe difunited particles, analogous to the porphyry,
which they carefully fought for, and ufed for this work.
See Hijl. Nat. of FoJJt/s, p. 285.
PORPHYRT-She/i. SeeMuREX,CONCHOLOGYIndex.
PORPITES, the Hair-button Stone, in Natural
Hijlory, a name given by fome authors to a fmall fpecies
offoffil coral; which is ufually of a rounded figure con-
fiderably flattened, and ftriated from the centre to the
circumference. Thefe are of different fizes and of differ¬
ent colours, as grayifti, whitilh, brownifh, or bluilh, and
are ufually found immerfed in ftone.
PORRUM, the Leek ; a fpecies of plants, belong¬
ing to the genus of Allium, See Allium, Botany
Index; and for an account of the method of cultiva¬
tion, fee Gardening,
PORT, a harbour, river, or haven, formed either by
nature or art to receive and (belter (hipping from the
ftorms and waves of the open fea.
Artificial ports are thofe which are either formed by
throwing a ftrong mound or rampire acrofs the har¬
bour’s mouth to fome ifland or rock, or erefting two
long barriers, which ftretch from the land on each fide
like arms or the horns of a crefcent, and nearly inclofe
the haven ; the former of thefe are called mole-heads
and the later piers.
Port, is alfo a name given on fome occafions to the
larboard or left fide of the (hip, as in the following in-
ftances. Thus it is faid, “ the (hip heels to port,” i. e.
(loops or inclines to the larboard-fide. *( Top the yard
to port ?” the order to make the larboard extremity of
a yard higher than the other. “ Port the helm !” the
order to put the helm over to the larboard-fide of the
veffel. In all thefe fenfes this phrafe appears intended
to prevent any miftakes happening from the fimilarity
of founds in the rvords Jlarboard and larboard, particu¬
larly when they relate to the helm, where a mifappre-
henfion might be attended with very dangerous confe-
quences.
Ports, the embrafures or openings in the fide of a
(hip of Avar, Avherein the artillery is ranged in battery
-upon the decks above and beloAV.
The ports are formed of a fufficient extent to point
and fire the cannon, without injuring the (hip’s fide by
the recoil; and as it ferves no end to enlarge them be¬
yond Avhat is neceffary for that purpofe, the (hipwrights
have eftablilhed certain dimenfions, by which they are
cut in proportion to the fize of the cannon.
The ports are (hut in at fea by a fort of hanging-
doors called the port-lids; Avhich are faftened by hinges
to their upper edges, fo as to let down when the cau¬
tion are. drawn into the (hip. By this means the water
$
4 ] FOR
is prevented from entering the lower decks in a turbu- Port,
lent fea. The lotver and upper edges of the ports are P°rt-Royal-
ahvays parallel to the deck, fo that the guns, when le-
veiled in their carriages, are all equally high above the
loAver extremity of the ports, Avhich is called the port-
cells.
Port, is alfo a ftrong Avine brought from Port-a-port,
•and alfo called Porto and Oporto.
Port of the Voice, in Mufic, the faculty or habit of
making the (hakes, paffages, and diminutions, in which
the beauty of a fong or piece of mufic confifts.
PQRT-Crayon, a pencil cafe, Avhich is ufually four or
five inches long, and contrived foas that the pencil may
Aide up and doAvn. Its infide is round, and its outfide
is fometimes filed into eight fides or faces, on Avhich are
drawn the feiftor-lines; fometimes it is made round both
without-fide and within, and has its length divided into
inches and parts of inches.
PORT-Fire, a compofition for fetting fire to powder,
&c. Port-fires are frequently ufed by artillery people
in preference to matches; and they are diftinguilhed
into Avet and dry port-fires. The compofition of the
former is faltpetre four, fulphur one, and mealed poAvder
four* When thefe materials are thoroughly mixed and
fifted, the whole is to be moiftened Avith a little linfeed
oil, and rubbed betAveen the hands till all the oil is im¬
bibed by the compofition. The preparation for dry port¬
fires is faltpetre four, fulphur one, mealed powder two,
and antimony one. Thefe compofitions are driven into
fmall paper cafes, to be ufed Avhen neceffary.
PORT-aux-Prune, fo called by the French, is a coun¬
try on the coaft of Africa, to the north of the ifland
of Madagafcar. It is a rich country, and fertile in rice
and paftures; it is inhabited only by the negroes, who
are an induftrious good Tort of people, but very fuper-
ftitious. There are no towns, but feveral villages, and
they have fome cuftoms Avhich feem to incline to Ju~
daifm.
PORT-Jachfon, in Ncav Holland. SeeAetu HOLLAND.
N° 7, &c.
PORT-Royal, a fea-port torvn in the ifland of Jamaica.
It was once a place of the greateft riches and importance
in the Weft Indies ; but in 1692 it Avas deftroyed by an
earthquake, in 1702 by fire, in 1722 by an inundation
of the fea, and in 1744 it fuffered greatly by a hurri¬
cane. It is now reduced to three ftreets, a feAV lanes,
and about 200 houfes. It contains the royal navy-yard
for heaving down and refitting the king’s (hips ; the
navy-hofpital, and barracks for a regiment of foldiers.
The fortifications, which are very extenfive, being in
excellent order, and having been lately (Lengthened
Avith many additional works, it may be faid to vie in
point of (Length Avith any fortrefs in the king’s domi¬
nions. The harbour is one of the bed in the Avorld,
and 1000 (hips may ride therein, fecure from every
wind that can blow. It is fix miles eaft of Spanifh-
toAvn, and -as much by Avater fouth-eaft of Kingdom
W. Long. 76. 40. N. Lat. 18. o.
PORT-Royal, an ifland in North America, on thecoaft
of South Carolina, which, Avith the neighbouring con¬
tinent, forms one of the mod commodious harbours in
the Britifti plantations. It is 15 miles in length; and
the toAvn on the north (hore is called Beaufort. W.
Long. 80. 20. N. Lat. 31. 40.
PORT-Royal, the name of tivo monafteries of Cifter-
tiatt
P O R [ 215 ] P O R
»6rt-Royal tian nuns hi the diocefe of Paris j the one near Chev-
B. . reufe, at the diftance of five leagues from Paris, called
*>ortlC1' , Port Roijal of the Fields ; and the other in Paris, in the
fuburbs of St James.
The nuns of the former of thefe monafteries proving
refradtory were difperfed ; when many ecclefiaftics, and
others, who were of the fame fentiments as thefe reli¬
gious, retired to Port-Royal, took apartments there,
and printed many books. Hence the name of Port-
Royalijls was given to all their party, and their books
were called books of Port-Royal: from hence we fay
the writers of Port-Royal, Meflieurs de Port-Royal, and
the tranflations and grammars of Port-Royal.
PORTA, or Vena PORTA, in Anatomy, a large vein
diftributed through the liver in the manner of an ar¬
tery. See Anatomy, N° 96.
PORTA-AuguJla, in Ancient Geography, mentioned
only by Ptolemy \ a town of the Vaccaei in the Hither
Spain ; thought by fome to be Torre Quemada, in Old
Caitile ; by others Los Valvafes, a village between Bur¬
gos and Torre Quemada.
PORT^E-Romana:, in Ancient Geography. Accord¬
ing to Pliny, Romulus left but three, or at moft four,
gates of-Rome : afterwards, on enlarging the Pomoeria,
or compafs of the city, they amounted to 37.
PORTAL, in Architecture, a little gate where there
are two gates of a different bignefs j alfo a little fquare
corner of a room cut off from the reft by the wainfcot,
and forming a ihort pafiage into the room. The fame
name is alfo fometimes given to a kind of arch of join¬
ers work before a door.
PORT ATE, or a Crofs PORT ATE, in Heraldry, a
crofs which does not ftand upright, as croffes generally
do ; but lies acrofs the efcutcheon in bend, as if it were
carried on a man’s fhoulder.
PORTCQLLICE, in Fortification, is an affembiage
of feVeral large pieces of wood, joined acrofs one ano¬
ther like a harrow, and each pointed writh iron at the
bottom. They are fometimes hung over the gate-way
of old fortified towns, ready to let down in cafe of fur-
prife, when the gates could not be fhut.
PORTER, a kind of malt-liquor which differs from
ale and pale beer, in its being made with high dried
malt. See-Ale, Beer, and Brewing.
PORT-Glasgow. See Glasgow, N° 12.
PORTGREVE, or Portgrave, was anciently the
principal magiftrate in ports and other maritime towns.
The word is formed from the Saxon port, “ a port or
other town $” and geref, “ a governor.”—It is fome¬
times alfo written port-reve.
Camden obferves, that the chief magiftrate of Lon¬
don was anciently called port-greve; inftead of whom,
Richard I. ordained two bailiffs j and foon afterwards
King John granted them a mayor for their yearly ma¬
giftrate.
PORTICI, a palace of the king of Naples, fix miles
from that capital- It has a charming lituation on the
fea-fide, near Mount Vefuvius. It is enriched with a
vaft number of fine ftatues, and other remains, of anti¬
quity, taken out of the ruins of Herculaneum.
The mufeum confifts of 16 rooms, in which the dif¬
ferent articles are arranged with very great tafte. The
floors are paved with mofaic, taken from the recovered
towns, and the walls of the court are lined with infcrip-
tions. Befides bufts, ftatues, meaals, intaglios, lamps,
and tripods, there is fearcely an article ufed by the an- Porticl
cients of which a fpecimen may not be feen in this mu- B
feum. “ But the moft valuable room is the library,, or^an ’f
from the numerous manufcript rolls which it contains. Watkin's
What a field is here for conjecture ! what room for Travels
hope! Among this inellimabie colledlion, how many through
great works are there, of which even the names are now ^^Ital
unknown! how many unbroken volumes, whofe very^” ’ “ ^
fragments, preferved in the writings of the ancient fcho-
liafts, convey to us moral improvement, information, and
delight ! perhaps, all the dramatic pieces of Menander
and Philemon j perhaps, nay, certainly, the loft Decades
of Livy ; for it is impoflible to fuppofe, that among fo
many rolls, the moft admired hiftory of the people who
poffeffed them is not to be found : what private library
in Britain is without the beft hiftories of England ? But
how I tremble for their fituation, as Portici is built on
the lava that overwhelmed Herculaneum ! How I trem¬
ble too for the indifference of the king of Naples towards
this invaluable treafure, in which all the molt enlighten¬
ed people of Europe are deeply interefted! When I firft
faw them, I had no idea of what they were, as they re¬
ferable wooden truncheons burnt almoft to charcoal.
They are fo hard and brittle, that the greateft caution
muft be ufed in removing them, left they crumble to
dull; neverthelefs, an ingenious friar of Genoa, named
Raggio, undertook to unroll them ; and by a moft cu¬
rious, though tedious procefs, fo far fucceeded, as to
tranfcribe three Greek Treatifeson Philofophy and Mil¬
lie ; but finding (as I hear) no other encouragement
than his falary, which was but little more than you pay
fome of your fervants, the work was unhappily difeonti-
nued. Were thefe manuferipts in England, they would
not long remain a fecret to the. world.” See Po.w-
FEII.
PORTICO, in ArchiteElure, a kind of gallery on
the ground ; or a piazza encompaffed with arches fup-
ported by columns, where people walk under covert.
The roof is ufually vaulted, fometimes flat. The an¬
cients called it lacunar. Though the word portico be
derived from porta, “ gate, door j” yet it is applied
to any difpofition of columns which form a crallerv,
without any immediate relation to doors or gates. The
moft celebrated porticoes of antiquity were, thofe of So¬
lomon’s temple, which formed the atrium or court, and
encompaffed the fanftuary 5 that of Athens, built for the
people to divert themfelves in, and wherein the philofo-
phers held their difputes and converfations, (fee Porch) 3
and that of Pompey at Rome, raifed merely for magni¬
ficence, confifting of feveral rows of columns fupport-
ing a platform of vaft extent 5 a draught whereof,
Serlio gives us in his antique buildings. Among the
modern porticoes, the moft celebrated is the piazza
of St Peter of the Vatican.—That of Covent-Garden,
London, the work of Inigo Jones, is alfo much ad¬
mired.
FORTH. See Pompeii.
PORTLAND, a peninfula in Dorfetfhire, of great
ftrength both by nature and art, being furrounded with
inacceffible rocks, except at the landing-place, where
there is a ftrong caftle, called Portland cafile, built by
King Henry VIII. There is but one church in the
ifland : and that ftands fo near the fea, that it is often
in danger from it. It is now chiefly noted for the build¬
ing ftone which is found there, and which is greatly em-
ployed
Portland.
P O R [21
ployed in London, and other parts of England, for
building the fined ftru&ures. St Paul’s chureh, in par¬
ticular, is built of this done. W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
5°. 30.
The following cudom at Portland is worthy of no¬
tice. “ While I was looking over the quarries at Port¬
land (fays Mr Smeaton), and attentively confidering the
operations, obferving how foon the quarrymen would
cut half a ton of fpawls from an unformed block, and
what large pieces flew off at every drokc •, how fpeedily
their blows follow’ed one another, and how inceffantly
they purfued this labour with a tool of from 1 8 to 20
pound weight j I was naturally led to view and confider
the figure of the operative agent; and after having ob-
ferved, that by far the greated number of the quarry-
men were of a very robud hardy form, in whofe hands
the tool I have mentioned feemed a mere play-thing,
I at lad broke out with furprife, and inquired of my
guide, Mr Proper, where they could potTibly pick up
{rich a fet of dout fellows to handle the hevel, which in
their hands feemed nothing ? for I obferved, that in the
fpace of 15 minutes, they would knock od* as much
wade matter from a mafs of done, as any of that occu¬
pation I had ever feen before would do in an hour. Says
Roper, ‘ we do not go to fetch thofe men from a didance,
they are all born upon the ifland, and many of them
have never been farther upon the main land than to
Weymouth.’ I told him, I thought the air of that
i flan cl mud be very propitious, to furnifh a breed of
men fo particularly formed for the bufinefs they follow¬
ed. ‘ The air (he replied), though very (harp from our
elevated fituation, is certainly very healthy to working
men ; yet if you knew hotv thefe men are produced,
you would wonder the lefs; for all our marriages here
are produ&ive of children.’ On defiring an explana¬
tion how this happened, he proceeded : ‘ Our people
here, as they are bred to hard labour, are very early jn
a condition to marry and provide for a family; they in¬
termarry with one another, very rarely going to the
main-land to leek a wife \ and it has been the cudom of
the ifland, from time immemorial, that they never mar¬
ry till the woman is pregnant.’ But pray (faid I) does
not this fubjeft you to a great number of baflards ?
Have not your Portlanders the fame kind of ficklenefs
in their attachments that Englidimen are fubject to ?
and, in confequence, does not this produce many incon¬
veniences ? ‘ None at all (replies Roper), for previous to
my arrival here, there was but one cnild on record of
the parifli regifler that had been born a badard in the
compafs of 150 years. The mode of courtfiiip here is,
that a young woman never admits of the ferious ad-
drefies of a young man, but on fuppofition of a tho¬
rough probation. When the becomes with child, die
tells her mother, the mother tells her father, her father
tells his father, and he tells his Ton, that it is then pro¬
per time to be married.’ But fuppofe, Mr Roper, the
does not prove to be with child, what happens then ? Do
they live together without marriage ? or, if they'fepa-
rate, is not this fuch an imputation upon her, as to pre¬
vent her getting another fuitor ? ‘ Tile cafe is thus ma¬
naged (anfwered my friend), if the woman does not
prove with child after a competent time of courtftnp,
they conclude they are not dedined by Providence for
each other •, they therefore feparate •, and as it is an eda-
bli&ed maxim, which the Portland women obferve with
6 ] P O H
great flri&nefs, never to admit a plurality of lovers at P0Itknj
one time, their honour is noway tarniflied : (he jufl as —“V—
foon (after the affair is declared to be broke off) gets
another fuitor, as if die had been left a widow, or that
nothing had ever happened, but that die had remained
an immaculate virgin.’ But pray, Sir, did nothing par¬
ticular happen upon your men coming down from Lon¬
don ? ‘ Yes (fays he) our men were much druck, and
mightily pleafed with the facility of the Portland ladieSj
and it was not long before ftveral of the women proved
with child ; but the men being called upon to marry
them, this part of the leffon they were uninflrufted in 5
and on their refufal, the Portland women arofe to done
them out of the ifland •, infomuch, that thofe few who
did not choofe to take their fweethearts for better orfot'
worfe, after fo fair a trial, were in reality obliged to de¬
camp •, and on this occafion fome few baflards. were
born : but fince then matters have gone on according to
the ancient cudom.”
PORTLAND vase, a celebrated funeral vafe which
was long in poffeflion of the Barberini family j but which
was lately purchafed for 1000 guineas by the duke of
Portland, from whom it has derived .its prefent name.
Its height is about ten inches, and its diameter where,
broaded fix. There are a variety of figures upon it of
mod exquifite workmanfliip, in bas relief of white opake
glafs, raifed on a ground of deep blue glafs, which ap¬
pears black except when held againd the light. It ap¬
pears to have been the work of many years, and there
are antiquarians who date its production feveral centuries
before the Chridian era-, fince, as bas been faid, feulp-
ture was declining in excellence in the time of Alexan¬
der the Great.
RefpeCting the, purpofe of this vafe, and what the fi¬
gures on it were meant to reprefent, there have been a
variety of conjectures, which it wras not our bufintfs to
enumerate. We think with Dr Darwin* that it was not* Loves
made for the afhes of any particular perfon. deceafed.;^
and therefore that the fubjeCt of its embellifhments is
not a private hifiory, but of a general nature. But we
are not fure that he is right in conjeauring it to repre¬
fent a part of the Eleufinian myfieries ; becaufe that con-
kaure depends on Warburton’s explanation of the fixth
book of the Atneid, which does not now command that
refpea which it did when it was firfl propofed. We
{hall therefore give a fiiort account of the feyeral figures,
without noticing any of the theories or conjeaures that
have been made about them.
In one compartment three exquifite figures are placed
on a ruined column, the capital of wfiich is fallen, and
lies at their feet among other disjointed flones: they fit
under a tree on loofe piles of done. The middle.figurc
is a female in a reclining and dying attitude, with an
inverted torch in her left hand, the elbow of which fup-
ports her as (he finks, while the right hand is raifed and
thrown over the drooping head. R He figure on her right
hand is a man, and that on the left a woman, both fup-
porting themfelves on their arms, and apparently think¬
ing intenfely. Their backs are to the dying figure, and
their faces are turned to her, but without an attempt to
afiifl her. On another compartment of the vafe is a
figure coming through a portal, and going down with
great timidity into a darker region, where he is received
by a beautiful female, who flretches forth her band to
help him ; between her knees is a large and playful ter-.
r peat.
P O R
Portliind pent. Slie fits with her feet towards an aged figure,
pJto having one foot funk into the earth, and the ocher raifed
0r°'- . on a column, with his chin retting on his hand. Above
the female figure is a Cupid preceding the firti figure,
and beckoning him to advance. This firlt figure holds
a cloak or garment, which he leems anxious to bring
with him, but which adheres to the fide of the portal
through which he has paffed. In this compartment
there are two trees, one of which bends over the female
figure and the other over the aged one. On the bottom
of the vafe there is another figure on a larger fcale than
the one we have already mentioned, but not fo well
finilhed nor fo elevated. This figure points with its fin¬
ger to its mouth. The drefs appears to be curious and
cumberfome, and above there is the foliage of a tree.
On the head of the figure there is a Phrygian cap : it is
not eafy to fay whether this figure be male or female.
On the handles of the vafe are reprefented two aged
heads with the ears of a quadruped, and from the mid¬
dle of the forehead rifes a kind of tree without leaves :
thefe figures are in all probability mere ornaments, and
have no connexion with the reft of the figures, or the
ftory reprefented on the vafe.
PORT LAND I A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking wdth
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany In¬
dex.
PORP-Louis, is a ftrong town of France, in Bre-
tagne, in the diocefe of Vannes, with a citadel and a
good harbour. It was fortified by Louis XIIL from
whom it derived its name. It was a ftation for part of
the royal navy and the Eaft India Ihips belonging to
France. It is feated at the mouth of the river Blavet,
27 miles weft of Vannes. W. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat!
47- 40.
Port-Mahon. See Minorca.
PORTO. See Oporto.
PORTO-Be/lo, a town of North America, fituated in
N. Lat. 9. 3. W. Long. 79. 45. clofe to the fea, on the
declivity of a mountain, which furrounds the whole har¬
bour. This harbour is fo large, deep, and fafe, that
Columbus, who firft difcovered it, gave it the name
of Porto-Bello, or the “ Fine Harbour,” which is now
commonly ufed to denote the town* The number of
the houfes is about 130 ; moft of them of wood, large
and fpacious, forming one long ftreet along the ftrand,
with other 1 mailer ones crofting it. The governor of
the town is always a gentleman of the army, fubordi-
nate to the prefident of Panama ; but having’under him
the commandants of the forts that defend the harbour.
At the eaft end of the town, on the road to Panama, is
a place called Guinea, where all the negroes of both
fexes, whether flaves or free, have their habitations.
This place is very much crowded when the galleons are
here, moll of the inhabitants of the tow’n quitting their
houfes entirely for the fake of letting them • while others
content themfelves with a fmall part, in order to make
money of the reft. The Mulattoes and other poor fa¬
milies alfo remove either to Guinea, or to cottages al¬
ready ere&ed near it, or built on the occafion. Great
numbers of artificers like wife who flock to Porto-Bello
from Panama to work at their refpe&ive callings during
Ihe fair, lodge in Guinea for cheapnefs. Towards the
iea, in a large tract between the town and Gloria cattle
-barracks are erected, in moft of which the thins crews’
VOL, XVII. Part I. 1
FOR
keep ftalls of fweat-meats, and other kinds of eatables, Poit<\
brought from Spain j but at the conclufion of the fair, ' V-4
when the ftiips put to fea, all thefe buildings are taken
down, and the town returns to its former tranquillity
and emptinefs. In I739> the harbour was defended by
a cattle and two torts 5 which were all demolithed by
Admiral Vernon, who, with fix ftiips only, made himfelf
mafter of this port. The country about Porto Bello is
overrun with mountains and impenetrable forefts, except
a few valleys, in which are feme feattefed farms. Among
the mountains that furround the harbour is one dif-
tinguidied by the name of Capiro, and by its fuperior
loftinefs is a fort of barometer to the country, by fore¬
telling every change of weather. Its top is always co¬
vered with clouds, of a denfityand darknefs feldom feen
in thofe of the atmofphere. When thefe clouds thicken,
increafe their blacknefs, a«d fink xlow their ufual fta¬
tion, it is a fure' fign of a tempeft ; while, on the other
hand, their clearpefs and afcem as certainly indicate the
appioach of fair weather. I heft changes are very hid¬
den and frequent here. The fummit of the mountain
is fcarce ever clear from clouds 5 and when it happens,
it is only, as it were, for an inftant. Except in the time
of the fair, all the inhabitants of Porto-Bello do not a-
mount to 3000 ; half of whom are Indians, Mulattoes,
or Negroes j the Spaniards of any fubftance not choof-
ing to refide in a place fo extremely unhealthy, and fatal
even to the lives of the natives. Ulloa tells us, that the
cattle brought down hither from Panama or Carthacrena,
lofe their flelh fo fait in the beft paiiureS, as to become
fcarce eatable : he aflures us alfo, that neither horfesnor
alfes are bred here. The heat, indeed, is excefiive ; and
the torrents of rain are fo dreadful, fudden, and impetu¬
ous, that one not accuftomed to them, would imagine a
fecond deluge way coming. Thefe torrents are alfo ac¬
companied with frightful tempefts of thunder and lights
ning, the awfulnefs of the fcene being heightened by the
repercuflions from the mountains, and the flirieks and
bowlings of multitudes of monkeys of all kinds which
inhabit the furrounding woods.
Freih water pours down in ftreams from the moun¬
tains, feme running without the town, and others crofs-
ing it. Theft waters are very light and digeftive j
qualities which in other countries would be very valu¬
able, but are here pernicious, producing dyfenteries,
W'hich the patient feldom furvives. However, thefe
rivulets, formed into refervoirs,' ferve the purpofes of
bathing, winch is here found to be very conducive to
health.
As the forefts almoft border on the houfes of the
town, tygers often make incurfions into the ftreets
during^ the night, carrying off fowls, dogs, and other
domeftic animals, and fomerimes even children have fal¬
len a prey to them. Befides the fnares ufually laid for
them, the Negroes and Mulattoes, who fell wood in the
forefts of the mountains, are very dexterous in encoun¬
tering them *, and feme, for a‘(lender reward, even feek
them in their retreats.
The town of Porto-Bello, which is thinly inhabited
by rtafon of its noxious air, the fcarcity of provifions
and the barrennefs of the foil, becomes, after the arrival
of the galleons, one of the moft populous towns in the
world. He w-ho had feen it quite empty, and every
place wearing a melancholy afpeft, rvould be filled with
aftonilhment to fee the buttling multitudes in the time
E e ,
I 217 1
PGR [21
Porto, of the fair, when every houfe is crowded, the fquares
5—v—^ and ftreets encumbered with bales of merchandife and
chefts of gold and filver, the harbour full of (hips and
veffels, fome loaded with provifions from Carthagena,
and others with the goods of Peru, as cocoa, Jeluit’s
bark, vicuna wool, and bezoar ftones; and this town,
at all other times detefted for its deleterious qualities,
becomes the ftaple of the riches of the Old and New
World, and the fcene of one of the moft confiderable
branches of trade in the univerfe. Formerly the fair
was limited to no particular time 5 but as a long flay in
fuch a fickly place extremely affeaed the health of the
traders, his Catholic majefty trahfmitted an order that
the fair iliould not laft above 40 days ; and that, if in
that time the merchants could not agree on their rates,
thofe of Spain fhould be allowed to carry their goods
up the country to Peru: and accordingly, the commo¬
dore of the galleons has orders to re-embark them, and
return to Carthagena •, but otherwife, by virtue of a com-
pa<ft between the merchants of both kingdoms, and ra¬
tified by the king, no Spaniih trader is to fend his goods,
on his own account, beyond Porto-Bello. 1 he Eng-
lifli were formerly allowed to fend a Ihip annually to
this fair, which turned to great account j and, while the
affiento contraft fubfifted, either with the Englilh or the
French, one of their principal factories was at Porto-
^PORTO-Farina, a port about 12 miles from Cape
Carthage, in the bay of Tunis, where formerly the large
veffels belonging to the bey were fitted out, and laid up
on their return from a cruife. This harbour is fafe from
the weather, and opens into a large lake, formed by the
Mejerdah, which runs through into the fea.—The north-
weft wind, which blows right upon the (bore, together
with the foil brought down by the river, which has the
fame quality as the Nile of overflowing its banks, has
formed a bar, fo that only fmall veffels can now enter.
It is ftill the arfenal where the naval ftores are kept. E.
Long. 10. 16. N. Lat. 37. 12. . , .n
PORTO-FarraiO) a handfome town of Italy in the ille
©f Elba, with a good citadel. It is very ftrong, and
feated on a long, high, fteep point of land, to the weft
of the bay of the fame name, which has two forts. It
belongs to the great duke of Tufcany, who always keeps
a good garrifon there. E. Long. 10. 37* N. Lat. 4 .
' JPORTO-Longone, a fmall but very ftrong town of Italy,
and in the ifle of Elba, with a good harbour, and a for-
trefs upon a rockalmoft inacceflible. The king of Naples
has a right to put a garrifon therein, though the place
belongs to the prince of Piombino. It is feated on the
*aft end of the ifland, eight miles fouth-weft of Piombi¬
no. E. Long. to. 10. N. Lat. 42. 52. .
PORTO-Santo, an ifland of the Atlantic ocean, on
the coaft of Africa, and the leaft of thofe called the
Madeiras. It is about 15 miles in circumference 5 it
produces fome corn, as well as fome. oxen and wild
hogs, with a vaft number of rabbits. I here are
trees which produce the gum or refin called dragon s
blood; and there is likewife a little honey and wax,
which are extremely good. It has no harbour, but good
mooring in the road. It belongs to the Portuguefe, and
is 300 miles weft of the coaft of Africa. W. Long. 1 .
£0. N. Lat. 32. 58.
8. ] FOR
the eaftern coaft of Brafil j bounded on the north by Porte
the government of Rio-dos-Hilios, on the eaft by the p(jrtf||io .
North fea, on the fouth by the government of Spiritu- ,°r
Santo, and on the weft by the Tupicks. It is a very
fertile country, and the capital town is of the fame
It is built on the top of a rock, at the mouth
' Knox's
POBTO-Seguro, a government of South America, on
name.   x
of a river, on the coaft of the North fea, and is in¬
habited by Portuguefe. W. Long. 38. 50. S. Lat.
17. °. _ ~~ .
PORTO-Vecchio, is a fea-port town of Corfica, in the
Mediterranean fea, feated on a bay on the eaftern coaft
of the ifland. Itis 12 miles from Bonifacio, and 40
north of Sardinia. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 41. 42.
PORTO-Venereo, is a town of Italy, on the coaft of
Genoa, at the entrance of the gulf of Spetia. It is feat¬
ed on the fide of a hill, at the top of which there is a
fort. It has a very good harbour, and is 45 miles fouth-
eaft of Genoa. E. Long. 9. 3^’ 44’ 5*
PORTRAIT, or Portraiture, in painting, the
reprefentation of a perfon, and efpecially oi a race, done
from the life. In this fenfe we ufe the term portrait-
paintings in contradiction to liijlory-pamting, where
a refemblance of perfons is ufually diiregarded. Por¬
traits, when as large as the life, are ufually painted in
oil-colours; fometimes they are painted in miniature with
water-colours, crayons, paftils, &c. See Painting,
P- 641. . .
PORTREE, is a fmall village, containing a church
and a very few houfes, with an excellent bay and a good
harbour, in the ifle of Skye. “The entrance of the
bay (Mr Knox tells us) reprefents agreeable landfcapes Ttur.
on both fides, with excellent pafture. .
‘ The bay of Portree (fays Mackenzie), off the houfes,
is an exceeding good harbour for a few (hips of any fize;
it is well (heltered, the ground good, the depth from
five to 14 fathoms, and nothing to fear coming in but a
rock, about half a cable’s length from Airderachig
Point, on the ftarboard as you enter the anchorage, part
of which is always above water.’ It is the only port or
harbour to a very confiderable divifion of Skye, on the
eaft fide. From this opening to the northern extremity,
a courfe of 20 miles, the ftiore is one continued line of
lofty rocks, where no ftiip can find refuge in. the mildeft
w'eather, and where inevitable dangers await the mari¬
ners in rough weather.
“ James V. of Scotland and feveral of his nobility
landed here, when they made the tour of the Hebrides
1° 15355 from which circumftance, this fine bay has got
the honourable name of Portree.’" _
Mr Knox tells us, “ that the country round this vil¬
lage, though mountainous, is wrell inhabited 5 it raifes
much grain, and many cattle. Here the late Sir James
Macdonald had marked out the lines of a town 5 and
government, it isfaid, promifed to aflift him in the work
with 500I.: but the death of that gentleman put an end
to thefe promifing appearances.” We have to add, that
Lord Macdonald, the prefent (1809) proprietor, has re*
fumed the undertaking-, and, we underftand, has made
fome progrefs in building a new town, befides introdu¬
cing various other important improvements in this and
other parts of the ifland. .
PORTSMOUTH, a fea-port town m Hamplhire,
with one of the moft fecure and capacious harbours in
England, being defended by a numerous artillery, both
on the fea and land fide, and very good fortification^
FOR [2
"ortimouth. A great part of the royal navy is built here ; and here
are fome of the fineft docks, yards, and magazines of
naval ftores, in Europe. It is feated in the ille of Port-
fea, being furrounded by the fea except on the north
fide, where there is a river which runs from one arm of
it to the other. It is much reforted to on account of
the royal navy, whofe ufual rendezvous is at Spithead,
which is at the eaft end of the file of Wight, and oppo-
fite to Portfmouth. There is a draw-bridge over the
river, and it has always a good garrifon. It is governed
by a mayor, 12 aldermen, and burgeffes, and fends two
members to parliament. It has one church, and two
chapels, one in the garrifon, and one in the Common,
for the ufe of the dock, and others, befides ieveral meet-
ing-houfes of the diffenters. The houfes of Portfmouth
amount to about 5310, and the inhabitants to about
32,166. W. Long. 1. 1. N. Lat. 50. 47.
The town is fuppofed to receive its name from Port,
a famous Saxon chieftain, who, A. D. 501, landed here
with his two fons. It made a confiderable figure in the
time of the Saxons ; and from the utility of its fituation,
was highly favoured by all our monarchs of the Norman
line. It was incorporated, and became alfo a parliamen¬
tary borough. In the reign of Edward III. it was in a
very flourilhing ftate j but A. D. 1338, in the very fame
reign, was burned by the French, when that monarch,
which wras afterwards ratified by King Richard II. for¬
gave the inhabitants a debt, and remitted their fee-farm
for 10 years j within which fpace they fo recovered
themfelves, as to equip a fquadron, which failed into the
Seine, funk two fhips, and brought away a great booty.
'ampbeU's The lingular excellence of its port, and the convenience
j Political of fitting out fleets from thence in the time of a French
urvey. war, induced Edward IV. to think of fortifying it, as
he actually, in fome meafure, did ; which fortifications
wTere farther carried on by Richard III. But King
Henry VII. was the firlt who fettled a garrifon therein $
which was increafed, and the place made Hill ftronger,
in the reign of Henry VIII. who had a great dock there,
wherein was built the Henry Grace de Dieu, which was
the large!! (hip in the navy of his time. The fame mo¬
narch, remarkably attentive to the fecurity of all mari¬
time places, built what is now called South-Sea Cajlley
for the proteftion of this.—The improvements made
here in the reign of Queen Elizabeth were much fupe-
rior to all thefe. King Charles II. after his reftoration,
direfted great alterations, eftablilhed new docks and
yards, railed feveral forts, and fortified them after the
modern manner •, which works were augmented under
his brother’s reign. Notwithftanding this, King Wil¬
liam direfted likewife frelh alterations and additions ;
and lucceeding princes, following his example, have, at
a large expence, extended thefe fortifications, and taken
in a vail deal of ground : fo that it is at prefent, as the
importance of the place deferves, the moft regular for-
trefs in Britain j and, as it cannot be elfeiRually attack¬
ed by fea, may be julfly efteemed impregnable.
Portsmouth, the largelt town in the Hate of New
Hampfhire in North America. It Hands on the fouth-
eall fide of Pifcataqua river, about two miles from the
fea, and contains about 600 houfes, and 4400 inhabi¬
tants. The town is handfomely built, and pleafantly
fituated. Its public buildings are, a court-houfe, two
churches for Congregationalilts, one for Epifcopalians,
and one other houfe for public worlhip. Its harbour
9 ] FOR
is one of the fineft on the continent, having a fuflicient Portfmouth
depth of water for veffels of any burthen. It is defend- ,
ed againlt ftorms by the adjacent land, in fuch a man- . 1
ner, as that fhips may fecurely ride there in any feafon
of the year. Befides, the harbour is fo well fortified by
nature, that very little art will be necefl'ary to render it
impregnable. Its vicinity to the fea renders it very
convenient for naval trade. A light-houfe, with a fingle
light, Hands at the entrance of the harbour.
PORTSOY, is a handfome fea-port town, fituated on
a fmall promontory running into the fea, on the fouth
fide of the Murray frith, in Scotland, about fix miles
from Cullen, and feven weft from Banff. It fends out
feveral fifliing veffels, particularly for the Hebride white
fiftiery, and exports a confiderable quantity of grain. It
contains about 1000 inhabitants. A manufafture of
Hocking and fewing thread is alfo carried on to a con¬
fiderable amount for the London and Nottingham mar¬
kets. In the neighbourhood is a ftratum of marble, of
a dark greenifh colour, in which, it is faid, the curious
fubftance called asbestos, or earth-flax, has been found.
There is alfo a remarkable mineral production found
here, viz. a granite of a flefti colour, and found no "where
elfe in Europe. It contains a quantity of feldfpar, and
thews a brilliancy like the Labrador fpar. When view¬
ed in a particular light, it thews a purple and bluifh tint j
and when polifhed, the figures upon it affume the ap¬
pearance of Arabic characters. It is defcribed by Dr
Hutton, Edin. Tranf. vol. b From the atbeftos a fort
of incombuftible cloth is made, which is purified by
throwing it into the fire. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 57.
50-
PORTUGAL, the moft wefterly kingdom of Eu¬
rope, bounded on the weft and fouth by the Atlantic
ocean, and on the eaft and north by Spain j extending See Map of
about 310 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. Spain and
By modern writers, we find this country conftantly P°rtugah
ftyled in Latin Lujhania ; and it is certain, that an- Boundaries,
ciently a country of Spain went by that name j but it
does not by any means appear that the country called by
the ancients Lujitania had the fame boundaries with the
modern kingdom of Portugal. Before Auguftus Cuefar,
Lufitania feems to have been bounded on the north by
the ocean, and on the fouth by the river Tagus ; by
which means it comprehended all Galicia, and excluded
tw© of the fix provinces of Portugal. But in the more
HriCt and reftrained fenfe of the word, it was bounded,
on the north by the Durius, now the Douro, and on the
fouth by the river Anas, now the Guadiana 5 in which
fenfe it was not quite fo long as modern Portugal, but
confiderably broader. ,
The commonly received opinion with regard to the Etymology
etymology of the word Portugal, is, that a great num- of the
ber of Gauls landed at Porto, or Oporto, whence it re-naine’
ceived the name of Partus Gallorum, or the Port of the
Gauls; and in procefs of time that name gradually ex¬
tended over the whole country, being foftened, or rather
fhortened, into Portugal. But the time when this event
happened, the reafon why thefe Gauls came thither^ and
what became of them afterwards, are all particulars
which lie buried in oblivion. It is alleged, however,
that, upon an eminence which overlooks the mouth of
the river Douro, there flood an ancient town called Caley
ftrong and well peopled, but ill feated for trade j and
this occafioned the conftruftion of a lower town or ham-
£ e 2 let,
P O R [ 220 ] FOR
Portugal.
Originally
only a fmall
kingdom.
4
Henry of
Burgundy
the firft
count of
Portugal.
let, which was called Port.us Cale, that is, the haven of
Cale ; and, in procefs of time, Portuca/ia. At length,
becoming fo eonfiderable as to merit an epifcopal chair,
the bifliops fubferibed themfelves, as the records of an¬
cient councils tellify, Portncalctfes, and the name of the
city was transferred to the diocefe. It is true, that thefe
bifhops afterwards changed their title, and fubferibed
themfelves Portuenfes, that is, bifhops of Portu. But the
faffs juft mentioned are aflually recorded in authentic
hiftories •, and as the diocefe of Portucalia contained in
a great meafure that little country in which the fove-
reignty originally began, the name extended itfelf, to¬
gether with the acquifitions of the fovereigns, and has
remained in the kingdom, though the diocefe itfelf has
changed its name, and poftibly on that very account.
Portugal, though even yet but a fmall kingdom, was
originally much fmaller. The Spanifh and Portuguefe
hiftorians agree, that Don Alonfo, king of Leon and
Caftile, and fon to Don Ferdinand the Great, beftowed
his daughter Donna Therefa in marriage upon an illuf-
trious ftranger, Don Henry, and gave him with her the
frontier province which he had conquered from the
Moors, fmall indeed in extent, but excellently fituated,
and fo pleafant and fertile, that it has fometimes been
ftyled Medulla Hifpanica, or the marrow of Spain. To
this territory was added the title of Count; but authors
are much divided about the time that this ftranger came
into Spain, and who he was. However, the authors of
the Univerfal Hiftory make it pretty evident, that he
was a grandfon of Robert the firft duke of Burgundy.
The manner in which he obtained the principality
above mentioned is related as follows :
The king, Don Alonfo, apprehenlive that his fuccefs
in taking the city of Toledo would bring upon him the
whole force of the Moors, fent to demand affiftance from
Philip I. of France, and the duke of Burgundy, whofe
daughter he had married. His requeft was granted by
both princes •, and a numerous-body of troops was fpeedi-
ly colleffed for his fervice, at whofe head went Raymond
count of Burgundy, Henry, younger brother of Hugh
duks of Burgundy, Raymond count of Tholoufe, and
many others. They arrived at the court of Don Alonfo
in the year 1087, where they wrere received and treated
with all poflible marks of efteem ; and having in the
eourfe of two or three years given great proofs of their
courage and condudl, the king refolved to beftow his
only daughter named C/rractf, then a mere child, being
at moft in her ninth year, upon Raymond count of Bur¬
gundy, and affigned them the province of Galicia for
the fupport of their dignity. About four years after,
Don Alonfo being very defirous to exprefs his gratitude
to Henry of Burgundy, gave him in marriage a natural
daughter of his, born while he remained in exile at To¬
ledo, whofe name was Donna Thercfa ; and upon this
marriage, he gave up in full property the country which
has been already mentioned.
The new fovereign, with his confort, fixed their refi-
dence in the town of Guimaraez, pleafantly fituated on
the banks of the river Ave. The remains of an ancient
palace belonging to their fucceffors are ftill to be feen ;
and on account of its having been anciently the capital,
the king, Don Denis, granted the inhabitants an immu¬
nity from taxes, which they ftill enjoy.
The Portuguefe, now finding themfelves independent,
immediately began, like other nations, to attempt the
2
fubje&ion of their neighbours. Henry is faid to have Portugal
performed great exploits againft the Moors ; but the ac- ' v--—k
counts of them are fo indiftinft, that they cannot be
taken notice of here. He died in 1 x 12 5 and was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Don Alonfo, then an infant in the
third year of his age. In his minority, the kingdom was
governed by his mother Donna Therefa, aftiiled by two
able minifters. During the firft: nine years of their ad-D;ffJena,
miniftration, nothing remarkable happened ; but after with Caf.
that period, feme difterences took place between the tile,
queen regent (for fire had affumed the title of queen af¬
ter her father’s death) and Urraca queen of Caftile.
Therefa infilled, that feme part of Galicia belonged to
her in virtue of her father’s will j and therefore feized
on Tuy, an epifcopal town, and a place of feme confe-
quence. Urraca, having aflembled a numerous army,
went in perfon into Galicia ; upon which Therefa was
obliged to abandon Tuy, and take {belter in one ol her
own fortreffes. The confequence, in all probability,
would have been fatal to the new kingdom, had noi the
archbiftiop of Compoftella, without whofe afiiftance Ur¬
raca could do nothing, demanded leave to retire with,
his vaffals. This offended the queen to fuch a degree,,
that Ihe threw him into prifen ; which aft of violence
excited fuch a commotion among her own fubjefts, that
the Portuguefe were foon delivered from their appre-
henfions. Qyieen Therefa fell immediately after into a
fimilar error, by throwing into prifen the arehbifhop of
Braga, who had not efpoufed her caufe fo warmly as fhe
had expefted. The bilhop, however, was quickly deli¬
vered by a bull from the pope, who alfo threatened the
kingdom with an interdict ; and this w'as the firft re¬
markable offence which Therefa gave her fubjefts.
Soon after this, Queen Urraca died, and all differences-
were amicably fettled at an interview between Therefa
and Don Alonfo Raymond, who fucceeded to the king¬
dom of Caftile. But, in 1126, the king of Caftile be¬
ing obliged to march with the whole ftrength of his do¬
minions againft: his father-in-law the king of Navarre and
Arragon, There fa took the opportunity of again feizing
upon Tuy ; but the king foon returning with a fuperior
army, {he was again obliged to abandon her conqueft.
But the greateft misfortune which befel this princefs,
was a quarrel with her own fon Don Alonfo F.nriquez.
It does not appear indeed that Therefa had given him
any juft caufe of offence ; but it is certain that a civil
war enfued, in which the queen’s forces w ere totally de¬
feated, and (Tie herfelf made prifoner, in which fituation
{he continued during the remainder of her life. ^
Enriquez having thus attained to the free and full Don Alon-
pofleffion of his dominions, made feveral attempts upon fo’s wars
feme places in Galicia, but without fuccefs 5 fo that hewlth
was at laft conftrained to make peace with Alonfo kinging 0f
of Caftile and Leon, who had aflumed the title of -E'/w-Cattile.
peror of the Spains ; the more efpecially as his dominions
happened to be at that time invaded by the Moors.—
The number of infidels was fe great, that the count of
Portugal had little hopes of fubduing them \ but a
plague breaking out in the Moorilh army, they were
obliged to retreat j after which he reduced feveral places
belonging to that nation. But, in the mean time, the
emperor Don Alonfo, breaking into the Portuguefe
territories, deflroyed every thing with fire and fword.
The king of Portugal furprifed and cut off a confider-
able part of his army j which, however, did not hinder
the
P O R [ 221 ] P O R
Porttigal. the emperor from marching direflly towards him.—
*u—"V—But, at the interceffion of the pope’s legate, all differ¬
ences were accommodated, and a peace concluded ; all
places and prifoners taken on both fidesbeingdelivered up.
In the mean time, the progrefs of the Chriftian arms
in Spain beings reported to Abu-AH Texefien, the mi-
ramamolin or chief monarch of the Moors in Barbary,
he direfted Ifmar, or lihmael, his lieutenant in Spain, to
affemble all the forces in the fouthern provinces, and
drive the Chriftians beyond the Douro. Ilhmael imme¬
diately began to prepare for putting thefe orders in exe¬
cution ; and having added a confiderable body of troops
brought from Barbary to thofe whom he had raifed in
Spain, the whole army was very numerous. He was
y met by Don Alonfo of Portugal, in the plains of Ou-
■hctory of rique, on the banks of the river Tayo ; and Ifhmael
)unque. ag poffible means to prevent the Chriftians from
palling that river, becaufe his own cavalry, in which the
ftrength of his army chiefly conlifted, had thus more
room to a£t. The Portuguefe forces were very incon-
fiderable in number in comparifon of the Moors 5 but
lihmael, being too confident of victory, divided his army
into twelve bodies, and difpofed them in fuch a manner
as might belt prevent the flight, not fuftain the attack,
of the Chriftians. The eonfequence was, that his army
was overthrown with incredible flaughter, and a vaft
number of prifoners taken, among whom were 1000
Chriftians, of the feft ftyled Mokarabia ns, whom, at the
requeft of Theotonus, prior of the Holy Crofs, Don
Alonfo fet at liberty with their wives and children, and
8 procured them fettlements in his own dominions.
DonAlon- After this fignal vi(Story, gained in the year 1139,
jietitleof ^on ^on^° was proclaimed king by his foldiers, and
lng ' ever after retained that title, renouncing all kind of
fubjedlion to the crown of Spain. Being very defirous,
however, of bringing down the porver of the emperor,
he entered into a league with Raymond count of Bar¬
celona and regent of the kingdom of Arragon againft
that prince. In cnnfequence of this treaty, he entered
Galicia with a confiderable force on one fide, while Don
Raymond did the fame on the other. Neither of thefe
enterprifes, however, fucceeded. The Portuguefe mo¬
narch met with a fevere cheek in his expedition into
Galicia, where he received a dangerous w’ound. and had
fome of the nobility wdio attended him taken prifoners.
At the fame time he received intelligence that the
Moors had invaded his dominions, fo that he was obli¬
ged to retire ; which, however, was not done in fuffi
cient time to prevent the ftrong fortrels of Ltyria from
falling into their hands. This fortrels they demolilhed,
and put all the garnfon to the fword but. the king
caufed it to be rebuilt ftronger than before, and put a
more numerous garrifon into it ; however, he under¬
took nt'thing farther this campaign. The war conti¬
nued with various fuceefs till the year 1149, when the
king projected an entevprife againft Santaren, a ftrong
city about 12 miles from Lifbon. In this he luckily
fucceeded ; and by that means gained a conliderable
trad! of country, and a ftrong barrier to his dominions.
After tins fuccefs Don Alonfo caufed himfelf with
much ceremony to be chofen and crowned king of Por¬
tugal before an affembly of the ftates, where he alfo fo~
lemnly renounced all dependence on the crown of Spain,
declaring, that if any of his fucceffors Ihould condefcend
to pay tribute or to do homage to that crown, he was
unworthy of enjoying the kingdom of Portugal. The Portugal.
next year the king undertook the recovery of Lilbon ' 
out of the hands of the Moors; and concerning this^etju^.es
expedition there are luch numbers of fables, that it is Lifbon and
almoft impoflible to come at the truth. What can be 12 other
gathered from thefe accounts is, that he undertook thecities-
liege with a fmall army, and was able to make but little
progrefs in it, partly from the ftrength of the place,
and partly from the numerous garrifon by which it was
defended. At length, fortunately for Don Alonfo, a
fleet of adventurers, French, Englilh, Germans, and
Flemings, that w'ere going to the Holy Land, anchored
at the mouth of the river Tagus, whofe afliftance he de¬
manded, as not altogether foreign to their delign of mak¬
ing war on the infidels. His requeft was readily grant¬
ed ; and, with their aftiftance, Lilhon was fpeedily re¬
duced ; which conqueft fo much railed the reputation
of this monarch, and brought fuch numbers to recruit
his army, that before the end of the year 1147 he had
reduced 12 other cunfiderable cities.
For many years after this, Don Alonfo was fuccefs-H .s his re¬
fill in all his undertakings. He fettled the internal po-gal dignity
vernment of his kingdom, procured a bull from Pope 0:’firmed
Alexander III. confirming his regal dignity, undertooktiieil8I>e’
many fuccefsful expeditions againft the Moors, and be¬
came mailer id four of the fix provinces which compofe
the prefenl kingdom of Portugal. In all his undertak¬
ings he was aififted by the eounfels of his queen Ma¬
tilda, who was a woman of great capacity, and fuffi-
cient for the government of the kingdom in her hufi-
band’s abfence. By her he had a numerous offspring, •
particularly three daughters;, the eldeft of whom Don¬
na Mafalda or Mathilda, was married to the king of
Arragon ; the fecond, Urraca, to Don Ferdinand king
of Leon ; and the third, Therefa, to Philip earl of
Flanders. In 1166, however, the king thought pro-His unfuc-
per, from what provocation we know not, to invade cefsful war
the dominions of his fon-in-law Don Ferdinand ; andw‘th !')on
pofftffed himfelf of Limmia and Turon, two cities 0fF^rdinand
Galicia, in which he put ftrong garrifons. The next° Spain’
year, elated with his fuccefs, he marched with a nume¬
rous army towards Badajos, which lie invefted ; on the
news of which, Don Ferdinand, who had affembled a
large army at Ciudad Rodrigo, marched to its relief.
Yet before he could come within fight of it, it had fur-
rendered to the king of Portugal ; upon which Don
Ferdinand came to a refolution of befieging his anta-
gonift in his newly conquered city ; which Don Alonfo
perceiving, endeavoured to draw out his forces into
the field. Though he was at that time upwards of 70
years of age, he was himfelf on horfeback, and pulhing
forwards at the head of his horfe to get. out at the gate,,
he ftruck his leg againft one of the bolts with fuch vio¬
lence that the bone was lhattered to pieces. This ac¬
cident occafioned fuch confuftifh, that the Portuguefe
troops were ealily beaten, and Don Alonfo was taken
prifoner. He was exceedingly mortified by this dif-
grace, efpecially as he had no great rcafon to expeft
very kind treatment from his fon-in-law. However, the
king of Leon behaved towards him with the greateft
refpect and affection. He defired him to lay afide all
thoughts of bufinefs, and attend to his cure ; but find¬
ing him reftlefs and impatient, he allured him that he
expefled nothing more than to have things put into
the fame condition as before the war, and that they
might
Portugal,
12
Don San-
cho’s fuc-
cefs againft
the Moors.
*3
His wife
adminiftra
tion when
king.
P O R [
miglit live in peace and friendfhip for the future : to
which the king of Portugal moft readily affented ; but
returned to his dominions before his cure was perfect¬
ed, which was the caufe of his being lame all the reft
of his life. Plowever, this did not abate his military
ardour; for, notwithftanding this inconvenience, his
courage tranfported him into the field whenever he rvas
called by the intereft of his fubjeCts. Towards the end
of his reign, an opportunity feemed to prefent itfelf of
obtaining once for all an entire releafe from the difa-
greeable pretenfions of the king of Leon, who, it feems,
had infifted on the king of Portugal’s doing homage for
his kingdom. The opportunity which now prefented
itfelf was a quarrel between the king of Leon and his
nephew Don Alonfo king of Caftile. The latter alked
affiftance from the king of Portugal, which was readily
granted. But Don Ferdinand having received intelli¬
gence that the infant Don Sancho, (the king’s eldeft
fon) was advancing towards Ciudad Rodrigo, afiem-
bled his troops on that frontier with fuch diligence,
that he was enabled to attack him unexpectedly, and en¬
tirely defeated him. Underftanding, however, that Don
Sancho was recruiting his forces with great diligence,
he let him know that they might be much better em¬
ployed againft the infidels, who remained carelefs and
unprepared, expeCting the iffiie of the war. Don San¬
cho made a proper ufe of this advice j and, after mak¬
ing fome motions to amufe the enemy, made a fudden
irruption into Andalufia, penetrating as far as Triana,
one of the fuburbs of Seville. The Moors affembled
their forces in order to attack him on his retreat •, but
Don Sancho having firft fatigued them by the celerity
of his march, at length chofe a ftrong camp, and, hav-
ing given his troops time to repofe, drew them out and
offered the enemy battle. The Moors accepted the
challenge, but were entirely defeated j and Don San¬
cho returned into Portugal with fpoils to an immenfe
amount. For fome years after the war was continued
without any remarkable event j but, in 1184, .Tofeph
king of Morocco, having already tranfported multitudes
of men from Barbary, at length followed in perfon with
a prodigious army, and carried all before him as far as
the Tayo. He appeared before the city of Santaren ;
but having wearied and reduced his army by unfuccefs-
ful affaults on that place, he was attacked by the Por-
tuguefe forces afiifted by Ferdinand of Leon, entirely
defeated, and himfelf killed. By this viftory, the Por-
tuguefe were left at liberty to improve the interior part
of their country, and fortify their frontiers j and during
this interval, the king died in the 76th year of his age,
in the year 1185.
Don Alonfo was fucceeded by his fon Don Sancho I.
. Of this prince it is remarkable, that, before he afcended
the throne, he was of a reftlefs and warlike difpofition 5
but no fooner did he come to the poffeflion of the king¬
dom, than he became a lover of peace, and began with
great afiiduity to repair the cities that had fuffered moft
by the war, and to repeople the country around them.
By his fteady attention to this, he in a very Ihort time
quite altered the appearance of his territories, and pro¬
cured to himfelf the glorious title of I'/ie reftorer of
cities, and father of his country. In the year 1x89, a
fleet, compofed for the moft part of Fngliflr veffels, but
having on board a great number of adventurers of other
nations bound to the Holy Land, entered the river of
3
P O R
1. They were very kindly received, and fupplied Portugal j
ill kinds of refreftitnents by Don Sancho, who
222 ]
Liflaon
with all
took this opportunity of foliciting them to aflift him in a
defign he had formed of attacking the city of Silves in
Algarve j to which they readily yielded. Having join¬
ed a fquadron of his own galleys, and marched a body
of troops by land, the place was reduced, and the
Englifti, according to agreement, rewarded with the
plunder. But, in a ihort time, the Moors from Africa
having again invaded Portugal, the town was feveral
times taken and retaken, till at laft Don Sancho, being
fenfible of the difficulties that would attend the keeping
of it, caufed it to be demoliftred. His laft enterprise
was the reduction of Elvas; foon after which he died
with the reputation of the beft economift that ever fat
on the throne of Portugal. With the chara&er of be¬
ing rather liberal than avaricious, he had amaffed a
treafure of more than 700,000 crowns in ready money,
befides 1400 merks of filver and 100 of gold plate,
which he difpofed of fome time before his death. He
was interred by his own command with much lefs pomp
than his father, in the cathedral of Coimbra j and when
his body was taken up 400 years after by order of the
king Don Emanuel that it might be laid in a new tomb,
it was found uncorrupted. ^
The hiftory of Portugal affords fcarce any event of Difference
importance till the year 1289 j when, in the reign of with Ca-
Don Denis, a difference commenced with Caftile, which ^e*
fubfifted for a long time. Frequent reconciliations took
place ; but thefe w^ere either of very ffiort duration, or
never fincere. At length, in the reign of John I. Don
Juan of Caftile, who had alfo pretenfions to the-crown
of Portugal, invaded that kingdom at the head of the
whole force of his dominions, and with the flower of
the Caftilian nobility entered the province of Alentejo.
According to the Portuguefe hiftorians, he befieged
the city of Elvas without effedt j which difappoint-
ment enraged him to fuch a degree, that he determined
next year to invade Portugal a fecond time, and ruin
all the country before him. Accordingly, having col-
le£led an army of 30,000 men, he invaded Portugal,
took and ruined feveral places, while King John lay in¬
active, with a fmall army, waiting for iome Englifli
fuccours which he expeCted. At laft he ventured an
engagement with the forces which he had ; and, not-iiatis entire
wdthftanding the great fuperiority of the enemy, ob- ly defeated
tained a complete victory ; after which he made an ir¬
ruption into Caftile, and had the good fortune to gain
another battle, which fixed him firmly on the throne of
Portugal. The Caftilians were obliged to confent to a
truce of three years, which was foon after improved in¬
to a lading peace. .g ■
In 1414, King John undertook an expedition againft The city oi
the Moors in Barbary, where he commanded in perfon $ Ceutatakei
but before he fet out, his queen (Philippa the daugh-^rom tlie
ter of John duke of Lancafter) died of grief at the^0014'
thoughts of his abfence. The expedition, however,
proved fuccefsful, and the city of Ceuta was taken from
the Moors almoft at the firft affault 5 but fcarcely had
the king left that country, when the princes of Barbary
formed a league for the recovery of it; and though
they were defeated by the young princes &f Portugal,
whom John again fent into Barbary, yet the trouble of
keeping it was fo great, that fome of the king’s coun¬
cil were of opinion that the town ftteuld be demoliffied.
But
Portugal.
17
Paffage to
FOR [2
Bat John, having confidered the arguments on both
Tides, determined to keep the city •, and therefore en¬
larged and ftrengthened the fortifications, augmenting
his forces there to 6000 foot and 2500 horfe, which he
hoped would be fufficient for keeping off the attacks of
the Moors.
King John died in 1428, and was fucceeded by his
eldeft fon Edward. He undertook an expedition againft
Tangier in Barbary : but the event proved very unfor¬
tunate •, the Portuguefe being fo fhut up by the Moors,
that they were obliged to offer Ceuta back again, in
order to obtain leave to return to Portugal. The
king’s fon, Don Ferdinand, was left as a hoftage for
the delivery of Ceuta but was, with the utmofl cruel¬
ty and injuftice, left in the hands of the infidels, by the
king and council of Portugal, who conftantly refufed
to deliver up the place. Many preparations indeed
were made for recovering the prince by force j but be¬
fore any thing could be accomplifhed the king died in
1430, which put an end to all thefe defigns. See Pe-
DRO, Don.
The war with Barbary continued at intervals, but
the Eaft In-with little fuccefs on the part of the Portuguefe ; and
dies flifco- tjie year 1497, there is no event of any confequence
vered. recorded in the hiftory of Portugal. This year was
remarkable for the difcovery of the paffage to the Eaft
(Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The enterprifing
fpirit of the Portuguefe had prompted them to under¬
take voyages along the coaft of Africa for a confider-
, able time before ; but when they undertook their firft
Ltdia^0”S voyaSe difcovery, it is probable that they had no¬
thing farther in view than to explore thofe parts of the
coaft of Africa which lay neareft to their own coun¬
try. But a fpirit of enterprife, when roufed and put
in motion, is always progreftive ; and that of the Por¬
tuguefe, though flow and timid in its firft operations,
gradually acquired vigour, and prompted them to ad¬
vance along the weftern ftiore of the African continent
far beyond the utmoft boundary of ancient navigation
in that dire£tion. Encouraged by fuccefs, it became
more adventurous, defpifed dangers which formerly ap¬
palled it, and furmounted difficulties which it once
deemed infuperable. When the Portuguefe found in
the torrid zone, which the ancients had pronounced to
be uninhabitable, fertile countries, occupied by nume¬
rous nations •, and perceived that the continent of A-
frica, inftead of extending in breadth towards the weft,
according to the opinion of Ptolemy, appeared to con-
tradl itfelf, and to bend eaftw'ards, more extenfive pro-
fpefls opened to their view, and infpired them with
hopes of reaching India, by continuing to hold the fame
courfe which they had fo long purfued.
After feveral unfuccefsful attempts to accomplifti
what they had in view, a fmall fquadron failed from the
Tagus, under the command of Vafco de Gama, an of¬
ficer of rank, whofe abilities and courage fitted him
to conduct the moft difficult and arduous enterprifes.
From unacquaintance, however, with the proper feafon
and route of navigation in that vaft ocean through
which he had to fleer his courfe, his voyage was long
and dangerous. At length he doubled that promon¬
tory, which, for feveral years, had been the object of
terror and of hope to his countrymen. From that, af¬
ter a profperous navigation along the fouth-eaft of A-
feica, he arrived at the city of Melinda, and had the
13
Circum-
tances
which faci-
itated the
hl'covery.
23 ] P O-R
fatisfaftion of difcovering there, as well as at other _ Portugal. *
places where he touched, people of a race very different ’ v
from the rude inhabitants of the weftern ftiore of that
continent, which alone the Portuguefe had hitherto vi-
fited. Thefe he found to be fo far advanced in civili¬
zation and acquaintance with the various arts of life,
that they carried on an a£tive commerce, not only with
the nations on their own coaft, but with remote coun¬
tries of Afia. Condu&ed by their pilots, ivho held a
courfe with which experience had rendered them well
acquainted, he failed acrofs the. Indian ocean, and land¬
ed at Calecut, on the coaft of Malabar, on the 22d of
May 1498, ten months and two days after his depar¬
ture from the port of Lifbon. 19
The famorin, or monarch of the country, aftoniflied The king
at this unexpedled vifit of an unknown people, whofe
afpeft, and arms, and manners, bore no refemblanee tojealousyof
any of the nations accuftomed to frequent his harbours, his new vi¬
and who arrived in his dominions by a route hitherto fitors.
deemed imprafticable, received them at firft with that
fond admiration which is often excited by novelty } but
in a ftiort time, from whatever motives, he formed va¬
rious fchemes to cut off Gama and his followers. Tho
Portuguefe admiral, however, wras not to be overreach¬
ed by fuch politics as his. From every danger to which
he was expofed, either by the open attacks or fecret
machinations of the Indians, he extricated himfelf with
lingular prudence and dexterity, and at laft failed from
Calecut with his (hips, loaded not only with the com¬
modities peculiar to that coaft, but with many rich pro¬
ductions of the eaftern parts of India. Fie returned to
Portugal in two years after his failing from the Tagus,
but with a great lofs of men ; for out of J48 perfons
whom he took out with him, only 55 returned. The
king received him with all poflible teftimonies of re-
fpect and kindnefs •, created him count of Videgueira j
and not only declared him admiral of the Indies, but
made that office hereditary in his family. ' 20
On the firft intelligence of Gama’s fuccefsful voyage, The Vene-
the Venetians, with the quick-fighted difcernment of tians dread
merchants, forefaw the immediate confequence of it to^J1””^
be the ruin of that lucrative branch of commerce which n)erce>
had contributed fo greatly to enrich and aggrandife
their country j and they obferved this with more poig¬
nant concern, as they were apprehenfive that they did
not poffefs any effectual means of preventing, or even
retarding, its operation. 3r
The hopes and fears of both were well-founded. The Account of
Portuguefe entered upon the new career opened to themtlie fettle-
with activity and ardour, and made exertions, both com-^
mercial and military, far beyond what could have been in Iiufiai
expefted from a kingdom of fuch inconfiderable extent.
All thefe wrere directed by an intelligent monarch, ca¬
pable of forming plans of the greateft magnitude with
calm fyftematic wifdom, and of profeeuting them with
unremitting perfeverance. X he prudence and vigour of
his meafures, however, would have availed little without
proper inftruments to carry them into execution. Hap¬
pily for Portugal, the difcerning eye of Emanuel feledl-
ed a fuccefllon of officers to take the fupreme command
in India, who, by their enterprifing valour, military
fldll, and political fagacity, accompanied with difinte-
refted integrity, public fpirit, and love of their country,,
have a title to be ranked with the perfons moft eminent
for virtue and abilities in any age or nation. Greater
things
P O Pv
Portugal.
[ 224 ]
P O It
22
Oppofition
made by
the Vene¬
tians.
_2.3_
Inqu'fiti'.-n
introduced
into Portu-
gal.
tilings perhaps were atehicved by them than were ever
accomplilhed in fo fhort a time. Within 24 years only
after the voyage of Gama, the Portuguefe had rendered
themfelves matters of the city of Malacca, in which the
great ftaple of trade carried on among the inhabitants
of all thofe regions in Alia, which Europeans have di-
ftinguiihed by the general name of the Kajl Indies, was
then eftablifhed. The conqueft fecured to them great
influence over the interior commerce of India, while, at
the fame time, by their fettlements at Goa and Diu,
they were enabled to engrofs the trade of the Malabar
coaft, and to obftrudt greatly the long cflablilhed inter-
courfe of Egypt with India by the Red lea. In every
part of the eait they were received with refpeft ; in
many they had acquired'the abfolute command. They
carried on trade there without rival or controul ; they
prefcribed to the natives the terms of their mutual in-
tercourfe •, they often fet what price they pleafed on the
goods which they purchafed ; and were thus enabled to
import from Indoftan and the regions beyond it. what¬
ever is ufeful, rare, or agreeable, in greater abundance,
and of more various kinds, than had been known for¬
merly in Europe.
Not fatisfied with this afeendant which they had ac¬
quired in India, the Portuguefe early formed a fcheme
no lefs bold than interefted, of excluding all other na¬
tions from participating of the advantages of commerce
with the eaft ; and they accomplilhed one half of what
their ambition had planned.
In confequence of this, the Venetians foon began to
feel that decreafe of their own Indian trade which they
had forefeen and dreaded. In order to prevent the far¬
ther progrefs of this evil, they incited the foldan of the
Mameluks to fit out a fleet in the Red fea, and to at¬
tack thofe unexpected invaders of a gainful monopoly,
of which he and his prcdeceffois had long enjoyed un-
difturbed polTeflion. The Portuguefe, however, en¬
countered his formidable fquadron with undaunted cou¬
rage, entirely defeated it, and remained mailers of the
Indian ocean. They continued their progrefs in the call
almoft without obflruftion, until they eltablilhed there
a commercial empire •, to which, whether we confider
its extent, its opulence, the llender power by which it
was formed, or the fplendour with which the government
of it was conducted, there had hitherto been nothing
comparable in the hiitory of nations. Emanuel, who
laid the foundation of this llupendous fabric, had the fa-
tisfadion to fee it almolt completed. Every part of Eu¬
rope was fupplied by the Portuguefe with the produc¬
tions of the ealt ; and if we except fome inconliderable
quantity of them, which the Venetians Hill continued to
receive bv the ancient channels of conveyance, our quar¬
ter of the globe had no longer any commercial inter-
courfe with India, and the regions of Afia beyond it,
but by the Cape of Good Hope.
In September 1522, King Emanuel died of an epi¬
demical fever, and was fucceeded by his fon John III.
The molt remarkable tranfa&icn of this prince’s reign
was the introdu&ton of the inquifition into his domi-
This happened in the year 1525, or, as fome
fay. in 153 5. A famine happening to ceafe in a lliort
time after it was introduced, the prielts perfuaded the
ignorant multitude that it was a bleffing from heaven on
account of the eroding fuch an holy tribunal. How¬
ever, it was not long before the bulk of the nation per¬
ceived what kind of a bleffing the inquifition was : but Portugal,
their difeernment was too late ; for by that time the in-
quifitors had acquired fuch power, that it became equal¬
ly dangerous and ineffeduai to attempt difclofing any of
their mylteries.
In the mean time Solyman the Magnificent, the molt
enlig fife tied monarch of the Ottoman race, obftrving
the power and the opulence of the Portuguefe riling,
and attributing it to its proper caufe, and eager to fup-
piant them, lent orders to the baihaw of Egypt to em¬
ploy his whole llrength againit the Chriitians in the
Ealt Indies. The baihaw, in obedience to thefe orders,
failed out from the Red fea with a greater naval force
than ever the Mohammedans had employed before $
having qcr o Janizaries, and a6,000 other land troops
ou boasd. Yet, by the courage and condud of the Por¬
tuguefe officers and foldiers, ail tins mighty armament
was defe ated, and their Eaii India pofleffions faved from
the danger which threatened them. In Africa likewife
the king of Fez was baffled before the town of Safi, and
frelh quarrels breaking out among the princes gave great
relief to the Cbriftians, who had long been obliged to
carry on a delenfive war, and had more than once been
on tne very orink of ruin. For a long lime indeed their
fafety had been derived only from the quarrels of the
Moors among themfelves ; tor fuch m the envy and
jealoufy which reigned among the Portuguefe, that they
could never unite heartily in oppofing the common ene¬
my 5 and therefore, had their enemies united againit
them, they mult certainly have been cut off. But when¬
ever the cheriffs quarrelled with each other, one party
was lure to have recourfe to the Portuguefe ; who, by
lending them a fmall fupply, fecured quiet to themfelves,
and had the pleafure of feeing their enemies deflrov one
another. Yet in the end even this had bad confequences ; £ad ^te 0
for, on one hand, it kept up a martial fpirit among the affairs in
Moors, and on the other it made them acquainted withEarhary.
the Portuguefe difeipline ; fo that after every lliort in¬
terval of repofe they not only found them as much ene¬
mies as before, but much more formidable than ever. '
The confequence of all this was, that King John began
to apprehend that the conqueft of Barbary was impof-
fible, and therefore to limit his defires to the keeping of
thofe few fortreffes which he had already j which, though
a neceffary vand prudent meafure, dil'pleafed the genera¬
lity of his fubjeFts.
King John exerted himfelf much in the fettlement
of Brazil in South America, which he brought into a
very good Hate, caufed feveral ftrong towns to be erect¬
ed there, and took all poffible methods to encourage the
converfion of the natives to Chriftianity. He alfo made
many regulations for the welfare and happinefs of his
fubjedls. The difputes of the nobility about precedency
were frequently attended with very difagreeable confe¬
quences, which made the king refolve once for all to
fettle them by eftablillied rules; and the rules eftabliffl-
ed by him on this occalion have fubfifted ever fince,
and in a great meafure prevent thefe altercations. He
had other great defigns in his mind, particularjy*with
regard to the reformation, which he had puffled very far
with refpeft to religious perfons of both fexes but,
on a clofe examination of his affairs, be found his fflh-
je£ts in general to have been f© much injured by his
leaving their concerns to the infpeftion of his council,
that he was thrown by the grief of it into a kind of
apoplexy*
I ■
Portugal.
25
Prepofte-
rous educa-
don of the
1 voung king
Sebaftian.
26
de under¬
akes an ex-
ledition
igainft
Africa.
FOR [2
apoplexy, from whicli he never recovered. His death
happened in June 1557 } and he was fucceeded by his
fon Don Sebaftian III. an infant of three years of age.
After the death of King John, the adminiftration re¬
mained in the hands of the queen, grandmother to Se¬
baftian, who behaved with great prudence and circum-
fpeflion. The Moors, however, fuppofing that under
a minority they might be able to difpoflefs the Cbri-
ftians of fuch places as they held in Barbary, laid clofe
fiege to Mafagan. But the queen-regent fent fuch
fneedy fuccours, and promifed fuch rewards to thofe
who diftinguilhed themfelves, that the Moors, though
they brought 80,000 men into the field, -were obliged
to abandon the enterprife. This was at firft magnified
as a high inftance of the queen’s capacity and wifdom ;
but in a ftiort time the natural averfion which the Por-
tuguefe had to the government of women, together
with the prejudice they had again!! her country, as be¬
ing a Caftilian, appeared fo plainly, and gave her fo
much uneafinefs, that of her own accord ftie refigned
her authority into the hands of Cardinal Don Henry
the king’s brother. By him Don Alexis de Monefes
was appointed the king’s governor, and Gonfales de
Gomera with two other priefts his preceptors. By
means of thefe inftru&ors the king’s education was to¬
tally marred. His governor aftiduoufty inculcated up¬
on him that the chief virtue of a king was courage ;
that danger was never to he avoided, but always fur-
mounted, let the occafion be what it would. His
other tutors, inftead of inftru£ting him in the true reli¬
gion, only infpired him with an abhorrence of profeffed
infidels ; the confequence of all which was, that, he be¬
came rafli, inconfiderate and obftinate ; all which qua¬
lities confpired to draw upon him the cataftrophe which
ruined both him and the kingdom.
After the king was grown up to man’s eftate, his de¬
fire was to diftinguifti himfelf againft the infidels. He
himfelf chofe an expedition to the Eaft Indies; but the-
prime minifter Alco^ova, who did not choofe to attencf
his monarch to fuch a diftance, fubftituted Africa in its
ftead. This expedition the king entered into in the moft
inconfiderate and abfurd manner. He firft fent over
Don Antonio prior of Crato, with fome hundreds of
foldiers; carried his principal courtiers over with him
from a hunting match, and without equipages ; he then
fent for the duke of Aveyro, with fuch troops as he
could colleft on the ftiort warning he had got ; and
when all thefe were aflembled, the king fpent his time
in hunting, and flight excurfions againft the . enemy,
without doing any thing of confequence, except expo-
fing his perfon upon all occafions. At length he re¬
turned to Portugal in fuch tempeftuous weather, that
his fubjefts had given him up for loft ; when they were
agreeably furprifed by his unexpe&ed arrival in the river
of Lifbon, which they celebrated with the greateft re¬
joicings.
The little fuccefs which attended the king in this ex¬
pedition ferved only to inflame him more with defire for
another ; fo that from the time he returned he feemed
to think on nothing elfe. He was highly delighted alfo
with an accident which at this time furnifhed him with
a pretence for war, though of that he flood in no great
need. Muley Hamet, king of Fez and Morocco, had
been difpofiefled of his dominions by his uncle Muley
Moloch. At the beginning of this war Don Sebaftian
Vol. XVII. Part I.
25 ] P.°..R
had offered him his troops in Africa, which offer was Portugal,
rcjecled with contempt : but now being a fugitive, and
having in vain applied for afliftance to Philip or Spain,
Muley Hamet applied to the king of Portugal; and,
that he might the more ealily fucceed, caufed the ior-
trefs of Arzila, which his father had recovered, to be
reftored to the Poi tuguefe. The king was in rapture
at this event, and fancied that his glory would exceed
that of all his predeceffors. He was advifed againft
this expedition, however, by all his friends. King Phi¬
lip of Spain having done every thing to difluade him
from it at a perfonal conference, fent Francifco Aldana,
an old and experienced oftieer, to Morocco ; and at his
return ordered him to attend Don Sebaftian, in order to
give him an account of the ftate of aftairs in that coun¬
try. This he performed with the greatett fidelity, but
without any effeft. The queen-dowager and cardinal
united in their endeavours to divert him from this unfor¬
tunate enterprife; but he treated them both with fo little
refpe£f, that his grandmother broke her heart; and the
cardinal, to (how his diftafte at the meafure, retired to
Evora without coming either to court or council; which
example was followed by many of the nobles. Many
of thefe, however, fent very free remonftrances to the
king on the impropriety of his conduft ; and King Phi¬
lip fent to him the duke de Medina Celi, once more to
lay before him the reafoas why he thought his fcheme
impra&icable, and to put him .in mind that he had no
hand in pufhing him upon his deftrucftion, or of con¬
cealing from him the dangers into which he feemed de¬
termined to plunge himfelf and his fubjedls. Laftly,
he received a letter on the fubject from Muley Moloch
himfelf, wherein that prince explained to him his own
right to the crown of Fez, and ftiowed that he had
only dlfpofleftt'd a tyrant and a murderer, who had
therefore no "right to his friendftfip or afiirtance. He
next aflured him that he had noreafon to fear either the
power or neighbourhood of the Portuguefe; as a proof
of which, and as a mark of his efteem, he was content
to make him a prefent of ten miles of arable ground
round each of the fortrefles he poffefied in Africa, and
which indeed were no more than four, viz. Tangier,
Ceuta, Mafagan, and Arzila. At the fame time he
addrefled himfelf to King Philip of Spain, with whom
he was on good terms, defiring him to interpofe with his
nephew Sebaftian, that things might be yet adjufted
without the effufion of human blood. But the king of
Portugal was deaf to all falutary advice ; and therefore ^cco^t 0£
paid no regard to this letter, nor to the remonftrances of his forces,
his uncle. On the 24th of June 1577, therefore, he
fet fail from the bar of Lifbon with a fleet of 50 (hips
and five galleys, 12 pieces of cannon, and tranfports and
tenders, making near 1000 fail. His troops confided of
9000 Portuguefe foot; 3000 Germans; 700 Italians
commanded by Sir Thomas Stukeley, an Englifli exile,
but remarkably brave; 2COO Caftilians and 300 volun¬
teers, commanded by Don Chriftopher de Tuvara maf-
ter of the horfe, a man of courage, but without either
conduct or experience. He touched firft at Lagos bay
'in the kingdom of Algarve, where he remained for
four days: thence he proceeded to Cadiz ; where he
-was magnificently feafted for a week by the duke de
Medina Sidonia, who took the opportunity once more,
by order of Philip, of difluading him from proceeding
further in perfon. But this exhortation proved as fruit-
F f lefs
P O II [ 226
Portugal, lefs as tlie reft j and the king having failed with a ftrong
detachment for Tangier, ordered Don Diego de Souza,
his commander in chief, to follow with the remaining
part of the army.
The troops landed on the coaft of Africa without
any bad accident, and joined at Arzila. Here the
king was met by the cheriflf Muley Hamet, on whofe
account he had undertaken the war, who delivered him
his fon Muley, a boy of 12 years of age, as a hoftage,
and brought a reinforcement of 300 Moors. The boy
-was fent to Mafagan under a ftrong guard 5 but the fa¬
ther remained in the Portuguefe camp. Here it was
refolved in a council of war to reduce the town of La-
rache, but it was difputed whether the troops ftiould
proceed thither by land or fea. Don Sebaftian, who
efpoufed the former opinion, finding himfelf oppofed by
Muley Hamet, gave him fuch a rude anfwer, that he
left his prefence in difcontent ; after which the king’s
opinion prevailed, and the army began its march on the
29th of July. As they proceeded, the king received a
letter from the duke of Alba, requefting him to attempt
nothing beyond the taking of the town of Larache.
Along with the latter was fent an helmet which had
28 been worn by Charles V.
Movements Qn t]ie other hand Muley Moloch, having intelli-
and difpofi- ce cf formidable invafion, took the field, though
armies1 16 t”1™6 ^ a ^ever t^at cou^ not ^ on
horfeback, with 40,000 foot and 60,000 horfe. He con-
dufted every thing, notwithftanding his diftreffed fitua-
tion, with the greateft prudence. Finding fome rea-
fon to fufpeft that part of his army were defirous of go-
ino- over to his rival, he proclaimed that fuch as inclined
to join their old mafter were at liberty to do it. This at
once put a flop to the defeftion, and only a very few
made ufe of the liberty which was granted them. Stand¬
ing in doubt likewife of the fidelity of a body of 3000
horfe, he fent them to reponnoitre the enemy, by which
a£l of confidence he fecured them. Still, however, he
feared that his officers might be corrupted by the Por¬
tuguefe gold •, for which reafon he changed the difpo-
fition of his army entirely, fo that none of his officers
] P o it
great part of the army would defert to him, which would Portugal,
render him mafter not only of the kingdom, but of the
fate of the Chriftians alfo. When he found that the
king was bent on fighting, he only requefted that the
engagement might be delayed till four o’clock in the
afternoon, that, in cafe of a defeat, they might have
fome chance of efcaping ; but even in this he could not
prevail j for the king having difpofed of every thing for
a battle the next day, was impatient to begin the onfet
as foon as it was light.
In the mean time Muley Moloch was fb fenfible of
the advantages of his fituation, that he was inclined
to take the whole Portuguefe army prifonersj but find¬
ing his difeafe increafe, fo that he had no hopes of re¬
covery, he came to the refolution to fight, that his anta-
gonift might not avail himfelf of his death. The dif-
pofition of the Chriftian army was very regular and cor-
reft, through the care of fome old officers in Don Se-
baftian’s fervice 5 the infantry were difpofed in three
lines } the battalion of volunteers made the vanguard
the Germans commanded by Colonel Amberg, and the
Italians by Sir Thomas Stukeley, were on the right j
the Caftilian battalions on the left; the Portuguefe in
the centre and rear, the cavalry, confifting of about
1500 men, partly on the right under the command of
the duke d’Avegro, to whom the cheriff joined him¬
felf with his horfe: on the left was the royal ftandard,
with the reft of the cavalry, under the command of the
duke of Barcelos, eldeft fon to the duke of Braganza,
Don Antonio prior of Crato, and feveral other perfons
of great rank. The king took poft at firft with the vo¬
lunteers. Muley Moloch difpofed alfo his troops in
three lines : the firft confifted of the Andalufian Moors,
commanded by three officers who had diftinguifhed
themfelves in the wars of Granada ; the fecond of re-
negadoes; and the third of the natives of Africa.
They moved in a half moon, with 10,000 horfe on
each wing, and the reft in the rear, with orders to ex¬
tend themfelves in fuch a manner as to encompafs the
Chriftian army. Muley Moloch, though extremely weak,
was taken out of his litter, and fet on horfeback, that he
commanded the corps to which they had been accuftom- might fee how his commanders had been obeyed ; and
1 1 • . J  ! cl. 1_ J '  XT 1, r -TVk 4-* o £ a 4-1 f nn nic tl-tiOTVi
-ed } and therefore, having new men to deal with, had
none whom they could truft.
Having taken thefe precautions, he advanced againft
the Portuguefe army with fuch celerity, that he came
in fight of them on the 3d of Auguft. On this Don
Sebaftian called a council of war •, in which many who
out of complaifance had given their opinions for this
march, were now for returning. They were feparated
from the~enemy by a river, and the Moors were mafters
of the ford, fo "that it was impofiible to force them im¬
mediately in their polls; neither was it pra&icable for
them to wait for a more favourable opportunity, becaufe
they had no provifions. The foreign officers, on the
contrary, were of opinion that fighting was now be¬
come neceffary, and a retreat dangerous. This, however,
was violently oppofed by the cheriff, who faw plainly
that they ran a great rilk of being defeated and of lo-
fing all, while at the fame time they were not certain
of o-aining any thing of confequence though they (hould
be vidlorious-, whereas, if they drew down towards the
fea, they might entrench themfelves till they were re¬
lieved by their fleet •, during w'hich interval if Muley
Moloch ffiould die, he looked upon it as certain that a
29
being perfe&ly fatisfied with the fituation of his troops,
he directed the fignal of battle to be given. The Chri- The Portu-
ftians advanced with the greateft refolution j broke theguefe army
firft line of the Moorifti infantry, and difordered the fe- de*
cond. On this Muley Moloch drew his fword, and'eae '
would have advanced to encourage his troops, but that
his guards prevented him; on which his emotion of mind
was fo great, that he fell from his horfe. One of his
guards caught him in his arms, ^nd conveyed him to his
litter ; where he immediately expired, having only time
to lay his finger on his lips by way of enjoining them to
conceal his death. But by this time the Moorffh caval¬
ry had wheeled quite round, and attacked the Chriftian
army in the rear; upon which the cavalry in the left
wing made fuch a vigorous effort that they broke the
Portuguefe on the right; and at this time the cheriff,
in pafling a rivulet, was drowned. In this emergency,
the Germans, Italians, and Caftilians, did wonders; but
the Portuguefe, according to their own hiftorians, beha¬
ved indifferently. Attacked on all fides, however,
they were unable to refill ; and the whole army, except
about 50 men, were killed or taken prifoners. The
fate of the king is varioufly related. According to
b fomcv
FOR [2
Portugal. Tome, he had two horfes killed under him, and then
  r~~'' mounted a third. His braveft officers were killed in
his defence; after which the Moors furrounding him,
feized his perlbn, ftripped him of his fword and arms,
and feeured him. They immediately began to quarrel
about whofe prifoner he was ; upon which one of the
generals rode in among them, crying, “ What, you
dogs, when God has given you fo glorious a vicfory,
Would you cut one another’s throats about a prifoner ?”
at the fame time difeharging a blow at Sebaltian, he
brought him to the ground, when the reft of the Moors
foon difpatched him. Others affirm, that one Lewis
de Brito meeting the king with his ftandard wrapped
round him, Sebaftian cried out, “ Hold it faft, let us
die upon it!” upon which charging the Moors, he was
feized, refeued by Brito, who was himfelf taken with
the ftandard, and carried to Fez. He affirmed, that
after he was taken, he faw the king at a diftance, and
unpurfued. Hon Lewis de Lima met him afterwards
making towards the river j and this is the latt account
we have of his being feen alive.
Muley Hamet, the brother of Muley Moloch, was
proclaimed king by the Moors immediately after the
battle. Next day, having ordered all the prifoners to
be brought before him, the new fovereign gave orders
to fearch for the body of Don Sebaftian. The king’s
valet-de-cbambre brought back a body, which he faid
Was that of his mafter, but fo disfigured with wounds,
that it could not well be known j fo that notwith-
flanding the moft diligent fearch, this monarch’s death
could never be properly authenticated. This body,
however, was preferved by Muley Hamet, who deliver¬
ed it up as the body of Don Sebaftian to King Philip
of Spain. By him it was fent to Ceuta, from whence
it was tranfported to Portugal, and buried among his
anceftors in the monaftery at Belem, with all poffible
folemnity.
By this terrible difafter, the kingdom of Portugal,
from being the moft eminent, funk at once into the
loweft rank of the European ftates. All the young
nobility were cut off, or carried into llavery : the king¬
dom was exhaufted of men, money, and reputation ; fo
that Don Henry, who affumed the government after
the death of his brother Don Sebaftian, found himfelf
in a very difagreeable fituation. The tranfadlions of his
reign were quite trifling and unimportant; but after
his death a great revolution took place. The crown of
Portugal was claimed by three different competitors j
viz. the prince of Parma, the duchefs of Braganza,
and Philip of Spain. Whatever might have been the
merits of their refpeftive claims, the power of Philip
ortugal Archly decided the conteft in his favour. He found
aquered his fchemes facilitated by the treachery of the regents,
f Philip who took the moft fcandalous methods of putting the
Spain, kingdom into his hands. Under pretence of infpefting
the magazines, they took out fome of the powder, and
mixed the reft with fand : they appointed an agent
to go to France for fuccoiyrs, from when they knew
that they could not arrive in time; they diffolved the
ftates as foon as they difeovered that they were bent on
. maintaining the freedom of the nation ; and, under a
(how of confidence, fent off to diftant places fuch of the
nobility as they fufpefted.
King Philip, finding every thing in his favour,
commanded the duke of Alva to invade Portugal, at
27 ] P O R
the head of 20,000 men. The people, perceiving Portugal,
that they were betrayed, exclaimed again!! the gover- ~v *
nors, and placed on the throne Don Antonio prior of
Crato. But his forces being inexperienced, and he
himfelf behaving in a very improper manner, he was
quickly defeated by the duke of Alva, and forced to
fly out of the kingdom, which he effedted with great
difficulty. On his flight the whole kingdom fubmit-
ted, together with the garrifons of Barbary, the fettle-
ments on the weftern coaft of Africa, of Brazil, and
in the Eaft Indies. All the Madeiras, however, ex¬
cept the ifle of St Michael, held out for Don An¬
tonio until they were reduced, and the French navy,
who came to their affiftance, entirely defeated and de-
ftroyed. 3I
Philip made his entry into Lilbon as foon as the Terms
kingdom was totally reduced, and endeavoured to con- gramed by
ciliate the affedlions of the people by confirming
terms which he had before offered to the ftates. Thefeje<^S4
terms were, that he would take a folemn oath to main¬
tain the privileges and liberties of the people : that the
ftates ffiould be affembled w'ithin the realm, and nothing
propofed in any other ftates that related to Portugal :
that the viceroy or chief governor ffiould be a native,
unlefs the king ffiould give that charge to one of the
royal family : that the houfehold ffiould be kept on the
fame footing : that the poll of firft prefident, and of
all offices, civil, military, and judicial, ffiould be filled
with Portuguefe \ all dignities in the church and in the
orders of knighthood confined to the fame ; the com¬
merce of Ethiopia, Africa, and the Indies, referved al-
fo to them, and to be carried on only by their mer¬
chants and veffels: that he would remit all imports on
ecclefiaftical revenues: that he would make no grant
of any city, town, or jurifdi&ion royal, to any but
Portuguefe .' that eftates refulting from forfeitures ffiould
not be united to the domain, but go to the relations of
the laft poffeffor, or be given to other Portuguefe for
recompenfe of fervices: that when the king came to
Portugal, where he fhould refide as mucli as poffible,
he fhould not take the houfes of private perfons for his
officers lodging, but keep to the cuftom of Portugal:
that wherever his majefty refided, he fliould have an
ecclefiaftic, a treafurer, a chancellor, two mafters of re-
quefts, with under officers, all of them Portuguefe, who
ffiould difpatch every thing relating to the kingdom i
that Portugal fliould ever continue a diftinft kingdom,
and its revenue be confumed within itfelf: that all mat¬
ters of juftice ffiould be decided within the realm : that
the Portuguefe ffiould be admitted to charges in the
houfeholds of the king and queen of Spain : that all du¬
ties on the frontiers fliould be taken away: and, laftly,
that Philip ffiould give 300,000 ducats to redeem pri¬
foners, repair cities, and relieve the miferies which the
plague and other calamities had brought upon the peo¬
ple. All thefe conditions, formerly offered and rejeft-
ed by the Portuguefe, the king now confirmed : but
whereas the duke of Offuna, by way of fecurity for*
thefe conditions, had promifed them a law, that if the
king did not adhere to them, the ftates fliould be freed
from their obedience, and might defend their right
by the fword, without incurring the reproach of per^
jury, or the guilt of treafon j this he abfolutely refufed
to ratify.
All thefe conceflions, however, did not anfwer the
E f 2 purpofe } ,
Portugal.
32
Cannot
conciliate
their affec¬
tions.
Is diiturb-
ed by Don
Antonio.
P O R [ 228 ] FOR
purpofe; nay, tliough Philip was to the laft degree la-
vidi of honours and employments, the Portuguefe were
{till difiatisfied. This had alfo an effeft which was not
forefeen : it weakened the power, and abforbed the re¬
venues, of the crown ; and, by putting it out of the
power of any of his fucceffors to be liberal in the fame
proportion, it raifed only a (hort-lived gratitude in a few,
and left a number of malcontents, to which time was
continually adding.
Thus Philip, with all his policy, and endeavours to
pleafe, found his new fubje&s flill more and more dii-
gufted with his government, efpecially when they found
their king treating with the utmoft feverity all thofe
who had fupported Don Antonio. X he exiled prince,
however, ftill ftyled himfelf king of Portugal. At firft
he retired to France, and there demanded fuccours for
the recovery of his dominions. Here he found fo much
countenance, that with a fleet of near 60 fail, and a
good body of troops on board, he made an attempt
upon the Terceras, where his fleet was beat by the
Spaniards 5 and a great number of prifoners being ta¬
ken, all the officers and gentlemen were beheaded, and
a great number of meaner people hanged. Don An¬
tonio, notwithftanding, kept poffeflion of feme places,
coined money, and performed many other a&s of legal
power; but was at length conftrained to retire, and it
Avas with feme difficulty that he did fo, and returned
into lAance. He paffed from thence into England,
where he was well received *, and many fitted out priva¬
teers to cruife againft the Spaniards under his commif-
fion. But after King Philip had ruined the naval power
of Portugal as well as Spain, by equipping the armada,
Queen Elifabeth made no difficulty of owning and af-
lifling Don Antonio, and even of fending Sir John Nor¬
ris and Sir Francis Drake with a ffrong fleet and a
great army to reftore him. Upon this occafion Don
Antonio fent his fun Don Chriftopher a hoflage to Mu-
ley Hamct king of Fez and Morocco, who was to lend
him 200,000 ducats. But King Philip prevented this
by furrendering Arzila : and this difappointment, the
unfeafonable enterprife upon Corunna, and the difputes
that arofe between Norris and Drake, rendered that ex¬
pedition abortive ; fo that, except carrying the plague
into England, it was attended with no confequences
worthy of notice. He remained fome time after in
England : but finding himfelf little regarded, he with¬
drew once more into France, where he fell into great
poverty and diitrefs } and at length dying in the 64th
year of his age, his body was buried in the church of
the nuns of Ave Maria, with an infeription on his
tomb, in which he is ftyled king. He left feveral
children behind him, who, on account of his being a
knight of Malta, and having made a vow of virginity
at his entrance into the order, were looked upon as il¬
legitimate. He preferved, even to the day of his
death, a great intereft in Portugal ; and had drawn
from thence, in the courfe of his life, immenfe furos of
money ^ which had been fquandertd in many fruitlefs
negociations and attempts to difturb the pofTeffions of
King Philip in almoft all parts of his dominions, and par-
ticularly in the Indies, where the Portuguefe were ra¬
ther more averfe to the Caftilian yoke, or at leaft tefti-
fied their averfion more openly than in Europe.
But Don Antonio was not the only pretender to the
crown of Portugal : for the people, partly through the Portugal
love of their prince, and partly from their hatred to the
Caitilians, were continually feeding themfelves with the
hopes that Don Sebaftian would appear and deliver Imp^ors
them ; and in this refped fuch a ipirit of credulity pretending
reigned, that it was faid proverbially, they would have to be Doa
taken a negro for Don Sebaftian. This humour putSebaftias!k
the fon of a tiler at Alcobaza, who had ltd a profli¬
gate life, and at length turned hermit, to give himfelf
out for that prince ; and having with him two compa¬
nions, one of them ftyled himfelf Don Chrijlopher de
Tavora, and the other the bifhop of Guarda, they began
to colledt money, and were in a fair way of creating,
much difturbance, if the cardinal arch-duke had not
caufed them to be apprehended ; and after leading them
ignominioufly through the ftreets of Lifbon, he who
took the name of Sebafian was fent to the galleys for
life, and the pretended biffiop was hanged. Not long
after, Gonfalo Alvarez, the Ion of a mafon, gave him¬
felf out for the fame king } and having promifed mar¬
riage to the daughter of Pedro Alonfo, a rich yeoman
whom he created earl of Torres Novas, he affembled a
body of about 800 men, and fome blood was fpilt be¬
fore he was apprehended: at length, being clearly
proved to be an impoftor, himfelf and his intended fa¬
ther-in-law were publicly hanged and quartered at Lif¬
bon *, which, inftead of extinguiftung this humour, far¬
ther increafed it. -5
There was, however, a perfon who appeared, about Account of
20 years after the fatal defeat of Sebaftian, at Venice, a remark-
who created much more trouble. He aflumed the nameable one*
of Don Sebafian, and gave a very diftinft account of
the manner in which he had paffed his time from that
defeat. He affirmed, that he had preferved his life and
liberty by hiding himfelf amongft the flain : that, after
wandering in difguife for fome time in Africa, he re¬
turned with two of his friends into the kingdom of Al¬
garve : that he gave notice of this to the king Don
Henry : that finding his life fought, and being unwill¬
ing to difturb the peace of the kingdom, he returned
again among the Moors, and paffed freely from one
place to another in Barbary, in the habit of a peni¬
tent : that after this he became a hermit in Sicily •, but
at length refolved to go to Rome, and difeover himfelf
to the pope. On the road he was robbed by his do-
meftics, and came almoft naked to Venice, where he
was known, and acknowledged by fome Portuguefe.
Complaint being made to the fenate, he was obliged to
retire to Padua. But the governor of that city order¬
ing him alfo to depart, he, not knowing what to do,
returned again to Venice *, where, at the requeft of the
Spaniffi ambaffador, who charged him not only with
being an impoftor, but alfo with many black and atro¬
cious crimes, he was feized, and thrown into prifon. He
underwent 28 examinations before a committee of noble
and impartial perfons ; in which he not only acquitted
himfelf clearly of all the crimes that had been laid to his
charge, but entered alfo into fo minute a detail of the
tranfa&ions that had paffed between himfelf and the re¬
public, that the commiffioners were perfectly aftoniftied,
and ftiowed no difpofition to declare him an impoftor
moved more efpecially by the firmnefs of his behaviour,
his lingular modefty, the fobriety of his life, his exem¬
plary piety, and his admirable patience under his afflic¬
tions.
felt;
1^
FOR [ 220 ] FOR
.rtugd. tions. The noife of this was diffufed throughout Europe,
.-y—' and the enemies of Spain endeavoured everywhere to
give it credit.
The ftate, however, refufed to difcufs the great point,
whether he was or was not an irnpoftor, unlefs they were
requefted fo to do by fome prince or tlate in alliance
with them. Upon this the prince of Orange fent Don
Chriftopher, the fon of the late Don Antonio, to make
that demand} and at his requeft an examination was
made with great folemnity : but no decifion followed j
only the fenate fet him at liberty, and ordered him to de¬
part from their dominions in three days. He went there¬
fore, by the advice of his friends, to Padua, but in the
difguife of a monk, and from thence to Florence 5 where
he was arrefted by the command of the grand duke,
who delivered him to the viceroy of Naples. The count
de Lemos, then in poffeffion of that dignity, died foon
after, before whom he was firft brought ; this man al-
ferted, he muft know him to be Don Sebaftian, fince
he had been twice fent to him from the king of Spain.
He remained prifoner feveral years in the caftle Del Ovo,
where he endured incredible hardlhips. At length he
was brought out, led with infamy through the llreets
of the city, and declared to be an impoftor, who aflumed-
the name of Sebajlian : at which words, when proclaim¬
ed before him, he faid gravely, And fo I am. _ In the
fame proclamation it was affirmed, that he was in truth
a Calabrian $ which as foon as he heard, he faid, It is
falfe. He was next (hipped on board a galley as a (lave ;
then carried to St Lucar, where he was fome time con¬
fined ; from thence he was transferred to a caftle in the
heart of Caftile, and never heard of more. Some per-
fons were executed at Liftion for then endeavours to
raife an infurredlion in his behalf; but it was thought
ftrange policy, or rather a ftrange want'of policy, in
the Spaniards, to make this affair fo public without
proofs •, and the attempt to filence this objection, by
affirming him to be a magician, was juftly looked upon
,6 as ridiculous. . .
id confe- The adminiftration of affairs in Portugal, during the
lences of reign of Philip, wras certainly detrimental to the nation ;
®sPa-. and yet it does not appear that this flowed fo much
ftmion!* from any ill intention in that monarchy as from errors
in judgment. His prodigious preparations for the in-
vafion of England impoveriffied all his European domi¬
nions ; but it abfolutely exhaufted Portugal. I he pre-
tenfions of Don Antonio, and the hopes of dt (polling
their Indian fleets, expofed the Portuguefe to the re-
fentment of the Engliffi ; from which the king, having
granted away all his domains, wanted power to defend
them. Their clamours w'ere not at all the lefs loud^ for
their being in fome meafure without caufe. 1 he king,
to pacify them, borrowed money from the nobility upon
the cuftoms, which were the only fure remedy he had
ft ill left; and this was attended with fatal confequences.
The branches, thus mortgaged, became, and continue
to this hour, fixed and hereditary ; fo that the merchant
was oppreffed, and the king received nothing. This
expedient failing, a tax of three per cent, was impofed,
in the nature of (hip-money, for the defence of the
coafts and the commerce, which for fome years was pro¬
perly applied ^ but it then became a part of the ordinary
revenue, and went into the king’s exchequer without
account. This made way for diverting other appropri¬
ated branches j as for inftance, that for the repair of for¬
5
tifications, the money being ftritfly levied, and the _Portugal. ^
works fuffered to decay and tumble down } and for the v ">'?
maintenance of the conquefts in Africa, by which the
garrifons mouldered away, and the places were loft.
Upon the whole, in the fpace of 18 years, the nation
was vifibly impoverilhed : and yet the government of
Philip was incomparably better than that of his fuccef-
fors; fo that his death was juftly regretted ; and the
Portuguefe were taught by experience to confefs, that
of bad mafters he was the beft.
His fon Philip, the fecond of Portugal and the third
of Spain, fat 20 years upon the throne before he made
a vifit to Portugal, where the people put themfelves to
a moft enormous expence to receive him ; for which
they received little more than the compliment, that be¬
fore his entry into Liffion, he knew not how great a
king he- was. He held an affembly of the dates, in
which his fon was fworn fueceffor. Having done all
that he wanted for himfelf, he acquired a falfe idea of
the riches of the nation from an immoderate and foolilh
difplay of them during his fliort ftay at Lilbon j and
having (hown himfelf little, and done lefs, he returned
into Spain ; where he afted the part of a good king
upon his death-bed, in deploring bitterly that he never
thought of afting it before. The reign of Philip III. 37
and IV. was a feries of worfe meafures, and worfe for- Great Ioffes
tune : all his dominions fuffered greatly } Portugal moft*" Afiaand
of all. The lofs of Ormus in the Eaft, of Brazil in the Am€nca*
Weft Indies, together with the (hipwreck of a fleet
fent to effort that from Goa, brought the nation incre¬
dibly low, and encouraged the eondeduke to hope they
might be entirely erulhed. Thefe are the heads only
of the tranfadlions for 40 years •, to enter in any degree
into the particulars, is, in other words, to point out the.
breaches made by the Spanilh minifters on the condi¬
tions granted by King Philip j which, with refpeft to
them, was the original contraft, and unalterable confti-
tution of Portugal while fftbjeft to the monarchs of Caf¬
tile \ and which, notwitliftanding, they fo often and fo
flagrantly violated, that one would have imagined they
had ftudied to provoke the wrath of heaven, and infult
the patience of men, inftead of availing therofelves, as
they might have done, of the riches, power, and martial
fpirit of the Portugueff people. _ _ 38
It was the very balls and foundation of their privi-The Por-
leges, that the kingdom (hould remain ffparate and in-tusuefe °P'
dependent, and confequently that Liffion (hould conti-H® sepa_y
nue as much its capital as ever, the feveral fupreme coun-niar(js.
cils and courts refiding there ; fo that the natives of this
realm might not be obliged to travel in ffarcb of juftiee.
So little, or at lead fo ffiort a lime, was this obferved,
that neither promotion nor juftice was to be obtained
without journeys, and Madrid was not more the capital
of Caftile than of Portugal. The general affembly of
eftates was to be held frequently, and they were held
thrice in the fpace of 60 years *, and of thefe twice
within the firft three. The king was to refide in this
realm, as often and as long as poflible *, in compliance
with which, Philip I. was there but once, Philip II.
but four months, and Philip III. was never there at all.
The houfehold eftabliffiment was fuppreffed through all
their reigns. The viceroy was to be a native of Portu¬
gal, or a prince or princefs of the blood 5 yet when any
of the royal family bore the title, the power was in re*,
lity in the hands of a Spaniard. Thus, when the prin-
FOR l 2
Portugal. cef$ of Mantua was vice-queen, the marquis de la Puebla
^ was to afhfl: in council, and in all difpatches j and die
was to do nothing without his advice. The council of
Portugal, which was to be compofed entirely of natives,
was tilled with Caftilians, as the garrifons alfo were,
though the contrary had been promifed. The preli-
dents of provinces, or corregidors, were to be natives j
but by keeping thofe offices in his own hands, the king
eluded this article. No city, town, or didrift, was to
be given but to Portuguefe j yet the duke of Lerma had
Beja, Serpa, and other parts of the demefnes of the
crown, which were formerly appendages of the princes
of the blood. None but natives were capable of offices
of judice, in the revenue, in the deet, or of any pod ci¬
vil or military ; yet thefe were given promifcuoufly to
foreigners, or fold to the highed bidder ; not excepting
the governments of cadles, cities, and provinces. The
natives were fo far from having an equal chance in fuch
cafes, that no pods in the prefidials were ever given to
them, and fcarce any in garrifons j and whenever it
happened, in the cafe of a perfon of extraordinary merit,
whofe pretenfions could not be rejefted, he was either
removed, or not allowed to exercife his charge •, as fell
out to the marquis of Marialva and others. The forms
of proceeding, the jurifdiftion, the miniders, the fecre-
taries, were all changed, in the council of Portugal $
being reduced from five to three, then two, and at lad
to a lingle perfon.
By reafon of thefe and many other grievances too te¬
dious to be'mentioned here, the detedation of the Spa-
nidi government became univerfal; and in 1640 a revo¬
lution took place, in which John duke of Braganza was
declared king, by the title of John IV. This revolu¬
tion, as being determined by the almod unanimous voice
of the nation, was attended with very little effufion of
blood ; neither were all the efforts of the king of Spain
able to regain his authority. Several attempts indeed
were made for this purpofe. The fird battle was fought
in the year 1644, between a Portuguefe army of 6000
foot and 1100 horfe, and a Spaniih army of nearly the
fame number. The latter were entirely defeated; which
contributed greatly to edablidi the affairs of Portugal
on a firm bafis. The king carried on a defenfive war
during the remainder of his life and after his death,
which happened in 1655, the war was renewed with
great vigour.
This was what the Spaniards did not expeft $ for
they expreffed a very indecent kind of joy at his death,
hoping that it would be followed by a diffolution of the
government. It is not indeed eafy to conceive a king¬
dom left in more perilous circumftances than Portugal
was at this time :—The king Don Alonzo Enriquez, a
child not more than 13 years of age, reputed of no
very found conftitution either in body or mind ; the re¬
gency in a woman, and that woman a Caftilian ; the
nation involved in a war, and this refpefting the title
to the crown •, the nobility, fome of them fecretly dif-
affefted to the reigning family, and almoft all of them
embarked in feuds and contentions with each other; fo
that the queen fcarce knew who to truft or how the
fliould be obeyed. She afted, however, with great vi¬
gour and prudence. By marrying her only daughter
the princefs Catharine to Charles II. king of Great
Britain, (lie procured to Portugal the proteftion of
the Engliih fleets, with reinforcements of fome thou-
39
A revolu¬
tion in fa¬
vour of the
duke of
Braganza.
.4°
Perilous
ftate of
Portugal
on his
death.
50 ] P O It
fands of horfe and foot j and at laft, in 1665, ter¬
minated the war by the glorious victory of Montef-
claros. This deeifive aftion broke the power of the
Spaniards, and fixed the fate of the kingdom, though
not of the king of Portugal. Alonzo was a prince
whofe education had been negiefted in his youth, who
was devoted to vulgar amufements and mean company,
and whom the queen for thefe reafons wifhed to deprive
of the crown, that Ihe might place it on the head of his
younger brother Don Pedro. To accomplilh this pur-
pnfe, ihe attempted every method of ftern authority and
fecret artifice; but fhe attempted them all in vain. The
Portuguefe would not confent to let afide the rights of
primogeniture, and involve the kingdom in all the
miferies attending a dilputed fucceffion. After the death,
however, of the queen-mother, the infant entered into
cabals againfl the king of a much more dangerous‘na¬
ture than any that (he had carried on. Alonzo had
married the princefs of Nemours; but being, as was no,n ^
faid, impotent, and likewii’e lei’s handfome than his bro-ZOoblig
ther, that lady transferred her affeftion to Don Pedro, to refign
to whom Ihe lent her affiftance to hurl the king from t*le
the throne. Alonzo was compelled to fign a refigna-
tion of the kingdom ; and his brother, after governing
a few months without any legal authority, w'as in a
meeting of the ftates unanimoufly proclaimed regent,
and veiled with all the powers of royalty. Soon after
this revolution, for fuch it may be called, the marriage
of the king and queen was declared null by the chapter
of Lilhon ; and the regent, by a papal difpenfation, and
with the confent of the Hates, immediately efpoufed the
lady who had been wife to his brother. He governed,
under the appellation of regent, 15 years, when, upon the
death of the king, he mounted the throne by the title
of Don Pedro II. and after a long reign, during which
he condufted the affairs of the kingdom with great pru¬
dence and vigour, he died on the pth of December
1706.
Don John V. fucceeded his
Avas then little more than 17
with fuch wifdom and refolution, adhered fo fteadily toanc*re*?*
father ; and though he Don John
years of age, he afted V. a wife
the grand alliance formed againft France and Spain,lute ^rm0
and Ihowed fuch refources in his own mind, that though
he fuffered great Ioffes during the Avar, he obtained fuch
terms of peace at Utrecht, that Portugal was in all re-
fpefts a gainer by the treaty. The tAvo crowns of
Spain and Portugal Avere not, however, reconciled tho¬
roughly till the year 1737 ; and from this period they
became every day more united, which gave much fatis-
faftion to fome courts, and no umbrage to any. In
this fituation of things, a treaty Avas made in 1750
Avith the court of Madrid, by which Nova Colonia, on
the river of Plata, Avas yielded to his Catholic majefty,
to the great regret of the Portuguefe, as well on ac¬
count of the value of that fctllement, as becaufe they
apprehended their poffeflion of the Brafils would by this
aftion be rendered precarious. On the laft of July the
fame year, this monarch, worn out by infirmities,
died in the 61 ft year of his age, and in the 44th of bis
reign* • 43
Don Jofeph, prince of Brafil, fucceeded him, to the Don Jo-
univerfal fatisfaftion of his fubjefts, and with as great feph’s ex-
expeftations as ever any monarch that mounted the ce.u®nt a^'
throne. It %vas generally believed that he Avould make™™ftra*
confiderable alterations, in which he did not difappoint
the
P O R
t 231 ]
P O R
hrtugal.
44 ,
; eidtul
j amities
, ring his
J 45
«fe ca-
Ijiities
fliifhly
a;iunted
the hopes of the public ; and yet they were done fo
J (lowly, with fuch moderation, and with fo many circum-
ftances of prudence, as hindered all grounds of com¬
plaint. Amongft other new regulations, the power of
the inquifition fuffered fome reftri&ion \ the king di-
re6ling, that none of their fentences fhould be put in
execution till reviewed and approved by his privy-coun¬
cil. But as in the reign of his father he had confented
to the treaty with Spain, he ratified it after his accef-
fion, and fince carried it into execution upon this noble
principle, that no confiderations of interefl ought ever
to induce a monarch to break his word.
Within the fpace of the few years of this king’s
reign, the calamities of Portugal in general, and thofe
of the city of Lifbon in particular, can fcarcely be pa¬
ralleled in hiftory. An earthquake, a fire, a famine,
an afiaffination-plot againft their prince, executions up¬
on executions, the fcaffolds and wheels for torture reek¬
ing with the nobleft blood ; imprifonment after impri-
fonment of the greateft and mod diftinguilhed perfon-
ages j the expulfion of a chief order of ecclefiaftics j the
invafion of their kingdom by a powerful, flronger, and
exafperated nation ; the numerous troops of the enemy
laying wafte their territory, bringing fire and fword
with them, and rolling like diftant thunder towards the
gates of their capital •, their prince ready almoft to fave
himfelf by flight ! The Spanifh miniftry had already
decreed the doom of Portugal, and nothing was to be
heard at the Efcurial but Delcnda eft Carthago. Car¬
thaginian, perhaps, or Jewifh hiftory, may poflibly af¬
ford a fcene fomething like this, but for the (hortnefs
of the period not fo big with events, though in their
final deftruftion fuperinr. From that indeed, under the
hand of Providence, the national humanity and genero-
fity of Great Britain preferved the Portuguefe ; and it
remains now to be feen, in future treaties, how that peo¬
ple will exprefs their gratitude (fee Britain, N° 450.).
Thofe who are able to fearch deeper into human affairs,
may aflign the caufes of fuch a wonderful chain of
events j but no wife man will afcribe all this to fo lin¬
gular a caufe as that which a Spaniard has done, in a
famous pafiphlet, printed in the year 1762 at Madrid.
It is intitled, A Spanifh Prophecy ; and endeavours to
(how, that all thefe calamities have befallen the Portu¬
guefe, folely on account of their conneftion with the
heretic Englifh. The great Ruler and Governor of the
world undoubtedly a£ts by univerfal laws, regarding the
whole fyftem, and cannot, without blafphemy, be con-
fidered in the light of a partizan. The reft of the
pamphlet tends to (how, that his Catholic majefty car¬
ried his arms into Portugal, folely to give them liberty,
and fet them free from Englifh tyranny.
Jofeph dying without male iflue, the fucceflion de¬
volved to Mary, his daughter, now queen of Portugal.
She was married fome time before he died, with the
pope’s difpenfation, to his brother Don Pedro. But as
the queen has long laboured under mental imbecility,
the executive government of the kingdom is entrufted
to her fon, who is ftyled Prince Regent.
Portugal has not been exempted from feeling the ef¬
fects of Bonaparte’s infatiable ambition. From the un¬
relenting hatred which he bears towards Great Britain,
he has meditated the deftruftion of her commerce by
every means in his power, and therefore he demanded
the Portuguefe government, that all BritKh yeffels
might be excluded from having any (hare in the trade Portugal,
of that country. Bonaparte demanded, that the Portu- “
guefe government (hould immediately pay to France Demands <
4,000,000 of crufades in fpecie, (hut all the ports of Bonaparte
Portugal againft Britifh commerce, imprifon Britidi fub- on Portu-
jeifts, and confifcate their property ; give up the fleet of£ah
Portugal to France, and receive French and Spanifti
foldiers to protedl the garrifons. It appears to have
been with extreme reluftance that the prince regent
agreed to fuch iniquitous demands, which naturally fill¬
ed the Britilh merchants with confternation and difmay,
whofe perfons and property the Portuguefe government
was anxious to place beyond the reach of danger ; and
accordingly, the prince regent ordered their property to
be (hipped, without the payment of accuftomed duties,
requefting the military and cuftomhoufe officers to give
them every affiftance. On the 17th of October 1807,
the Lively frigate failed from Lilbon with a convoy of
50 fail for England, having on board nearly the whole
of the Englifh merchants and property.
But fuch friendly difpofitions towards the Britiffi, the
prince regent was very foon compelled to relinquifli ;
for, on the 22d of Odlober, he iffued the following edift.
“ It having been my greateft defire to preferve within my
dominions the moft perfect neutrality during the prefenl
war, upon account of theiacknowledged good effects
that refult from it to the fubjetfts of this crown ; but it
being impoffible to preferve it any longer, and reflefting
at the fame time how beneficial a general peace will be
to humanity, I have judged it proper to accede to the
caufe of the continent, by uniting myfelf to his majefty
the emperor of the French and king of Italy, and to his
catholic majefty, in order to contribute, as far as may
be in my power, to the acceleration of a maritime
peace ; wherefore, I am pleafed to order, that the ports
of this kingdom may be (hut againft the entry of all
(hips of war, and merchant veffels, belonging to Great
Britain ; and thus it is to be underftood.”
A (hort time prior to this event, the prince regent
intimated the determination of the court to abandon the
kingdom and emigrate to the Brafils 5 but this refolu-
tion was very foon followed by the above-mentioned
edi£L Whether we are to afcribe this change of fenti-
ment to fymptoms of domeftic inquietude, or whether
from the jsflfefts of fome foothing opiate, adminiftered by
thofe who were in the intereft of Bonaparte, it appears
that the prince regent had not refolution to execute his
project. The agitation of the metropolis was fuch as -
muft have (haken his refolution j an implacable enemy
was on the frontiers, and the government being fuppo-
fed to be on the eve of emigrating, created uncommon
confternation, and the people at large feemed ripe for
an infurreftion. In this fituation of affairs the prince
made it publicly known, that he had yet well-
founded hopes to expe61, that the abfence of the Spa¬
nifti and French ambaffadors would be only temporary,
and not followed by any a6ts of hoftility on the part of
thofe powers. In juftification of the prince’s conduit
towards Britain on the prefent ocoafion, fome have put
the queftion, “ What means did Portugal poffefs to re¬
fill, with effeil, the tyrant of the continent, who had
declared, that if the houfe of Braganza (hould not
break off its connexion with England, it (hould ceafe
to reign ?”
The defign firft adopted by the prince regent was ap¬
parently
family to
the Brafils.
P O R [ 232
Portugal, patently relinquilhed for fome time, but finally carried
’■'““-'V”"—' into execution on the 29th of November, when 15 per-
47 fons belonging to the lioufe of Braganza embarked at
.Emigration for the Brafils, under the efcort of a Britilb
w?‘l! fleet. In confequence of this meafure, the emperor of
France declared that the throne was abdicated, and that
the kingdom fliould henceforth be confidered as a confti-
tuent part of the French dominions. He diffolved the
regency formed by the prince, fequeftrated all the pro¬
perty belonging to the crown, and that of all the nobles
The French’"'h0 followed him into exile. General Junot, who
enter Lif- foon after this, entered Lilbon at the head of 14,000
bon. men, iffued a proclamation to the people of Portugal,
in which he promifed the due adminiftration of juftice,
the prefervation of tranquillity, and declared that their
future happinefs fhould be attended to with the utmoft
punftuality. Thefepretenfions, however, did notap-
pear to reconcile the fubje&s of Portugal to their new
mafters *, for when Junot feated himfelf in the prince’s
Box at the opera, all the Portuguefe then prefent put on
their hats, and inftantly withdrew. The evils attending
this French invafion were fuch as might have been ex-
pefted. The lower claffes were dying of abfolute want *,
and more than two-thirds of the mercantile houfes in
Lifbon were plunged into the gulf of bankruptcy.
The army of Sir Arthur Wellefley, font by Great Bri¬
tain to aft againfl: theFrench troops under Junot,amount¬
ed to about 20,000 men, with an eqsal number of Portu¬
guefe foldiers, which were to be joined by a Spanifli force
49 of 10,000 men, under the command of General Jones.
French «le- The Britifh and French had a defperate aftion near Vi-
feated at miera un the 21ft of Augutt 1808, which terminated in
ofVimiera t^e total defeat of the French forces, who were to eya-
'cuate Portugal on certain conditions, the chief of which
W'as, that they were to be carried home with all their
plunder, in veffels belonging to Great Britain. Sir Hew
Dairympie, who fucceeded Sir Arthur Wellefley as com-
,0 mander in chief of the Britilh forces, agreed to what is
Convention called the convention of Cintra, by Avbich indeed the
] von
rica. The confequences refulting to the Portugueie, Portugal,
from the convention of Cintra, were of the moft benefi- '■“■—v—
cial nature. The whole country was not only in a flate
of fubordination, but the effefts of the energy difplayed
by the government began to be felt all over the king¬
dom. The difafftfted and fufpefted were everywhere
taken into cuftody ; and the people were making tire
mofl aftive exertions for their own defence, and tor the
common caufe.
The Portuguefe government iflued a proclamation
calling upon the whole nation, from 15 to 60, to rife
en rnafj'e for the defence of their country, and to oppofe
an infurmountable barrier again ft the French. The
whole people were required to arm themfelves in every
manner in their power, particularly with pikes of fix or
feven feet long,—an order which met with more prompt
obedience than a fimilar command experienced when if-
fiied by the emperor of Germany. 31
But fince the unfortunate iffue of the campaign of the French re
Britiih army under Sir John Moore in Spain (for an ac-enjerP°n-
count of which, fee Spain), the aftairsof Portugal have§a 1
experienced another fad reverfe. The armies of France
have again entered that devoted kingdom, and are now
(Feb. 1809) probably in poffeflion of the greateft part
of it ; but in July 1813 they were nearly excluded from
the peninfula by the victorious armies of Lord Welling¬
ton. _ S2
The air of Portugal, in the fouthern provinces, would Air, cli-
be exceffively hot, if it were not refreftied by the fea- mate, &c.
breezes \ but in the northern, it is much cooler, and
the weather more fubjeft to rains. The fpring is ex¬
tremely delightful here j and the air, in general, more
temperate than in Spain. Lifbon has been much refort-
ed to of late by valetudinarians and confumptive perfons
from Great Britain, on account of its air. The foil is
very fruitful in wine, oil, lemons, oranges, pomegra¬
nates, figs, raifins, almonds, chefnuts, and other fine
fruits ; but there is a want of corn, owing, it is faid,
in a great meafure to the negleftof agriculture. There
pofed that fuch a convention might have
honourable to Britain, and the French troops compelled
to an unconditional furrender. Dilhonourable as this
convention was deemed by fome, it had the fanftion of
Sir Charles Cotton, the admiral of the Britifh fleet ;
and the freeing the Portuguefe from the oppreflion and
tyranny of France by this means became a juftification
of the meafure. This convention was ftrongly repro¬
bated in Britain j a board of general officers was ap¬
pointed by his majefty to form a court for the purpofe of
inquiring into the circumftances which led to it; and
the refult of the inveftigation was a decifion, by a ma¬
jority of the court, that the armiftice and convention
were neceffary, and that nothing diffionourable or im¬
proper attached to any of the officers concerned in it.
Every thing at the Brafils proceeded in a tranquil
and prosperous manner under the aufpices of the new
government. T he higheft veneration was {hewn by the
colonifts of all deferiptions for the prince regent, and
prompt obedience paid to his ordinances and commercial
regulations. The moft enthufiaftic attachment prevailed
in Bio Janeiro and Bahia towards the Engliffi fettlers ;
and the happieft confequences Avere expefted to refult
from the enterprifes of their neAV friends in South Ame-
make : but mules being furer-footed, are more ufed for
carriage and draught. By reafon of the fcarcity of pa-
fture, there are not many herds of cattle or flocks of
fheep *, and what they have are fmall and lean, though
the flefli is tolerably good : their beft meat is faid to be
that of hogs and kids. The country in many parts is
mountainous : but the mountains contain all kinds of
ores ■, particularly of filver, copper, tin, and iron, Avith
a variety of gems, beautifully variegated marble, mill-
ftones, and many curious foffils. Not far from Lifbon
is a mine of faltpetre \ but none of the metal mines are
here worked, the inhabitants being fupplied with metals
of all kinds from their foreign fettlements. The princi¬
pal rivers are the Minho, in Latin Minim ; the Linda,
anciently the famed Lethe ; the Cavado 5 the Douro }
the Guadiana, anciently Anas ; and the Tajo, or Tagus,
Avhich is the largeft river in the kingdom, carrying fome
gold in its fands, and falling into the fea a little below
Lifbon. There are fe\'eral mineral fprings in the king¬
dom, both hot and cold, Avhich are much frequented. 53
The only religion tolerated in Portugal is that of the Religion-
church of Rome 3 yet there are many concealed .lews,
and thofe too even among the nobility, bifliops, pre¬
bends.
P O R [2
Portugal, bends, monks, and nuns, and the very inqtilfitors them-
—Y—J felves. If a Jew pretend to be a Chriftian and a Homan
Catholic, while he is really a Jew, by going to mafs,
confeflion, &c. or if after being converted, or pretend¬
ing to be converted and pardoned, he relapfes into Ju-
-daiim and is difcoVefed, the inquifition lays hold of him.
In the firll cafe, if he renounce Judaifm, he is only con¬
demned to fome corporal punilhment or public lhame,
and then ordered to be initrufted in the Chriftian reli¬
gion. In the fecond, he is condemned to the flames
without mercy. Befides Jews and heretics, who broach
or maintain any doftrines contrary to the religion of the
country, the inquifition puniflies all fodomites, pretend¬
ers to forcery and the black art, apoftates, blafphemers,
perjured perfons, impoftors, and hypocrites. The burn¬
ing of thofe condemned by the inquifition, is called an
auto da fe, or “ a£t of faith.” There are feveral tribu¬
nals of the inquifition, one of which is at Goa in the
Eart Indies; but there are none in Brafil. The num¬
ber of convents in Portugal is faid to be 900. The or¬
der of Jefuits hath been fuppreffed in this country, as
they have been in others. Heje is a patriarch, feveral
archbifliops and bifliops : the patriarch is always a car¬
dinal, and of the royal family. The archbilhops rank
with marquifes, and the bifliops with counts. The
Portuguefe have archbifliops and bilhops in the other
quarters of the world as ivell as in Europe. The fums
railed by the popes here, by virtue of their prerogatives,
are thought to exceed the revenues of the crown, and
the nuncios never fail of acquiring vaft fortunes in a
fliort time. Though there are two univerfities and fe¬
veral academies, yet while the papal power, and that of
the ecclefiaftics, continues at fuch a height, true learn¬
ing is like to make but a fmall progrefs. The language
of the Portuguefe does not differ much from that of
Spain : Latin is the ground-work of both ; but the for¬
mer is more remote from it, and harlher to the ear,
than the latter. The Portuguefe tongue is fpoken on
all the coaft of Africa and Alia as far as China, but
mixed with the languages of the leveral nations in thofe
diflant regions.
With regard to manufactures, there are very few in
Portugal, and thofe chiefly coarfe filks, woollen cloths,
and fome linen 5 but their foreign trade is very confider-
able, efpecially with England, which takes a great deal
of their wine, fait, foreign commodities, and fruits, in
return for its woollen manufactures, with which the
Portuguefe furnilh their colonies and fubjeCts in Afia,
Africa, and America. Their plantations in Brafil are
very valuable, yielding gold, diamonds, indigo, copper,
tobacco, fugar, ginger, cotton, hides, gums, drugs, dye¬
ing woods, &c. From their plantations in Africa, they
bring gold and ivory, and flaves to cultivate their fugar
and tobacco plantations in Brafil. They have Hill fe¬
veral fettlements in the Eafi: Indies, but far lefs confi-
derable than formerly. The Azores or Weftern ifles,
Madeira, and the Cape de Verde iflands, alfo belong to
them ; but a great part of the riches and merchandife
brought from thefe diftant countries becomes the pro¬
perty of foreigners, for the goods they furnifli the Por¬
tuguefe with to carry thither. The king’s fifth of the
gold brought from Brafil amounts commonly to about
300,000!. fterlingfo that the whole annual produce of
gold in Brafil may be eftimated at near 2,ooo,oool. fter-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
4S
/lanufac
1 FOR
ling. Lifbon is the greateft port in Europe next to Portugal.
London and Amfterdam. w--v—
As to the conilitution of Portugal, it is an abfolute
hereditary monarchy. Both here and in Spain there tion and
were anciently cortes, flates, or parliaments ; but they *,ovem-
have long fince entirely loft their fliare in the legilla- ment-
ture. lor the adminiilration of the civil government,
there is a council of ftate, and feveral fecretaries j for
military affairs, a council of war; for the finances, a
treatury-court; and for the diftribution of jultice feveral
high tribunals, with others fubordinate to them, in the
feveral diftricfs into which the kingdom is divided. The
cities have their particular magiitracy. The proceed¬
ings of the courts are regulated by the Roman laiv, the
royal edi6fs, the canon laiv, and the pope’s mandates.
Like the Spaniards, they t ran fa <51 moft of their bufinef*
in the mornings and evenings, and fleep at noon. The
nobility are very numerous, and many of them are de-
fcended from natural fons of the royal family. They
are divided into high and low7. The high confifts of
the dukes, marquiffes, counts, vifcounts, and barons,
who are alfo grandees, but of different claffes, being fuf-
fered to be covered in the king’s prefence, and having
the title of Dons, with a penfion from the royal treafu-
ry, to enable them the better to fupport their dignity :
the king ftyles them Ihujlnous in his letters, and treats
them as princes. A duke’s fons are alfo grandees, and
his daughters rank as marchioneffes. The inferior no¬
bility or gentry are termed Hidalgos, i. e. gentlemen :
they cannot affume the title of Don without the kinc’s
licenfe. ^
The revenues of the crown, fince the difcovery of the Revenues
Brafil mines, are very confiderable 5 but the real amount the kil)g,
can only be gueffed at. Some have faid that it amounts, ^c"
clearof allfalariesand penfions,to upwards of 3,000,000!.
fterling ; others make it a great deal lefs. Thus much
is certain, that the cuftoms and other taxes run excef-
fively high. Befides the royal demefnes, the hereditary
eftates of the houfe of Braganza, the monopoly of Brafil
Inuff, the coinage, the money arifing from the fale of
indulgences granted by the pope, the fifth of the gold
brought from Brafil, the farm of the Brafil diamonds,
the mafterfliips of the orders of knighthood, and other
fources, yield very large fums. The forces, notwith-
ftanding, of this nation, both by fea and land, are very
inconfiderable their land forces being the Avorft
militia in Europe, and their navy of little import¬
ance.
There are feveral orders of knighthood here, viz. the Orders of
order of Chrift, the badge of which is a red crofs wfithin ^
a white one, and the number of the commanderics 454.hootl*
2. The order of St James, the badge of which is a red
fword in the fhape of a crofs. A great number of towns
and commanderies belong to this order. 3. The order
of Aviz, whofe badge is a green crofs in form of a Kly,
and the number of its commanderies 49. Though thefe
three orders are religious, yet the knights are at liberty
to marry. 4. The order of St John, which has alfo fe¬
veral commanderies.
The king’s titles are, King of Portugal and the Al-
garves, on this fide and the other fide the fea of Africa ;
Lord of Guinea, and of the navigation, conquefs, and
commerce, in Ethiopia, Arabia, Perfa, India, &c. The
king’s eldeft fon is ftyied Prince of Braftl, In the year
Gg J749>
P O s
[ 234 ]
P o s
52
Charadler
of the
people.
1749, Pope Benedia XIV. dignified the king with the
title of His mojl faithful majefy.
The Portuguefe are reprefented as inferior to the Spa¬
niards both in perfon and genius : as extremely haughty,
treacherous, and crafty in their dealings •, much given
to avarice and ufury ; and vindiaive, malicious, and
cruel. The meaner fort are faid to be extremely ad-
dided to thieving : notwithfianding, it muft be owned,
that they have fhown themfelves on many occalions a
brave and warlike people. They are juftly famed for
their ikill in navigation j and for the many difcovenes
they have made both in the Eaft and Weft Indies. I he
women here, and in other countries of the fame degree
of heat, are not fo prolific as in the colder climates •, but
they are faid to be very beautiful whilft young, though
their complexion is fomewhat upon the olive. _ 1 heir
eyes are very black and fparkling, and retain their bril¬
liancy after all their other charms are gone. It is the
faftiion here, at prefent, as in molt other countries, tor
the ladies to fpoil and disfigure th<Sr Ikins and com¬
plexions with paints and walhes : but, though lively
and witty, they are faid to have a nice fenle of iemale
honour. Both men and women make great ufe of Ipec-
lacles ; often not fo much to aid their fight, as to de¬
note their wifdom and gravity. Their drefs, like that
of the Spaniards, never ufed to vary, efpecially among
the men ; but of late years, both men and women have
given much into the French models. The women, when
they go abroad on foot, are wont to ufe long veils,
which cover their heads, but leave their faces bare.
PORTUGALLICA terra, earth of Portugal;
the name of a fine aftringent bole, dug in great plenty
in the northern part of Portugal.
PORTULACA, Purslane ; a genus of pmnts be¬
longing to the dodecandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 13th order, Succulents. See
Botany Index. c
PORTUMN A, a town of Ireland, in the county 01
Galway and province of Connaught, is 74 miles from
Dublin. The caftle of Portumna, the feat of the earl
of Clanricarde, is at this place, and near it are the ruins
of an ancient caftle. There is alfo a garrifon for a troop
of horfe and two companies of foot. I he town is leated
on the river Shannon, where it falls into Lough Derg.
The monks of the Ciflertian abbey of Dunbrody, in the
county of Wexford, had for a long time a chapel here
dedicated to St Peter and St Paul; but having at length
forfaken it, OMadden, dynaft of the country, gave it
to the Dominican friars, who, with the approbation ot
the monks of Dunbrody, erefled a friary here and a
church, which they dedicated to the bleffed \ irgin and
the original patron faints ; at the fame time they bui t a
fteeple, and all other neceffary offices. Pope Martin V.
granted a bull to confirm their poffeffions dated 8th Oc¬
tober 1426; and on the 23d of November following he
granted indulgencies to all who had contributed to the
building. The walls are ftill nearly entire, and ffiow
that themonaftery of Portumna was by no means an
ignoble ftrufture. The ancient choir is now the panlh-
* POSE in Heraldry, denotes a lion, horfe, or other
beaft, Handing ftill, with all his four feet on the ground.
See Hollingffiead’s Defcription of Britain, xvi.
POSITIVE, a term of relation oppofed to negative.
It is alfo ufed in oppofition to relative or arbitrary : thus
Pofith'«
we fay, Beauty is no pofitive thing, but depends on the
different taftes of people. . . A. . PolTeffion.
POSITIVE Degree, in Grammar, is the adjective in . ^ ^
its fimple ligmfication, without any comparifon.
POSITIVE EleBricity. In the Franklinian fyftem all
bodies luppoled to contain more than their natural
quantity of eledric matter are faid to be pojitively elec¬
trified ; and thofe from whom fome part of their elec¬
tricity is fuppofed to be taken away Sve faid to be elec¬
trified negatively. ’1 licit two electricities being firit
produced, one trom glals, the other from amber or ro-
fin, the former was called vitreous, the other ref nous,
electricity.
POSPOLITE, in the former military eftabliffiment
of Poland, is the name given to a kind of militia. llCoxe's Tra-
was the moft numerous and the moft ufelefs of the Po-^-
lifli armies, eonfifting of the gentry at large, who, in
cafe of invafion, were affembled by a regular fummons
from the king, with confent of the diet. Every palati¬
nate was divided into diftri&s, over each of which pro¬
per officers were appointed ; and every perfon poffefling
free and noble tenures was bound to military fervice, ei¬
ther fingly or at the head of a certain number of hisje-
tainers, according to the extent and nature of his poffef-
fions. The troops thus affembled were obliged only to
ferve for a limited time, and were not under the necef-
fity of marching beyond the limits of their country.
They fubmitted to no difeipline but fuch as they liKed
themfelves *, and were very apt to mutiny if detained
more than a fortnight in the place appointed for their
meeting without marching. 1 he mode of levying and
maintaining this army was exactly fimilar to that prac-
tifed under the feudal fyftem. Although uqfit for the
purpofes of repelling a foreign enemy, it nas confide red
a powerful inftrument in the hands of domeftic fa fit ion :
for the expedition with which it wras railed under the
feudal regulations facilitated the formation of thofe dan¬
gerous confederacies w’hich fuddenly ftarted up on toe
contefted eleCtion of a fovereign, or whenever the nobles
were at variance with each other.
POSSE comitatus, in Law, fignifies the power of
the county, or the aid and afiiftance of all the knights,
gentle men, yeomen, labourers, fervants, apprentices, &c.
and all others within the county that are above the age
of 1 9, except women, eccleliaftical perfons, and fuch as
are decrepit and infirm.
This poffe comitatus is to be raifed where a riot is
committed, a poffeffion kept upon a forcible entry, or
any force of refeue ufed contrary to the king’s writ, or
in oppofition to the execution of juftice ; and it is the
duty of all ffieriffs to affift juft ices of the peace m the
fuppreffion of riots, &c. and to raife the poffe comitatus,
or to charge any number of men for that purpofe.
POSSESSION, in Law, is either adual, where a
perfon aaually enters into lands or tenements defeended
or conveyed to him ; or where lands are defeended to
a perfon, and he has not yet entered into them. A
long poffeffion is much favoured by the law as an ar-
gument of right, even though no deed can be ffiown,
and it is more regarded than an ancient deed without
poffeffion. ‘
If he that is out of poffeffion of land brings an ac¬
tion, he muft prove an undeniable title to it ; and when
a perfon would recover any thing of another, it is^ot
fufficient to deftroy the title of the perfon in poffeflion
without
P o S _ [ 235 ] P o s
potTeffion. without he can prove that his own*ight is better than
his.
In order to make pofleffion lawful upon an entry, the
former poffeffor and his fervants are to be removed from
off the premiffes entered on : but a perfon by leafe and
releafe is in poffelTion without making any entry upon
the lands.
Possession, in Scots Law. See Law, Part III.
N° clxii. 11. &c.
Dccmoniacal Possession. (See Daemon and D e¬
moniacs). In the third volume of the Manchefter
Tranfactions, there is a paper on popular illujions, or
medical demonology, by Dr Ferriar. He informs us in
a note, that, on tire 13th of June 1788, George Lukins
of Yatton in Somerfetihire was exorcifed in the Temple
church at Briffol, and delivered from the poffeflion of
feven devils by the efforts of feven clergymen. An ac¬
count of his deliverance was publilhed in feveral of the
public papers, authenticated by the Rev. Mr Eafler-
brook, vicar of the Temple church in Briftol.—Dr Fer¬
riar gives us the following particulars, extracted from
this account, which we (hall here infert.
“ Lukins was firtl attacked by a kind of epileptic fit,
when he was going about adling Chriftmas plays, or
mummeries : this he afcrihed to a blow given by an in-
vifible hand. He was afterwards feized by fits; during
which he declared, with a roaring voice, that he was
the devil, and fung different fongs in a variety of keys.
The fits always began and ended with a ftrong agita¬
tion of the right hand. He frequently uttered dreadful
execrations during the fits. The whole duration of his
diforder was 18 years.
“ At length, viz. in June 1788, he declared that he
was poffeffed by feven devils, and could only be freed
by the prayers {in faith) of feven clergymen. Accord¬
ingly the requifite force was fummoned, and the patient
fung, fwore, laughed, and barked, and treated the com¬
pany with a ludicrous parody on the Te Deum. Thefe
aftonifhing fymptoms refifted both hymns and prayers,
till a fmall faint voice admonifhed the minifters to ad¬
jure. The fpirits, after fome murmuring, yielded to the
adjuration, and the happy patient returned thanks for
his wonderful cure. It is remarkable, that during this
folemn mockery, the fiend fwore ‘ by his infernal den,’
that he would not quit his patient; an oath, I believe,
nowhere to be found but in the Pilgrim’s Progrefs,
from which Lukins probably got it.
“ Very foon after the firft relation of this ftory was
publifhed, a perfon, well acquainted with Lukins, took
the trouble of undeceiving the public with regard to
his pretended diforder, in a plain fenfible narrative of
his conduft. He afferts that Lukins’s firft feizure was
nothing elfe than a fit of drunkennefs; that he always
foretold his fits, and remained fenfible during their con¬
tinuance ; that he frequently faw Lukins in his fits,
* in every one of which, except in finging, he per¬
formed not more than moft aftive young people can
eafilv do ;’ that he was detected in an impofture with
refpeft to the clenching of his hands ; that after money
had been colle£Ied for him, he got very fuddenly well;
that he neVer had any fits while he was at St George’s
Hofpital in London ; nor when vilitors were excluded
from his lodgings, by defire of the author of the Nar¬
rative ; and that he was particularly careful never to
hurt himfelf by his exertions during the paroxyfm.
“ Is it for the credit of this philofophical age, that fo
bungling an impofture fhould deceive feven clergymen
into a public a£l: of exorcifm ? This wrould not have paf-
fed even on the authors of the Malleus Malificarutn ;
for they required figns of fupernatural agency, fuch as
the fufpenfion of the pofleffed in the air, without any
vifible fupport, or the ufe of different languages, un¬
known to the demoniac in his natural ftate.”
POSSESSIVE, in Grammar, a term applied to pro¬
nouns, which denote the enjoyment or poffeftion of any
thing either in particular or in common : as meus,
“ mine ;” and tuus, “ thine.”
POSS ESSORY action, in Scots Law. See Law,
N° clxxxiii. 18.
POSSIBILITY, in Lazv, is defined to beany thing
that is altogether uncertain, or what may or may not
be.
Possibility, alfo denotes a non-repugnance to ex-
ifting, in any thing that does not any way exift.
POSSIBLE, is fometimes oppofed to rear exiftence,
and is underftood of a thing, which, though it aftually
does not exift, yet may exift; as a new ftar.
POSSIDONIA, in Ancient Geography. SeePoE -
STUM.
POST, a word derived from the Latin poftus, “ fet
or placed.” It is ufed in feveral different meanings,
but all of them referring either immediately or remote¬
ly to this primitive fenfe of pofition. Ihus the word
Poll fignifies, 1. A flake or piece of timber fet upright;
2. A ftation, particularly a military ftation ; 3. An of¬
fice or employment ; 4. An operation in book-keeping:
5. A conveyance for letters or dilpatches; 6. A parti¬
cular mode of travelling.
Post, a flake or piece of timber fet upright. Polls
are ufed both in building and in fencing ground. In
brick-buildings much of the ftrength of the fabric de¬
pends on the nature of the pofts ; as it is through them
that the feveral parts are fuftained and held together.
The corner pofs are called the principal pofs; thofe form¬
ed into breffummers between principal pofts for ftrength-
ening the carcafe of the houfe are called tire prick-pcjls.
Pofts which are to be fet in the ground ought to be
wrell feafoned and coated to preferve them from rotting;
burning the downward end has been recommended as
an excellent prefervative, but a coating of pitch or tar,
particularly the late invented coal-tar, can be moft fafe-
ly relied upon. For the various ufes to which pofts
may be applied, and the form and fpecies of them fitteft
to be employed in each cafe, fee the articles Archi¬
tecture, Joining, Gardening, House, Fence, &c.
In archite&ure and fculpture, posts are a term ufed to
denote certain ornaments formed after the manner of
rolls or wreathings.
Post, a ftation, particularly a military ftation.—
Any place where perfons are fet or placed upon parti¬
cular occafions may be termed a pof: but the word in
this view is now chiefly reftrifted to military operations,
and means any place or fituation where foldiers are fta-
tioned. Thus the detachments eftablilhed in front of the
army are termed the out-pofs, the ftations on the wings
of the army are faid to be the pofs of honour, as being
the moft confpicuous and moft expofed. But in the ope¬
rations of a campaign, a poft properly fignifies any fpot of
ground capable of lodging foldiers, or any fituation, whe¬
ther fortified or not, where a body of men may make a
G g 2 Hand
P O S [2
fund and engage the enemy to advantage. The great
advantages of good pods, in carrying on war, as well as
the mode of fecuring them, are only-learned by experi¬
ence. Barbarous nations difdain the choice of polls, or
at lead are contented with fuch as immediately fall in
their way ; they trud folely or chiefly to drength and
courage : and hence the fate of a kingdom may be de¬
cided by the event of a battle. But enlightened and
experienced officers make the choice of pods a principal
objedl of attention. The ufe of them is chiefly felt in a
defenfive war againd an invading enemy j as by carry¬
ing on a war of pods in a country where this can be
done to advantage, the mod formidable army may be fo
haraffed and reduced, that all its enterprifes may be
rendered abortive. Indeed in modern times this is fo well
underdood, that pitched battles have become much more
rare than formerly, manoeuvring and fecuring of pods
being confidered as the mod effential obje£ls in the con-
du£l of a compaign } a change in the art of war much
to the advantage of humanity ; Ikill, conduid, and pru¬
dence, having thus obtained the afeendency over brutal
courage and mere bodily drength. In the choice of a
pod, the general rules to be attended to are, that it be
convenient for fending out parties to reconnoitre, furprife,
or intercept the enemy ; that if poffible it have fome na¬
tural defence, as a wood, a river, or a morafs, in front or
flank, or at lead that it be difficult of accefs and fufcep-
tible of fpeedy fortification •, that it be fo fituated as to
preferve a communication with the main army, and have
covered places in the rear to favour a retreat j that it
command a view of all the approaches to it, fo that the
enemy cannot advance unperceived and red concealed-,
while the detachment dationed in the pod are forced to
remain under arms •, that it be not commanded by any
neighbouring heights j and that it be proportioned in
extent to the number of men who are to occupy and
defend it. It is not to be expefted that all thefe advan¬
tages will often be found united ; but thofe pods ought
to be fele&ed which offer the greated number of them.
See War. t _
Post, an office or employment. This ufe of the
word is probably derived immediately from the idea of
a military dation ; a pod being ufed to exprefs fuch
offices or employments as are fuppofed either to ex-
pofe the holder to attack and oppofition, or to require
abilities and exertion to fill them. Hence the term
is ufed only for public offices and employments under the
government ; and were drift propriety of fpeech al¬
ways attended to, pojls would denote thofe dations only
in which duty mud be performed. In common lan¬
guage, however, every public office or appointment, even
though nominal and finecure, goes uiJder the name of a
pq/l.
Post, an operation in book-keeping. Poding in book¬
keeping means limply the transferring an article to the
place in which it diould be put, and arranging each under
its proper head. It is upon this that the whole theory
of book-keeping is founded. The Wade-book, which
is the ground work of all fubfequent operations, records
every tranfaftion exaftly in the order in which it oc¬
curs. From this the ieveral articles are poded, or
transferred into the Journal, which in faft is but a kind
of fupplementary book to the, Wade-book. From the
Journal they are poded anew into the Ledger; in which
a ffeparate place is appropriated for each perfon with
36 ] p o s
whom tranfaftions Ire carried on, and frequently for P°ft.
every feparate article about which the bufinefs is con-
cerned. The particular mode according to which fuch
transferences are made, may vary according to the na¬
ture of the trade carried on j the objeft is the fame in
all, to place every article fo as that its operations on the
general date of the bufinefs may be certainly known and
ditlinftly traced. For a full account of the way in which
this is done, fee BOOK-Keeping.
Post, a conveyance for letters or difpatches.
In the early periods of fociety, communication be¬
tween the different parts of a country is rare and diffi¬
cult, individuals at a didance having little inclination or
opportunity for mutual intercourfe : when fuch commu¬
nication is at any time found neceffary, a fpecial meffen-
ger mud be employed. As order and civilization advance,
occafions of correfpondence multiply. In particular, the
fovereign finds it requifite frequently to tranfmit orders
and laws to every part of the kingdom j and for doing
fo he makes ufe of couriers or meffengers, to whom he
commits the charge of forwarding his difpatches. But
without dations in the way, where thefe couriers can be
certain of finding refrelhmtnt for themfelves and fupplies
of what may be neceffary for carrying them forward, the
journey, however urgent and important, mud always be
retarded, and in many cafes altogether dopped. Expe¬
rience, therefore, foon pointed out the neceffity of en-
furing fuch accommodations, by erefting upon all the
great roads houfes or dations at convenient intervals,
where the meffengers might dop, as occafion required,
and where too, for the greater convenience, relays of
frefli horfes Ihould always be in readinefs, to enable
them to purfue their journey with uninterrupted difpatch.
Thefe houfes or ftations were with great propriety term¬
ed pojls, and the meffenger who made ufe of them a pojl.
Though at fird, it is probable, the inditution was intend¬
ed folely for the fovereign and the neceffities of the date 5
yet by degrees individuals, feeing the benefit refulting
from it, made ufe of the opportunity to carry on their
own correfpondence ; for which they were willing to
pay an allowance to the fovereign. Thus a pod-office,
of fome kind or other, gradually came to be edablifhed
in every civilized country. Without taking notice of
the different means of carrying on correfpondence faid
to have been attempted by pigeons, dogs, and other
animals, we can at lead trace with certainty the inven¬
tion of fomething like regular pods as far back as
the ancient Perfians. Xenophon affures us, that they
■were invented by Cyrus on his Scythian expedition,
about 500 years before Chrid •, that the houfes at the
feveral dations were fumptuoufly built, and large enough
to contain a number of men and horfes ; and that every
courier on his arrival was obliged to communicate his
difpatches to the podmader, by whom they were im¬
mediately forwarded. From the Ihore of the iFgean
fea to Sufa the capital, there were, according to Hero¬
dotus, 111 dages for pods, each a day’s journey didant
from the preceding.
In what manner pods were edabliffied and conduft-
ed among the Greeks does not clearly appear *, but from
the extended commerce carried on, and the frequent
communications enjoyed among the different dates, there
can be no doubt that a regular conveyance, in fome form
or other, was edablilhed.
Though polls were well known among the Romans,
yet
P O S [ 237 ] P o s
Poll, yet it is difficult to trace with certainty the period of
their introduction. Some writers carry it back to the
times of the republic \ ports and port-offices, under the
names of Jlatores and Jiationes, having been then, it is
faid, eftabliffied by the fenate. Whether this was the
cafe or not, Suetonius affures us that Auguftus inftitu-
ted ports along all the great roads of the empire. At
firft the difpatches were conveyed from port to port by
young men who run on foot, and delivered the difpatch
to others at the next ftage. By and by Augurtus fub-
ftituted, in room of thefe, horfes and chariots, both for
the conveyance of difpatches and the convenience of tra¬
velling. His fuccert'ors continued the fame eftablirtiment j
to the maintenance of which every fubject of the em¬
pire was obliged to contribute. Poft-horfes are men¬
tioned in the Theodorian code de curfu publico ; but thefe
were only the public horfes appointed to be kept there
for the ufe of the public melfengers, who before this in-
ftitution feized any that came in their way. At each
poft-ftation, according to Procopius, 10 horfes and as
many poftilions were kept, and the ufual rate of their
travelling was from five to eight ftations a-day.
It is to be obferved, however, that all thefe eftablirti-
ments of ports in ancient times were formed as much,
if not more, for travelling ftations, than for the mere
conveyance of letters and difpatches. This latter ob-
jeft, it is true, was thereby fecured ; but the epifto-
lary correfpondence of antiquity was probably at no
time fo extenfive as to require or maintain port-offices
on the footing of modern ports, for the mere convey¬
ance of letters. It is in later times only, when the ex-
tenfion of commerce and diffufion of literature give oc-
cafion to frequent communication^ that thefe eftablifti-
ments are to be looked for.
The earlieft inftitution of pojis that occurs in modern
hiftory is about the year 807 by the emperor Charle¬
magne; who, having reduced under his dominion Italy,
Germany, and a part of Spain, eftablifhed three public
ports at the public expence, to carry on the communi¬
cation with thefe three provinces. The inftitution of
ports, however, like many other inftitutions of that em¬
peror, dropped at his death, and for a confiderable time
afterwards no traces of any fuch eftablithment are to be
found. We cannot indeed difcover them with certainty
fooner than 1464, when that reftlefs and fufpicious
prince Louis XI. eftablifhed ports in France, that he
might be the fooner advertifed of all that palled in his
own or the neighbouring kingdoms. He employed in
this fervice 230 couriers, who delivered the letters at
the different ftations, and in the various towns through
which they parted in their courfe. Succeeding mo-
narchs created at different times certain offices for the
exprefs purpofe of fuperintending the ports j but the
frequent changes to which thefe offices were expofed,
prevented for a long time the eftablifhment of any re¬
gular fyftem of ports in that kingdom ; infomuch that
in 1619 the author of the life of the duke d’Epernon
fays the packet or letter office was not yet fet up in
France. Former eftabl’fhments, it is probable, were
folely for the ufe of the court, not for the general good
of the nation. ’’Aom France, the inftitution gradually
fpread through feveral other parts of Europe. In Ger¬
many, LewL Hornig affures us they were firft intro¬
duced by Count Taxis, who fettled them at his own
expence ; in acknowledgement for which the emperor
5
Matthias in 1616 gave as a fief the office of poftmafter
to him and his defcendants.
In England, the eftablirtiment of ports in fome form
or other appears as early as the reign of Edward HI.
but the notices concerning them are fo vague, that no
account can be given of them. In the reign of Ed¬
ward VI. however, fome fpecies of ports muft have been
fet up, as an aft of parliament parted in 1548, fixing the
rate of poft-horfes at one penny per mile : The poft-
horfes here referred to were, it is probable, chiefly for
travelling, and the carriage of letters or packets only
an oecafional fervice. In 1581, we find in Camden’s
Annals mention made of a chief poftmafter for Eng¬
land being appointed.—Hou’ his office was managed,
does not clearly appear; the limited ftate of the corre¬
fpondence of the country probably rendered it of tri¬
fling confequence. King James I. originally erefted a
poft-office, under the controul of one Matthew de Quefter
or de l’Equefter,for the conveyance of letters to and from
foreign parts; which office was afterwards claimed by
Lord Stanhope •, but was confirmed and continued to
William Frizel and Tho. Witherings, by King Charles 1.
in 1632. Previous to this time, it would appear that
private perfons were in ufe to convey letters to and
from foreign parts ; all fuch interference with the poft-
mafter’s office is therefore exprefsly prohibited. King
Charles, in 1635, erefted a letter-office for England and
Scotland, under the direftion of the above Thomas
Witherings. The rates of portage then eftablilhed
■were, twopence for every fingle letter for a diftance un¬
der 80 miles ; fourpence from 80 to 140 miles ; fix-
pence above 140 miles. The allowance to the poft-
mafters on the road for horfes employed in thefe ports
was fixed at twopence halfpenny per mile for every
fingle horfe. All private inland ports were difcharged
at this time j and in 1637 all private foreign ports were
in like manner prohibited. The polls thus eftabliftied^
however, extended only to a few of the principal roads ^
and the times of tranfmiffion were not.in every cafe fo
certain as they ought to have been.
Witherings was fuperfeded for abufes in the execu¬
tion of his offices in 164Q, and they were fequeftrated
into the hands of Philip Burlamachyj to be exercifed
under the care and overfight of the king’s principal fe~
cretary of ftate. On the breaking out of the civil war,
great confufions and interruptions were neceffarily oc-
cafioned in the conduft of the letter-office •, but it was
about that time that the outline, of the prefent more
extended and regular plan feems to have been concei¬
ved by Mr Edmond Prideaux, .who was afterwards ap¬
pointed attorney-general to the commonwealth. He
was chairman of a committee in 1642 for confidering
the rate of portage to be fet upon inland letters j and
fome time after was appointed poftmafter by an ordi¬
nance of both houfes of parliament j in the execution of
which office he firft eftabliffied a conveyance of
letters into all parts of the nation. In 1653, this reve¬
nue was farmed for io,oool. for England, Scotland, and
Ireland; and after the change of maintaining poftmafters,
to the amount of 7000I. per annum was faved to the
public. Prideaux’s emoluments being confiderable, the
common council of London endeavoured to ereft another
poll-office in oppofition to his; but they were checked by
a refolution of the houfe of commons, declaring that the
office of poftmafter is, and ought to be, in the foie power
and
P o s
and difpofal of the parliament. This office was farmed
by one Maubey in 1654. In 1656 a new and regular
general poll-office was ere&ed by the authc^ty of the
protedlor and his parliament, upon nearly the fame mo¬
del that has been ever fince adopted, with the following
rates of poilage : For 80 miles diftance, a Angle letter
twopence ; for a greater dittance, not out of England,
threepence •, to Scotland, fourpence. By an aft ol parlia¬
ment paired foon after the reiteration in 1660, the regu¬
lations fettled in 1656 were re-eltablilhed, and a general
poll-office fimilar to the former, but with fume improve¬
ments, erefted. In 1663 the revenue of the poll-office
was found to produce 21,500!. annually. In 1685 it was
made over to the king as a branch of his private income,
and was then eftimated at 65,000k per annum. The year
after the revolution the amount of the poll-office revenue
was 90,504k 1 os. 6d. At the union the produce of the
Engliffi poll-office was Hated to be ioi,ioi1. In 1711
the former eHabliffiments of feparate poll-offices for Eng¬
land and Scotland were aboliffied } and by the Hat. 9
Anne, c. 10. one general poll-office, and one pollmacer-
general, was ellabliihed for the whole united kingdom •,
and this pollmaller was empowered to ereflchiel letter-
offices at Edinburgh, at Dublin, at iVeto York,zu& other
proper places in America and the W eft Indies. J he
rates of pollage were alfo increafed at this time as fol¬
lows. In England, for all diilances under 80 miles 3d.-,
above 80 miles 4d. From London to Edinburgh 6d. In
Scotland, under 50 miles 2d.; from 50 to 80 miles 3d. •,
above 80 miles4d. In Ireland, under 40 miles 2d. j above
40 miles 4d.— By the above a£l all perfons, except thofe
employed by the pollmaller, were ftrifily prohibited from
conveying letters. That year the grofs amount of the poll-
office was 111,461k 17s. 1 od. The nett amount, on a me¬
dium, of the three preceding years, was, in the printed re¬
port of the commiffioners for the equivalent, Hated to be
for England, 62,000k and for Scotland 2000k In 1754
the grofs revenue of the poll-office for Great Britain a-
mounted to 2 1 0,663kin 1 7641° 281,535^ i anc^n 1 774
tb 345,421k—The privilege of franking letters had been
enjoyed by members of parliament from the firil ereflion
of the poH-office ; the original defign of this exemption
was, that they might correfpond freely with their Confti-
tuents on the bufinefs of the nation. By degrees the pri¬
vilege came to be ffiamefully abufed, and was carried fo
far, that it was not uncommon for the fervants of members
of parliament to procure a number of franks for the pur-
pofe of felling them 5 an abufe which was eafily praftifed,
as nothing more was required for a letter’s paffin^ free
than the fubfeription of a member on the cover. To
reHrain thefe frauds, it was enadled, in 1764, that no
letter ffiould pafs free unlefs the whole direflion was of
the member’s writing, and his fubfeription annexed.
Even this was found, too great a latitude ; and by a new
regulation in 1784, no letter was permitted to go free
unlefs the date was marked on the cover in the mem¬
ber’s own hand-writing, and the letter put into the pofl-
office the fame day. That year the rates of poftage
were raifed in the following proportions : an addition of
id. for a Angle flage *, id. from London to Edinburgh j
id. for any diHance under, and 2d. for any diftance
above, 150 miles. An addition to the revenue, of
120,000k was eftimated to arife from thefe regulations
and additional rates. The rates now mentioned are
thofe upon Angle letters : double letters pay double,
P o s
treble letters treble, an ounce weight quadruple poftage j tVft.
all above are charged by the weight in the lame pro- —
portion. The rates of poftage have Ance that time
been again increafed.
About the year 1784, a great improvement was made
in the mode of conveying the mails, upon a plan Aril
fuggefted in 1782 by Mr John Palmer. Diligences
and itage-coaches, heobferved, were eftablilhed to every
town of note in the kingdom and he propofed that go¬
vernment, inftead of fending the mails in the old mode,
by a boy on horfeback, fnould contract with the mailers
of thefe diligences to carry the mail, along with a guard
for its protection. This plan, he Ihowed, could not
fail to enfure much more expeditious conveyance, the
rate of travelling in diligences being far quicker than
the rate of the poll j and it was eaty to carry it into
execution with little additional expence, as the coach
owners would have a Itrong inducement to contract at
a cheap rate for conveying the mail, on account of the
additional recommendation to paflengers their carnages
would thereby acquire in point of fecurity, regularity,
and difpatch.
Though government heartily approved of this plan,
and the public at large were fatished of its utility *, yet,
like all new fchemes, however beneAcial, it met with a
ftrong oppoAtion : it was reprefented by a number of the
old eft and ableft officers in the poll-office, not only as
imprafticable, but dangerous to commerce and the reve¬
nue. Notwithftanding of this oppoAtion, however, it
was at laft eftablilhed, and gradually extended to many
different parts of the kingdom j and, upon a tair com¬
panion, it appeared that the revenue ivas improved, and
the plan itfelf executed for 20,000k per annum lefs than
the fum Aril eftimated by Mr Palmer. .
The prefent eftabliffiment of the general poll-office
for Great Britain, conftfts of two poftmafters-general, a
fecretary, lurveyor, comptroller-general, and upwards of
1 50 affiftants and clerks for the head letter office in
London 5 the number of deputy poftmafters and other
officers through the kingdom is very conftderable, but
not eafy to afeertain with accuracy, as it mult frequent¬
ly vary with the changes made in the eftablifhment of
country polls. The total expence of this branch of the
revenue in 1788 was 149,029k 17s. 2d. 5 the grofs pro¬
duce may be reckoned at 650,000!.
The Aril accounts we have of the eftablilhment 0f a
poll-office in Scotland reach no farther back than 1635?
when Charles I. trefted one both for Scotland and
England. The poll to Scotland by that appointment
was to run night and day, to go from London to Edin¬
burgh and to return in Jix days, taking with it all let¬
ters intended for any poll-town in or near the road ;
the rate of poftage from London to Edinburgh was
8d. for a Angle letter. i he expedition with which the
poll wfent from London to Edinburgh at this time, is
indeed furpriftng, coniidering the nature of the roads j
perhaps, however, though the king made the regulation
that it ffiould go and return in Ax days, the journey
was not always performed in the fpecifted time. Du¬
ring the government of Cromwell, the public poll con¬
veyed letters to dBcotland as well as England ; the poft¬
age from London to Scotland was only 4d. After the
Reftoration, when the poll-office was ere&ed for Eng¬
land, mention is made in the adl of parliament of the
conveyance of letters to Scotland ; and the poftage. to
Berwick
[ 238 ]
P o s
[ 239 ]
P <x s
?oft. Berwick is fixed at 3d. For fume time after, however,
!■ ; we find no eftablithment by a£t of parliament of an in¬
ternal poll in Scotland. In 1662, a poit between Ire¬
land and Scotland was firft eftablilhed ; and the privy
•council gave Robert Main, who was then poftmafter-
general for Scotland, an allowance of 200I. fterling
to build a packet boat for conveying the mail between
Portpatrick and Donaghadce : the poltage to Ireland
was 6d. In 1669, a poll was eftabliihed to go between
Edinburgh and Aberdeen twice a week, and between
Edinburgh and Invernefs once a week: the rate of poft-
age was fixed, for 40 Scots miles 2d. and for every 20
miles farther an additional penny. Thefe appear to
have been the only public polls in Scotland at that time;
but as they could not fuffice for the correlpond-
ence of the country, there mull have been more, ei¬
ther under the direction of the poftmafter, or in the
hands of private perfons ; probably there might be of
both kinds. In 1690, an aft for the fecurity of the
common poll was puffed, fubjefting robbers of the mail
to capital punithment. It was not till 1695 that the
eltablilhme.pt of the poll-office in Scotland received the
fanftion of parliament: pofis were then appointed for all
parts of Scotland; the rates of poltage were fixed, for any
place within 50 miles of Edinburgh 2d. between 50
and 100 miles 3d. all places above 100 miles 4d. By
the fame aft, a weekly packet to Ireland was eitablilh-
ed, and 60I. fterling annually allowed for that fer-
vice. Though polls were eltablifhed in confequenee of
this aft, yet fuch was their modeof travelling, that they
hardly deferred the name. Thus, for inltance, the per-
fon who fet out to carry the mail from Edinburgh to
Aberdeen, in place of flopping at the firlt intermediate
fiage from Edinburgh, and delivering over the mail to
another to be carried forward, went on with it himfelf
the whole journey, rolling two nights by the way, firil
at Dundee, and next at Montrofe.
In this manner the mail was conveyed thrice a-week
from Edinburgh to Aberdeen; but between moll parts
of Scotland the poll went only twice, and between feme
only once a-week. The poll-boy generally travelled on
foot. Horfes were but little ufed in the fervice of the
poll-office. •
At the Union the Scots pod-office was farmed for
H94I. : in 1710, the nett amount for Scotland was
reckoned to be 2000I. The epidolary correfpond-
I ence of Scotland mull have beert fmall indeed, when
even the rates of podage then edablilhed proved fo very
unproduftive. This may perhaps, however, be in part
accounted for, by coniefturing, that as private pods had
probably prevailed pretty much before 1695, it was
* long before thefe were entirely fupprefled, the people
Hill adhering to their old conveyances, and difficulties
occurring in driftly enforcing the law ; the amount of
the poll-office revenue, therefore, at the two periods
above mentioned probably exhibits a view of only a part
of the correfpondence of Scotland.
In 17tx, it has been already mentioned, one general
pod-office was edablidied for the whole united king¬
dom ; but the podmader-general was authorifed to
ereft at Edinburgh a chief letter-office for Scotland.—
This was accordingly done, and a podmader-general
for North Britain, with other neceffarv officers, appoint¬
ed. All the deputy podmaders in Scotland are under
His immediate direftion, but he himfelf is under the con-
troul of the podmader-general for Great Britain. Irom
this head letter office pods were edablidied to the differ¬
ent parts of Scotland.
-For many years the pod-boys generally travelled on
foot, or, if on horfeback, without a change of horfes.
It was not till about 1750 that the mail began to be
conveyed from dage to dage by different pod-boys and
frelh horfes to the principal places in Scotland, and by
foot runners to the red. The communication between
London and Edinburgh was at firll but thrice a-week,
and lb flow, that the mail from London to Edinburgh
was upon the road 85 hours, and from Edinburgh to
London 131 hours. In 1737, upon a reprefentation
from the royal boroughs, regulations were fallen upon,
by which the time was diortened to 82 hours in the one
cafe, and 85 in the other. By the extenfion of Mr
Palmer’s plan to Scotland, the time has been dill farther
fliortened to about 60 hours in each cafe.
The eflablifliment of the Scots pod-office confids at
prefent of a podmader-general, fecretary, folicitor, and
accountant, with a number of other clerks and affidants
for the head office at Edinburgh; under its management
are about 180 deputy-poflmaders for the different pod-
towns through Scotland.
The nett produce of the pod-office for Scotland in
1733 was 5399b in 1757 10,623b in 1776 31,103b
In 1788 the grofs produce was 55,836b the expence
22,636b ; in 1793 the grofs amount was about 64,000!.
the nett produce about 40,000!.; in 1803 the grofs
produce was above 1 20,cool, the nett revenue about
97,0001. ; in 1807 the grofs produce was above 145,000b
the nett revenue towards I 20,0001.
Penm/-PosT, a pod edablilhed for the benefit of Lon •
don and other parts adjacent, whereby any letter or
packet under four ounces weight, is fpeedily and late¬
ly conveyed to and from all places within the bills of
mortality, or within 10 miles of the city. It is manag¬
ed by particular officers, and receiving houfts are tflab-
liflied in mod of the principal dreets, for the more con¬
venient tranfmiffion of the letters. Some other large
towns have indituted iimilar efiablilhments.
About the year 1776, a penny-poll was fet up in Edin¬
burgh by Mr Williamfon, unconntfted with the general
poft-oflice. It met with but indifferent encouragement
for fome years, doubts being entertained as to its punc¬
tuality in delivering the letters ; by degrees, however,
it feemed to be advancing in edimation, and was more
frequently employed. Twenty years after, the ge¬
neral pod-office, in virtue of the aft of parliament pro¬
hibiting the conveyance of letters by any but thofe em¬
ployed under the podmader-general, took the penny-
pod entirely into its own hands ; and Mr Williamfon
was allowed an annuity during life equal to what his
private edablifhment yielded. Letters are now tranf-
mitted to the different quarters of Edinburgh, and the
fuburbs, three times a-day.
Post, a particular mode of travelling. A perfon is
faid to travel poft in contradidinftion to common jour¬
ney travelling, when in place of going on during his
whole journey in the fame vehicle, and with the fame
horfes, he dops at different dages, to provide frefli
horfes or carriages for the fake of greater convenience
and expedition. As he thus ufes the fame mode of tra¬
velling that is employed for the common pod, he is faid
to travel pod, or in pod, i. e. in the manner of a pod.
In
Foil.
P O S [ 240 ] P o s
In tracing the origin of poits, it has already been re¬
marked, that the more ancient eftablifhments of this
kind were fully as much for travellingJIations"•as the
conveyance of letters. The relays of horfes provided
at thefe public Rations for the meffengtrs of the prince,
were occafion'allv, by fpecial licenfe, allowed to be ufed
by other travellers who had fufficient interelf at court.
Frequent demands of this nature would fuggeft the expe¬
dient of having in readinefs fupplies of frelh horfes or car¬
riages over and above what the public fervice required,
to be hired out to other travellers on payment of an ade¬
quate price. We find, therefore, that in former times
the poll mailers alone were in ufe to let out horfes for ri-
•ding port, the rates of which were fixed in 1548 by a
Statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile. In what
fituation the ftate of the kingdom was with regard to
'travelling port for more than a century after this pe¬
riod, we cannot now certainly difcover; but in the fta-
tute re-eftablifhing the port-office in 1660, it is ena6ted,
that none but the port mailer, his deputies, or affigns,
{hall furnifh poft-horfes for travellers ; with a provifo,
however, that if he has them not ready in half an hour
after being demanded, the traveller (hall be at liberty
to provide himfelf elfewhere.
'1 lie fame prohibition is contained in the a6t eftablilh-
ing the Scots poll-office in 1695, as well as in the fub-
fcquent abl of C^ueen Anne, eredling the general office
for the united kingdom. It is doubtful, however, whe¬
ther it was ever ilridlly enforced. By an explanatory
aft of 26 Geo. II. the prohibition is confined to port
horfes only, and every perfon declared to be at liberty
to furniffi carriages o{ every kind for riding port. This
regulation has, in faft, done away the prohibition, as
hardly any perfon now thinks of travelling port except
in a carriage.
The rate fixed by the aft 1695, in Scotland, for a
horfe riding poll, was threepence per Scotch mile. By
the aft 9 Anne, c. 10. threepence a mile without, and
fourpence a mile with, a guide, was the fum fixed for
each horfe riding port. The increafe of commerce, and
neceffity for a fpeedy communication between different
parts of the kingdom, have brought the mode of tra¬
velling port fo much into ufe, that upon every great
road in the kingdom polbchaifes are now in readinefs
at proper diftances •, and the convenience of polling is
enjoyed in Britain to a degree far fuperior to what is to
be met with in any other country whatever
Porting at laft appeared to the legiflature a proper
objeft of taxation. In 1779 the firft aft was paffed,
impofing duties on horfes hired either by themfelves or
to run in carriages travelling port •, the duties were, one
penny per mile on each horfe if hired by the mile or
rtage, and one {hilling per day if hired by the day. Eve¬
ry perfon letting out fuch horfes was alfo obliged to
take out a licenfe at five {hillings per annum. Thefe
duties were next year repealed, and new duties impo-
fed, of one penny per mile on each horfe hired by the
mile or ftage, and is. 6d. on each if hired by the day,
A number of additional regulations were at the fame
time enafted for fecuring thefe duties. An addition
of one halfpenny per mile, or threepence per day, for
each horfe riding port, was impofed in 1785, by Stat.
25 Geo. III. c. 51. The duty is fecured, by obliging
every letter of horfes to deliver to the perfon hiring
-them a ticket, expreffing the number of horfes hired,
and either the dirtance in miles to be travelled, or that Pott,
the horfes are hired1 by the day, as the cafe happens to '"“""Y™
be. Thefe tickets muft be delivered to the bar-keeper
at the firll turnpike through which the traveller paffes ;
and the turnpike-keeper gives, if demanded, what is
termed an exchange ticket, to be produced at the next
turnpike. The ttamp-office iffues to the perfon licen¬
ced to let poit-horfes fuch a number of thefe tickets as
is required, and thefe muff be regularly accounted for
by the perfon to whom they are blued. As an effec¬
tual check upon hjs account, the turnpike-keeper is
obliged to return back to the rtamp-office all the tickets
he takes up from travellers. Evalions are by thefe
me.ans rendered difficult to be praftifed without running
a great rifle of deteftion. In 1787, for the more eff ec¬
tually levying the port-horfe duties, a law was paffed,
authorifing the commiffiontrs of the ftamp-office to let
them to farm by public auftion, for a fum not lefs than
the produce in the year ending firft Auguft 1786.
In the advertifertrent published by the commiffioners
in conlequence of this law', previous to the receiving
proposals for farming them, the total amount of the
duty for Great Britain is ftated to have been, at the pe¬
riod above referred to, 117,873!. The fum for which
that duty was farmed in 1794 amounted in all to
140,030!. of which the diftrift of North Britain was
6000I.
Soon after the tax was impofed, confiderable diffi¬
culties were raifed about the meaning of the term pojl-
ing, and -what mode of journeying ftiould fubjeft travel¬
lers to duty. The old law, Stat. 9 Anne, c. 10. ex¬
plained porting to be “ travelling feveral ftages, and
changing horfes 5” but the afts impofing the porting
duties exprefsly declare, that “ every horfe hired by
the mile or ftage {hall be deemed to be hired to travel
port, although the perfon hiring the fame doth not go
feveral ftages upon a port-road, or change horfes f and
that “ tvery horfe hired for a day or lefs period of
time, is chargeable with the duty of three halfpence per
mile, if the diftance be then afeertained ; and if the di-
ftance be not then afeertained, with is. 6d. each
horfe.” Horfes hired for any lefs time than two days
are by thefe afts to be deemed to be hired for a day.
An aftion ivas brought in 1788, in the court of exche¬
quer at Edinburgh, to determine whether feveral dif-
puted cafes fell under the meaning of the aft, and were
liable to duty, when the folloiving decifions were gi¬
ven :
Saddle-horfes both hired and paid by the mile, and
faddle-horfes hired originally for an excurfion, but af¬
terwards paid by the mile, were found liable to duty
according to the number of miles paid for $ carriage-
horfes, where the carriage is hired and paid for only at
the ufual rate of outgoing carriages, and no more, whe¬
ther the perfon hiring it does or does not return in it,
were found liable to duty only for the number of miles
out; but if the carriage be hired and paid for, or ac¬
tually paid for, though not originally hired, at the ufual
rate of carriages employed both to carry out and bring
back the fame company, the duty was found to be exi¬
gible according to the number of miles both out and
home taken together. Hackney-coaches in Edinburgh,
hired and paid for lefs than two miles, were found liable
to duty for one mile.
No duty was found to be exigible on faddle-horfes
hired
P O S [2
Poll hired for a mere excurfion, and paid for accordingly,
!l where the diftance neither is nor can be afcertained 5 on
poftulate.' }iac|iney..coaches employed in the ftreets for lefs than a
mile, or for an excurfion or round of vifits merely $ and
on horfes or carriages hired for a journey of three days
or more, and paid for accordingly, or paid for at the
rate of three days, though the journey fhould actually
be performed in two full travelling days. The gene¬
ral rule of thefe decifions was, that in every cafe, except
unafcertainable diftance, or journeys exceeding two
days, the mode of travelling fell under the legal defi¬
nition of porting. The only point that may feem doubt¬
ful in the judgments here ftated, is that where the duty
is found chargeable by the number of miles both going
and returning. Yet as the law exprefsly declares, that
horfes hired by the mile or ftage are to be deemed poft-
ing, and as the number of miles for whicli they are hired
can only be afcertained by the number paid for, it is
clear, that where an addition to the outgoing charge is
made on account of bringing back the perfon hiring
the carriage, the carriage in that cafe is aftually hired
and paid for according to the number of miles both out
and home, and the duty muft fall to be rated accord¬
ingly. The doubtful points being now fettled by the
above decifions, the mode of levying the duty in Scot¬
land has been regulated agreeably to them ever fince
the matter was thus determined.
POSTERIOR, a term of relation, implying fome-
thing behind, or that comes after, another. In which
fenfe it is ufed in oppofition to prior and anterior.
The back and hips are the pofterior parts of man.
Ariftotle has given prior and pofterior analytics. A
date is pofterior to another when it is later or frefher.
POSTERN, in fortification, a fmall gate, ufually
made in the angle of the flank of a baftion, or in that
of the curtain, or near the orillon, defcending into the
ditch $ whereby the garrifon can march in and out, un¬
perceived by the enemy, either to relieve the works, or
to make private fallies, &c.
The word is alfo ufed in general for any private or
back door.
POSTHUMOUS, a child born after the death of
his father, or taken out of the body of a dead mother ;
from whence it is frequently applied to the works of an
author not publiftied till after his deceafe.
POSTIL, a name anciently given to a note in the
margin of the Bible, and afterwards to one in any other
book pofterior to the text.
POSTING, among merchants, the putting an ac¬
count forward from one book to another, particularly
from the journal or wafte-book to the ledger. See Post
and Book-Keeping.
POSTLIMINIUM, among the Romans, the return
of one who had gone to fojourn elfewhere, or had been
banilhed, or taken by an enemy, to his own country ar
ftate.
POSTPONING, putting any thing after or behind
another, with regard to time.
POSTSCRIPT, an article added to a letter or me¬
moir, containing fomething learnt or recolle&ed after
the piece was written.
POSTULATE, in mathematics, &c. is defcribed
to be fuch an eafy and felf-evident fuppofition, as needs
no explication or illuftration to render it intelligible 5
Vol. XVII. Part I.
41 ] POT
as that a right line may be draw'ft from one point to an- Poftuiate
other. II
POSTURE, in painting and fculpture, the fitua-.PQtarnor: t
tion of a figure with regard to the eye, and of the fe-
veral principal members thereof with regard to one an¬
other, whereby its a£Hon is expreffed. A confiderable
part of the art of a painter confifts in adjufting the
poftures, or in giving the moft agreeable ones to his
figures, in accommodating them to the charafters of
the rtfpeftive figures, and the part each has in the ac¬
tion, and in conducing and in purfuing them through¬
out.
Poftures are either natural or artificial.
Natural poftures are fuch as nature feems to have had
a view to in the mechanifm of the body, or rather fucli
as the ordinary aftions and occafions of life lead us to
exhibit while young, and while the joints, mufcles, li¬
gaments, 8tc. are flexible.
Artificial poftures, are thofe which fome extraordinary
views or ftudies occafion us to learn ; as thofe of dan¬
cing, fencing, &c. Such alfo are thofe of our balance
and pofture mafters.
A painter would be ftrangely puzzled with the figure
of Clark (a late famous pofture-mafter in London) in
a biftory-piece. This man, we are told in the Phil.
Tranf. had fuch an abfolute command of his mufcles,
&c. that he could disjoint almoft his whole body j fo
that he impofed on the great furgeon Mullens, who
looked upon him as in fuch a miferable cdndition, he
would not undertake his cure. Though a well-made
man, he would appear with all the deformities imagina¬
ble } hunch-backed, pot-bellied, lharp-breafted, &c*
He disjointed his arms, fhoulders, legs, and thighs $ and
rendered himfelf fuch an object of pity, that he has fre¬
quently extorted money, in quality of a cripple, from
the fame company in which he had the minute before
been in quality of a comrade. He would make his hips
Hand a confiderable way out from his loins, and fo high
as to invade the place of his back. Yet his face was the
moft changeable part about him, and (bowed more pof¬
tures than all the reft. Of himfelf he could exhibit all
the uncouth odd faces of a quaker’s meeting.
POTAMOGETON, Pond-weed j a genus of
plants belonging to the tetrandria clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 15th order, Inundata:*
See Botany Index.
POTAMON, or Potamo, was a philofopher of
Alexandria. He kept a middle courfe between the
fcepticifm of the Pyrrhonians and the prefumption of
the dogmatifts j but attached himfelf to none of the
fchools of philofophy of his time. He was the firft
projeftor of the Ecleftie fe£t ; for though the mode of
philofophifing had been pretty common before, he was
the firft that attempted to inftitute a new fe6t on this
principle. Diogenes Laertius relates, that not long be¬
fore he wrote his Lives of the Philofophers, an Eclec¬
tic feft, ix-tetlUxli T15 ch^so-js, had been introduced by Po-
tamo of Alexandria, who felefted tenets from every
former fe£t. He then proceeds to quote a few particu- J
lars of his fyftem from his Eclectic inftitutes, refpefling
the principles of reafoning, and certain general topics
of philofophical inquiry ; from which nothing further
can be learned, than that Potamo endeavoured to recon¬
cile the precepts of Plato with thofe of other mafters.
H h As
POT
[ 242 ]
P O T
P^tamon
Pot Hi.
Dr Shaw’s
method of
making
notafh.
As nothing remains concerning this philofopher befides
the orief account juft referred to in Laertius, an obfcure
paiTage in Suidas, and another ftill more obfcure in
Porphyry ; it is probable that his attempt to inftitute a
fchool upon the E^clecfic plan proved unfuccefsful.
The time when Potamo flouriftied is uncertain. Suidas
places him under Auguftus j but it is more probable,
from the account of Laertius, that he began his under¬
taking about the clofe of the fecond century.
POTASH, the lixivious allies of certain vegetables,
uftd in making glafs, foap, &c. See Glass, Soap,
&c. For an account of the properties and comoinations
of potafti, fee Chemistry. Potafti was till lately con-
fidered as a fimple fubftance j but it appears from the
unexpected difcoveries of Mr Davy in galvanifm to be
a compound of a peculiar metallic fubftance and oxy¬
gen. Soda is alfo a compound of a fimilar nature, kor
an account of Mr Davy’s difcoveries, fee ZlNC. Here
we treat only of the manufacture of potafti.
The method of making potafli is direCled by Dr
Shaw as follows. Burn a quantity of billet-wood to
gray nfties •, and taking feveral pounds of thefe alhes,
boil them in water, fo as to make a very ftrong lixivium,
or ley. Let this ley be (trained through a coarfe linen
cloth, to keep out any black parts of the half-burnt
wood that might happen to remain in the afties $ then
evaporate this ftrained lye in an iron pan over a quick
fire almoft to drynefs : then taking out the matter re¬
maining at the bottom, and putting it into an iron
crucible, fet it in a ftrong fire till the matter is melted,
and then immediately pour it out upon an iron plate,
where it foon cools, and appears in the form of a folid
lump of potafti *. Much after this manner is potafti
made in the large way, for the fervice of the foap-boiler,
glafs-maker, fuller, &c. but according to the difference
of the wood, or combuftible matter employed, with
the manner of turning it, and conduCHng the procefs,
IriJlj Ac a- different kinds of potafti are prepared. I here are cer-
demv,i789,tain paljne piants that yield this potafti to great advan-
art. 1. ciafs ^ partjcularly the plant kali j there are others
that afford it in lefs plenty, and of an inferior quality,
as bean-ftalks, &c.: but 'in general, all vegetable fub-
jeCts afford it of one kind or other, and may moft of
them be made to yield it tolerably perfe& after the
manner of the procefs already laid down, even the lop¬
pings, roots, and refufe parts of ordinary trees, vine
clippings, &c. The fixed falls of all vegetables, except¬
ing the kali and marine plants, when reduced to abso¬
lute purity, or entirely feparated from the other prin¬
ciples, appear to be one and the fame thing : whence it
fhould feem, fays Dr Shaw, that by a fuitable manage¬
ment good faleable potafh might be made in all places
» See
Pearl-
AJh, and
Tranf-
aElions 0/
the Royal
Science.
where vegetable matters abound. For if by examining Potath,
Ruflia (a) potafh, for example, we find that its fuperi- <r—
or excellence depends upon its being clear of earth, or
upon its containing a large proportion of oil, or re¬
fined fait, thefe advantages may, by properly regulating
the operation, be given to Englifh potafhes, to as per¬
haps to render the latter as good as the former : but
where the potafh. of any remarkable fahne vegetable is
to be imitated, that of the kali, tor example, the doctor
recommends a prudent iprinkling of the iunject with
fait, or fea-water, in the burning ; and by thefe ways,
properly diverfified, any principle that is naturally want¬
ing might be artificially introduced fo as to pertedt the
art of potafti. 2
Above half a century ago, Mr Stephens, encouraged Account or
bv the Society of Arts, &c. and by a parliamentary Mr Ste-
grant of 3000I. eftablifhed a manufacture of potath
North America, which produced fuch as was fo per-
fedtly good as to anfwer in bleaching and other ufes the
purpofes of pearl-ajh ; and which at the fame time af¬
forded a very large produce. But the very great heat
which his procefs required, occafioned the deftruCtion
of a very extenfive apparatus j and other circumflances
concurred to difappoint the hopes and check the fpirit
of the proprietors. Fhe manufadture wras, however,
afterwards undertaken and profecuted by others.^ Mr
Stephens’s apparatus was as follows : Fig. 1. A is “ieCCCCXXXIS
bed of the kiln, which flies off about four feet by two flgi
from the grate, more or lefs according to the fize J C
is the afh-hole, or 3 feet. deep. Fig. 2. B repre Fig. 2.
fents quadrangular bars of iron, with their oppofite 3
angles placed upwards and downwards, not above an ^
inch afunder. Fig. 3. A, B, and C, are three fteepers ^ ^
five feet deep, and of any width from four to eight feet
fquare, of the beft white pine or cyprefs plank, with
fquare joints and ftrong oak frames, placed each over a
receiver, with a cock to let off the ley, and a vent juft;
beneath the furface of the grating. E.reprefents three
receivers, (landing each under, and projedling out, from
its deeper. T. hey muft be made of the beft fluff, care¬
fully put together, and laid in tough clay well lammed
within the ground, their tops being level with the fur-
face : they need not be fo large as the fteepers by fix,
eight, or twelve inches. Fig. 4. E reprefents afalfepig. 4.
bottom or lattice of boards, eight inches d«ep and five
fquare, with a hole in the under edge of every partition
for the ley to pafs into the fteeper. fig. 5, A is the Fig. 5.
vtffel over the furnace in which the ley and afhes are
mixed •, B is a hole or funnel a few inches from the back
of the furnace, with an iron focket to let the pips
through the hinder part of the arch, to reach down
within twTo inches of the floor of the furnace. C is a
caft-
fAl According to Sir Peter Warren, the beft woods for making Ruffian potafti are oak, afh, poplar^ hiccoryq
elm hazel and beech. They muft be cut in November, December, January, and February, fpht and flacked .
drv’ Itr 12 months, in wlrm open weather, it muft be burnt on a brick hearth by a flow fire - a kiln, or
i„,.„ . ti,„ ames mnft be fifted through two fieves, one finer than the other, and then put up in brick troughs
:fr -ter, ajnruft remain well marlhed and incorporated five month,.
^ tht to “i, the large piece, by. themfdvesc
and the duft by itfelft.
POT
[ 243 1
POT
4
procefs
without
ufing a
kiln,
potato, caft-iron cauldron for boiling the ley to drynefs when
—-v pearl-alh is made. D is a veffel whence the liquor is let
into the cauldron as it evaporates. The mortar for
building the furnace fhould be made of loam ; the arch
thould be 18 inches thick, and the floor fhould .be laid
with tyles on a layer of fand an inch thick, with neat
joints.
Mr Stephens’s procefs, both with and without the
kiln, was as follows. Cut timber, felled at any feafon,
into lengths of about eight feet : lay from three to ten
of them lengthwife in a heap upon dry ground, and fill
the vacancies between with fmaller wood : the fooner it
is burnt after felling, the better. Set fire to it by lay¬
ing embers on the bottom logs at each end } and for
burning the brufh and lappings, with other fmaller
woods, lay them lengthwife on the ground, top to top,
lapping over a little, with the butt ends outwards, and
as clofe as a faggot ; laying the larger woods on top till
the heap is full four feet high 5 the length of the brufh
fet again ft each other making the breadth of the heap.
As to the choice of the timber, old hollow trees, if not
dead, are beft : pine, cyprefs, and cedar, are to be total¬
ly rejefled.
As foon as the pile is burnt down, rake fuch aflies as
lie round the outfide a little in towards the middle •, add
no frefh fuel, nor throw on any brands. Let the aflies
lie without ftirring till you can juft bear your hand in
them ; then carry them to a houfe, or under a flied, on
a plank floor raifed a little from the earth and well
jointed ; there w^et them till brought nearly to the con-
fiftence of mortar in the firft mixture of lime and fand,
and ram them in a heap, in which they muft lie full 20
days, or fome months if you pleafe ; obferving to be
more fparing of water in winter, and ramming them
clofer, and fometimes wetting the top that it may never
grow quite dry.
Wood may alfo be burnt in a kiln, as fig. 1. and 2. j
and then it muft be cut into fueh lengths as may be
moft convenient for carriage, and beft fuit the fize of
the kiln. The mouth of the afh-hole m.uft be clofe
flopped by daubing the joints of the lid with loam, or
throwing a bank of fand or earth againft it: keep the
bed of the kiln filled with wood up to the furface, but
not above it, and let it burn inceffantly till the allies rife
within fix or eight inches of the grate. Draw them
out whilft red-hot, and in that ftate fprinkle them with
ley, from four to fix carafts weight; weigh a fmall phial
which holds about four ounces very exadly ; then fill it
with water and weigh that alfo : divide the weight of
water into equal parts till you come to of the whole,
which is called a caratt, two carads, &c. until you
have a weight equal to of the whole water, which is
called 32 caraas: all which fmall weights, together
with one equal to the phial filled with water, are to be
kept for weighing the ley in the faid phial till they are
made damp } then ram them as before in a heap, but. fe-
parate from the afhes made as above. Ab B. By khn-
biirning a ftronger ley may be more certainly procured
than by the other way, where rain may chance to fall
on the afhes before they can be removed,
The aflies thus prepared are to be put into vats or
fteepers, fig. 3* "dth a falfe latticed bottom, as fig. 4. 5
firft putting coarfe wheat or rye ftraw about afoot thick
on the lattice or grating ■, on which put aflies to with¬
in four or five inches of the top, ramming them all the
Potato.
5,
%nd with
it.
way up, efpecially at the fides, with a fmall light ram- ^
mer, as tight as you can, without buriting the vat.
Form on the top of the fteeper a hollow bafon in the
afhes four or five inches deep, leaving the afties four or
five inches thick on the fides, by railing a fmall bank
round the fides, fo that the liquor may not overflow the
edges of the allies at top j keep this bafon conftantljy
filled with foft water in ti-e fteeper A, until the allies
will imbibe, no more, which will be in 24 hours or more,
according as it is rammed ; then turn the cock, and let
off what lhall be foaked through into the receiver or
lower chamber of the fteeper, and no more ; for if the
feveral runnings are not kept feparate, the ley will not
be brought to its due ftrenglh. follow that deeper
with freih water on the fame afties for feveral other run¬
nings, which will each come off in a few days, till the
liquor has neither fmell nor talle j then heave out the
allies, and charge the deeper afrefh.
Upon drawing off the firft running from the fteep¬
er A, fig. 3. fill the fteeper B with allies as before, and
put into its hollow at the top the ley fo firft run oft,
and the fmaller or half leys alfo, till full, and draw off
as directed for the fteeper A : if this weighs 18 carafls
or more, pump it into the ciftern F as fit for ufe j if it
be fhort of that, pafs it off as half ley to the fteeper C,
and through frefh afhes till ftrong enough. W ith kiln-
afhes only, from water pafling through the firft fteeper,
it will be ftrong enough for the ciftern, it the afhes are
well prepared. If your water be hard, let it Hand two
or three days expofed to the air and fun in a ftiallow
back, and it will be foft. When you ufe kiln-alhes
with others, lay them at bottom.
The ley muft be conveyed from the ciftern F, as it
is wanted to the veffel A fig. 5. *, where with.every gal¬
lon of proof ley mix three ounces of fine, light, wood
ailres ; and to the ley that is one-fourth over-proof put
fix ounces of afhes} and if tAVO-fifths over-proof 12
ounces, increafing or leffening according to the ftrength
of the ley.
For evaporating the ley and melting the fait, heat a
furnace till you bring it very near a white heat, of
which the fide-doors being red-hot is a mark. 1 his
will take 48 hours or more if the furnace be quite cold :
when thorough hot, a little fuel keeps it fo. Ihen,
through the cock of the veffel A, pafs the mixture by
the funnel B into the furnace, not fo as to reach much
beyond the middle of the floor, before it changes from
dark to bright red, letting the heat prevail owards
front or back as you fee neceffary. When the mafs be¬
gins to gather about the flues or in heaps, run in no
more till the furnace is cleared by driving the fire back¬
ward. You muft have two funnels, one foon chok¬
ing 5 in an hour or lefs will iflue out a red-hot ftrearn
of melted fait, which is potafti, to be broken to pieces
as foon as cold, and packed in tight clofe calks, being
in no refpeft inferior to the beft foreign aflr whatever.
The beft potafti is made from barilla, and comes from Spanifl5
Spain. The plants from which it is procured are found potafll ^
in great plenty about Carthagena, where they are indi- beft.
genous, and may be collefted in a fwamp called Almojar
call of that place j the Suyones barilla is the beft. They -
are found, befides all along that coaft, on the borders
of the Mediterranean for 60 leagues in length, and 8 in
breadth. About 150,000 quintals of it are annually
exported from Spain. It produces a revenue of 25,500!.
H h 2 a-year ;
POT [ 244 ] % POT
Potalli.
7
Br Per-
cival’s ac¬
count of
making
potafli.
8
Other at¬
tempts.
a-year ; cadi quintal paying a duty of 17 reals ; yet
Don Bernardo de Ulloa, A. D. 1743, fays it was farm¬
ed at 1822I. 4s. 3d. M. Macdonnell has brought the
manufafture of potalh to its prefent perfedlion in Spain j
but its exportation is materially injured by the heavy tax
on it. See Townftiend’s Travels, vol. iii. p. 131. See
alfo Barilla, Kelp.
In the 70th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
we have an account of a method of procuring this fait
from the putrid water which runs from dunghills. The
procefs is very eafy, confiding only in fimple evapora¬
tion of the fluid, and calcinating the impure fait tillmofl:
of the foulnefs is burnt out. From 24 wine-pipes full
of this muck-water were obtained 9 cwt. 1 q. 12 lb. of
laleable potafli, valued at 42s. per cwt : the expence of
manufadluring them being only Valued at 4I. 9s.
The potafli thus made is of a grayifli white appear¬
ance ; deliquefces a little in moift air j but if kept in a
dry room, near the fire, acquires a powdery furface. It
is hard and of a fpongy texture when broken, with ma¬
ny fmall cryftals in its fubftance. The colour of it1? in¬
ternal parts is dulky and variegated. To the tafte it is
acrid, faline, and fulphureous. It emits no fmell of vo¬
latile alkali, either in a folid form, diflolved, or when
added to lime-water 5 neither does it communicate the
fapphire-colour to a folution of blue vitriol. Silver is
quickly tinged black by it; a proof that it contains
much phlogifton. Ten grains of this potalh required
11 drops of the weak fpirit of vitriol to feparate it.
The like quantity of fait of tartar required 24 drops :
a ftrong effervefcence occurred in both mixtures; and a
fulphureous vapour exhaled from the former. A tea
fpoonful of the fyrup of violets diluted with an ounce
of water was changed into a bright green colour by
five grains of the fait of tartar ; but ten grains of this
potalh were neceflary to produce the fame hue in a fimi-
lar mixture. Half an ounce of the fait diffolved entire¬
ly in half a pint of hot water j but 'when the liquor was
cold, a large purple fediment fubfided to the bottom •,
and it was found that this fediment amounted to about
two-thirds of the whole quantity of allies ufed.
Dr Percival, the author of this paper, concludes with
obferving, that this potafh is a true fixed vegetable al¬
kali, produced bV putrefaction •, that the quantity of
alkali contained in it may be eftimated at one-third of
its weight, whereas the white Mufcovy alhes are faid to
yield only one-eighth part ; that no quicklime appears
to be contained in this potafli, for a folution of it pour¬
ed from its fediment remained clear though long ex-
pofed to the air : that it would be worth trying, whe¬
ther the large purple fediment, which fubfides when this
potalh is lixiviated, might not be applied to the manu-
faCfure of Pruflian blue, or ufed in the manner recom¬
mended by Macquer for dyeing wool and filks; and
that this manufacture will furnifhthe farmer with top-dref-
fing for his garden and land, of great fertilizing powers.
See Tlul. Tranf. vol. Ixx. p. 345.
Thefe are the procefles molt efientially different from
one another which have appeared concerning the manu¬
facture of this ufeful fait. Some indeed have attempt¬
ed to compofe it on the fuppofition that alkali confilted
of an earth combined in a peculiar manner with a cer¬
tain acid. But the little fuccefs of all thefe attempts fliow
that they have been built on a falfe principle. The on¬
ly method of producing alkaline falls originally is from
3
the alhes of vegetables $ and the vegetable fubftances Potafli,
which yield the largeft quantity of them are tartar and
marine plants. From the former the pureft and ftrongefi:
vegetable alkali is obtained, and from the latter the mi¬
neral alkali. From other vegetables, as fern, broom,
bean-ltalks, &c. an alkaline fait is produced, but fo im¬
pure, and in fuch fmall quantity, that no manufacture of
it can be eltablilhed in this country with any reafonable
expectation of profit. 9
Dr Watfon (the prefent bilhop of Landaff) fuggelts, On extraft.
that the inveltigation of a method of extracting its alka- ing hs al-
line part from rock fait would be a moll ferviceable dif-
covery. We have inexhaultible mines of rock-falt infait>
this country, which (he obferves) the proprietors can
afford at ten Ihillings a ton. A ton of rock-falt con¬
tains about half a ton of mineral alkali, which is for
molt purpofes far preferable to potalh. To thofe who
have leifure to attempt fuch a difcovery, he gives the
following hint: -whether the alkaline part of rock-falt
may not be obtained by calcining it in conjunction with
charcoal in open fires ? His reafon for this eonjeCture
is founded upon the following experiment : upon burn¬
ing fea-wreck to a black coal and Hopping the procefs
at that point, he has obtained great plenty of common
fait, but no mineral alkali from the black alhes $ though
we are certain, that when the black alhes are thorough¬
ly calcined, or reduced to white allies, mineral alkali
may be obtained from them. This makes it probable,
that the common fait contained in the black alhes of
fea-wreck is decompofed, and changed into a mineral al¬
kali, during the burning of the black allies. There are
reafons to fuppofe, that the cinder of pit-coal would an-
fwrer the purpofe better than charcoal. Chem. Ejf. vol. i.
p. 136, &c. . IQ
The potalhes of different countries vary much in qua-jjome*s
lity; and the experiments of Dr Home, in hisTreatifeonexperi-
Bleaching, feem to fet forth their different properties in meats on
the cleared; point of view. The different kinds tried by Pot*
hmi T;e’ , „ ^ r , different
1. Blue pearl-afhes.— Ihele appear to be a pure m-countries.
kaline fait, mixed with a fmall quantity of vitriolated
tartar and earth. Half a pound of this, filtered and eva¬
porated, yielded 5-! ounces of pure fait.—Here, however,
we mult obferve, that though the quantity was fo far di-
minifhed by this operation, yet we are not to imagine
that the whole of this diminution was owing to impuri¬
ties 5 for all falls are deltroyed in feme meafure by folu¬
tion in water and exficcation.
2. White pearl-ajhes are nearly of the fame quality
with the former; half a pound of them giving five
ounces and feven drams of pure fait, with fome vitriola¬
ted tartar and earth.
3. Rujfia or Mufcovy ajhes have very much the ap¬
pearance of flaked lime, and are, like if - friable betwixt
the fingers. They adhere to the tongue 5 and their al¬
kaline talte foon goes away, leaving in the mouth a
Itrong talte of lime. Some ftnall bits of charcoal are
obfervable in their compofition, and they never turn
moilt in the air. Half a pound of the fait lixiviated
with Avater, and evaporated, gave only 10 drams 15
grains of very caullic fait. Thefe confiff therefore of a
fmall quantity of alkaline fait united Avith a large quan¬
tity of lime.
4. Cafhub-ajhes are of the colour of iron-ltone, and
extremely hard, Avith many filming particles of charcoal
• in
POT ‘ ‘ [ 245 ] ' POT
’’otafli. in them. They have a faline tafte, with a confiderable
;degree of pungency; feel gritty in the mouth when
broke in pieces by the teeth, and will diffolve in water.
To extraft the pure fait, half a pound of the afhes w'ere
boiled in a pint of water ; then that water poured off,
and half a pint put on the afhes again ; and fo on, till
the afhes tafted no more fait. This boiling took 24
hours, and the laft water that came off had a ftrong
taife of fulphur, and was blackifh. A piece of filver
put in the decoftion was in a few minutes turned al-
moft black ; but though the deco&ion was evaporated
confiderably, it did not turn filver black more fpeedily
than before. The whole, when totally evaporated, yield¬
ed only 10 drams of a brown fait having a ftrong cauftic
alkaline tafte. Some Cafhub-afhes powdered, and often
wafhed in water, fo that the falts were all carried off,
were infufed in water. After Handing fome time, there
was a weak lime-water, with fomething of a faline tafte,
but no pellicle. Some of this refiduum was put into a
reverberatory furnace for two hours ; after which it af¬
forded good lime-water. Cafhub-alhes then appear to
contain an earth half vitrified, fome lime, alkaline falts,
and a quantity of fulphur.
5. Marcoft ajhes are of a paler colour than the for¬
mer, with fome fmall pieces of charcoal in their compo-
fition. They have a ftrong faline tafte ; and fo great
pungency, that they cannot be held long in the mouth.
Half a pound diftblved in water, filtered and evaporated,
yielded 11 drams one fcruple and two grains of alkaline
refiduum. The decoftion blackened filver, but not fo
ftrongly as the former ; and by evaporation it quickly
n loft that quality.
Cbanu- Our author next, proceeds to confider the probability
f iring of manufacturing thefe allies in this country. On which
m fubjeCt he has the following obfervations.—“ The blue
and white pearl-alhes we have difeovered to be pure al¬
kaline falts, without any confiderable mixture of hetero¬
geneous bodies. Their purity ftiows the lixive to have
been {trained through fome clofe fubftanee, fuch as linen
or,flannel. The blue allies ftiow by their colour that
they have fuftained the molt fire. But both of them are
fo much alike, that the one may be fubftituted for the
other ; and therefore wre lhall confider them in one
view.
“ Every one knows that alkaline falts, fuch as thefe,
are got from all plants except the alkalefcent, and from
all trees except the moft refinous, which afford them
in very fmall quantity. Thefe plants or trees, W'hen
found, are pulled or felled in the fpring, dried, and
burnt to alhes. By the affufion of warm water the
falts are diffolved, and, by {training, feparated from the
earth along with the water. This faline liquor, which
is called a lixive, is evaporated over a fire ; and what
remains is an alkaline fait of the fame kind with the
| pearl-alhes.
“ I was informed by a Ikilful bleacher in Ireland,
that he praftifed a more expeditious way of extracting
the falts. He bought the alhes of different vegetables
from the commonalty for ps. a bulhel. From thefe a
very ftrong ley was made, into which dry draw was
dipped until it fucked up all the ley. This ftraw was
afterwards dried and burnt, and gave him falts which
he Ihowed me, almoft as good and pure as the pearl-
allies. This method I have feveral times tried ; but
could never burn the ftraw to white alhes, the falts di-
minilhing the inflammability of the ftraw. It is a very
expeditious method if it can be praftifed. But I can
fee no occafion for bringing the ley into a folid form, as
the falts muft again be diffolved in w’ater before they
can be ufed. The ftrength of the ley can eafily be de¬
termined by the hydroftatical balance.
“ Though I make no queftion, that the quantity of
fait, in plants of the fame fpecies, will vary in different
foils and climates ; yet it would be of advantage to have
the proportion afeertained in general. Some trials of this
kind I have made.
“ Two pounds of fern which had been pulled Au-
guft 16. were dried, and burnt to white alhes. Thefe
weighed 7 dr. and tafted very fait. When lixiviated,
ftrained, and evaporated, they gave me 49 gr. of fait,
about the eightli part of the alhes. If the fern had
been pulled in April, it would have afforded more fait.
Why then Ihould we not prepare falts from this vege¬
table ? There is more of it growing on our hills than
would ferve all our bleachfields. The Irilh make great
ufe of it.
“ From 11 oz. of tobacco-afhes I had I oz. of fait.
Two ounces of peat-alhes afforded half a drachm of
fidt. Nettles, I am informed, afford much fait. Furze
and broom, natives of this country, are very fit for this
purpofe.
“ But the kelp as it grows in fuch plenty along our
ftiore, and contains more fait than any other vegetable
I know, would be the moft proper, were it not for a
mixture of fome fubftance that renders it unfit for
bleaching, at leaft of fine cloths, after they have ob¬
tained a tolerable degree of whitenefs. It is obferved
by bleachers, that in thefe circumftances, it leaves a
great yellownefs in the linen. As thefe allies are much
ufed in Ireland, and as it is not uncommon to bleach
coarfe cloths with them in Scotland, a difquifition into
their nature, and fome attempts to purify them, may not
be improper. There are no allies fold fo cheap as thefe ;
for the beft gives but 2I. the 2000 weight (b). They
may, therefore, allow of more labour to be expended on
them, and come cheaper at long-run than the foreign
falts.
Potafli.
“ I dried fome fea-ware, and burnt it, though I found
that laft operation very difficult. When I had kept it
fufed in the fire for two hours, it weighed 34- oz. I
poured on the affies an Englilh pint and a half of cold
water, that I might have as little of the fulphur as pof-
fible. This ley, after it had flood for fome hours, was pour¬
ed off clear, and had but a flight tendency to a green co¬
lour. I made a fecond infufion with milk-warm water,
and poured it off from the fediment. This had a darker
colour than the former ; was kept feparated from it,
and evaporated by itfelf. There was a third infufion
made y
(b) “ Since this treatife was ivritten, however, the price of kelp has been advanced to 7I. or upwards the
2000 weight; fo that thofe who would now attempt any thing of this kind, muft alfo mauufafture the kelp them-
felves.”
POT [ 246
Potato, made ; but having no fait tafte, it was thrown away.
-phe ft.C0I1d infufion feemed to contain morefulphur than
the firft ; and a piece of white linen kept in it half an
hour, while it was boiling, was tinged yellow, and could
not be walked white again. The earthy part remaining,
Weighed, when well dried, 1 oz. 2 dr. The faline de-
coflion evaporated by degrees, and fet at different times
in a cellar to cryftallize, afforded me 5 dr. 46 gr. The
liquor, when entirely evaporated, left 4^ dr. of a yellow
fait, which appeared to be a flrong alkaline. The falls
which cryftallized feemed to be moflly fea-falt, with a
confiderable quantity of fulphur, and fome alkaline fait.
There appeared no figns of the bittern in thefe falls, as
their folution did not turn turbid with the oil of tartar.
Nor is any of the bittern to be expe&ed in kelp afhes,
although it probably is to be found in the recent vege¬
table j becaufe the alkaline falts formed by the fire muff
have changed it into a neutral, f he ley made warm
with water, being evaporated, left 4 dr. of a black bit¬
ter fait, which, from its quantity of fulphur, appeared
unfit for bleaching. I hefe afhes, then, feem to be a
compofition of forflewhat lefs than the fourth of fulphur,
the fame quantity of fia-falt, about a fourth of alkaline
fait, and fome what more than a fourth of earth. The
alkaline fait contained in kelp allies amounts to one pen¬
ny a pound. I his cheapnefs makes it worth oui pains
to bellow fome labour on them.
« If the bad effe£!s in bleaching with kelp-afhes arife
from the fea-falt, as fome of the moft knowing bleachers
think, thev can be freed from it in an eafy manner. Let
a lixive of kelp-afhes be made with cold w'ater, for that
does not extraft fo much of the fulphur ; it muff Hand
but for a (liort time, for thefe falts diffolve eafily } decant
it, and evaporate the ley. As the boiling continues, the
fea-falt will cryflallize. When that is all feparated, the
remaining ley will contain alkaline fait with fome ful¬
phur. This operation every mailer of a bleachfield may
learn and overfee, without taking up much of his time.
A fimilar procefs is carried on by common fervants in
the alum-works, who have by pratlice learned it liom
others.
“ I had fome hopes that the fulphur might be car¬
ried off by long roafting, fuch as thefe falls undergo
before they are fufed in order to be turned into glafs }
becaufe I had obferved, that the longer time they were
kept in the fire, the freer were they from this fulphu-
reous part.
“ I ordered a quantity of kelp afhes to be kept in the
furnace of a glafshoufe, where the heat was juft below
the vitrifying point, for 24 hours. During this time they
had loft a!moft four-fifths of their weight. They were
now much freer from their fulphur, and were of a fight
colour ^ but much of the alkaline fait had been driven
off with the oils. If a ley is much impregnated with
this fulphureous matter, it appears to be carried off in a
great meafure by long boiling.
“ We come now to explain the method of manufac¬
turing the white Mufcovy afhes. Wb have fhown, by
undoubted experiments, that the greateft part of thefe
afhes confifts of lime ; and yet we have feveral a£Is of
parliament which forbid the ufe of that material under
fevere penalties. The parliament were in the right, to
difcharge its ufe, upon the difadvantageous reports which
were made to them. We (hall immediately fee how
dangerous a material it is when ufed improperly, or with-
P O T
out the mixture of alkaline falts, which render it fafe,
and more foluble in water. But I will venture to fay,
that experiment will not fupport the prejudice entertain¬
ed with regard to it, if carried any further..
“ Since bleaching, then, cannot be carried on with¬
out it (for thofe aflies which contain it are quite necef-
fary in that operation), and fince we import them from
foreign countries, let thefe prejudices againft it ceafe,
and let us only confider how we may render our own
lime as fafe as the foreign. If we can do that, the wif-
dom of the legiftature will be as ready to abrogate thefe
acfs as they were to make them.
“ By my experiments on the white Mufcovy allies,
I got about the eighth part of alkaline falts from them.
This made me expeft, that, by mixing in the fame pro¬
portion quicklime and alkaline falts, I lliould be able to
produce Mufcovy allies.
“ To an ounce of quicklime and a dram of white
pearl-alhes, I added about a gill of water, and boiled
them together till the Avater was all evaporated. The
tafte of this fubftance was little different from.lime.. To
recover the falts again from the lime, I diflolved it in
water, ftrained off the liquor, and evaporated it. Inftead
of the dram of falts, I had but two grains of a fubftance
which was more earthy than faline.
“ To q drams of quicklime, and as much potalhes, I
added a mutchkin of water, and kept it boiling for two
hours till it was evaporated. I diffolved it again in
water, which being filtered and evaporated, gave me
dram of a cauftic fait, that liquefied in the air when
it had been but four minutes from the fire. It appears,
then, that the alkaline falts are deftroyed by lime, and
that a great part of them can never be again recovered.
From the remaining lime, after the falts were extra£!ed,
I got ftrong lime-water, but without a pellicle. I his
{hows, that a quantity of alkaline falts, equal to the
lime, boiled with it for two hours, are not able to fix all
the foluble part of the lime.
“ From thefe experiments we may draw fome corol¬
laries Avith regard to the prefent fubjeft. ift, ihat
evaporating the water from the lime and falts by boil¬
ing, is a moft unfrugal way of preparing thefe white
a flies. 2dly, That thefe allies ought to be kept clefe
{hut up in caiks 5 for if expofed to the open air, though
in a room, the alternate moifture and drought muft fix
their moft ufeful parts. This I have found to be fa£t:
for the falts that I made became lefs pungent by keep¬
ing *, and I have obferved, that the furface of the Muf¬
covy allies loft all pungency by being expofed to the air,
Avhile their internal parts ftill retained it. 3^7* ^
boiling is prejudicial to thefe Mufcovy allies, as it fixes,
and that quickly, their moft fubtile and probably their
moft ferviceable parts.
“ Let us now proceed to another method of making
thefe white allies. I imagined, that if the falts were
diffolved in ivater, and the quicklime flaked with that,
the mafs would foon dry without the afliftance of fire.
In this way I added equal parts of both ^ but the corn-
pofition was fo ftrong, that it bliftered my tongue if. it
but touched it. When the fourth part was alkaline
fait, it bliftered my tongue when kept to it a feiv fe-
conds. I could tafte the falts plainly in the compofi-
tion, when they made but the thirty-fecond part of the
whole. , ,
“ I thought, when compofed with the eighteenth
0 part
Potafli,
POT
[ 247 ]
POT
Potafh. part of fait, it had, when frefh made, juft the tafte and
look of the Mufcovy allies ; nor could any perfon have
diftinguiftied them. This I once imagined was the pro¬
portion j but when I found that the faline pungency
foon turned weaker by keeping, and that this compo-
fition would not afford the fame quantity of falts that
the Mufcovy allies did, I faw that a much greater quan¬
tity of falts was neceflary. The proportion appears to
be one of falts to four of lime, prepared in this lall way.
Three drams of afhes prepared in this way, and kept
for a fortnight, gave me but 15 grains of fait ; which
is but the half of what the Mufcovy would have af¬
forded. I find, if the quicklime is firft quenched, it
does not fix the falts fo much 5 and therefore is better
and cheaper. One dram of potafties diffolved in a little
water, and added to three drams of quenched lime,
gave me 44 grains of a very cauftic fait. I prefer this
method as the bell.
“ The manufa&urers of this fait probably pour the
lixive upon the lime, as they can know by its Ipecific
gravity what quantity of falts is in the water, and fo
fave themfelves the expence of procuring the falts in a
dry form.
“ The manufa6ture of the Marcoft. and Caftiub allies
remains yet to be explained. We have difcovered that
both of them contained fulphur, earth, alkaline falts, and
lime ; and dither in nothing but in the Calliub’s having
more fulphur than the Marcoft allies. We lliall there¬
fore confider them together.
“ Whether thefe two fpecies of allies are of any ufe
in bleaching, may be, and has already been, difputed.
I find they contain no other principles, the fulphureous
part excepted, than the former allies combined together.
Why then ftiould we expe6t any other effedts from the
fame ingredients in the Marcoft and Caftiub allies,
than what we have from either of the pearl and Muf¬
covy allies mixed together ? The fulphureous principle
in the former mull have very bad effedls ; as I find by
experiment, that it leaves a yellownefs on cloth that is
very hard to be waflied out. It is owing to this ful¬
phureous principle that linen, after it has been walked
with foap, and is pretty well advanced in whitenefs, is
apt to be difcoloured by ley which is brought to boil :
for, by boiling, the fulphureous part is extracted from
the afhes, and the ley becomes of a deep brown colour.
Daily practice, then, fhows the difadvantage of this ful¬
phureous principle. Belides, as fulphur unites i.ftlf
quickly and firmly with alkaline lalts, it mull weaken
or altogether deftroy a great quantity of thefe in the
Marcoft and Caftiub allies, and fo render them of no ef-
fedl in bleaching. Thefe two reafons feem to me fuffi-
cient to exclude them from the bleachfield •, efpecially
as, by increafing the other materials, we can attain per^
haps more fpeedily the fame ends.
“ However, as cullom has introduced them into ge¬
neral pra&ice, we fhall confider how they are to be ma-
nufaflured. Dr Mitchell has, in a very ingenious and
ufeful paper, contained in the Philofophical Tranfao
tions for the year 1748, delivered an account tranfmit-
ted to him by Linnaeus of the method of making
potafties in Sweden. This account was coniained in an
academical diiTertation of one Lundmark upon this fuh-
at Aboe in Sweden. The fubftance of this account
ts, ‘ That birch or alder is burnt by a flow fire to allies, .
^ad made into a pafte with water. This pafte is plaf-
tered over a row of green pine or fir logs. Above that Potaflj,
is laid tranfverfely another row of the fame ; and that v
likewife is plaftered over. In this way they continue
building and plaftering till the pile be of a confiderable
height. This pile is fet on fire ; and whenever the
aihes begin to run, it is overturned, and the melted allies
are beat with flexible flicks, fo that the allies incruft
the logs of wood, and become as hard as Hone.’ This,
in the Doctor’s opinion, is the method of making the
potalhes that come from Sweden, Ruflia, and Dantzic :
and that there is no other difference betwixt the allies
made in thofe different countries, but that the Ruffian,
containing more fait, mult be made into a pafte with a
ftrong ley.
“ There would appear, by my experiments, a greater
difference than this betwixt the Swcdith allies, if that
is the true procefs, and thofe I have examined. I had
difcovered the greateft part of the Mufcovy allies to be
lime. I fufpedled it might enter into the compofition
of the Marcoft and Caftiub ; and have accordingly dif¬
covered it there. Without the fame grounds, none
would ever have fearched for it. Whence then comes
this Hme ? It mull either enter into its compofition, or
arife from the materials managed according as the pro¬
cefs directs.
“ I have tried the birch allies made into a pafte with
water. I have tried common charcoal made into a pafte
with a third part of potalhes, and kept them in a ftrong
reverberatory heat for fome hours, and yet no fuch cau¬
ftic fubftance appeared. I have kept earth and falts of
kelp-allies fufed together for 24 hours in the furnace of
a glafshoufe, where the heat was juft below the degree
of vitrification j and yet no remarkable caufticity ap¬
peared afterwards in the concreted mafs. But fuppofing
that there did, will ever this account for the generation
of lime ? Thefe. chemifts do not affert that it is a calca¬
reous caufticity. The earth of vegetables kept in fufion
with their falts, is fo far from turning into a quicklime,
that the mafs takes the oppofite courfe, and becomes
glafs. Bodies that, by the laws of nature, are vitref-
cible, can never, fo far as we know, become calcareous.
In one or other of thefe two fubftances all bodies termi¬
nate that are changeable by fire j and vegetables are of
the former kind. Here it may be alked, W hy then*
fince they endure fuch a fire, are they not vitrified ? the
objection would be juft, did they contain nothing elfe
but what was found in vegetables. But if we once al¬
low that lime is one of the materials, the difficulty is
eafily folved : for lime, we know, in proportion as it is
mixed, hinders the vitrification of all bodies. In effedl,
the earthy part in thefe allies is almoft vitrified : and I
think that I have carried the vitrification yet farther in
that part ; but I never was able, with the utmoft heat
of a reverberatory furnace, continued for fix hours, to
produce any thing like a thorough vitrification in thefe
allies. The beat of the fire ufed in the procefs would
feem to be very great ; and mull. If it were not very
difficult, reduce them to glafs; The invitrefcible na¬
ture of thefe falts, fo far from being an objedtiqn, be- .
comes a ftrong proof of my opinion.
“ Thefe falts have a remarkable pungency. This we
have already feen is the natural effedl of quicklime on
falts.
“ Thefe falts are found to be the fitteft for making
foap, and to incorporate fooneft and beft with oils.
Salts9 „
POT
[ 248 ]
POT
Potafh,
Potato.
iz
Potaflies
and pearl-
aflies ob
Salts, vre know, of thetnfelves do not readily unite with
oil j but when once mixed with quicklime, they have a
greater tendency to union.
“ Again, I find that thefe afhes are more eafily flux¬
ed than charcoal made into a pafte with the third part
fait •, which is much more than the afhes contain. Now,
it is obferved that quicklime increafes the fluxing power
of alkaline falts ; for the common cauflic made of quick¬
lime and alkaline falts is fooner fufed than the latter
alone.
“ From thefe reafons, and the experiments that dif-
cover lime in thefe allies, I am led to think, that it is
not generated by the procefs, but mixed with the afhes
when they are made into a pafle. The following expe¬
riment is a convincing proof of what I have been endea¬
vouring to make out.
“ I boiled fome peafe flraw in a ftrong ley of pearl-
afhes burnt into a black coal, and made it into a pafte
with w-ater. Ahother quantity of ftraw was boiled in
a ley made of one part of quicklime and four parts of
pearl falts, the ley being poured off turbid from the lime.
This ftraw vras likewife burnt when dry, and made into
a pafte. Thefe two fubftances were put into feparate
crucibles, and fluxed in a reverberatory furnace. The
latter appeared to referable the Marcoft and Cafhub
afhes more than the former, which feemed to want their
pungency.”
Though the only method of preparing the alkaline
fait originally is by the combuftion of vegetables, yet
tamed from there are fome neutral falts from which if it were pof-
neutral fible to expel the acid, we fhould have it in our power
*alts* to procure the fineft pearl-aflies in vaft quantity. Thefe
are vitriolated tartar, nitre, &c. But there are objec¬
tions to all thofe. The vitriolated tartar, or any other
fait in which the vitriolic acid enters, cannot be decom-
pofed without converting the acid into fulphur by char¬
coal dull •, in which cafe it is as difficult to get free of
the fulphur as of the acid. With refpeft to nitre, though
its acid may be expelled by fire, yet it is too high-
priced, and too much ufed in other manufactures, to be
thought of for this purpofe.
POTATO. See Solanum, Botany Index.
Potatoes, it is generally thought, came originally
from North America, where they were not reckoned
good for food. They were firft (we are told) introdu¬
ced into Ireland in the year 1565, and from thence into
England by a veffel wrecked on theweftern coaft, call¬
ed North Meols, in Lancafhire, a place and foil even
now famous for producing this vegetable in great per¬
fection. It was 40 years after their introduction, how¬
ever, before they were much cultivated about London ;
and then they were confidered as rarities, without any
conception of the utility that might arife from bringing
them into common ufe. At this time they were diftin-
guifhed from the Spanifh by the name of Virginia po¬
tatoes or battatas, which is the Indian name of the
Spanifh fort. At a meeting of the Royal Society,
March 18. 1662-3, a letter was read from Mr Buck-
land, a Somerfet gentleman, recommending the planting
of potatoes in all parts of the kingdom to prevent fa¬
mine. This was referred to a committee ; and, in con-
fequenee of their report, Mr Buckland had the thanks
of the foc’etv, fuch members as had lands were intreated
to plant them, and Mr Evelyn was defired to mention
the nropofals at the clofe of his Sylva.
In Sweden, notwithftanding the indefatigable induftry
of Linnaeus, the culture of potatoes was only introduced ^
in 1764, when a royal ediCt was publifhed to encourage
their general cultivation. They were known there,
however, at an earlier, period 5 for in the Memoirs of
the Royal Academy of Sciences in Sweden, 1747, M.
Charles Skytfe propofed to diftil brandy from them, in
order to fave corn, which in that country is very dear.
He found by experience, that an acre of land fet with
potatoes will yield a much greater quantity of brandy
than when fown with barley. For a full account of the
methods of cultivating and preferving this valuable root,
fee Agriculture Index.
We have already mentioned a cheap preparation by
means of potatoes for the poor, fee Agriculture,
N° 288. •, we fhall here introduce a receipt to make a
potato harrico, which may be equally ufeful to thofe
whofe circumftances are not fuch as to make them re-
gardlefs of economy. We take it from the Gentleman’s
Magazine, and give it in the ivords of a perfon who
had made the experiment.
“ Scrape the fldn clean off four pounds of good raw
potatoes, then wafti them clean in fair water: take two
pounds of beef, one of mutton, and one of pork ; or, as
you like beft, four pounds of any of thefe meats ; cut
them into pieces of three or four ounces each, feafon
them very well with pepper and fait and a good onion
chopped very fmall: have ready a ftrong wide-mouthed
ftone-jar, fuch as hares are ufually jugged in ; flice thin
a layer of the potatoes into the jar, then a layer of the
feafoned meat over them, and fo alternately layers of
potatoes and meat •, let your uppermoft layer be pota¬
toes, fo that your jar be about three quarters full, but
put no water into your jar ; then clofe or flop the
mouth of it with a large well-fitted piece of cork, co¬
vering the fame with a ftrong piece of canvas, and tying
it down with packthread, fo as only a little of the fteam
may efeape in the ftewing; for a little ftiould conftantly
evaporate from the fide of the cork to fave the jar from
burfting. Then place your jar upright in a kettle of
cold water on the fire, fo as the mouth of the jar may
be always two inches above the water in the kettle when
boiling. The harrico in the jar will begin to boil fome
minutes fooner than the water in the kettle, and that
for obvious reafons. In about an hour after the water
in the kettle begins to boil, your harrico will be fully
ftewed. Then take out and open the jar, pour out the
harrico into a deep diftr, and ferve it up.
“ This excellent, wholefome, and economical diflr fup-
plies an agreeable dinner twice a week to a family con¬
fiding of three grown people, and three children under
14 years of age, where neither health nor good ftomachs
are wanting, thanks to God : and, in point of economy,
we muft obferve, that here is the whole article of butter
faved, as alfo the whole article of bread, or nearly fo *,
nor does there require fo large or fo continued a fire, nor
fo much time or trouble as is neceffary for the dreffing
of many other diftres that by no qieans deferve the pre¬
ference to this excellent harrico.
“ We have alfo (by way of change) made it with pow¬
dered beef, fometimes with powrdered pork, fometimes
with half frelh beef or mutton and half pickled pork*
and found it good in all thefe ways, particularly with
three pounds of frefh beef and one of pickled pork. We
have left off fending pies and ftews to the bakers. We
fometimes
Potato..
POT [ 249 ] POT
Potato fcmetimes (hi a larger kettle) boil a fmall piece of pow-
!i dered beef along-fide of the jar, by continuing the boil-
Potofi. jng an llour anc] a lialf longer, and this ferves us to eat
^ cold the next day, with hot garden-duff or a pudding.”
POTAl'O-Bread. See BREAD of Potatoes.
Spanijh POTATO. See CONVOLVULUS, Botany
Index.
POTENT, or Potence, in Heraldry, a term for a
kind of crofs, whofe ends all terminate like the head of
a crutch. It is otherwife called the Jernfalem crofs.
See Heraldry.
POTENTIA (power), that whereby a thing is ca¬
pable either of aiding or being aded upon.
POTENTIAL, in the fchools, is ufed to denote
and diftinguilh a kind of qualities, which are fuppofed
to exift in the body in potentia only •, by which they are
capable in fome meafure of affeding and impreffing on
us the ideas of fuch qualities, though not adually inhe¬
rent in themfelves; in which fenfe we fay, potential
heat, potential cold, &c.
POTENTIAL Cautery, in Medicine, denotes the con-
fuming, or reducing to an efchar, any part of the hu¬
man body by a cauftic alkaline or metallic fait, &c. in-
ftead of a red-hot iron, which laft is called the aEtml
cautery.
Potential, in Grammar, an epithet applied to one
of the moods of verbs. The potential is the fame in
form with the fubjundive, and is, according to Ruddi-
man, implied in that mood, for which reafon that gram¬
marian rejeds it ; but others will have it to differ from
the fubjundive in this, that it always implies in it either
poffum, volo, or debeo. It is fometimes called the per-
mifjive mood, becaufe it often implies a per million or
conceflion to do a thing. See Grammar.
POTENTILLA, Silver-weed, Wild Tanfey, or
Cinquefoil; a genus of plants belonging to the icofandria
elafs j and in the natural method ranking under the
35th order, Senticofec. See Botany Index.
POTERIUM, Garden Burnet; a genus of plants
belonging to the monoecia clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 54th order, Mifcellanece. See
Botany Index.
POTHOS, a genus of plants belonging to the gy-
nandria clafs. See Botany Index.
POTION, a liquid medicine, confifting of as much
as can be drunk at one draught.
POTIPHAR, or Putiphar, an officer of the court
of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and general of his troops,
according to our tranllation, Le Clerc, and the verfion
of the vulgate ; but according to the Hebrew and Sep-
tuagint, the chief of his butchers or cooks. The He¬
brew text, the Septuagint, and vulgate, call him Eu¬
nuch. But it is probable it in this place means only an
officer of the king’s court, for he was certainly married
and had children. We have no other accounts of him
but what appears in fcripture ; and that account is too
generally known to require to be enlarged on in this
place. See Genefis xxxviii. xxxix. &c.
POTOSI, a city of Peru in South America, lituated
at the bottom of a mountain of that name, in which is
the richell filver mine ever difcovered. To give an idea
of its richnefs, we {hall mention its produce at different
times. Exclufive of what was not regiftered, fays Abbd
Raynal, and was fmuggled away, the fifth part belong¬
ing to the government from IC4C to 1364, amounted
VOL. XVII. Part I.
to 36,450,000 livres § per annum. But this abun- rv<>ii
dance of metals loon decrealed. From 1564 to 1585, pj.1^
the annual fifth part amounted to no more than , i
15,187,489 livres four folsf. From 1585 to 1624,
it amounted to 12,149,994 livres 1 2 fols %. From 16241- 632>8121*
to 1633, to 6,074,997 livres fix fols||. ' From this laft IS-
period, the produce of thefe mines hath fo evidently de-^5C^j49 ’
creafed, that in 1763 the fifth part, belonging to the ||
king, did not exceed 1,364,682 livres 12 fols §. Situ- 17s. gd.
ated in W. Long. 67. S. Lat. 22. See Peru. § 56,861!.
POTSDAM, or Postdam, a town of Germany, in 18S'
the circle of Upper Saxony, with a palace, belonging
to the king of Pruffia. It is feated in an illand to
miles in circumference, formed by the rivers Sprae and
Havel. The palace is finely built, delightfully fituated
on a fpot 12 miles weft of Berlin. E. Long. 13. 42.
N. Lat. 52. 34. Riefbeck in his Travels informs us,
that the houfes in Potfdam are ftill finer than thofe of
Berlin ; but like them they are inhabited only by per-
fons of the lower and middling ranks. The population
of Potfdam is ftated at 26,000.
POTT, Percival, was born in London in 1713.
He received the firft rudiments of his education at a pri¬
vate fchool at Darne in Kent ; and became an appren¬
tice to Mr Nourfe, one of the furgeons of St Bartholo¬
mew’s hofpital; of which hofpital, in 1744-5, he was
eledled an affiftant furgeon, and in 1749 appointed one
of the principal furgeons. In 1746, he married the
daughter of Robert Cruttenden, Efq. His firft pub¬
lication is fn’d to have been planned in 1756, during his
confinement in confequence of a compound fradure of
the leg : from that time, his pen was feldom long un¬
employed. His praftice and his reputation were now
rapidly increafing ; in 1764, he ivas eleded a fellow of
the Royal Society ; and afterward was complimented
with honorary diplomas from the Royal Colleges of Sur¬
geons at Edinburgh and in Ireland. In 1787, he re-
figned the office of furgeon to St Bartholomew’s hofpi¬
tal, “ after having ferved it (as he ufed to fay), man
and boy, half a century and on the 22d of December
1788, after an illnefs of eight days, he expired.
“ The labours of the greateft part of his life (fays
Mr Earle, who publilhed his Chirurgical works), were
without relaxation ; an increafing family required his
utmoft exertion : of late years he had a villa at Neaf-
den ; and in the autumn ufually paffed a month at Bath
or at the fea-fide. Thus, though he gathered, as he ex-
preffed it, fome of the fruit of the garden which he had
planted as he went along, and always lived in a gene¬
rous and hofpitable manner, at the fame time bellowing
on four fons and four daughters a liberal and neceffarily
expenfive education, and applying large fums to their
eftablilhment during his lifetime, he left an ample pro-
vilion for them at his deceafe. Among his papers was
found, what he had often mentioned, a fmall box, con¬
taining a few pieces of money, being the whole which
he ever received from the wreck of his father’s fortune.
With this was depofited an exadl account of every indi¬
vidual fee which a long life of bufinefs had produced—-
abundant evidence of -itfell fpent time, and the induftri-
ous application of abilities, to which the res angufa do-
mi, at the commencement, probably a61ed more power¬
fully as an incentive than as an obftacle.”
POTTER, Christopher, a learned Englilh divino,
was born in 1591, and bred at Oxford. In 1633, he
I i publilhed
p o V [ 250 ] P o u
Fetter published his “ Anfvver to a late Popifti Plot,” entitled
!1 Charity mijluken, which he wrote by fpecial order of
Poverty. ]£ing Charles I. whofe chaplain he was. In 1634, he
-was promoted to the deanery of Worcefter j and, in
1640, was constituted vice-chancellor of the univerfity
of Oxford, in the execution of which office he met with
fome trouble from the members of the long parliament.
Upon the breaking out of the civil wars, he lent all his
plate to the king, declaring, “ that he would rather,
like Diogenes, drink in the hollow of his hand, than
that his majefty ffiould want and he afterwards Suf¬
fered much for the royal caufe. In conhderation of this
he was nominated to the deanery of Durham in 1646,
but was prevented from being inftalled by his death,
which happened about two months after.. He was a
perfon learned and religious, exemplary in his converfa-
tion, courteous in his carriage, of a fweet and obliging
nature, and of a comely prefence. He was remarkable
in his charity to the poor.
Potter, Dr John, archbiffiop of Canterbury, was
the fon of a linen-draper at Wakefield in Yorkffiire,
where he was born about the year 1674. -^e ft^ied
at Univerfity college, Oxford and at 19 publithed
Variantes letiiones et not# ad Plutarchi librum de audien-
dis poetis ; et ad Bajilii magni orationem ad juvenes,
quomodo cwn frufJu leg ere pojfint Grcecorum hbros, 8vo,
1693. In 1697, came out his edition of Lycophron,
in folio 5 which is reckoned the bell of that obfeure
writer: foon after, he publifhed his Antiquities of
Greece, 2 vols. 8vo. Thefe works eftablUhed his lite¬
rary reputation, and engaged him in a correfpondence
with Greevius and other learned foreigners. In 1706,
he was made chaplain to the queen } in I7I55 hiffiop of
Oxford ; and in 1737, he fucceeded Archbilhop Wake
in the fee of Canterbury 5 which high ftation he fupport-
ed with much dignity until his death in 1747' was
a learned and exemplary churchman •, but not of an
amiable difpofition, being but too ftrongly tinflured
with the pride of office 5 nor is it to his credit that he
difinherited his eldeft fon for marrying below his rank
in life. His “ Theological works, containing fermons,
charges, difeourfes on church-government, and divinity
ledlures,” were printed at Oxford, in 3 vols. 8vo, I753-
POTTERY, the manufa&ure of earthen-ware, or
the art of making earthen veffels. See DELFT-lVare,
and Porcelain.
POTTLE, an Engliffi meafure containing two
quarts.
POVERTY fignifies indigence or want of riches,
and has been the lot of a large portion of men in every
age. Whether, on the whole, it has been productive
of good or bad confequences, has been difputed. In a
moral view, perhaps it has been, on the whole, ufeful,
as adverfity is in general more conducive to virtue than
profperity, which too often leads, to luxury and vice.—
Sometimes, however, poverty has had a baneful effeft
upon the mind, and has prompted men to commit very
inhuman actions ; but this in civilized communities very
feldom occurs. In a political view, poverty is thought
by fome to be hurtful: Raynal thinks it is a check to
population (fee his Hiftory, vol. vi. p. 471*) ’ ar1^ -^r
Smith fo far agrees with him j for though he afferts,
and indeed proves, that poverty is no check to the pro-
flu&ion of children, he allows it to be very unfavour¬
able tp raifing them. See Political Economy j and
alfo Smith’s Wealth of Nations, vol. i. p. 119, &c. Poverty
See alfo Poor. tl
POULADUFF, two large and remarkable cavities,, Pou‘try>
about a mile welt of Rofs, in the county of Cork, and 'r^
province of Munfter, in Ireland, 80 yards deep, in
which the fea flows by fubterraneous palTages. They
are called Eait and Weft Pouluduff.
POULES or Foulques, one of the chief nations
on the banks of the Senegal. Their country extends
more than 180 miles along the river, and they demand
exorbitant cufloms from the Senegal traders with the
interior of the country. They are of a copper colour,
fomewhat inclining to red, although their children,
who relide for fome years at Senegal, become much
blacker. Their females are handfome, and many of
them are procured by the white people of Senegal.
They are, however, incapable of attachment, and their
difpofitions are bad, requiring to be narrowly watched
to prevent their infidelity : The dread of the baftinado
will often effeft what attention and compliance can ne¬
ver bring about.
Although the Poules inhabit one of the fineft fpots in
Africa, they are neverthelels a wretched people ; they
are bale, cruel, thieviffi, and fanatic in the extreme.
They are commanded by a chief of their religion, which
is a contemptible mixture of Mahometanilm and idola¬
try. This chief is called the jdlmamy ; he is always
chofen from among the tampfirs, who are 12 in number.
The tampfirs are the interpreters of the law, and are the
moft learned, or rather the moft fanatical among them.
The almatny has the power of life and death over his
fubjefts; yet he may be depofed by an affembly of
tampfirs: it is therefore his intereft to keep on good
terms with them. The payment of cuftoms is made to
the almamy, and is afterwards diftributed among the
tampfirs •, and although a part belongs to the former,
he neverthelefs requires a feparate prefent for himfelf.
POULTICE, a fort of medicine, called alfo a cata-
plafm. See Cataplasma.
POULTRY, all kinds of domeftic birds brought up
in yards, as cocks, hens, capons, ducks, turkeys, &c.
Almoft, if not all the domefiic birds of the poultry
kind that we maintain in our yards are of foreign ex-
tradlion : but there are others to be ranked in thisclafs
that are as yet in a ftate of nature, and perhaps only
wait till they become fufficiently fcarce to be taken un¬
der the care of man to multiply their propagation. It
will appear remarkable enough, if we confider how
much the tame poultry which we have imported from
diftant climates has increafed, and how much thofe
wild birds of the poultry kind that have never yet been
taken into keeping have been diminiffied and deftroyed.
They are all thinned ; and many of the fpecies, espe¬
cially in the more cultivated and populous parts of the
kingdom, are utterly unfeen.
Under birds of the poultry kind may be ranked all
thofe that have white flefh, and, comparatively to their
heads and limbs, have bulky bodies. They are furnifh-
ed with ffiort ftrong bills for picking up grain, which is
their chief and often their only fuftenance. Their wings
are ffiort and concave j for which reafon they are not
able to fly far. They lay a great many eggs ; and ss^
they lead their young abroad, the very day theyr are
hatched, in queft of food, which they are ffiown by
the mother, and which they pick up for themfelves,
P O U [ 251 ] P o u
Poultry, they generally make their nefts on the ground. The
•— y ^ toes of all thefe are united by a membrane as far as the
foil articulation, and are then divided.
Under this clafs we may therefore render the common
cock, the peacock, the turkey, the pintada or Guinea
hen, the pheafant, the buftard, the grous, the partridge,
and the quail. They all bear a ftrong fimilitude to each
other, being equally granivorous, flelhy, and delicate to
the palate. They are among birds what hearts of pafture
are among quadrupeds, peaceable tenants of the field,
and dimming the thicker parts of the forert, that abound
with numerous animals who carry on unceafing hoftilh-
ties againft them.
As nature has formed the rapacious clafs for war, lb
{he feems equally to have fitted thefe for peace, reft,
and fociety. Their wings are but (hurt, fo that they
are ill formed for wandering from one region to an¬
other : their bills are alfo fhort, and incapable of annoy¬
ing their oppofers : their legs are ftrong indeed •, but
their toes are made for fcratching up their food, and not
for holding or tearing it. Thefe are fufficient indications
of their harralefs nature \ while their bodies, which are
fat and fleftiy, render them unwieldy travellers, and in¬
capable of ftraying far from each other.
Accordingly, we find them chiefly in fociety : they
live together: and though they may have their dis¬
putes, like all other animals, upon fome occafions;
yet, when kept in the fame diftrift, or fed in the
fame yard, they learn the art of fubordination •, and,
in proportion as each knows his ftrength, he Seldom
tries a fecond time the combat where he has once been
worfted.
In this manner, all of this kind feem to lead an in¬
dolent voluptuous life. As they are furniftied internal¬
ly with a very ftrong ftomach, commonly called a gi%~
isnrd, fo their voracioufnefs fcarce knows any bounds.
If kept in clofe captivity, and feparated from all their
former companions, they have ftill the pleafure of eat¬
ing left; and they foon grow fat and unwieldy in their
prifon. To fay this more (imply, many of the wilder
fpecies of birds, when cooped or caged, pine away, grow
gloomy, and fome refufe all fuftenance whatever ; none
except thofe of the poultry kind grow fat, who feem to
lofe all remembrance of their former liberty, fatisfied
with indolence and plenty.
The following method of raifing poultry has been
fuccefsfully praftifed by Mrs d’Oyley of Sion Hill near
Northallerton, and feems worthy of being noticed. We
(hall extraft the account of it, as it was given to the So¬
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. in her own
words, “ I keep,” fays (he, “ a large flock of poultry,
which are regularly fed in a morning upon fteamed po¬
tatoes chopped fmall, and at noon they have barley $
they are in high condition, tra&able, and lay a very
j;reat quantity of eggs. In the poultry-yard is a fmall
building, fimilar to a pigeon cote, for the hens to lay in
with frames covered with net to hide before each neft :
the houfe is dry, light, and well ventilated, kept free
from dirt by having the nefts and walls white-walhed
two or three times a-year, and the floor covered once a-
week with frefh allies. When I wifh to procure chick¬
ens, I take the opportunity of fetting many hens toge¬
ther, confining each to her refpeftive nefl ; a boy at¬
tends morning and evening to let any off that appear
■freftlefsv, and to fee that they return to their proper
places : when they hatch, the chickens are taken away, Forftry.
and a fecond lot of eggs allowed them to fet again, by -“■'W'”"*'
which means they produce as numerous a brood as be¬
fore. I put the chickens into long wicker cages, placed
againft a hot wrall at the back of the kitchen fire, and
within them have artiheiai mothers for the chickens to
run under-, they are made limilar to thole defcribed by
M. Reaumur, in his Art de faire eclorre et d'e ever en
toutes Saifons des Ofeaux domeJHques de toutcs Efpeces,
&c. in two volumes, printed at Paris, 1751 : they are
made of boards about 10 inches broad, and 15 inches
long, fupported by two feet in the front four inches in
height, and by a board at the back two inches in
height. The roof and back are lined with lambs (kins
dreffed with the wrool upon them. The roof is thickly
perforated with holes for the heated air to efcape ; they
are formed without bottoms, and have a flannel curtain
in front and at the ends for the chickens to run under,
which they do apparently by inftinft. The cages are
kept perfa&ly dry and clean with fand or mofs. The
above is a proper fize for 50 or 60 new hatched chick¬
ens, but as they increafe in fize they of courfe require a
larger mother. When they are a week old, and the
weather fine, the boy carries them and their artificial
mother to the grafs-plot, nouriflies and keeps them warm,
by placing a long narrow tin veffel filled with hot water
at the back of the mother, which will retain its heat for
three hours, and is then renewed frefti from the fteamer.
In the evening they are driven into their cages, and re¬
fume their ftation at the hot wall, till they are nearly
three weeks old, and able to go into a fmall room ap¬
propriated to that purpofe. The room is furnifhed with
frames fimilar to the artificial mothers, placed round the
floor, and with perches conveniently arranged for them
to rood: upon.
“ When I firft attempted to bring up poultry in the
above way, I loft immenfe numbers by too great heat
and fuffocation, owing to the roofs of the mothers not
being fufficiently ventilated ; and when that evil was
remedied, I had another ferious one to encounter : I
found chickens brought up in this way did not thrive
upon the food I gave them, and many of them died, till
I thought of getting coarfe barley-meal, and fteaming it
till quite foft : the boy feeds them with this and minced
potatoes alternately ; he is alfo employed rolling up pel¬
lets of dough, made of coarfe wheat flour, which he
throws to excite them to eat, thereby caufing them t©
grow furprifingly.
“ I was making the above experiments in the fummer
for about two months; and during that time my hens
produced me upwards of 500 chickens, 400 of which I
reared fit for the table or market. I ufed a great many
made into pies for the family, and found them cheaper
than butcher’s meat. Were I fituated in the neighbour¬
hood of London, or any very populous place, I am con¬
fident I could make an immenfe profit, by rearing dif¬
ferent kinds of poultry in the above method for the mar¬
kets, and felling them on an average at the price of but¬
chers meat.
“ A young perfon of 12 or 14 years of age might
bring up in a feafon fome thoufands, and by adopting a
fence fimilar to the improved (beep-fold, almoft any
number might be cheaply reared, and with little trouble,,
Hens kept as mine are, and having the fame convenien¬
ces, will readily fet four times a feafon, and by fetting
I i 2 twice
P O U [25
Poultry twice ertcli time^ tliey would produce at tlie lovveft cal-
II culation eighty chickens each, which would foon make
them very pJentifui.
'v “ The moll convenient fize of an artificial mother,”
continues the author, “ for 40 or 50 young chickens, is
about 15 inches long, 10 deep, four high in front, and
two at the back*, it is placed in a long wicker cage againit
a warm wall, the heat at about 80 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, till the chickens are a few days old, and
*i{ed to the comfort of it, after which time they run un¬
der when they want reft, and acquire warmth by crowd-
ing together. I find it adviiable to have two or three
chickens among them of about a week old to teach them
to peck and eat. The meat and water is given them in
fmall troughs fixed to the outfide of the cage, and a little
is ftrewed along from the artificial mother, as a train to
the main depofit. It would have given me great plea-
fate to have been able to fend a fpecimen of my fuperior
feed and management, if the feafon had been rather
more advanced, for I think it is not pofhble for turkeys
and chickens to weigh heavier, be whiter, or altogether
better fed than mine are.
“ After a certain age, they are allowed their, liber¬
ty, living chiefly on fteamed potatoes •, and being li-
tuated tolerably fecure from the depredations of men
and foxes, are permitted to rooft in trees near the
houfe.
“ To prevent trouble and prejudice in the firft outfet,
I think it neceflary to remark, that if the chickens do
not readily run after the artificial mother for want of
fome educated ones to teach them, it will be proper
to have the curtain in front made of rabbit or hare
{kin, with the fur fide outwards, for the warmth
and comfort to attrad them ; afterwards they run
under the flannel ones, fimilar to the one I fent, which
are preferable for common ufe, on account of cleanli-
nefs, and not being liable to get into the mouths of the
* fra*/°/chickens*”
SZiety’ POUNCE, gum fandarach pounded and fifted very
fso7.°r fine> t0 rub on PaPer> 1X1 order t0 Preferve i1 fr°m fink"
ing, and to make it more fit to write upon.
Pounce, is alfo a little heap of charcoal duft, in-
clofed in a piece of muflin or fome other open fluff, to
be paffed over holes pricked in a work, in order to mark
the lines or defigns thereof on paper, filk, &c. placed
underneath •, which are to be afterwards fiuiftied with
a pen and ink, a needle, or the like. 1 his kind of
pounce is much ufed by embroiderers, to transfei their
patterns upon fluffs 5 by lace-makers, and fometimes al¬
fo by engravers.
Pounces, in falconry, the talons or claws of a bird
©F prey.
POUND, a ftandard-weight j.for the proportion and
fubdivifions of w’hich, fee the article W eight.
Pound alfo denotes a money of account •, fo called,
becaufe the ancient pound of filver weighed a pound
troy.
Pound, among lawyers, denotes a place of ftrength,
in which to keep cattle that are diftrained or put in for
trefpafs, until they are replevied or redeemed.
POUNDAGE, a fubfidy of I2d. in the pound,
granted to the crown on all goods and merchandifes
exported or imported } and if by aliens, one penny
more.
Pourprei.
ture
2 ] P O U
POURPRESTURE, in Law, is a wrongful inclo-
fure, or incroachment upon another perfon’s property.
POURSUIVANT, or Pursuivant, in Heraldry, pJffin
the low eft order of officers at arms.—They are proper- c.—.y
ly attendants on the heralds when they marflial public
ceremonies. Of thefe in England there were formerly
many 5 but at prefent there are only four, viz. blue-
mantle, rouge-crofs, rouge-dragon, and port-cullice. In
Scotland there is only one king at arms, who is ftyled
Lyon ; and has under him no lefs than fix heralds, as
many purfuivants, and a great many meffengers at arms.
See Lyon.
POURVEYANCE, or Purveyance, in Law, the
providing corn, fuel, victuals, &c. for the king’s houfe-
hold ; and hence the officer who did fo was termed
pourveyor. As feveral offences were committed by thefe
officers, it was enafted by flat. 12. Car. II. that no
perfon, under colour of pourveyance, ihall take any
timber, cattle, corn, &c. from any fubjeft without his
free confent, or without a juft appraifement and paying
for the fame.
POUSSIN, Nicholas, an eminent French painter,
born in 1594, at Andel, a little city in Normandy,
where his father was of noble extraftion, but born to a
fmall eftate. He was inftru&ed for a few months by
one Ferdinand Elle, a portrait-painter, and afterwards
fpent a month with L’Allemant; but finding thefe ar-
tifts not likely to improve him fuitably to his defires,
he firft ftudied the paintings of the beft mafterg, and
then haftened to finiffi a few pieces he was engaged in,
and travelled to Italy. Here he devoted almoft his
whole attention to the ftudy of antique ftatues and bas
reliefs ; which was probably the caufe of his want of
knowledge in, and tafte for, the art of colouring. Be¬
ing invited back to Paris by Louis XIII. who aflign-
ed him a penfion with lodgings in the I huilleries, he
painted for Prince Juftiniani an hiftorical pifture re-
prefentmg Herod’s cruelty j an admiiable compofition,
in which he gave fuch expreffion to every character, as
could not fail to ftrike the beholder with terror and
pity : he then laboured for feveral years on the cele¬
brated pi&ures of the feven facraments of the Romiffi
church. But none of Pouffin’s .defigns have been more
generally admired than that of the death of Germa-
nicus *, which would have gained him immortal honour
if he had never painted another pi&ure. He began the-
labours of Hercules in the gallery of the Louvre j but
the fa&ion of Vouet’s fchool railing at him and his
performances, put him fo out of humour with his o\tn
country, that he returned to Rome, where he died, in
1665/ He never went beyond eafel-pieces, for which
he had a perpetual demand ; and his method was to.fix
the price he expefted on the back of the canvas, which
was readily paid.
Poussin, Gafpar. This painter, whofe real name
was Dughet, was born at Paris in 1600 \ and was in¬
duced to travel to Rome, not only from a love to the
art of painting, but alfo to vifit his fitter, who was mar¬
ried to Nicholas Pouflin. Sandrart fays that Gafper was
employed at firft only to prepare the pallet, pencils, and
colours, for Nicholas j but by the precepts and. example
of that excellent matter, gradually rofe to the higheft re¬
putation, and is undoubtedly one of the beft landfcape-
painters that ever appeared. It is generally thought that
P o w
[ 253 ]
p R A
ouffin
il
owde.r.
no painter ever ftudied nature to better purpofe, or re-
prefented the efFedts of land-ftorms more happily, than
, Gafpar j all his trees fhovv a natural degree of agitation,
every leaf being in motion •, his fcenes are beautifully
chofen, as are the fites of his buildings. He defigned
human figures but very indifferently $ for which reaion
he frequently prevailed on Nicholas to paint them for
him ; and they were always introduced with the utmoft
propriety. While he continued at Rome he dropped his
own name, and affumed that of his brother-in-law and
benefactor, by which only he is now known. He died
in 1662.
POWDER, in Pharmacy, a dry medicine well bro¬
ken, either in a mortar by grinding or by fome chemi¬
cal operation.
Gun-POWDER See Gunpowder. See alfo Obfer-
vations on Gunpowder in the Irilh X ranfaCtions 1788,
p. 97. clafs Science, by Mr Napier.
POWDER-CheJls, certain fmall boxes charged with
powder and a quantity of old nails or fplinters of iron,
and faftened occafionally on the deck and fides of a
{hip, in order to be difcharged on an enemy who at¬
tempts to feize her by boarding. Thefe cafes are ufu-
ally from 12 to 18 inches in length, and about eight
or ten in breadth, having their outer or upper part ter¬
minating in an edge. They are nailed to feveral places
of the quarter-deck and bulk-head of the waift, having
a train of powder, which communicates with the inner
apartments of the fhip, fo as to be fired at pleai’ure to
annoy the enemy. They are particularly ufed in mer-
chant-lhips which are furnilhed with clofe quarters to
oppofe the boarders.
POWT>ER-Maga%ine, a bomb-proof arched building,
to contain powder in fortified places.
Powder for the Hair. The bell fort is (larch well
pounded and fifted, and generally prepared with fome
perfume.
James's POWDER. See JAMES'S Powder. In the
Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1791, S1?* there is
a paper by Dr Pearfon, containing experiments and ob-
fervations on James’s powder. Dr Pearion fays, it was
originally a patent medicine •, but it is well known that
it cannot be prepared by following the direClions of the
fpecification in the court of chancery. His obfervations
and experiments, therefore, he thinks, may explain the
nature and manner of preparing this medicine, and per¬
haps may extend the hiftory of antimony. I he refult
of the whole, in Dr Pearfon’s own words, is as follows :
1. James’s powder confills of phofphoric acid, lime,
and antimonial calx •, with a minute quantity of calx of
iron, which is confidered to be an accidental fubftance.
2. Either thefe three effential ingredients are united
with each other, forming a triple compound, or phofpho-
rated lime is combined with the antimonial calx, compo-
calx, and phofphorated lime in the fame proportion, and
poffeffing the fame kind of chemical properties as James’s
powder. *
POWDIKE, in the fens of Norfolk and Ely. By flat.
22 Hen VIII. c. 11. perverfely to cut down and deftroy
the powdike in the fens of Norfolk and Ely is felony.
See Black/ione's Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 243.
POWER, has been defined the faculty of doing or
fuffering any thing. Power, therefore, is two-fold, viz.
confidered as able to make, or able to receive, any
change ; the former whereof may be called aBive, and
the latter pajjive, power: but this diftinftion is impro¬
per. See Metaphysics, N° 116.
Power, in Mechanics, denotes any force, whether
of a man, a horfe, a fpring, the wind, water, &c. which,
being applied to a machine, tends to produce motion.
Power, in Law, fignifies in general a particular au¬
thority granted by any perfon to another to reprefent
him, or to aft in his Head.
POWERS, in Arithmetic and Algebra, are nothing
but the produfts arifing from the continual multiplica¬
tions of a number or quantity into itfelf. See Alge¬
bra and Arithmetic.
POX, French-Pox, or Lues Venerea. See Medi¬
cine, N° 350.
Small-Pox. See Inoculation, and Medicine,
N° 222—226.
POYNING’s LAW, an aft of parliament made in
Ireland under Henry VII. whereby all the flatutes of
force in England were made of force in Ireland ; which
before that time they were not.—Nor are any now in
force there made in England fince that time.
The law took its name from Sir Edward Poyning,
lord-lieutenant of that kingdom at the time of its ma¬
king. See Ireland, N° 46.
POZZOLANA. See Puzzolana.
PRACTICE, in Arithmetic. See there, N° 16.
&c..
Gun-PRACTICE, in military education. In the fpring,
as foon as the weather permits, the exercife of the great
guns begins, ivith an intention to fhow the gentlemen
cadets at the royal military academy at Woolwich, and
private men, the manner of laying, loading, pointing,
and firing the guns. Sometimes inftruments are ufed
to find the centre line, or tivo points, one at the breech,
the other at the muzzle, Avhich are marked with chalk,
and Avhereby the piece is direfted to the target: then
a quadrant is put into the mouth to 'give the gun the
required elevation, Avhich at firfl is gueffed at, accoid-
ing to the diflance the target is from the piece. .When
the piece has been fired, it is fponged to clear it from
any duff or fparks of fire that might remain in the
bore, and loaded: then the centre line is found as be¬
fore ; and if the (hot ivent too high or too loiv, to the
Powder
II
Pradtice.
rated lime is comDinea wiui me diiuuiumcii ,   „ u 1 , m
fing a double compound in the proportion of about 57 right or to the left, the elevation and trail ^re altered
parts of calx and 43 parts of phofphorated lime. 3. This accordingly. 1 his praftice continues morning a
antimonial calx is different from any other known calx
of antimony in feveral of its chemical qualities. About
three-fourths of it are foluble in marine acid, and afford
Algaroth poAvder, and the remainder is not foluble in
this menflruum, and is apparently vitrified. It alfo ap¬
pears, that by calcining together bone-afhes, that is,
phofphorated lime and antimony in a certain propor¬
tion, and aftenvards expofing the mixture to a white
keat, a compound was formed} confining of antimonial
evening for about fix Aveeks, more or lefs according as
there are a greater or lefs number of recruits. In the
mean time others are fhown the motions of quick-firing
with field-pieces. .
Mortar-PRACTICE, generally thus. A line of 1500
or 2000 yards is meafured in an open fpot of ground
from the place Avhere the mortars Hand, and a flag fix¬
ed at about 300 or 500 yards: this being done, the
ground where the naortars are to be placed is prepared
& and:
P R JE
Pra<ftic£, an(j levelled with fand
'Praemunire.
[ 25+ ]
P R JE
fo that they may lie at an ele¬
vation of 45 degrees j then they are loaded with a
fmall quantity of powder at firll, which is xncreafed
afterwards by an ounce every time, till they are load¬
ed with a full charge •, the times of the flights of the
Ihells are obferved, to determine the length of the fuzes.
The intention of this praftice is, when a mortar bat¬
tery is raifed in a fiege, to know what quantity of
powder is required to throw the fhells into the works
at a given diftance, and to cut the fuzes of a juft
length, that the fliell may burft as foon as it touches the
ground.
PRAEMUNIRE, in Law, is taken either for a writ
fo called, or for the offence whereon the writ is grant¬
ed •, the one may be underftood by the other.—The
church of Rome, under pretence of her fupremacy
and the dignity of St Peter’s chair, took on her to be¬
llow moft of the ecclefiaftical livings of any worth in
England, by mandates, before they were void ; pre¬
tending therein great care to fee the church provided
of a fucceffor before it needed. Whence thefe man¬
dates or bulls were called gratice expetlativoe, or provi-
Jiones ; whereof fee a learned dilcourfe in Duarenus de
beneJiciiS) lib. iii. cap. i. Thefe provifions w'ere fo
common, that at laft Edward I. not digefting fo intole¬
rable an encroachment, in the 35th year of his reign
made a ftatute againft papal provifions, which, according
to Sir Edward Coke, is the foundation of all the fubfe-
quent ftatutes of praemunire : which is ranked as an of¬
fence immediately againft the king, becaufe every en¬
couragement of the papal power is a diminution of the
authority of the crown.
In the weak reign of Edward II. the pope again
endeavoured to encroach, but the parliament manfully
withftood him ; and it was one of the articles charged
againft that unhappy prince, that he had given allow¬
ance to the bulls of the fee of Rome. But Edw. III.
was of a temper extremely different ; and, to remedy
thefe inconveniences, firft, by gentle means, he and his
nobility wrote an expoftulation to the pope t but re¬
ceiving a menacing and contemptuous anfwer, withal
acquainting him, that the emperor (who a few years
before at the diet of Nuremberg, A. D. 1323, had
eftablilhed a law againft provifions), and alfo the king
of France, had lately fubmitted to the holy fee j the
king replied, that if both the emperor and the French
king ftiould take the pope’s part, he was ready to give
battle to them both, in defence of the libertiss of the
crown. Hereupon more (harp and penal laws were
devifed againft provifors, which ena£f feverally, that
the court of Rome (hall prefent or collate to no bilhop-
ric or living in England ; and that whoever difturbs
any patron in the prefentation to a living by virtue of
a papal provifion, fuch provifor {hall pay fine and ran-
fom to the king at his will, and be imprifoned till he
renounces fuch provifion •, and the fame puniftiment is
infii&ed on fuch as cite the king, or any of his fub-
jefts, to anfwer in the court of Rome. And when the
holy fee refented thefe proceedings, and Pope Urban V.
attempted to revive the vaffalage and annualrent to
which King John had fubje&ed his kingdom, it was
unaniraoufly agreed by all the eftates of the realm in
parliament affembled, 40 Edw. III. that King John’s
donation was null and void, being without the concur¬
rence of parliament, and contrary to his coronation-oath $
and all the temporal nobility and commons engaged, Prsemun,
that if the pope fhould endeavour by procefs or other-
wife to maintain thefe ufurpations, they would refill and
withftand him with all their power.
In the reign of Richard II. it was found neceffary
to ftiarpen and ftrengthen thefe laws, and therefore it
was enabled by ftatutes 3 Ric. II. c. 3. and 7 Ric. II.
c. 12. firft, that no alien Ihall be capable of letting his
benefice to-farm •, in order to compel fuch as had crept
in, at lead to refide on their preferments : and after¬
wards, that no alien fhould be capable to be prefented
to any ecclefiaftical preferment, under the penalty of
the ftatutes of provifors. By the ftatute 12 Ric. II.
c. 15. all liegemen of the king accepting of a living by
any foreign provifion, are put out of the king’s protec¬
tion, and the benefice made void. To which the fta¬
tute 13 Ric. II. ft. 2. c. 2. adds banifliment and forfei¬
ture of lands and goods : and by c. 3. of the fame fta¬
tute, any perfon bringing over any citation or excom¬
munication from beyond fea, on account of the execu¬
tion of the foregoing ftatutes of provifors, ftiall be im¬
prifoned ; forfeit his goods and lands, and moreover fuf-
fer pain of life and member.
In the writ for the execution of all thefe ftatutes, the
words prccmwiire facias being ufed to command a
citation of the party, have denominated in common
fpeech, not only the writ, but the offence itfelf of main¬
taining the papal power, by the name of preemunire.
And, accordingly, the next ftatute we fliall mention,
which is generally referred to by all fubfequent ftatutes,
is ufually called the Jlatute of preemunire. It is the fta¬
tute 16 Richard II. c. 5. which enafts, that whoever
procures at Rome, or elfewhere, any tranllations, pro-
ceffes, excommunications, bulls, inftruments, or other
things which touch the king, againft him, his crown,
and realm, and all perfons aiding and aflifting therein-,
{hall be put out of the king’s proteflion, their lands and
goods forfeited to the king’s ufe, and they {hall be at¬
tached by their bodies to anfwer to the king and his
council j or procefs of preemunire facias {hall be made
out againft them as in other cafes of provifors.
By the ftatute 2 Henry IV. c. 3- all perfons who ac»
cept any provifion from the pope, to be exempt from
canonical obedience to their proper ordinary, are alfo
fubjefted to the penalties of praemunire. And this is
the laft of our ancient ftatutes touching this offence j
the ufurped civil power of the bilhop of Rome being
pretty well broken down by thefe ftatutes, as his ufurp¬
ed religious power was in about a century afterwards:
the fpirit of the nation being fo much raifed againft
foreigners, that about this time, in the reign of Hen. V,
the alien priories, or abbeys for foreign monks, were fup-
preffed, and their lands given to the crown. And no
farther attempts were afterwards made in fupport of thefe
foreign jurifdiftions. .
This, then, is the original meaning of the offence
which we call preemunire; viz. introducing a foreign
power into this land, and creating imperium in imperio,
by paying that obedience to papal procefs which con-
ftitutionally belonged to the king alone, long before
the Reformation in the reign of Henry VIII. at which
time the penalties of praemunire wrere indeed extended
to more papal abufes than before 5 as the kingdom then
entirely renounced the authority of the fee of Rome,
though not at all the corrupted doctrines of the Roman
church.
P R /E [ 255 ] P R
.•munire. church. And therefore, by the feveml ftatutes of 24
Hen. VIII. c. 12. and 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. & 21. to
appeal to Rome from any of the king’s courts, which
(though illegal before) had at times been connived at;
to fue to Rome for any licence or difpenfation, or to
obey any procefs from thence, are made liable to the
ains of praemunire. And, in order to redore to the
ing in effedt the nomination of vacant bilhoprics, and
yet keep up the eftablifhed forms, it is enadled by lla-
tute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20. that if the dean and chapter
refufe to eledt the perfon named by the king, or any
archbifhop or bilhop to confirm or confecrate him, they
{hall fall within the penalties of the ftatutes of praemu¬
nire. Alfo by ftatute 5 Eliz. c. 1. to refufe the oath
of fupremacy will incur the pains of praemunire j and to
defend the pope’s jurifdidlion in this realm, is a praemu¬
nire for the firft offence, and high treafon for the fe-
cond. So, too, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 2. to import any
agnus Dei, croffes, beads, or other fuperftitious things
pretended to be hallowed by the bifhop of Rome, and
tender the fame to be ufed ; or to receive the fame
with fuch intent, and not difeover the offender j or if a
juftice of the peace, knowing thereof, fhall not within
14 days declare it to a privy-counfellor, they all incur a
praemunire. But importing or felling mafs-books, or
other Popifh books, is by flat. 3 Jac. I. c. 5. § 29. only
liable to a penalty of 40s. Laftly, to contribute to the
maintenance of a Jefuit’s college, or any Popifh femina-
ry whatever beyond fea, or any perfon in the fame, or
to contribute to the maintenance of any Jefuit or Popifh
prieft in England, is by ftatute 37 Eliz. c. 2. made lia¬
ble to the penalties of praemunire.
Thus far the penalties of praemunire feem to have
kept within the proper bounds of their original inftitu-
tion, the deprefling the power of the pope : but they
being pains of no confiderable confequence, it has been
thought fit to apply the fame to other heinous offences;
fotne of which bear more, and fome lefs, relation to this
original offence, and fome no relation at all.
Thus, 1. By the ftatute I and 2 Ph. and Mar. c. 8. to
moleft the poffeffors of abbey-lands granted by parlia¬
ment to Henry VIII. and Edward VI. is a praemunire.
2. So likewife is the offence of a£Hng as a broker or
agent in any ufurious contract where above 10 per cent,
intereft is taken, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 10. 3. To ob¬
tain any flay of proceedings, other than by arreft of
judgment or writ of error, in any fuit for a monopoly,
is likewife a praemunire, by flat. 21 Jac. I. c. 3. 4. To
obtain an exclufive patent for the foie making or impor¬
tation «f gunpowder or arms, or to hinder others from
importing them, is alfo a praemunire by two ftatutes ;
the one 16 Car. I. c. 21. the other 1 Jac. II. c. 8.
5. On the abolition, by flat. 12 Car. II. c. 24. of pur¬
veyance, and the prerogative of pre-emption, or taking
any vi&ual, beafts, or goods for the king’s ufe, at a
ftated price, without confent of the proprietor, the ex¬
ertion of any fuch power for the future was declared to
incur the penalties of praemunire. 6. To affert, mali-
eioufly and advifedly, by fpeaking or writing, that both
or either houfe of parliament have a legiflative authority
without the king, is declared a praemunire by ftatute 13
Car. II. c. 1. 7. By the habeas corpus aft alfo, 31
Car. II. c. 2. it is a praemunire, and incapable of the
king’s pardon, befides other heavy penalties, to fend any
&ibje& of this realm a prifoner into parts beyond the
2
feas. 8. By the ftatute 1 W. &. M. ft. l.c. 8. perfons Praemunire,
of 18 years of age refufing to take the new oaths of al- 1
legiance as well as fupremacy, upon tender by the pro¬
per magiftrate, are fubjedl: to the penalties of a praemu¬
nire 5 and by ftatutes 7 & 8 W. III. c. 24. ferjeants,
eounfellors, prodlors, attorneys, and all officers of courts,
praCtifing without having taken the oaths of allegiance
and fupremacy, and fubferibed the declaration againft
popery, are guilty of a praemunire whether the oaths be
tendered or not. 9. By the ftatute 6 Ann. c. 7. to af¬
fert malicioufly and direftly, by preaching, teaching, or
advifed fpeaking, that the then pretended prince of
Wales, or any perfon other than according to the afts
of fettlement and union, hath any right to the throne
of thefe kingdoms, or that the king and parliament can¬
not make laws to limit the defeent of the crown; fuch
preaching, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, is a praemu¬
nire: as writing, printing, or publiftiing the fame doc¬
trines amounted, we may remember, to high treafon.
10. By ftatute 6 Ann. c. 23. if the aflembly of peers of
Scotland, convened to ele<R their 16 reprefentatives in
the Britilh parliament, {hall prefume to treat of any other
matter fave only the eleftion, they incur the penalties
of a praenaunire. n.The flat. 6 Geo. I. c. 18. (enabl¬
ed in the year after the infamous South Sea projedl
had beggared half the nation) makes all unwarrant¬
able undertakings by unlawful fubferiptions, then com¬
monly known by the name of bubbles, fubjedt to the
penalties of a praemunire. 12. The flat. 12 Geo. III.
c. 11. fubjedls to the penalties of the ftatute of praemu¬
nire all fuch as knowingly and wilfully folemnize, aftift,
or are prefent at, any forbidden marriage of fuch of the
defeendants of the body of King Geo. II. as are by that
adl prohibited to contraft matrimony without the confent-
of the crown.
Having thus inquired into the nature and feveral fpe-
cies of praemunire, its puniftiment may be gathered from
the foregoing ftatutes, which are thus fhortly fummed
up by Sir Edward Coke: “ That, from the convidlion,
the defendant (hall be out of the king’s protection, and
his lands and tenements, goods and chattels, forfeited to
the king-, and that his body {hall remain in prifon at
the king’s pleafure, or (as other authorities have it). *
during life-, both which amount to the fame thing, as
the king by his prerogative may at any time remit the
whole, or any part of the puniftiment, except in the cafe
of trangrefling the ftatute of habeas corpus. Thefe for¬
feitures here inflidled do not (by the way) bring this
offence within our former definition of Felony ; being
inflidfed by particular ftatutes, and not by the common
law.” But fo odious, Sir Edward Coke adds, ivasthis
offence of praemunire, that a man that was attainted of
the fame, might have been flain by any other man with¬
out danger of law becaufe it was provided by law,
that any man might do to him as to the king’s enemy ;
and any man may lawfully kill an enemy. However,
the pofition itfelf, that it is at any time lawful to kill
an enemy, is by no means tenable: it is only lawful, by
the law of nature and nations, to kill him in the heat
of battle, or for neceffary felf-defence. And to obviate
fueh favage and miftaken notions, the ftatute 5 Eliz.
c. 1. provides, that it fliall not be lawful to kill any,
perfon attainted in a praemunire, any law, ftatute, opi¬
nion, or expofition of law to the contrary notwithftand-
ing. But ftill fuch delinquent, though protected as a
part
P R A
[ 256 ]
P R A
Prague.
Praemunire p'art of tlie public from public wrongs, can bring no
a£Hon for any private injury, how atrocious foever-, be¬
ing fo far out of the protection of the law, that it will
not guard his civil rights, nor remedy any grievance
which he as an individual may fuffer. And no man,
knowing him to be guilty, can with fafel,y give him
comfort, aid, or relief.
PRA^NESTE, in Ancient Ggography, a town of La-
tium, to the fouth-eaft of Rome, towards the territory
of the iEqui ; a place of great ftrength. Famous for
the temple and oracle of Fortune, called Sortes Preencf-
tince (Strabo) •, which Tiberius wanted to deftroy, but
was deterred by the awful majefty of the place, brom
a colony it was raifed to a municipium by Tiberius (In-
fcriptions, Florus, A. Gellius), on the confideration of
his recovery from a dangerous illnefs near this place.
Thither the Roman emperors ufuallj retired, on account
of the agreeablenefs of the lituation (Suetonius). It
was a very ancient city, with a territory of large extent
(Livy). The temple of Fortune was built in the me,ft
fumptuous manner by Sylla, and the pavement was mo-
faic work (Pliny). Concerning the Sortes, there is a
remarkable paffage in Cicero; who fays, that it was all
a mere contrivance, in order to deceive, either for the
purpofes of gain or fuperftition. The town that has
fucceeded it ftands low in a valley, and is called Palef-
trina, in the Campania of Rome. E. Long. 13. 30. N.
Lat. 42. O.
PRESIDIUM (Notitia), a town of the Cornavu in
Britain. Now thought to be Warwick (Camden).—
Another of Corfica (Antonine), 30 miles to the fouth
of Aleria.—A third Prafidium furnamed Julium, in
Baetica (Pliny).
PRATE OR IA augusTa (Ptolemy), a town of Da¬
cia. Now called BraJJbw by the natives, and Cronjlat
by the Germans (Baudrand) : a town in Tranfylvania.
E. Long. 250. N. Lat. 470.—Another of the Salaflii,
near the two gates are detiles of the Alps, the Grajae and
Penninse (Pliny) j a Roman colony fettled by Auguf-
tus after the defeat of the Salaffii by Terentius Varro,
on the fpot where he encamped (Strabo, Dio Caflius,
Ptolemy), fituated on the river Duria Major. The
town is now called Aojla or Anujl^ in Piedmont. E.
Long. 7. 14. N. Lat. 45. 19.
PRATTORIUM (Antonine, Notitia Imperii), a
town of the Brigantes. Now Paterington (Camden),
near the mouth of the Humber in Yorkthire. Coventry
(Talbot).
PRAGMATIC SANCTION, in the civil law, is de¬
fined by Hottoman to be a refeript or anfwer of the
fovereign, delivered by advice of his council, to fome
college, order, or body of people, upon confulting him
on fome cafe of their community. The like anfwer given
to any particular perfon is called fimply refeript.
The term pragmatic favElion is chiefly applied to a
fettlement of Charles VI. emperor of Germany, who,
in the year 1722, having no fons, fettled his hereditary
dominions on his eldeft daughter the archduchefs Maria
Therefa, which was confirmed by the diet of the em¬
pire, and guaranteed by Great Britain, France, the
States-General, and moft of the powers in Europe. The
word pragmatic is derived from the Greek Voynet, ne-
gotium, “ bufinefs.”—It is fometimes alfo called abfo-
lutely pragmatic, -co Tr^ayuxlaccv.
PRAGUE, a city of Bohemia, and capital of the
whole kingdom, is fituated in 140 40' of longitude, and
50° f of latitude. It ixands on both tides the Moldau,
Practi*.
bridge 700 feet long, built of
over which there is a o (
large freeftone. The river, though of great breadth
here, is neverthelefs (hallow, and not navigable. On
both fides of the bridge are feveral ftatues, and among
others that of St John of Nepomuck, whom KingWen-
fel caufed to be thrown from the bridge into the river,
for venturing to reprove him upon fome occafion ; but
in 1720, he was canonized as a faint, and is at prefent
held in fu4h veneration in Bohemia, that all other faints
feem on his account to be forgotten. Near the bridge,
which ftands at the upper part of the city, the number
of people is very great, but the farther you go from
thence the more defolate you find every place. The
city is about three miles long and two broad; the num¬
ber of its Chriftian inhabitants is faid to be 70,000,
and of Jews about 12,000. The principal branch of
its trade confifts in brewing beer. It is divided into
the Old and the New Towns, and that called the Sma//
Jide; the former lying on the eaft fide of the Moldau,
and the latter on the weft. The whole is about 12
miles in circumference. The fortifications are not of
great importance, as it may be flanked and raked on
all fides. However, the king of Pruflia was not able
to make himfelf matter of it in the late war, though
he almoft deftroyed it with his bombs, &c. See
Prussia, N° 24, &c.—It has fuffered greatly by
fteges, and has been often taken and plundered. The
univerfity was founded by Charles IV. in the year 1347.
In 1409, when John Hufs was reflor of the univerfity,
there were no lefs than 44,000 ftudents; and when the
emperor Charles V. would have retrenched their privi¬
leges, 24,000 are faid to have left it in one week, and
16,000 in a fliort time after. The Jews have the
trade of this city almoft entirely in their own hands.
They deal in all forts of commodities, efpecially the pre¬
cious ftones found in the Bohemian mines, and, by re¬
ceiving all old-faftiioned things in payment, quite ruin
the Chriftian handicraftfmen. In 1744, they narrowly
efcaped being expelled the kingdom, having been fuf-
pefted of correfponding with the Pruflians, when they
made themfelves matters of the city. The grand prior
of the order of Malta, for Bohemia, Moravia, and Sile-
fia, refides here 5 and the church and hofpital of the
Holy Ghoft is the feat of the general and grand matters
of the holy order of knights of the crofs with the red
ftar, refiding in the above-mentioned countries, and in
Poland and Hungary. The houfes of this city are all
built of ftone, and generally confift of three ftories;
but there are very few good buildings in it, and almoft
every thing looks dirty. The cathedral, which is de¬
dicated to St Veit, is an old building, in which there
are fome pieces of excellent archite&ure and many mag¬
nificent tombs of great men. There are 100 churches
and chapels, and about 40 cloifters in the place. On
Ratfchin-bill, in Upper Prague, moft of the nobility
have houfes, and the emperor a very magnificent palace,
and a fummer houfe commanding one of the fineft pro-
fpe&s in the world. Here the tribunals of the regency
meet) and the halls, galleries, and other apartments,
are adorned with a multitude of noble pi&ures. The
great hall, where the coronation feaft is kept, is faid to
be the largeft of the kind in Europe next to that of
Weftminfter. The caftle ftands on the above-mention¬
ed
P R A [ 257 ] P R A
iprague ed mountain, called Ratfchin or the While Mountain,
II and is very Itrong. From a window of this cattle the
rratique. emperor’s counl'eilors were thrown in 16185 but though
they fell from a great height, yet they were not killed,
nor indeed much hurt. On the fame mountain hands
alfo the archiepifcopal palace. In the New Town Is an
arfenal, and a religious foundation for ladies, called the
Tree Temporal Eng/ijh Foundation, over which an abbefs
prefides. In the Lefler Side or Town, the counts Col-
loredo and Wallenftein have very magnificent palaces
and gardens. The ttables of the latter are very grand ;
the racks being of Iteel and the mangers of marble, and
a marble pillar betwixt each horfej over each horfe alfo
is placed his picture as big as life. Though the inha¬
bitants of Prague in general are poor, and their {hops
but meanly furni(lied, yet, it is faid, there are few cities
where the nobility and gentry are more wealthy, and
live in greater ftate. Here is much gaming, mafquera-
ding, feafting, and very fplendid public balls, with an
Italian opera, and aflemblies in the houfes of the quality
every night. On the White Mountain, near the towm,
was fought the battle in which the Proteftants, with
the elector Palatine Frederic their king, rvere defeated.
The luftres and drinking-glafles made here of Bohe¬
mian cryftal age much efteemed, and vended all over
Europe. Thefe cryftals are alfo polilhed by the Jews,
and fet in rings, ear-pendants, and (hirt-buttons. The
chief tribunal confifts of twelve ftadtholders, at the head
of whom is the great burgrave, governor of the kingdom
and city, immediately under the empCror, and the chan¬
cery of Bohemia. Though the city of Prague is very
ill built, it is pleafantly fituated, and lome of the pro-
fpedls are beautiful, and the gardens and pleafure-houfes
are excellent. The people, Riefbeck informs us, enjoy
fenfual pleafures more than thofe of Vienna, becaufe
they know better how to connect mental enjoyments
with them. The numerous garrifon kept in the place
(9000 men) contributes much to its gaiety and live-
linefs.
PRAM, or PRAME, a kind of lighter ufed in Hol¬
land and the ports of the Baltic fea, to carry the cargo
of a merchant (hip along Jide, in order to lade or to
bring it to fhore to be lodged in the ftorehoufes after
being difcbarged out of the veffel.
Frame, in military affairs, a kind of floating battery,
being a flat-bottomed veffel, which draws little water,
mounts feveral guns, and is very ufeful in covering the
difembarkation of troops. They are generally made
ufe of in tranfporting troops over the lakes in Ame¬
rica.
PRASIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
dynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 42d order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index.
PRATINAS, a Greek poet contemporary with i£f-
ehylus, born at Phlius. He was the firft among the
Greeks who corapofed fatires, which were reprefented
as farces. Of thefe 32 were adted, as alfo 18 of his
tragedies, one of which only obtained the poetical
prize. Some of his verfes are extant, quoted by Athe-
naeus.
PRATIQUE, or Prattic, in commerce, a nego-
ciation or communication of commerce which a mer¬
chant veffel obtains in the port it arrives in and the coun¬
tries it difcovers: hence ta obtain a pratique, is to ob-
Vol. XVII. Part I,
tain liberty to frequent a port, to go afliore, to buy and
fell, &.c.
PRATT, Charles, earl of Camden, was the third
fon of Sir John Pratt, knight, chief-juftice of the court
of king’s-bench under George I. by his fecond wife
Elizabeth, daughter of the Reverend Hugh Wilfon ca¬
non of Bangor, and was born in 1713, the year before
his father was called to the honour of the bench. He
received the firft rudiments of his education at Eton,
and afterwards removed to King’s college Cambridge.
Of his early life at both places there is little known,
other than that at college he was found to be remarkably
diligent and ftudious, and particularly fo in the hiltory
and conflitution of this country. By feme he was
thought to be a little too tenacious of the rights and pri¬
vileges of the college he belonged to ; but perhaps it was
to this early tendency that we are indebted for thofe
noble druggies in defence of liberty, which, whether in
or out of office, he difplayed through the whole courfe
of his political life. After remaining the ufual time at
college, and taking his mader’s degree, in 1739 he en¬
tered himfelf a dudent of the Inner Temple, and was in
due time admitted by the honourable fociety as a barri-
der at law. And here a circumdance developes itfelf
in the hidory of this great man, which fhows how much
chance governs in the affairs of this world, and that the
mod confiderable talent and indifputable integrity will
fometimes require the introduction of this midrefs of th©
ceremonies, in order to obtain that which they ought to
poffefs from their own intrinfic qualifications.
Mr Pratt, after his being called to the bar, notwith-
danding his family introduction, and his own perfonal
character, was very near nine years in the profeffion,
without ever getting in any degree forward. Whether
this arofe from a natural timidity of conditution, ill-
luck, or perhaps a mixture of defpondence growing out
of the two circumdances, it is now difficult to tell j but
the faCt was fo 5 and be was fo difpirited by it, that he
had fome thoughts of relinquiflfing the profeffion of the
law, and retiring to his college, where, in rotation, he
might be fure of a church living, that yvoufd give him
a fmall but honourable independence. With thefe me¬
lancholy ideas he went as ufual the weftern circuit, to
make one more experiment, and then to take his final
determination. Mr Henley, afterwards Lord North-
ington and chancellor of England, was in the fame cir¬
cuit : he was Mr Pratt’s mod intimate friend 5 and he
now availed himfelf of that friendffiip, and told him his
fituation, and his intentions of retiring to the univerfity
and going into the church. He oppofed his intention
with drong raillery, and got him engaged in a caufe
along with himfelf; and Mr Henley being ill, Mr
Pratt took the lead, and difplayed a profeffional know¬
ledge and elocution that excited the admiration of his
brother barriders as much as that of the whole court.
He gained his caufe; and befides, he acquired the repu¬
tation of an eloquent, profound, and conditutional law¬
yer. It was this circumdance, together with the con¬
tinued good offices of his friend Henley, which led to
his future greatnefs; for with all his abilities and all his
knowledge, he might other wife in all probability have
paffed his life in obfcurity, unnoticed and unknown.
He became now one of the mod fuccefsful pleaders at
the bar, and honours and emoluments flowed thick upon
K k him.
Pratique,
Fratt.
Pratt.
P R A [2
him. He was chofen to repreft nt the borough of Down-
' ton, Wilts, after the general eledion in 1759 j recorder
of Bath T 7 99 ; and the fame year was appointed attor-
ney-general ■, in January 1762 he was called to the de-
o-ree^of ferjeant at law, appointed chief-jullice of the
common pleas, and knighted. His lorddiip prefided
in that court with a dignity, weight, and impartiality,
never exceeded by any of his predeceflbrs; and when
John Wilkes, Efq. was feized and committed to the
Tower on an illegal general warrant, his lordihip, with
the intrepidity of a Britifh magiftrate, and the becoming
fortitude of an Englilhman, granted him an habeas cor¬
pus ; and on his being brought before the court of com¬
mon pleas, difeharged him from his confinement^ in the
Tower, May 6. 1763, in a fpeech whieh did him ho¬
nour. His wife and fpirited behaviour on this remark¬
able occafion, fo interefting to every true-born Briton,
and in the confequent judicial proceedings between the
printers of The North Briton and the meffengers and
others, was fo acceptable to the nation, that the city of
London prefented him with the freedom of their corpo¬
ration in a gold box, and defired his picture, "which was
put up in Guildhall, with this infcription :
Pratt
HANG ICONEM
CAROLI PRATT, E£U
SUM MI JUDICIS, C. B.
IN HONOREM TANTI VIRI,
ANGLICiE EIBERTATIS LEGE
ASSERTORIS,
S. P. Q. L.
IN CURIA MUNICIPALI
PON I JVSSERVNT
NONO KAL. MART. A. D. MDCCLXIV.
GULIELMO BRIDGEN, AR. PR^. VRB..
58 ] P R A
dared himfelf againft it, and ftrongly oppofing it, was
removed from his ftation in 1770. pi ■■
Upon the fall of Lord North he was again taken in-
to the adminiftration, and on the 27th of March 1782
appointed prefident of the council *, an office which he
refigned in March 17^3* ^ie 13^ May 1786, he
was created Vifcount Bayham of Bayham Abbey, Kent,
and Earl Camden.
Whether we confider Earl Camden as 2l Jfatefman,
called to that high fituation by his talents 5 as a lawyer,
defending, fupporting, and enlarging the conftitution ‘r
or as a man, fuftaining both by his firmnefs and unffia-
ken integrity—in all he excites our general praile 5 and
when we contemplate his high and exalted virtue, we
mull allow him to have been an honour to his country.
He died on the 18th of April 1794 at his houfe in Hill-
ftreet, Berkeley-fquare, being at that time prefident of
his majefty’s moft honourable privy-council, a governor
of the charter-houfe, recorder of the city of Bath, and
F. R. S. .
He married Elizabeth, daughter and coheir of Ni¬
cholas Jefferys, Efq. fon and heir of Sir Jeffery Jefferys
of Brecknock Priory, knight, who died in December
1779, and by whom he had iffue John Jefferys Pratt
(now Lord Camden), born 1759, and feveral daughters.
His feat at Camden Place, Chifelhurft, was the refidence
of the great William Camden ; on whofe death it came
by feveral intermediate ovvners to Wefton, Spencer, and
Pratt, and wras much improved by his lordfhip.
PRAX AGORAS, a native of Athens, at 19 years of
age compofed the Hiftory of the Kings of Athens, in
two books } and at 22 the Life of Conftantine the Great,
in which, though a pagan, he fpeaks very advantageoufly
of that prince. He alfo wrote the Hiftory of Alexander
flip rtrPQf He lived under Conftantius, about the
This portrait, painted by Reynolds, was engraved by
Bafire. The corporations of Dublin, Bath, Exeter, and
Norwich, paid him the like compliment ; and in a pe¬
tition, entered in the journals of the city of Dublin, it
was declared, that no man appeared to have acquitted
himfelf in his high ftation with fuch becoming zeal for
the honour and dignity of the crown, and the fulfilling
his majefty’s moft gracious intentions for preserving the
freedom and happinefs of his fubjefts, and fuch invincible
fortitude in adminiftering juftice and law, as the Right
Honourable Sir Charles Pratt, knight, the prefent lord-
chief-juftice of his majefty’s court of common pleas in
England, has ffiown in fome late judicial determinations,
which muftbe remembered to his lordffiip’s honour while
and wherever Bntiffi liberties are held facred.
Huffier honours, however, than the breath of popu¬
lar applaufe awaited Sir Charles Pratt. On the 16th
of July 1765 he was created a peer of Great Britain,
by the ftyle and title of Lord Camden, Baron Camden,
In the county of Kent-, and, July 30. 1766, on the re-
fignation of Robert earl of Northington,. he was ap¬
pointed lord high-chancellor of Great Britain 5 in which
capacity he, in a fpeech of two hours, declared, upon
the firft decifion of the fuit againft the meffengers who
arrefted Mr Wilkes, that “ it was the unanimous opi¬
nion of the whole court, that general warrants, except
in cafes of high treafon, were illegal, oppreffive, and un¬
warrantable. He conducted himfelf in this high office
fo as to obtain the love and efteem of all parties j but
when the taxation of America was in agitation, he de-
0 • *
PRAXITELES, a very famous Greek fculptor,
who lived 330 years before Chrift, at the time of the
reign of Alexander the Great. All the ancient writers
mention his ftatues with a high commendation, efpe-
cially a Venus executed by him for the city of Cnidos,
which was fo admirable a piece, that King Nicomedes
offered to releafe the inhabitants from their tribute 25,
the purchafe of it } but they refufed to part with it.
The inhabitants of the ille of Cos requefted of Praxi¬
teles a ftatue of Venus ; and in confequence of this ap¬
plication the artift gave them their choice of two •, one
of which reprefented the goddefs entirely naked, and
the other covered with drapery. Both of thefe "were
of exquifite worktnanfliip. Although the former was
efteemed the moft beautiful, neverthelefs the inhabitants
of Cos had the wifdom to give the preference to the
latter, from a conviftion that no motive whatever could
juftify their introducing into their city any indecent
ftatues or paintings, which are fo likely to inflame the
paffions of young people, and lead them to immorality
and vice. What a reproach will this be to many
Chriftians !—He was one of the gallants of Phryne the
celebrated courtefan.
PRAYER, a folemn addrefs to God, which, when it
is of any confiderable length, confifts of adoration, con-
fejjion,/application, intercejjion, and thankfgiving.^
By adoration we exprefs our fenfe of God’s infinite
perfections, his power, wifdom, goodnefs, and mercy j
and acknowledge that our conflant dependence is upon
Hun
P II A [ 259 ] p R A
Prayer. Him by ivbom the univerfe was created and has been
' hitherto preierved. By confejjlon is meant our acknow¬
ledgment of our manifold tranfgreflions of the divine
laws, and our confequent unworthinefs of all the good
things which we enjoy at prefent or expert to be con¬
ferred upon us hereafter. In fupplication we intreat our
omnipotent Creator and merciful Judge, not to deal
with us after our iniquities, but to pardon our tranf-
gredions, and by his grace to enable us to live hence¬
forth righteoufly, foberly, and godly, in this prefent
World 5 and by Chriftians this intreaty is always made
in the name and through the mediation of Jefus Chrift,
becaufe to them it is known that there is none other
name under heaven given unto men whereby they may
bh faved. To thefe fupplications for mercy we may
likewife add our prayers for the neceflaries of life j
becaufe if we feekyfrj/? the kingdom of God, and his
righteoufnefs, we are allured that fuch things fhall be
added unto us. bitercejjion dignifies thofe petitions which
we offer up for others, for friends, for enemies, for all
men, efpecially for our lawful governors, whether fu-
preme or fubordinate. And thankfgivitig is the expref-
fion of our gratitude to God, the giver of every good
and pei'feft gift, for all the benefits enjoyed by us and
others, for the means of grace, and for the hope of glo¬
ry. Such are the component parts of a regular and fo-
lemn prayer, adapted either for the church or for the
clofet. But an ejaculation to God, conceived on any
emergency, is likewife a prayer, whether it be uttered
by the voice or fuffered to remain a mere affeflion of
the mind 5 becaufe the being to whom it is addreffed
difcerneth the thoughts of the heart.
That prayer is a duty which all men ought to per¬
form with humility and reverence, has been generally
acknowledged as w'ell by the untaught barbarian as by
the enlightened Chriftian ; and yet to this duty objec¬
tions have been made by which the underftanding has
been bewildered in fophiftry and affronted with jargon.
“ If God be independent, omnipotent, and pofftffed of
every other perfection, what pleafure, it has been alked,
can he take in our acknowledgment of thefe perfec¬
tions ? If he knows all things pall, prefent, and future,
where is the propriety of our confeffing our fins unto
him ? If he is a benevolent and merciful Being, he will
pardon our fins, and grant us what is needful for us
without our fupplications and intreaties j and if he be
likewife poffeffed of infinite wifdom, it is certain that
no importunities of ours will prevail upon him to grant
us what is improper, or for our fakes to change the
equal and fteady laws by which the world is governed.
“ Shall burning iEtna, if a fage requires,
“ Forget to thunder, and recal her fires ?
“ On air or fea new motions be impreft,
“ Oh blamelefs Bethel ! to relieve thy breaft ?
“ When the loofe mountain trembles from on high,
“ Shall gravitation ceafe, if you go by ?
“ Or fome old temple, nodding to its fall,
“ For Chartres’ head referve the hanging wall * ?”
Such are the moft plaufible objeftions which are
ufually made to the praftice of prayer j and though
they have been fet off with all the art of the metaphy-
fical wrangler, and embellifhed with all the graces of
the poetry of Pope, they appear to us fuch grofs fo-
phifms as can operate only on a very unthinking head.
or on a very corrupt heart. For if God certainly ex-
ifts, and there is not a mathematical theorem capable of
more rigid demonftration, it is obvious that no man can
think of fuch a being without having his mind ftrongly
impreffed with the conviClion of his own conllant de¬
pendence upon him ; nor can he “ contemplate the hea¬
vens, the work of God’s hands, the moon and the liars
which he has ordained,” without forming the molt fub-
lime conceptions that he can of the Divine power, wif¬
dom, and goodnefs, &c. But fuch convidtion, and fucli
conceptions, whether clothed in words or not, are to all
intents and purpofes what is meant by adoration •, and
are as well known to the Deity while they remain the
filent affedtions of the heart, as after they are fpoken in
the beginning of a prayer. Our adoration, therefore,
is not expreffed for the purpofe of giving information to
God, who underftandeth our thoughts afar off; but
merely, when the prayer is private, becaufe we cannot
think any more than fpeak without words, and becaufe
the very found of words that are well chofen affedts the
- heart, and helps to fix our attention : and as the Being
who fees at once the pall, prefent, and to come, and to
whom a thoufand years are but as one day, Hands not
in need of our information ; fo neither was it ever fup-
pofed by a man of rational piety, that he takes pleafure
on his oxm account in hearing his perfedtions enumerated
by creatures of yelterday 5 for being independent, he
has no paffions to be gratified, and being felf-fufficient,
he was as happy when exifting alone as at that moment
“ when the morning liars fang together, and all the fons
of God lliouted for joy.” Adoration is therefore pro¬
per only as it tends to preferve in our minds juft notions
of the Creator and Governor of the wmrld, and of our
own conftant dependence upon him j and if fuch no¬
tions be ufeful to ourfelves, who have a part to adl in
the fcale of exiftence, upon which our happinefs de¬
pends (a propofition which no theift will controvert),
adoration mull be acceptable to that benevolent God,
who, when creating the world, could have no other end
in view than to propagate happinefs. See Metaphy¬
sics, N° 31 2.
By the fame mode of reafoning, it will be eafy to Ihow
the duty of confiffion and fupplication. We are not re¬
quired to confefs our fins unto God, becaufe he is igno¬
rant of them ; for he is ignorant of nothing. If he
wrere, no reafon could be aftigned for our divulging to
our judge actions deferving of punilhment. Neither
are we required to cry for mercy, in order to move him
in whom there is no variablenefs, neither lhadow of turn¬
ing. The Being that made the world, governs it by
laws that are inflexible, becaufe they are the bell 5 and
to fuppofe that he can be induced by prayers, oblations,
or facrifices, to vary his plan of government, is an im¬
pious thought, which degrades the Deity to a level with
man. One of thefe inflexible laws is the connettion
eftablilhed between certain difpofitions of mind and hu¬
man happinefs. We are enjoined to purfue a particular
courfe of conduct under the denomination of virtue, not
becaufe our virtuous adlions can in any degree be of ad¬
vantage to him by whom we were created, but becaufe
they neceffarily generate in our own minds thofe difpofi¬
tions which are effential to our ultimate happmefs. . A
man of a malignant, arrogant, or fenfual difpofition,
would have no enjoyment in that heaven, where all are
actuated by a fpirit of love and purity ; and it is doubt-
K k 2 lefs
P R A
[ 260 ]
P R A
Prayer, lefsfor tins veafon among others, that the Chriftian reli-
gion prohibits malice, arrogance, and fenfuality, among
her votaries, and requires the cultivation of the oppofite
virtues. But a perfon who has deviated far from his
duty cannot think of returning, unlefs he be previoufly
convinced that he has gone attray. Such conviction,
•whenever he obtains it, will neceflarily imprefs upon his
mind a fenfe of his owrn danger, and fill his heart with
forrow and remorfe for having tranfgreffed the laws efta-
blilhed by the mod benevolent of all Be ings for the pro¬
pagation of univerfal felicity. This conviction of error,
this fenfe of danger, and this compunCtion for having
tranfgreffed, are all perceived by the Deity as foon as
they take place in the mind of the tinner ; and he is re¬
quired to confefs his fins, only becaufe the aCt of confef-
fion tends to imprint more deeply on his mind his own
unworthinefs, and the neceffity of returning immediately
into the paths of that virtue of which all the ways are
pleafantnefs and all the paths are peace.
In the objection, it is taken for granted, that if God
be a benevolent and merciful Being, he will pardon our
fins, and grant us what is needful for us, whether we
fupplicate him or not: but this is a grofs and palpable
miflake, arifing from the objeCtor’s ignorance of the end
of virtue and the nature of man. Until a man be fen-
fible of his fins and his danger, he is for the reafon al¬
ready affigned incapable of pardon, becaufe his difpofi-
tion is incompatible with the happinefs of the bleffed.
But whenever he acquires this conviCtian, it is impoffi-
ble for him not to form a mental wi/l) that he may be
pardoned ; and this with being perceptible to the all-fee¬
ing eye of his Judge, forms the fum and fubftanee of a
Application for mercy. If he clothe it in words, it is
onlv for a reafon fimilar to that which makes him adore
his Creator and confefs his fins in words, that juft no¬
tions may be more deeply imprinted on his own mind.
The fame reafoning holds good with refpeCt to thofe
prayers which w7e put up for temporal bleflings, for
protection and fupport in our journey through life. We
are told by high authority, that “ the Lord is nigh unto
all them that call upon him, to all that call upon him
in truth.” This, however, is not becaufe he is attracted
or delighted by their prayers and intreaties, but becaufe
thofe prayers and intreaties fit fuch as offer them for re¬
ceiving thofe benefits which he is at all times ready to
pour upon all mankind. In his effenee God is equally
prefent with the righteous and with the wicked, with
thofe who pray, and with thofe who pray not j for “ the
eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholding the evil
and the good.” But as the atmofphere equally fur-
rounds every perfon upon this globe, and yet in its ftate
of greateft purity does not affeft the afthmatic as it af-
fefts thofe who are whole •, fo the Divine prefence,
though effentially the fame everywhere, yet does not
proteCt the impious as it proteCts the devout, becaufe
the impious are not in a ftate capable of the Divine pro¬
tection. The end for which God requires the exercife
of prayer as a duty, is not his benefit but ours 5 becaufe
it is a mean to generate in the petitioner fuch a difpofi-
tion of mind as mult render him a fpecial objeCt of that
love and that providential care which extend over the
whole creation.
That part of the objection which refults from the
aonfideration of the fixed laws of nature, and which the
Prayer.
poet has fo finely illuftrated, prefents, it muft be confef-
i'ed, confiderable difficulties j but none which to us ap- v—
pear infurmountable. If, indeed, we fuppofe that in the
original conftitution of things, when the laws of nature
were eftabliftied, a determinate duration was given to
the top of the mountain and the nodding temple, with¬
out any regard to forefeen confequences, it would un¬
doubtedly be abfurd and perhaps impious to expeCt the
law of gravitation to be fufpended by the prayers of a
good man, who fhould happen to be paffing at the in-
ftant decreed for the fall of thefe objeCts. But of fuch
a conftitution there is fo far from being evidence, that
it appears not to be confiftent with the wifdom and
goodnefs of the Author of nature. This world was
undoubtedly formed for the habitation of man and of
other animals. If fo, we muft neceffarily fuppofe, that
in the eftabliffiing of the laws of nature, God adjufted
them in fuch a manner as he faw would beft ferve the
accommodation of thofe fentient beings for whofe accom¬
modation alone they were to be eftabliffied. Let it then
be admitted, that all the human beings who were ever to
exift upon this globe, with all their thoughts, words,
and addons, were at that important moment prefent to
the divine intelleCl, and it will furely not be impoffible
to conceive that in confequence of the forefeen danger
and prayers of a good man, the determinate duration of
the mountain and the tower might be either lengthened
or ftiortened to let him efeape. This idea of providence,
and of the efficacy of prayer, is thus illuftrated by Mr
Wollafton *. “ Suppofe M (fome man) certainly to #
foreknow, by fome nieans or other, that, when he ffiould of Nature
come to be upon his death-bed, L would petition tor ddmeatd.
fome particular legacy, in a manner fo earneft and hum¬
ble, and with fuch a good difpofition, as would render
it proper to grant his requeft : and upon this, M makes
his lajl will, by which he devifes to L that which was
to be allied, and then locks up the will; and all this
many years before the death of M, and w'hilft L had
yet no expectation or thought of any fuch thing. When
the time comes, the petition is made and granted; not
by making any new will, but by the old one already
made, and without alteration : which legacy had, not-
withftanding that, never been left, had the petition ne¬
ver been preferred. The grant may be called the effeCt
of a future aCt, and depends as much upon it as if it had
been made after the act. So, if it had been forefeen,
that L would not fo much as afk, and he had been'there¬
fore left out of the will, \X\\% prater it ion would have been
caufed by his carriage, though much later than the date
of the wilL In all this nothing is hard to be admitted,N
if M be allowed to foreknow the cafe. And thus the
prayers which good men offer to the all-knowing God,
and the negleB of prayers by others, may find fitting ef-
fefts already forecafted in the courfe of nature.”
This folution of the difficulty prefents indeed to the
mind a prodigious fcheme, in which all things to come
are, as it were, comprehended under one view, and efli-
mated and compared together. But when it is confi-
dered what a mafs of wonders the univerfe is in other
refpe&s; what an incomprehenfibly great and perfeft
being God is j that he cannot be ignorant of any
thing, no not of the future wants and deportments of
particular men ; and that all things which derive their
exiftence from him muff be confiftent with one another
—it.
n
iji
’rayer.
■Mr Pa-
P R A [26
-—it muft furely be confeffed that fuch an adjuftment of
phyfical caufes to moral volitions is within the eompafs
of infinite power and perfect wifdom.
To that part of a prayer which we have termed in-
tcrceflion, it has been obje£ted, that “ to intercede tor
others is to prefume that we poffefs an intereft with the
Deity upon which their happinefs and even the profpe-
jity of whole communities depends.” In anfwer to
this objeftion, it has been obferved by an ingenious and
ufeful writer *, that “ how unequal foever our knowT-
ledge of the divine economy may be to a complete fo-
lution of this difficulty, which may require a compre-
henfion of the entire plan, and of all the ends of God’s
moral government, to explain it fatisfadforily, we can
yet underftand one thing concerning it, that it is, after
all, nothing more than the making of one man the in-
ftrument of happinefs and mifery to another j which is
perfedlly of a piece with the courfe and order that ob¬
tain, and which we muft believe were intended to obtain,
in human affairs. Why may we not be affifted by the
prayers of other men, as well as We are beholden for our
fupport to their labour ? Why may not our happinefs be
made in fome cafes to depend upon the interceffion as
it certainly does in many upon the good offices of our
neighbours ? The happinefs and mifery of great numbers
we fee oftentimes at the difpofalof one man’s choice, or
liable to be much affedted by his condudl: what greater
difficulty is there in fuppofing, that the prayers of an in¬
dividual may avert a calamity from multitudes, or be ac¬
cepted to the benefit of whole communities.”
Thefe obfervations may perhaps be fufficient to re¬
move the force of the objedtion, but much more may
be faid for the pradlice of mutual interceffion. If it be
one man’s duty to intercede for another, it is the duty
of that other to intercede for him ; and if we fet afide
-the particular relations which arife from blood, and from
particular ftations in fociety, mutual interceffion muft
be equally the duty of all mankind. But there is no¬
thing (we fpeak from our own experience, and appeal
to the experience of our readers) which has fo power¬
ful a tendency to generate in the heart of any perfon
good-will towards another as the conftant pradlice of
praying to God for his happinefs. Let a man regularly
pray for his enemy with all that ferioufnefs which devo¬
tion requires, and he will not long harbour refentment
againft him. Let him pray for his friend with that ar¬
dour which friendihip naturally infpires, and he will per¬
ceive his attachment to grow daily and daily ftronger.
If, then, univerfal benevolence, or charity, be a difpofi-
tion which we ought to cultivate in ourfelves, mutual
interceffion is undeniably a duty, becaufe nothing con¬
tributes fo effedfually to the acquifition of that fpirit
which an apoftle terms the end of the commandment.
When it is faid, that by interceding for kings, and
all in authority, we feem to confider the profperity of
communities as depending upon our intereft with God,
the objedtor miftakes the nature and end of thefe inter-
eeffions. In the profperity of any community confifts
great part of the happinefs of its individual members ;
but that profperity depends much upon the condudl of
its governors. When, therefore, individuals intercede
for their governors, the ultimate objedl of their prayers
rnuft be conceived to be their own good. As it is
equally the duty of all the members of the community
to pray for their governors, fuch interceffions are the
4
1 ] P R E
prayers of the whole community for itfelf, and of every
individual for bimfelf. So that in this view of the cafe,
the moft juft, we apprehend, that can be taken of it, it
is not true that fupplications and interceffions for kings
and all in authority are the prayers of one individual for
another, but the prayers of many individuals for that
body of which each of them knows himfelf to be a
member.
Having evinced the duty of adoration, confeffion,
fupplication, and interceflion, we need not furely wafte
our readers time with a formal and laboured vindication
of thankfgiving. Gratitude for benefits received is fo
univerfally acknowledged to be a virtue, and ingrati¬
tude is fo deteftable a vice, that no man who lays claim
to a moral charadler will dare to affirm that we ought
not to have a juft fenfe of the goodnefs of God in pre-
ferving us from the numberlefs dangers to which we
are expofed, and “ in giving us rain from heaven, and
fruitful feafons, filling our hearts with food and glad-
nefs.” But if we have this fenfe, whether we exprefs
it in words or not, wre offer to God thankfgiving j be¬
caufe every movement of the heart is open and expofed
to his all-feeing eye.
In this article we have treated of prayer in general,
and as the private duty of every individual j but there
ought to be public as well -as, private prayer, which fliali
be confidered afterwards. (See Worship). We have-
likewife obferved, that the prayers of every Chriftian
ought to be offered in the name and through the medi¬
ation of Jefus Chrift, for which the reafon will be feen
in the article Theology. We ffiall conclude ourte-
fieclions on the general duty, with obftrving, that no¬
thing fo forcibly reftrains from ill as the remembrance
of a recent addrefs to heaven for protection and affift-
ance. After having petitioned for power to refift temp¬
tation, there is fo great an incongruity in not continu¬
ing the ftruggle, that v7e bluffi at the thought, and
perfevere left we lofe all reverence for ourfelves. After
fervently devoting our fouls to God, we ftart with
horror at immediate apoftafy : every aft of deliberate
wickednefs is then complicated with hypocrify and in¬
gratitude : it is a mockery of the Father of Mercies, the
forfeiture of that peace in which we clofed our addrefs,
and a renunciation of the hope which that addrefs in-
fpired. But if prayer and immorality be thus incom¬
patible, furely the former ffiould not be neglefted by
thofe who contend that moral virtue is the fummit of
human perfeftion.
PREACHING. See Declamation, Art. I.—Th©
word is derived from the Hebrew7parafeh, expofuit, “ he
expounded.”
PREADAMITE, a denomination given to the in¬
habitants of the earth, conceived, by fome people, to
have lived before Adam.
Ifaac de la Fereyra, in 1655, publiftied. a book to
evince the reality of Preadamites, by which he gained a
confiderable number of profelytes to the opinion : but
the anfwer of De.marets, profeffor of theology at Gro¬
ningen, publilhed the year following, put a flop to its
progrefs 5 though Pereyra made a reply.
His fyftem was this: The Jews he calls Adamitesy
and fuppofes them to have iffued from Adam ; and
gives the title Preadamites to the Gentiles, whom he
fuppofes to have been a long time before Adam. But
this being exprefsly contrary to the firft words of Genefis,
Pereyra
Prayer
Preada-
mite
Precentor.
P R E [ 262 ] P R E
Pereyra had recourfe to the fabulous antiquities of the
Egyptians and Chaldeans, and to fomeidle rabbins, who
imagined there had been another world before that
defcribed by Mofes. He was apprehended by the in-
quifition in Flanders, and very roughly ufed, though in
the ferviee of the dauphin. But he appealed from their
fentence to Rome ; whither he went in the time of
Alexander VII. and where he printed a retraftation of
his book of Preadamites. See Pre-existence.
PREAMBLE, in Law, the beginning of an aft of
parliament, &c. which ferves to open the intent of the
aft, and the mifchiefs intended to be remedied by it.
PREBEND, the maintenance a prebendary receives
out of the eftate of a cathedral or collegiate church.
Prebends are dillinguilhed into fimple and dignitary : a
limple prebend has no more than -the revenue for its
fupportj but a prebend with dignity has always a jurif-
diftion annexed to it.
PREBENDARY, an ecclefiaftic Avho enjoys a pre¬
bend.
The difference between a prebendary and a canon is,
that the former receives his prebend in confideration of
his officiating in the church, but the latter merely by his
being received into the cathedral or college.
PRECARIUM, in Scots Law. See Law, N°clxxiii.
9-
PRECEDENCE, a place of honour to which a
perfon is entitled. This is either of courtefy or of right.
The former is that which is due to age, eftate, &c.
which is regulated by cuftom and civility : the latter
is fettled by authority j and when broken in upon,
gives an aftion at law.
In Great Britain, the order of precedency is as fol¬
lows : The king •, the princes of the blood ; the arch-
bifliop of Canterbury 5 the lord high chancellor j the
archbiftiop of York *, the lord treafurer of England j
the lord prtefident of the council; the lord privy feal ;
dukes •, the eldeft fons of dukes of the blood royal; mar-
quiffes ; dukes eldeft fons j earls j marquiffes eldeft fons j
dukes younger fons j vifcounts 5 earls eldeft fons 5 mar¬
quiffes younger fons j biihops $ barons *, fpeaker of the
houfe of commons *, lord commiffioner of the great feal;
vifcounts eldeft fons ; earls younger fons ; barons eldeft
fons ; privy counfellors not peers ; chancellor of the ex¬
chequer ; chancellor of the duchy ; knights of the Gar¬
ter not peers ; lord chief juftice of the king’s bench ;
mafter of the rolls ; lord chief juftice of the common
pleas ; lord chief baron of the exchequer ; puifne judges
and barons; knights banneret, if made in the field ;
mafters in chancery; vifcounts younger fons; barons
younger fons ; baronets ; knight banneret; knights of
the Bath; knights bachelors; baronets eldeft fons;
knights eldeft fons; baronets younger fons; knights
younger fons ; field and flag officers ; doftors graduate;
ferjeants at law ; efquires; gentlemen bearing coat ar¬
mour ; yeomen ; tradefmen ; artificers; labourers.—-
Note, The ladies, except thofe of archbiftiops, biftiops,
and judges, take place according to the degree of qua¬
lity of their hufbands ; and unmarried ladies take place
according to that of their fathers.
PRECEDENT, in Zfltu, a cafe which has been de¬
termined, and which ferves as a rule for all of the fame
nature.
PRECENTOR, a dignity in cathedrals, popularly
called the chanter, or mafter of the choir.
5
PRECEPT, in Law, a command in writing fent by Precept
a chief juftice or juftice of the peace, for bringing a per- !!
fon, record, or other matter before him. , rLC^°^
Precept of Clare Corftat, in Scots Law. See Law, 1
Part III. N° clxxx. 28.
Precept of Sei/in, in Scots L.aw. See Law, Part
III. N° clxiv, 16.
PRECEPTIVE, any thing which gives or contains
precepts.
Preceptive Poetry. See Poetry, N° 146, &c. r
PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. The moft Diurnalrf.
obvious of all the celeftial motions is the diurnal revo-v°Etion of
lution of the ftarry heavens. The whole appears to
turn round an imaginary axis, which paffes through
two oppofite points of the heavens, called the poles. One
of thefe is in our fight, being very near the ftar « in
the tail of the Little Bear. The great circle which is
equidiftant from both poles divides the heavens into the
northern and fouthern hemifpheres, which are equal.
It is called the equator, and it cuts the horizon in the
eaft and weft points, and every ftar in it is 12 fidereal
hours above and as many below the horizon, in each
revolution. 2
The fun’s motions determine the length of dayObferva-
and night, and the viciffitudes of the feafons. By atl0ns.0P'1*
long feries of obfervations, the ftiepherds of Afia xyere ^ia.t‘c,
able to mark out the fun’s path in the heavens; he being ‘
always in the oppofite point to that which comes to
the meridian at midnight, with equal but oppofite dedi¬
cation. Thus they could tell the ftars among which
the fun then was, although they could not fee them.
They difeovered that his path was a great circle of the
heavens, afterwards called the Ecliptic ; which cuts
the equator in two oppofite points, dividing it, and be¬
ing divided by it, into two equal parts. They farther
obferved, that when the fun was in either of thefe points
of interfedion, his circle of diurnal revolution coincided
with the equator, and therefore the days and nights
were equal. Hence the equator came to be called the
Equinoctial line, and the points in which it cuts the
ecliptic were called the Equinoctial points, and the
fun was then faid to be in the equinoxes. One of thefe
was called the Vernal and the other the Autumnal
Equinox. 3
It was evidently an important problem in pradical To deter-
aftronomy to determine the exad moment of the fun’s n?ine
occupying thefe ftations; for it was natural to computefun>s occu.
the courfe of the year from that moment. Accordingly pying the
this has been the leading problem in the aftronomy ofequinodid
all nations. It is fufceptible of confiderable precifionjP011115,
without any apparatus of inftruments. It is only ne-
ceffary to obferve the fun’s declination on the noon of
two or three days before and after the equinodial day.
On two confecutive days of this number, his declination
muft have changed from north to fouth, or from fouth
to north. If his declination on one day was obferved
to be 2i/ north, and on the next 5'fouth, it follows that
his declination was nothing, or that he was in the equi¬
nodial point about 23' after feven in the morning of
the fecond day. Knowing the precife moments, and
knowing the rate of the fun’s motion in the ecliptic, it
is eafy to afeertain the precife point of the ecliptic in
which the equator interfeded it. 4
By a feries of fuCh obfervations made at Alexandria Hippar-
between the years 161 and 127 before Chrift, Hippr-^Y'
P R E [ 263 ] P R E
I, Isceffion. chus the father of our aftronomy found that the point
—* 0£ autumnal equinox was about fix degrees to the
eaftward of the ftar called Spica virginis. Eager to
determine every thing by multiplied obfervations, he
ranfacked all the Chaldean, Egyptian, and other records,
to which his travels could procure him accefs, for obfer¬
vations of the fame kind •, but he does not mention his
having found any. He found, however, fome obferva¬
tions of Ariftillus and Timochares, made about 150 years
before. From thefe it appeared evident that the point
of the autumnal equinox was then about eight degrees
eaft of the fame ftar. Fie difcuffes thefe obfervations
with great fagacity and rigour $ and, on their authority,
he afferts that the equinoftial points are not fixed in the
heavens, but move to the weft ward about a degree in
5 75 years or fomewhat lefs.
iy called This motion is called the Precession of the Equi-
"P'fthe N0XES’ heeaufe by it the time and place of the fun’s
iinoxes. equino^Hl ftation precedes the ufual calculations: it is
fully confirmed by all fubfequent obfervations. In 1750
the autumnal equinox was obferved to be 20° 2i7 weft-
ward of Spica Virginis. Suppofing the motion to have
been uniform during this period of ages, it follows that
the annual preceftion is about 5C/3-; that is, if the ce-
leftial equator cuts the ecliptic in a particular point on
any day of this year, it will on the fame day of the fol¬
lowing year cut it in a point 50"^ to the weft of it,
and the fun will come to the equinox 20' 23" before he
has completed his round of the heavens. Thus the
equino&ial or tropical year, or true year of feafons, is
fo much fhorter than the revolution of the fun or the
($ fidereal year.
foortance It is this difcovery that has chiefly immortalized the
lihedif- name of Hipparchus, though it muft be acknowledged
i'er^' that all his aftronomical refearches have been conducted
with the fame fagacity and intelligence. It was natural
therefore for him to value himfelf highly for the difco¬
very ; for it muft be admitted to be one of the moft
Angular that has been made, that the revolution of the
whole heavens Ihould not be liable, but its axis conti¬
nually changing. For it muft be obferved, that finee
the equator changes its pofition, and the equator is only
an imaginary circle, equidiftant from the two poles or
extremities of the axis j thefe poles and this axis muft
equally change their pofitions. The equinoctial points
make a complete revolution in about 25,745 years, the
equator being all the while inclined to the ecliptic in
nearly the fame angle. Therefore the poles of this diurnal
revolution muft defcribe a circle round the poles of the
ecliptic at the diftance of about 234 degrees in 25,745
years ; and in the time of Timochares, the north pole
of the heavens muft have been 30 degrees eaftward of
^ the place where it now is.
hlparchus Hipparchus has been accufed of plagiarifm and in-
^’been fincerity in this matter. It is now very certain that
a iicd of the preceflion of the equinoxes was known to the aftro-
1 ' nomers of India many ages before the time of Hip¬
parchus. It appears alfo that the Chaldeans had a pret¬
ty accurate knowledge of the year of feafons. From
their faros we deduce their meafure of this year to be
365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 11 feconds, exceeding
the truth only by 26", and much more exaCl than the
year of Hipparchus. They had alfo a fidereal year of
365 days 6 hours 11 minutes. Now what could occa-
fion an attention to two years, if they did not fuppofe
the equinoxes moveable ? The Egyptians alfo had a
knowledge of fomething equivalent to this: for they Preceffiom
had difeovered that the dog-ftar was no longer the faith- * See^Du-*
ful forewarner of the overflowing of the Nile ; and they ^ns ^ur je
combined him with the ftar Fomalhafet * in their myfti- zodiaque
cal kalendar. This knowledge is alfo involved in thedes Egyp-
precepts of the Chinefe aftronomy, of much older datetiens)
than the time of Hipparchus. ^des biferip
But all thefe acknowledged fa<fts are not fufficient g
for depriving Hipparchus of the honour of the difeo-But falfely,
very, or fixing on him the charge of plagiarifm. This
motion was a thing unknown to the aftronomers of the
Alexandrian fchool, and it was pointed out to them
by Hipparchus in the way in which he afeertained
every other pofition in aftronomy, namely, as the ma¬
thematical refult of aiftual obfervations, and not as a
thing deducible from any opinions on other fubjefts re¬
lated to it. We fee him on all other occafions, eager to
confirm his own obfervations, and his deductions from
them, by every thing he could pick up from other aftro¬
nomers and he even adduced the above-mentioned
praCtice of the Egyptians in corroboration of his doc¬
trine. It is more than probable then that he did not
know any thing more. Had he known the Indian
preceflion of 54" annually, he had no temptation what¬
ever to withhold him from ufing it in preference to one
which he acknowledges to be inaccurate, becaufe de¬
duced from the very fliort period of 150 years, and from
the obfervations of Timochares, in which he had no
great confidence. ^
This motion of the ftarry heavens was-long a matter Heavenly
of difeuflion, as a thing for which no phyfical reafon motions ac-
could be afligned. But the eftablilhment of the Co-<mur^efFfor
pernican fyftem reduced it to a very Ample affair j thej^^can *
motion which -was thought to affeCt all the heavenly fyftem.
bodies, is now acknowledged to be a deception, or a
falfe judgment from the appearances. The earth turns
round its owrn axis while it revolves round the fun, in
the fame manner as we may caufe a child’s top to fpin
on the brim of a millftone, while the ftone is turning
flowly round its axis. If the top fpin fteadily, with¬
out any wavering, its axis will always point to the ze¬
nith of the heavens •, but we frequently fee, that while
it fpins brifkly round its axisj the axis itfelf has a flow
conical motion round the vertical line, fo that, if pro¬
duced, it would flowly defcribe a circle in the heavens
round the zenith point. The flat furface of the top may
reprefent the terreftrial equator, gradually turning itfelf
round on all fides. If this top were formed like a ball,
with an equatorial circle on it, it would reprefent the
whole motion very prettily, the only difference being,
that the fpinning motion and this wavering motion arc
in the fame direftion ; whereas the diurnal rotation and
the motion of the equinoiftial points are in contrary di-
reflions. Even this diflimilarity may be removed, by
making the top turn on a cap, like the card of a mari¬
ner’s compafs. 10
It is now a matter fully eftablifhed, that while the And the
earth revolves round the fun from weft to eaft, in the earth’s.
plane of the ecliptic in the courfe of a year, it turns
round its own axis from weft to eaft in 23b 56' 4",
which axis is inclined to this plane in an angle of nearly
230 28' j and that this axis turns round a line perpen¬
dicular to the ecliptic in 25,745 years from eaft to weft,
keeping nearly the fame inclination to the ecliptic.—
By this means, its pole in the fphere of the ftarry hea¬
vens deferibes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic at
th©
[
P R E
Preceflion. the diflance of 230 28' nearly. The confequience of
  v this muft be, that the terreftrial equator, when produ¬
ced to the fphere of the ifarry heavens, will cut the
ecliptic in two oppofite points, through which the fun
muit pafs when he makes the day and night equal j and
that thefe points muft flrift to the weftward, at the rate
of jo-y feconds annually, which is the preceflion of the
equinoxes. Accordingly this has been the received
doftrine among aftronomers for nearly three centuries,
and it was thought perfectly conformable to appear-
it ances.
Bradley’s But Dr Bradley, the moft fagacious of modern aftro-
attempts to nomers, hoped to difcover the parallax of the earth’s or-
difcover b',t by obfervations of the aftual pofition of the pole of
the parallax the celeftial revolution. Dr Hooke had attempted this
earth’s or- before, but with very imperfetft inftruments. 1 he art
of obferving being now prodigioufly improved, Dr Brad¬
ley refumed this inveftigation. It will eafily appear,
that if the earth’s axis keeps parallel to itfelf, its extre
P R E
bit.
mat II lilt: rJdrill 3 . r
mity muft defcribe in the fphere of the ftarry heavens figns or go0 more advanced.
264 ]
Let E (fig. I.), be the pole of the ecliptic, and SP£) Piece!Sc
a circle diftant from it 230 28', reprefenting the circle
defcribed by the pole of the equator during one revolu- cc 1J‘ate
tion of the equinodlial points. Let P be the place of fig.*/11
this laft mentioned pole at fome given time. Round P 14
defcribe a circle ABCD, whofe diameter AC is 1S".athema.
The real fituation of the pole will be in the cireum-^'^oif
ference of this circle 5 and its place, in this circum-0f
ference depends on the place of the moon’s afcending tor be iu"
node. Draw EPF and GPL perpendicular to it; letpofedton,;
GL be the colure of the equinoxes, and EF the colure^'*3ea
of the folftices. Dr Bradley’s obfervations Ihowed that
the pole was in A when the node was in L, the vernal
equinox. If the node recede to H, the winter folftice,
the pole is in B. When the node is in the autumnal
equinox at G, the pole is at C ; and when the node is
in F, the fummer folftice, the pole is in D. In all in¬
termediate fituations of the moon’s afcending node, the
pole is in a point of the circumference ABCD, three
Difficulties
in the at¬
tempt ob¬
viated by
accident.
a figure equal and parallel to its orbit round the fun ;
and if the ftars be fo near that this figure is a vifible ob-
jeft, the pole of diurnal revolution will be in different
diftinguifhable points of this figure. Cpnfequently, if
the axis defcribes the cone already mentioned, the pole
will not defcribe a circle round the pole of the ecliptic,
but will have a looped motion along this circumference,
iimilar to the abfolute motion of one of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites, defcribing an epicycle whofe centre defcribes the
circle round the pole of the ecliptic.
He accordingly obferved fuch an epicyclical motion,
and thought that he had now overcome the only diffi¬
culty in the Copernican fyftem ; but, on maturely con-
fidering his obfervations, he found this epicycle to be
quite inconfiftent with the confequences of the annual
parallax, and it puzzled him exceedingly. One day,
while taking the amufement of failing about on the
Thames, he obferved, that every time the boat tacked,
the dire&ion of the wind, eftimated by the djreflion of
the vane, feemed to change. This immediately fug-
gefted to him the caufe of his obferved epicycle, and
he found it an optical illufion, occafioned by a combi¬
nation of the motion of light with the motion of his
telefcope while obferving the polar ftars. Thus he un¬
wittingly eftabliffied an incontrovertible argument for
the truth of the Copernican fyftem, and immortalized
his name by his difcovery of the Aberration of the
ftars.
He now engaged in a feries of obfervations for af-
certaining all the circumftances of this difcovery. In
;ion of the the courfe of thefe, which were continued for 28 yeais,
‘ubjedt. he difcovered another epicyclical motion of the pole of
the heavens, which was equally curious and unexpefted.
He found that the pole defcribed an epicycle, whole
diameter was about 18", having for its centre that point
of the circle round the pole of the ecliptic in which the
pole would have been found independent of this new
motion. He alfo obferved, that the period of this epi¬
cyclical motion was 18 years and feven months. It
ft ruck him, that this was precifely the period of the re¬
volution of the nodes of the moon’s orbit. He gave a
brief account of thfefe refults to Lord Macclesfield, then
prefident of the Royal Society, in 174?- M.r Machin,
*1 ,e to whom he alfo communicated the obfervations, gave
ceccxxxvm him in return a very neat mathematical hypothefis, by
fig"- i- which the motion might be calculated.
Dr Bradley, by comparing together a great number
of obfervations, found that the mathematical theory, and ;f an
the calculation depending on it, would correfpond much be fubftitu.
better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe were fubftitut-ted for the
ed for the circle ABCD, making the longer axis ACcirce'
18", and the ffiorter, BD, 16". Mr d’Alembert deter¬
mined, by the phyfical theory of gravitation, the axes to
be 18" and I3,,.4* # t(j
Thefe obfervations, and this mathematical theory, Thefe ^
muft be confidered as fo many fafts in aftronomy, and fervations
we muft deduce from them the methods of computing and this
- tVirnrv 2
the places of all celeftial phenomena, agreeable to thej^P*
I3,
His further
inveftiga-
univerfal practice of determining every point of the hea-
vens by its longitude, latitude, right afcenfion, and de¬
clination. _ # jij
It is evident, in the firft place, that this equation ofobiiq^y
the pole’s motion makes a change in the obliquity of of the
the ecliptic. The inclination of the equator to the eclip- ecliptic.'
tic is meafured by the arch of a great circle intercep¬
ted between their poles. Now, if the pole be in O in-
ftead of P, it is plain that the obliquity is meafured by
EO inftead of EP. If EP be confidered as the mean
obliquity of the ecliptic, it is augmented by 9" when
the moon’s afcending node is in the vernal equinox, and
confequently the pole in A. It is, on the contrary, di-
miniffied 9" when the node is in the autumnal equinox,
and the pole in C •, and it is equal to the mean when
the node is in the colure of the folftices. This change
of the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of the
ecliptic was called the nutation of the axis by Sir Ifaac
Newton ; who ffiewed, that a change of nearly a fecond
muft obtain in a year by the a&ion of the fun on the
prominent parts of the terreftrial fpheroid. But he did
not attend to the change which wmuld be made in this
motion by the variation which obtains in the difturbing
force of the MOON, in confequence of the different obli¬
quity of her aftion on the equator, arifing from the mo¬
tion of her own oblique orbit. It is this change which
now goes by the name NUTATION, and we owe its dil-
covery entirely to Dr Bradley. The general change
of the pofition of the earth’s axis has been termed de¬
viation by modern aftronomers. 1*
The quantity of this change of obliquity is eafily af-Quantity ^
certained. It is evident, from what has been already itea l I ^
faid, that when the pole is in O, the arch ADCO isace
equal to tire 'node’s longitude from the vernal equinox,
and
ill!
P R E [ 265 ]
ceffion. and that PM is its cofine ; and (on account of tlie finall- theirs.
■"V 1 nefs of AP in comparifon of EP) PM may be taken for
the change of the obliquity of the ecliptic. This is
therefore r= 9" X cof. long, node, and is additive to the
mean obliquity, while O is in the femicircle BAD, that
is, while the longitude of the node is from 9 figns to 3
figns ; but fubtra&ive while the longitude of the node
changes from 3 to 9 figns.
But the nutation changes alfo the longitudes and right
afcenfions of the itars and planets, by changing the equi-
noftial points, and thus occafioning an equation in the
preceffion of the equinottial points. It was this circum-
llance which made it neceffary for us to confider it in
this place, while exprefsly treating of this precefiion.
Let us attend to this derangement of the equinoiSHal
points.
The great circle or meridian which pafles throiigh
19 f
<)mge or
tt equi-
iftial
jj.its.
S'ution
Ei ation
•oiungi-
ti': from
flafand P°leS ecliPtJc and cfiuator is always the follti-
femoftial tia^ colure» and tlie equinoftial colure is at right angles
c res> to it: therefore when the pole is in P or in O, EP or
EO is the folftitial colure. Let S be any fixed ftar or
planet, and let SE be a meridian or circle of longitude ;
draw the circles of declination PS, OS, and the circles
^ M'EM", niSLni, perpendicular to PE, OE.
If the pole Avere in its mean place P, the equinoftial
points Avould be in the ecliptic meridian M'EM", or that
meridian would pafs through the interfe&ions of the
ti Manh? €(luator and ecliptic, and the angle M'ES would mea-
fare the longitude of the ftar S. But Avhen the pole is
in O, the ecliptic meridian mY,tn Avill pafs through
the. equinodlial points. The equinoctial points muft
therefore be to the wefhvard of their mean place, and
the equation of the preceffion muft be additive to that
preceffion : and the longitude of the ftar S will now be
meafured by the angle ?n ES, which, in the cafe here
reprefented, is greater than its mean longitude. The
difference, or the equation of longitude, arifing from the
nutation of the earth’s axis, is the angle OEP, or
OM is the fine of the angle CPO, Avhich, by what has
been already obferved, is equal to the longitude of the
node : Iherefore OM is equal to 9" X long, node, aiqd
2519" x fin. long, node .
OE e'lual t0 fin. obliqT^r- lh,S e<!'Iallon 15
additive to the mean longitude of the ftar Avhen O is in
the femicircle CB A, or while the afcending node is paf-
fing backwards from the A'ernal to the autumnal equi¬
nox ; but it is fubtra&ive from it while O is in the femi-
vircle ADC, or Avhile the node is paffing backwards
from the autumnal to the vernal equinox ; or, to exprefs
it more briefly, the equation is fubtra&ive from the mean
longitude of the ftar, while the afcending node is in the
firft fix figns, and additive to it Avhile the node is in the
laft fix figns.
This equation of longitude is the fame for all the ftars,
for their longitude is reckoned on the ecliptic (which Is
here fuppofed invariable) 5 and therefore is affedled only
by the variation of the point from which the longitude
is computed.
The right afeenfion, being computed on the equator,
% af-
Wfn fuf- r y , , , ■
dou- laoers a double change. It is computed from, or be-
fkjpge. gms at, a different point of the equator, and it termi¬
nates at a different point ; becaufe the equator having
changed its pofition, the circles of declination alfo change
Vol, XVII. Part I. 6
P R E
When the pole is at P, the right afeenfion of Preceffion.
S from the folftitial colure is meafured by the angle V ""
S PE, contained between that colure and the liar’s circle
or declination. But Avhen the pole is at O, the right
afeenfion is meafured by the angle SOE, and the dif¬
ference of SPE and SOE is the equation of right af¬
eenfion. The angle SOE confifts of two parts, GOE
and GOS ; GOE remains the fame Avhcrever the ftar S
is placed, but GOS varies with the place of the ftar. 
We muft firft find the variation by Avhich GPE becomes
GOE, Avhieh variation is common to all the ftars. The
triangles GPE, GOE, have a conftant fide GE, and a
conftant angle G j the variation PO of the fide GP is
extremely final!, and therefore the variation of the angles
may be computed by Mr Cotes’s Fluxionary Theorems.
See Simpfon’s Fluxions, § 253, &c. As the tangent of
the fide EP, oppofite to the conftant angle G, is to the
fine of the angle EPG, oppofite to the conftant fide
EG, fo is PO the variation of the fide GP, adjacent to
the conftant angle, to the variation a? of the angle
GPO, oppofite to the conftant fide EG. This gives
 9" X fin. long, node
* ~ ^tangTobbTclijn ’ 1 hlS 15 fubtraaive from the
mean right afeenfion for the firft fix figns of the node’s
longitude, and additive for the laft fix figns. This equa¬
tion is common to all the ftars.
The variation of the other part SOG of the angle. Other la-
which depends on the different pofition of the hour nations,
circles PS and OS, Avhich caufes them to cut the equa- ^!-C‘
tion in different points, where the arches of fight afeen¬
fion terminate, may be difeovered as folioavs : The tri¬
angles SPG, SOG, have a conftant fide SG, and a
conftant angle G. Therefore, by the fame Cotefian
theorem, tan. SP : fin. SPG ra PO : ?/, and y, or the
fecond part of the nutation in right afcenfion, —
9" X fin, diff. R, A. of ftar and node
cotan. dcclin. ftar
The nutation alfo affefls the declination of the ftars : Nutation
For SP, the mean codeclination, is changed into SO.—affe<^s th®
Suppofe a circle deferibed round S, with the diftance dfec(inationS
SO cutting SP in/; then it is evident that the equa-0i 116 ftarS*
tion of declin.is P/±r PQ x cofine OP/— 9" x fign
r. afeen. of ftar—long, of node.
Such are the calculations in conftant ule in our aftro- A more
nomical refearches,founded on Machin’s Theory. When exa<a mo{I®
ftiH greater accuracy is required, the elliptical theory °.f calcula-
muft be fubftituted, by taking (as is expreffed by the U°n’
dotted lines) O in that point of the ellipfe deferibed on
the tranfverfe axis AC, Avhere it is cut by OM, drawn
according to. Machin’s Theory. All the change made
here is the diminution of OM in the ratio of 1 8 to 13.4,
and a correfponding diminution of the angle CPO. The
detail of it may be feen in De la Lande’s AJlronomy,
art. 2874^ but is rather foreign to our prefent purpofe
of explaining the preceffion of the equinoxes. The cal¬
culations being in e\'ery cafe tedious, and liable to mif-
takes, on account of the changes of the figns of the dif¬
ferent equations, the zealous promoters of aftronomy have
calculated and publiftied tables of all thefe equations
both on the circular and elliptical hypothefis. And ftill
more to abridge calculations, Avhich occur in reducing
every aftronomical obfervation, when the place of a phe¬
nomenon is deduced from a comparifon with known ftars
there have been publiftied tables of nutation and precef!
^ fion,
Freceffion.
Precfflion
of the equi-
nocftial
points, See.
27
Obferva-
tions of
Newton
and others
on this lub
jebl.
P B E .[
fion, for fume hundreds of the principal ftars, for every
pofition of the moon’s node and of the fun.
It now remains to confider the preceffion of the equi¬
noctial points, with its equations, arifing from the nuta¬
tion of the earth’s axis as a phyfical phenomenon, and
to endeavour to account for it upon thole mechanical
principles which have fo happily explained all the other
phenomena of the celeltial motions.
This did not efcape the penetrating eye of Sir liaac
Newton 5 and he quickly found it to be a con Sequence,
and the molt beautiful proof, of the uniyerfal gravitation
-of all matter to all matter ' and there is no part of his
immortal work where his fagacity and fertility of re-
fource Ihine more confpieuoufly than in this inveftiga-
tion. It mult be acknowledged, however, that New¬
ton’s inveltigation is only a Ihrewd guefs, founded on al-
fumptions, of which it would be extremely difficult to
demonftrate either the truth orfalfity, and which requi¬
red the genius of a Newton to pick out in luch a com¬
plication of abltrufe circumltances. The lubjedt has oc¬
cupied the attention of the firit mathematicians of Eu¬
rope fince his time ; and is Hill confidered as the molt
curious and difficult of all mechanical problems. 1 he
28
Sketch of
Newton’s
inveftiga-
tion of it.
Fig. 2.
molt elaborate and accurate differtations on the precef¬
fion of the equinoxes are thofe of Sylvabella and W'alme-
fiy in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, publilhed about
the year 17545 that of Thomas Simpfon, publilked in
his Mifeellaneous 'frafts 5 that of Father Fnfius m the
Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, and afterwards with
great improvements, in his Cofmographia *, that of Eu¬
ler in the Memoirs of Berlin ; that of D’Alembert in
a feparate differtation 5 and that of De la Grange on
the Libration of the Moon, which obtained the prize in
the Academy of Paris in 1769. We think the differta¬
tion of Father Frifms the moll perfpicuous of them all,
being conduced in the method of geometrical analyfis 5
whereas moll of the others proceed in the fluxionary
and fymbolic method, which is frequently deficient in
diitindt notions of the quantities under confideration,
and therefore does not give us the fame perfpicuous
eonviaion of the truth of the refults. In a work like
ours, it is impoffible to do juftice to the problem, with¬
out entering into a detail which would be thought ex¬
tremely dilproportioned to the fubjeft by the genera¬
lity of our readers. Yet thofe who have the neceflary
preparation of mathematical knowledge, and wiffi to un-
derltand the fubjeft fully, will find enough here to give
them a very diftin£l notion of it *, and in the article Ho-
TATION, they will find the fundamental theorems, which
will enable them to carry on the inveftigation. yV e
fhall fir ft give a ffiort {ketch of Newton’s inveftigation,
which is of the moft palpable and popular kind, and is
highly valuable, not only for its ingenuity, but alio be¬
cause it will give our unlearned readers diftintl and ta-
tisfaftory conceptions of the chief circumftances of the
whole phenomena. , .
Let S ffiff 2O be the fun, E the earth, and M the
moon, moving in the orbit NMCD which cuts the
plane of the ecliptic in the line of the nodes N n, and
has one half raifed above it, as repreferited in the figure,
the other half being hid below the ecliptic. ^ bup-
pofe this orbit folded down 5 it will coincide with the
ecliptic in the circle N m c d n. Let EX reprefent the
axis of this orbit, perpendicular to its plane, and there¬
fore inclined to the ecliptic. Since the moon gravi-
4
266 ] P It E
tates to the fun in the diredlion MS, which is all above Preceffio
the ecliptic, it is plain that this gravitation has a ten- '~—v—
dency to draw the moon towards the ecliptic. Sup-
pofe this force to be fuch that it would draw the moon
down from M to i in the time that the would have mo¬
ved from M to /, in the tangent to her orbit. By the
combination of thefe motions, the moon will defert her
orbit, and deferibe the line M r, which makes the dia¬
gonal of the parallelogram 5 and if no failher action of
the fun be fuppofed, Hie will deferibe another orbit
M «l //, lying between the orbit MCD n and the eclip¬
tic, and Ihe will come to the ecliptic, and pafs through
it in a point n', nearer to M than n is, which was the
former place of her defeending node. By this change
of orbit, the line EX will no longer be perpendicular to
it 5 but there will be another line _E x, which will now
be perpendicular to the new orbit. Alfo the moon,
moving from M to r, does not move as if lire had come
from the afeending node N, but from a point N lying
beyond it •, and the line of the nodes of the orbit m this
new pofition is N' /A Alfo the angle MN'm is lefs
than the angle MN m. .
Thus the nodes Ihift their places in a direction op-
pofite to that of her motion, or move to the weftward j
the axis of the orbit changes its pofition, and the orbit
itfelf changes its inclination to the ecliptic. Ihele
momentary changes are different in different parts of
the orbit, according to the pofition of the line of the
nodes. Sometimes the inclination of the orbit is in-
creafed, and fometimes the nodes move to the eaftward.
But, in general, the inclination increafes from the time
that the nodes are in the line of fyzigee, till they get into
quadrature, after which it diminiffies till the nodes are
again in fyzigee. The nodes advance only while they
are in the o&ants after the quadratures, and while the
moon paffes from quadrature to the node, and they re¬
cede in all other fituations. Therefore the recefs ex¬
ceeds the advance in every revolution of the moon round
the earth, and, on the whole, they recede.
What has been faid of one moon, would be true of
each of a continued ring of moons furrounding the
earth, and they would thus compofe a flexible ring,
which would never be flat but waved, according to the
difference (both in kind and degree) of the difturbing
forces adding on its different parts. But fuppofe thele
moons to cohere, and to form a rigid and flat ring, no¬
thing would remain in this ring but the excefs of the con¬
trary tendencies of its different parts.. Its axis would be
perpendicular to its plane, and its pofition in any moment
will be the mean pofition of all the axes of the orbits ot
each part of the flexible ring j therefore the nodes ot
this rioid ring will continually recede, except when the
plane of the ring paffes through the fun, that is, when
the nodes are in fyzigee ; and (fays Newton) the mo¬
tion of thefe nodes will be the lame with the mean mo¬
tion of the nodes of the orbit.of.one moon. 1 he incli¬
nation of this ring to the ecliptic will be equal to t ic
mean inclination of the moon’s orbit during any one
revolution which has the fame fituation of the nodes.
It will therefore be leaft of all when the nodes are in
quadrature, and will increafe till they are in fyzigee,
and then diminiffi till they are again in quadrature.
Suppofe this ring to contraft in dimenfions, the cm-
turbing forces will diminiffi in the fame proportion, ana
in this proportion will all their effeas dumnilh. bu^-
P R E
[
-ceffion. pofe its motion of revolution to accelerate, or tlie time
—0f a revolution to diminifh ; the linear elfefts of the dif-
turbing forces being as the fquares of the times of their
aftion, and their angular effedls as the times, thofe er¬
rors mull diminifh alfo on this account $ and we can
compute what thofe errors will be for any diameter of
the ring, and for any period of its revolution. We can
tell, therefore, what would be the motion of the nodes,
the change of inclination, and deviation of the axis, of a
ring which would touch the furface of the earth, and
revolve in 24 hours nay, we can tell what thefe mo¬
tions would be, fhould this ring adhere to the earth.
They muft be much lefs than if the ring w'ere detached ;
for the difturbing forces of the ring mud drag along
with it the whole globe of the earth. The quantity
of motion which the difturbing forces would have pro¬
duced in the ring alone, will now (fays Newton) be
produced in the whole mafs; and therefore the velocity
muft be as much lefs as the quantity of matter is greater :
But ftill all this can be computed.
Now there is fuch a ring on the earth : for the earth
is not a fphere, but an elliptical fpheroid. Sir Ifaac
Newton therefore engaged in a computation of the efftfts
of the difturbing force, and has exhibited a moft beautiful
example of mathematical inveftigation. He firft afferts,
that the earth mri/t be an elliptical fpheroid, whofe po¬
lar axis is to its equatorial diameter as 229 to 230.
Then he demonftrates, that if the fine of the inclina¬
tion of the equator be called v, and if t be the num¬
ber of days (fidereal) in a year, the annual motion of
2 \/
a detached ring will be 360°X' — • He then
4 f
{hows that the effeft of the difturbing force on this
ring is to its effeft on the matter of the fame ring, dif-
tributed in the form of an elliptical ftratum (but ftill
detached) as 5 to 2 therefore the motion of the nodes
will be 360° X-
10 t
-, or 16' 16" 24,'7 annually. He
then proceeds to (how, that the quantity of motion in
the fphere is to that in an equatorial ring revolving
in the fame time, as the matter in the fphere to the mat¬
ter in the ring, and as three times the fquare of a qua-
drantal arch to two fquares of a diameter, jointly :
Then he (hows, that the quantity of matter in the ter-
reftrial fphere is to that in the protuberant matter of
the fpheroid, as 52900 to 461 (fuppofing all homo¬
geneous). From thefe premifes it follows, that the mo¬
tion of 16' 16" 24'", muft be diminiftred in the ratio of
10717 to 100, which reduces it to 9" o^"' annually.
And this (he fays) is the preceflion of the equinoxes,
occafioned by the aff ion of the fun 3 and the reft of the
which is the obferved preceflion, is owing to the
acfion of the moon, nearly five times greater than that
of the fun. This appeared a great difficulty 3 for the
phenomena of the tides (how that it cannot much exceed
twice the fun’s force.
Nothing can exceed the ingenuity of this procefs.
Juftly does his celebrated and candid commentator, Da-
the form n;e} Bernoulli, fay (in his Diflertation on the Tides,
ns ofthe” fttared the prize of the French Academy with
rthde- M'Laurin and Euler,), that Newton faw through a veil
[>nftrated what others could hardly difcover with a roicrofcope
M‘Lau- in the light of the meridian fun. His determination
of the form and dimenfions of the earth, which is the
29
s deter-
nation
267 ] P R E
foundation of the whole procefs, is not offered as any Pfccefll-nw
thing better than a probable guefs, in re diflicillima ; and
it has fince been demonftrated with geometrical rigour
by M‘Laurin.
His next principle, that the motion of the nodes of
the rigid ring is equal to the mean motion of the nodes
of the moon, has been moft critically dilcuffed by the
firft mathematicians, as a thing which could neither be
proved nor refuted. Frifius has at leal! drown it to be a
miftake, and that the motion of the nodes of the ring is
double the mean motion of the nodes of a fingle moon :
and that Newton’s own principles (hould have produced
a preceffion of iSj feconds annually, which removes the
difficulty formerly mentioned.
His third affumption, that the quantity of motion,
of the ring muft be (hared with the included fphere,
was acquiefced in by all his commentators, till D’Alem¬
bert and Euler, in 1749, (bowed that it was not the
quantity of motion round an axis of rotation which re¬
mained the fame, but the quantity of momentum or ro¬
tatory effort. The quantity of motion is the produfl
of every particle by its velocity 3 that is, by its diftance
from the axis j while its momentum, or power of pro¬
ducing rotation, is as the fquare of that diftance, and is
to be had by taking the fum of each particle multiplied
by the fquare of its diftance from the axis. Since the
earth differs fo little from a perfect fphere, this makes
no fenfible difference in the refult. It will increafe
Newton’s preceflion about three-fourths of a fecond. 30
We proceed now to the examination of this pheno- Examina-
menon upon the fundamental principles of mechanics, tionpfthe
Becaufe the mutual gravitation of the particles of^,ei‘
matter in the folar fyftem is in the inverfe ratio of the^egjon on
fquares of the diftance, it follows, that the gravitations mechanical
of the different parts of the earth to the fun or to the principles,
moon are unequal. The nearer particles gravitate more
than thofe that are more remote.
Let PQ^E (fig. 3.) be a meridional feftion of the Fig. 3.
terreftrial fphere, and VOpq the feiftion of the inferibed
fphere. Let CS be a line in the plane of the ecliptic
paffing through the fun, fo that the angle ECS is the
fun’s declination. Let NCM be a plane paffing through
the centre of the earth at right angles to the plane of
the meridian PQj? E 3 NCM will therefore be the plane
of illumination.
In confequence of the unequal gravitation of the mat¬
ter of the earth to the fun, every particle, fuch as B, is
adled on by a difturbing force parallel to CS, and pro¬
portional to BD, the diftance of the particle from the
plane of illumination ; and this force is to the gravita¬
tion of the central particle to the fun, as three times
BD to CS, the diftance of the earih from the fun.
Let AB« be a plane pafllng through the particle B,
parallel to the plane E£) of the equator. This fetftion
of the earth will be a circle, of which A a is a diameter,
and £) q will be the diameter of its fe£lion with the inferi¬
bed fphere. Thefe will be two concentric circles, and
the ring by which the feftion of the fpheroid exceeds
the feftion of the fphere, will have AQfor its breadth :
P/> is the axis of figure.
Let EC be reprefented by the fymbol - a
OC or PC - - - b
•n- 7/* 
EO their difference,
L 1 2
CL
P R E
Preceffion. CL
RL . -
j he periphery of a circle to radius I
The difturbing force at the diftance I
from the plane NCM
The line of declination ECS
The coline of ECS
It is evident, that with refpeft to the infcribed fphere,
the diiturbing forces are completely compenfated, for
every particle has a correfponding particle in the ad¬
joining quadrant, which is acted on by an equal and op-
polite force. But this is not the cafe with the protube¬
rant matter which makes up the fpheroid. The feg-
ments NSrw and MT tm are more afled on than the
fegments NT t n and MS s m ; and thus there is produ¬
ced a tendency to a converlion of the whole earth, round
an axis palling through the centre C, perpendicular to
the plane E. We lhall diltinguilh this motion
from all others to which the fpheroid may be fubjedt,
by the name Libration. The axis of this libration
is always perpendicular to that diameter of the equa¬
tor over which the fun is, or to that meridian in which
he is.
Pros. I. To determine the momentum of libration
correfponding to any pofition of the earth refpedting
the fun, that is, to determine the accumulated energy
of the difturbing forces on all the protuberant matter of
<he fpheroid.
Let B and b be twTo particles in the ring formed by
the revolution of AO, and fo lituated, that they are at
equal diftances from the plane NM ; but on oppofite
fides of it. Draw BD, b d, perpendicular to NM, and
FLG perpendicular to LT.
Then, becaufe the momentum, or power of produ¬
cing rotation, is as the force and as the diftance of its
line of diredlion from the axis of rotation, jointly, the
combined momentum of the particles B and b will be
yiBD.DC—-f.bd.dc, (for the particles B and b are
urged in contrary directions). But the momentum of
Bis/BF.DC-j-/FD.DC,and that of £ is fbG.dC—
J'.dG.dC-, and the combined momentum isyiBF.Df/—
/.FD.DC+TC, =2/BF.LF—2/LT.TC.
Becaufe m and n are the fine and cofine of the angle
ECS or LCT, we have LT=w.CL, and CT—«.CL,
and LF=w?.BL, and BF—«.BL. This gives the mo¬
mentum ~2fmn BL1—CL*.
The breadth A£) of the protuberant ring being very
fmall, we may fuppofe, without any fenfible error, that
all the matter of the line AQ^ is collected in the point
and, in like manner, that the matter of the whole
ring is collected in the circumference of its inner circle,
and that B and b now reprefent, not fingle particles,
but the collefted matter of lines fuch as A(^, which
terminate at B and b. The combined momentum of two
fuch lines will therefore be 2 wz «/. A£).BL*—CL*.
Let the circumference of each parallel of latitude be
divided into a great number of indefinitely fmall and
equal parts. The number of fuch parts in the circum¬
ference, of which is the diameter, will be n.QL.
To each pair of thefe there belongs a momentum 2m nf
.A^f.BL*—CL*. The fum of all the fquares of BL,
which can be taken round the circle, is one half of as
many fquares of the radius CL : for BL is the fine
’ - 3
26B ] P R E
: of an arch, and the fum of its fquare and the fquare of Preceffior.
its correfponding cofine is equal to the fquare of the
radius. Therefore the fum of all the fquares of the
fines, together with the fum of all the fquares of the
cofines, is equal to the fum of the fame number of
fquares of the radius •, and the fum of the fquares of
the fines is equal to the fum of the fquares of the cor¬
refponding cofines : therefore the fum of the fquares of
the radius is double of either fum. ThereforeJ'TT.Q^L
.BL*—^II.QjL.QjL*. In like manner the fum of the
number n.QL of CL*j will be r=n.QL.CL*. Thefe
fums, taken for the femicircle, are ^-n.QL.QL*, and
fn.QL.CL*, or n.QL.gQL*, and n.QL.iCL*: there¬
fore the momentum of the whole ring will be 2m nf
.AQ.QL.n(iQL*-iCL*) : for the momentum of the
ring is the combined momentum of a number of pairs, and
this number is n.QL.
QL=EO : AQ, and
momentum of
By the ellipfe we have OC
AQ=Q.L7^ =Q.Lri therefore the
2 CL*), =zmnf~
bz—xz 5 therefore
b*—3 k*
OC’
the rings is 2 m n/-QL*n(-g:QL*
QL*n (iQL*—CL*) : but QL*
yQL* CL* —f£* 5«* A*, —-f£* 4 A*, —
therefore the momentum of the ring is m n f jW-ib1—ft*)
fb1—3 a*\ rd (b*—4Z>*A* + 3.'t4\ rd _
="‘^Tbn
(b*—4£*a*-{- 3A4). If v/e notv fuppofe another paral¬
lel extremely near to A a, as reprefented by the dotted
line, the diltance L / between them being a, we fliall
have the fluxion of the momentum of the fpheroid
mnf~Y\{b*x—4^*A2A-f-3 a4a), of which the fluent is
tn nf—^{b*x—4^*—This exprefies the
momentum of the zone E A a Q, contained between the
equator and the parallel of latitude A a. Now let x
become —b, and we ftrall obtain the momentum of the
hemifpheroid ~m nf y^n (M—4^s4“f^s)> anc^
the fpheroid ~m {Is—^b5-\--sbs') m jif d
ni*. '.J
This formula does not exprefs any motion, but only
a preffure tending to produce motion, and particularly
tending to produce a libration by its adtion on the co¬
hering matter of the earth, which is affedled as a num¬
ber of levers. It is fimilar to the common mechanical
formula w.d, w7here w means a weight, and d its di¬
ftance from the fulcrum of the lever.
It is worthy of remark, that the momentum of this
protuberant matter is juft one-fifth of what it wmuld be
if it w:ere all colledted at the point O ot the equator :
for the matter in the fpheroid is to that in the infcribed
fphere as «* to b1, and the contents of the infcribed
fphere is Therefore «* : a1—b*=zjllb3 : l-IlZi5
- jj** * *
• which is the quantity of protuberant matter*
We
P R E
RCeffion.
We may, without fenfible error, fuppofe
a'—b'
[ 269 ]
P R £
— 2 cl;
then the protuberant matter will be ^nfrcl. If all this
were placed at O, the momentum would be 4n
r/^yiOH.HC, —*mnfdb*, becaufe OH.HC= ;
now 4 J lim63 tt-
Alfo, becaufe the fum of all the re&angles OH.HC
round the equator is half of as many fquares of OC, it
follow’s that the momentum of the protuberant matter
placed in a ring round the equator of the fphere or
fpheroid is one half of what it would be if colledted in
the point O or E; whence it follow’s that the momentum
of the protuberant matter in its natural place is twro-
fifths of what it would be if it were difpofed in an equa¬
torial ring. It was in this manner that Sir Ifaac New¬
ton was enabled to compare the effeft of the fun’s ac¬
tion on the protuberant matter of the earth, with his
effeft on a rigid ring of moons. The preceding invef-
tigalion of the momentum is nearly the fame with his,
and appears to us greatly preferable in point of perfpi-
cuity to the fluxionary folutions given by later authors.
Thefe indeed have the appearance of greater accuracy,
becaufe they do not fuppofe all the protuberant matter
to be condenfed on the furface of the infcribed fphere :
nor were we under the necefllty of doing this, only it
would have led to very complicated expreffions had wre
fuppofed the matter in each line A£) colledfled in its
centre of ofcillation or gyration. We made a compen-
fation for the error introduced by this, Avhich may
amount to iTr °f ^ie wh°ie» and Ihculd not be negle£t-
. ct3, b*
ed, by taking- d as equal to  inftead of  p*
J ° 2 a ct-\-b
The confequence is, that our formula is the fame with
that of the later authors.
Thus far Sir Ifaac Newton proceeded with mathema¬
tical rigour j but in the application he made two af-
fumptions, or, as he calls them, hypothefes, which have
been found to be unwarranted. The firlt was, that when
the ring of protuberant matter is connected with the
infcribed fphere, and fubje£ted to the action of the dif-
turbing force, the fame quantity of motion is produ¬
ced in the whole mafs as in the ring alone. The fe-
cond was, that the motion of the nodes of a rigid ring
of moons is the fame with the mean motion of the nodes
of a folitary moon. But we are now able to demon-
flrate, that it is not the quantity of motion, but of mo¬
mentum, which remains the fame, and that the nodes
of a rigid ring move twice as fall as thofe of a Angle
particle. We proceed therefore to
Prob. 2. To determine the deviation of the axis, and
the retrograde motion of the nodes which refult from this
libratory momentum of the earth’s protuberant matter.
But here we muft refer our readers to fome funda-
Ictuberant mental propofltions of rotatory motions which are de¬
wier. monflrated in the article Rotation.
If a rigid body is turning round an axis A, pafling
through its centry of gravity with the angular velocity
a, and receives an impulfe which alone would caufe it
to turn round an axis B, alfo pafling through i^s centre
of gravity, with the angular velocity b, the body will
now turn round a third axis C, pafling through it* centre
of gravity, and lying in the plane of the axes A and B,
and the Ane of the inclination of this third axis to the
axis A will be to the Ane of inclination to the axis B as
the velocity b to the velocity a..
13i
1 As of
i1 libra-
tjl/ mo-
ilntum of
V earth’s
32
33
When a rigid body is made to turn round any axis Prectflior
by the a£lion of an external force, the quantity of mo¬
mentum produced (that is, the fum of the products of
every particle by its velocity and by its diftance from
the axis) is equal to the momentum or Amilar product
of the moving force or forces.
If an oblate fpheroid, whole equatorial diameter is a
and polar diameter b, be made to librate round an equa¬
torial diameter, and the velocity of that point of the.
equator which is fartheft from the axis of libration be v,
the momentum of the fpheroid is — Ilcdfrv.
The two laft are to be found in every elementary
book of mechanics.
Let AN an (fig. 4.) be tlie plane of the earth’s equa-Fig. 4.
tor, cutting the ecliptic CNK/z in the line of the nodes
or equinoctial points N n. Let OAS be the fedlion of
the earth by a meridian pafling through the fun, fo
that the line OCS is in the ecliptic, and CA is an arch
of an hour-circle or meridian, meafuring the fun’s de¬
clination. The fun not being in the plane of the equa¬
tor, there is, by prop. 1. a force tending to produce a
libration round an axis ZO z- at right angles to the dia¬
meter A « of that meridian in which the fun is fituat-
ed, and the momentum of all the difturbing forces is
— m n f d n b*. The product of any force by the mo¬
ment t of its aftion exprefles the momentary increment
of velocity 5 therefore the momentary velocity, or the
velocity of libration generated in the time t is -^mnf
dnb*t. This is the abfolute velocity of a point at the
diftcince I from the axis, or it is the fpace which would
be uniformly defcribed in the moment t, with the velo¬
city which the point has acquired at the end of that
moment. It is double the fpace adtually defcribed by
the libration during that moment; becaufe this has been
an uniformly accelerated motion, in confequence of the
continued and uniform adlion of the momentum during
this time. This mull be carefully attended to, and the
negledl of it has occafioned very faulty folutions of this
problem.
Let v be the velocity produced in the point A, the
mofl: remote from the axis of libration. The momen¬
tum excited or produced in the fpheroid is n a1 bz v
(as above), and this muft be equal to the momentum of
the moving force, or to m 11 f d U bA t; therefore we
obtain tn
'xA'mnf drib* t
A n a1 b1
, that is, v—mnfdt ~ or ve¬
ry nearly mnf dt, becaufe —~ 1 very nearly. Alfo,
becaufe the product of the velocity and time gives the
fpace uniformly defcribed in that time, the fpace de-
fcribed by A in its libration round Z z is mnfdand
... mnfdt
the angular velocity is   .
Let r be the momentary angle of diurnal rotation.
The arch A r, defcribed by the point A of the equa¬
tor in this moment t will therefore be ar, that is, « x?V
CIV
and the velocity of the point A is —r, and the angular
r . . r *
velocity of rotation is —.
Here then is a body (fig. j.) turning round an axis Fig. s-,
OP, c ^
P R E [ 270 ] P R E
Preceffion. OP, perpendicular to th^'plane of the equator zo%, and
w*^v therefore fituated in the plane ZP iz ; and it turns round
7* •
this axis with the angular velocity - . It has received
t
an impulfe, by which alone it would librate round the
• *11 . mnf d t T ...
axis Z 2;, with the angular velocity . it will
therefore turn round neither axis (N° 3i-)> but round
a third axis OP', palling through O, and lying in the
plane ZP », in which the other two are fituated, and
the fine P'n of its inclination to the axis of libration
Z z will be to the fine P^> of its inclination to the axis
r . r m nfdt
OP 01 rotation as -j to .
/ «
Fig. 4. Now A, in fig. 4. is the fummit of the equator both
of libration and rotation •, ?n n f d t% is the fpace de-
feribed by its libration in the time t 5 and a r is the
fpace or arch A r (fig. 4.) deferibed in the fame time
by its rotation : therefore, taking A r to A c (perpen¬
dicular to the plane of the equator of rotation, and ly¬
ing in the equator of libration,) as a r to mnf d/*, and
completing the parallelogram A r m c, A in will be the
compound motion of A (N° 31.), and a v : mnf d?
“X : m n f [l—, which will be the tangent of the angle
a r
in A r, or of the change of pofition of the equator.
But the axes of rotation are perpendicular to their
equator •, and therefore the angle of deviation to is
equal to this angle r A m. This appears from fig. 5. ;
for II P" : P'/i=OP : P'yi, =OP : tan. POP ; and it is
. • r - t .
evident that a r : mnf dP— -m nf d - , as is reqmr-
t a
ed by the compofition of rotations.
In confequence of this change of pofition, the plane
of the equator no longer cuts the plane of the ecliptic
in the line N n. The plane of the new equator cuts the
former equator in the line AO, and the part AN of the
former equator lies between the ecliptic and the new
equator AN', while the part A n of the former equator
is above the new one A n1; therefore the new node N',
from which the point A was moving, is removed to
the weftward, or farther from A ; and the new node
to which A is approaching, is alfo moved weftward, or
nearer to A ; and this happens in every pofition of A.
The nodes, therefore, or equinoftial points, continually
fhift to the weftward, or in a contrary direction to the
rotation of the earth •, and the axis of rotation always
deviates to the eaft fide of the meridian which paffes
through the fun.
This account of the motions is extremely different
from what a perfon fhould naturally expeft. If the
earth were placed in the fummer folftice, with refpeft
to us who inhabit its northern hemifphere, and had no
rotation round its axis, the equator would begin to ap¬
proach the ecliptic, and the axis would become more
upright •, and this would go on with a motion conti¬
nually accelerating, till the equator coincided with the
ecliptic. It would not flop here, but go as far on the
other fide, till its motion were extinguifhed by the oppo-
fing forces ; and it would return to its former pofition,
and again begin to approach the ecliptic, playing up
and down like the arm of a balance. On this account Pfeceiiior.
this motion is very properly termed libration ; but this "» 1I,J
very flow libration, compounded with the incomparably
fwifter motion of diurnal rotation, produces a third mo¬
tion extremely different from both. At firft the north
pole of the earth inclines forward toward the fun j after
a long eourfe of years it will incline to the left hand, as
viewed from the fun, and be much more inclined to the--
ecliptic, and the plane of the equator will pafs through
the fun. Then the fouth pole will come into view,
and the north pole will begin to decline from the fun }
and this will go on (the inclination of the equator dimi-
nifinng all the while) till, after a courfe of years, the
north pole will be turned quite away from the fun, and
the inclination of the equator will be reftored to its ori¬
ginal quantity. After this the phenomena will have
another period fimilar to the former, but the axis will
now deviate to the right hand. And thus, although
both the earth and fun fhould not move from then-
places, the inhabitants of the earth rvould have a com¬
plete fucceftion of the feafons accomplifhed in a period
of many centuries. This would be prettily illuftrated
by an iron ring poifed very nicely on a cap like the card
of a mariner’s compafs, having its centre of gravity co¬
inciding with the point of the cap, fo that it may whirl
round in any pofition. As this is extremely difficult
to execute, the cap may be pierced a little deeper,
which will caufe the ring to maintain a horizontal pofi¬
tion with a very fmall force. When the ring is whir¬
ling very fteadily, and pretty brilkly, in the direftiou
of the hours of a watch-dial, hold a ftrong magnet above
the middle of the nearer femicircle (above the 6 hour
point) at the diftance of three or four inches. We
lhall immediately obferve the ring rife from the 9 hour
point, and fink at the 3 hour point, and gradually ac¬
quire a motion of preceffion and nutation, fuch as has
been deferibed.
If the earth be now put in motion round the fun, or
the fun round the earth, motions of libration and devia¬
tion will ftill obtain, and the fucceffion of their different
phafes, if we may fo call them, will be perfedlly analo¬
gous to the above ftatement. But the quantity of de¬
viation, and change of inclination, will now be prodigi-
oufly diminiffied, becaufe the rapid change of the fun’s
pofition quickly diminifhes the difturbing forces, annihi¬
lates them by bringing the fun into the plane of the
equator, and brings oppofite forces into adtion.
We fee in general that the deviation of the axis is
alwavs at right angles to the plane palling through the
fun, and that the axis, inftead of being raifed from the
ecliptic, or brought nearer to it, as the libration would
occafion, deviates fidewife 5 and the equator, inftead of
being raifed or deprefled round its eaft and weft points,
is twilled fidewife round the north and fouth points •,
or at leaft things have this appearance ; but we mull
now attend to this circumftance more minutely.
The compofition of rotation Ihows us that this
change of the axis of diurnal rotation is by no means a
tranllation of the former axis (which we may fuppofe
to be the axis of figure) into a new pofition, in which
it again becomes the axis of diurnal motion ; nor does
the equator of figure, that is, the moll prominent fec-
tion of the terreftrial fpheroid, change its pofition, and
in this new pofition continue to be the equator of ro-
tation. This was indeed fuppofed by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton j
P R E [27
Lceffiou. ton and this fiippofition naturally refulted frotn the
..—v—(;rain 0f reafoning which he adopted. It was ftriclly
true of a fingle moon, or of the imaginary orbit attach¬
ed to it *, and therefore Newton fuppofed that the whole
earth did in this manner deviate from its former posi¬
tion, ftill, however, turning round its axis of figure.
. In this he has been followed by Walmedy, Simpfon, and
molt of his commentators. D’Alembert was the firlt
who entertained any fufpicion that this might not be
certain •, and both he and Euler at lait fliowed that the
new axis of rotation was really a new line in the body
of the earth, and that its axis and equator of figure did
not remain the axis and equator of rotation. 1 hey af-
certained the pofition of the real axis by means of a moll
intricate analyiis, which obfcured the connexion of the
different pofitions of the axis with each other, and gave
us only a kind of momentary information. Father Fri-
fius turned his thoughts to this problem, and fortunate¬
ly difcovered the compofition of rotations as a general
principle of mechanical philofophy. Few things of this
kind have efcaped the penetrating eye of Sir Ifaac
Newton. Even this principle had been glanced at by
him. He affirms it in exprefs terms with refpeft to
a body that is perfeftly fpherical (cor. 22. prop. 66.
B. I.). But it was referved for Frifius to demonftrate
it to be true of bodies of any figure, and thus to enrich
mechanical fcience with a principle which gives fimple
and elegant folutions of the molt difficult problems.
But here a very formidable obje&ion naturally offers
itfelf. If the axis of the diurnal motion of the heavens
is not the axis of the earth’s fpheroidal figure, but an
imaginary line in it, round which even the axis of figure
muff revolve ; and if this axis of diurnal rotation has fo
greatly changed its pofition, that it now points at a
ftar at leaf! 12 degrees dilfant from the pole obferved
by Timochares, how comes it that the equator has the
very fame fituation on the furface of the earth that it had
in ancient times ? No fenfible change has been obferved
in the latitudes of places.
The anfvver is very fimple and fatisfa£lory : Suppofe
that in 12 hours the axis of rotation has changed from
I?. 6. the pofition PR (fig. 6.) io p r, fo that the north pole,
inflead of being at P, which we may fuppofe to be a par¬
ticular mountain, is now at p. In this 12 hours the
mountain P, bv its rotation round y* r, has acquired the
pofition v. At the end of the next 1 2 hours, the axis
of rotation has got the pofition wg, and the axis of figure
has got the pofition p r, and the mountain P is now at
p. Thus, on the noon of the following day, the axis of
figure PR is in the fituation which the real axis of ro¬
tation occupied at the intervening midnight. This goes
on continually, and the axis of figure follows the pofition
of the axis of rotation, and is never further removed
from it than the deviation of 12. hours, which does not
exceed T^th part of one fecond, a quantity altogether
imperceptible. Therefore the axis of figure will always
fenfibly coincide with the axis of rotation, and no change-
can be produced in the latitudes of places on the furface
of the earth. .
pplication We have hitherto confidered this problem in the moft
this rea- general manner ; let us now apply the knowledge we
: llin? t0 have o-otten of the deviation of the axis or of the mo-
ljatl0n f mentary a&ion of the didurbing force to the explanation
I' of the phenomena: that is, let us fee what preceflion and
i ] P R E
what nutation will be accumulated after any given time
of action.
For this purpofe we mull a fee r tain the precife devia¬
tion which the difturbing forces are competent to pro¬
duce. This we can do by comparing the momentum of
libration with the gravitation of the earth to the lun,
and this with the force which would retain a body on
the equator while the earth turns round its axis.
The gravitation of the earth to the fun is in the pro¬
portion of the fun’s quantity of matter M dire&ly, and to
the fquare of the diilance A inverfely, and may therefore
M
be expreffed by the fymbol —. The dirturbing force
at the diftance 1 from the plane of illumination is to
the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the fun as 3 to
A, (A being meafured on the fame fcale which mea-
fures the diftance from the plane of illumination).
Therefore will be the difturbing force f of our for¬
mula.
Let p be the centrifugal force of a particle at the
diftar^e 1 from the axis of rotation ; and let t and T
be the times of rotation and of annual revolution, viz.
, M 1 A TT
fidereal day and year, iheny? : —^ : q/v Hence
But fince r was the angu-
•we derive
3M
A3
:3P
Ta
lar velocity of rotation, and confequently I X ^ the
fpace deferibed, and —;— the velocity ; and finpe the
t
centrifugal force is as the fquare of the velocity divided
by the radius, (this being the meafure of the generated
velocity, which is the proper meafure of any accle-
rating force), we have p—— — .7-, andyfi- - —-
X
—. Now the formula f mn d — expreffed the fine
T* «
of the angle. This being extremely fmall, the fine may
be confidered as equal to the arc which meafures the
angle. Now, fubtlitute for it the value now found, viz.
o * » *
X and we obtain an angle of deviation w —
t1
T*
• 2 d • • •
r A_ m n —? and this is the fimpleft form in which it
can appear. But it is convenient, for other reafons, to
a*—
exprefs it a little differently : d is nearly equal to---
• • 2 d* b* • •
therefore w — r y. — m n 1—, and this is the
2 1 «
form in which ,.e lhall now employ it.
• ^ t* a*- b% • »
The fmall angle r -A— mn   is the angle in which
the new equator cuts the former one. It is different at
different times, as appears from the variable part m n,
the product of the fine and cofine of the fun’s declina¬
tion. It will be a maximum when the declination is in
the folftice, for mn increafes all the way to 450, and the
declination never exceeds 234-- It increafes, therefore,
from the equinox to the folftice, and then diminilhes.
Let
.P R E [27
Let ESL (fig. 7.) be the ecliptic, EAC the equa¬
tor, BAD the new petition which it acquires by the
momentary action of the fun, cutting the former in the
3 /* a1—b*
]
P R E
angle BAE~r
Let S be the fun’s
2 T* 2*
place in the ecliptic, and AS the fun’s declination, the
meridian AS being perpendicular to the equator. Let
■ be k. The angle BAE is then rrr A—• «. In
az * 2T1
the fpherical triangle BAE we have fin. B : fin. AErr
fin. A : fin. BE, or =r AB : BE, becaufe very fmall
angles and arches are as their fines. Therefore BE,
which is the momentary precefiion of the equinoftial
„ . , . fin. AE • 3 ** /
point E, is equal to A — 77—, — r X „ ;,;7~ km n,
fin. B
2 TJ
fin. R. afeen.
* 35
V arious
fin. obi. eel.
The equator EAC, by taking the pofition BAD,
modes of recedes from the ecliptic in the colure of the folftices
application. and CD is the change of obliquity or the nutation.
For let CL be the folftitialcolure of BAD, and cl the
folftitial colure of EAC. Then we have fin. B : fin. E
ir fin. LD : fin. Ic; and therefore the difference of
the arches LD and Ic will be the meafure of the differ¬
ence of the angles B and E. But when BE is indefi¬
nitely fmall, CD may be taken for the difference of LD
and /c, they being nltimately in the ratio of equality.
Therefore CD meafures the change of the obliquity of
the ecliptic, or the nutation of the axis with refpeft to
the ecliptic.
The real deviation of the axis is the fame with the
change in the pofition of the equator, P p being the
meafure of the angle EAB. But this not being always
made in a plane perpendicular to the ecliptic, the change
of obliquity generally differs from the change in the poli-
tion of the axis. Thus when the fun is in the folftice,
the momentary change of the pofition of the equator is
the greateft pofiible ; but being made at right angles to
the plane in which the obliquity of the ecliptic is com¬
puted, it makes no change whatever in the obliquity,
but the greateft pofiible change in the prcceffion.
S6 In order to find CD the change of obliquity, obferve
that in the triangle CAD, R : fin. AC, or R : cof.
AE=fin. A : fin. CD,=rA : CD (becaufe A and CD
are exceedingly fmall). Therefore the change of ob¬
liquity (which is the thing commonly meant by nuta-
• Q •
tlon) CD=A X cof. AE, = r kmn, cof. AE'rzrr
JlL- k x fin. declin. X cof. declin. X cof. R afeenf.
2 Ta
37 But it is more convenient for the purpofes of aftro-
nomical computation to make ufe of the fun’s longitude
SE. Therefore make
The fun’s longitude ES - - «
Sine of fun’s long. - - - = os
Cofine - - - s'l—x1— y
Sine obliq. eclipt. - - - 23^ — P
Cofine obliq. . - - - ~ q
In the fpherical triangle EAS, right-angled at A
(becaufe AS is the fun’s declination perpendicular to
the equator), we have R: fin. ESzr fin. E : fin. AS,
and lin, ASrz^J.v. Alfo R ! cof. AS—-cof. AE . cot.
> %
of % put
and we have the fluxion of the nu-
xA-*4’
tation for the moment when the fun’s longitude is 55,
and the fluent will be the whole nutation. The fluxion
2 t jb p •
refulting from this procefs is - x x, of which the
„ . 1 t h p ,
fluent is -—rrr-
4 i
2 T
This is the whole change produ-
39
ES, and cof. ES or cof. AS X cof. AE. Therefore Preeeffion.
p xy— fin. AS X cof. AS X cof. AE, —?n n x cof. AE.
* 3 P
Therefore the momentary nutation CDzrr X
We muft recollect that this angle is a certain frac¬
tion of the momentary diurnal rotation. It is more
convenient to confider ii .as a fraftion of the fun’s an¬
nual motion, that fo we, may diredftly compare his mo¬
tion on the ecliptic with the preceflion and nutation
correfponding to his fituation in the heavens. This
change is eafily made, by augmenting the fraftion in
the ratio of the fun’s angular motion to the motion of
rotation, or multiplying the fraclion by — therefore
•'it
the momentary nutation will be r k/> x y. In this
O t k P
value - ■ l;/ is a conftant quantity, and the momentary
2 1
nutation is proportional to x y, or to the product of the
fine and cofine of the fun’s longitude, or to the fine of
twice the fun’s longitude ; for xy h equal to half the
fine of twice is.
If therefore we multiply this fraction by the fun’s
momentary angular motion, which we may fuppofe, with
abundant accuracy, proportional to iz, we obtain the
fluxion of the nutation, the fluent of which will ex-
prefs the whole nutation while the fun deferibes the
arch 25 of the ecliptic, beginning at the vernal equi¬
nox. Therefore in place of y put I—.v*, and in place
40
ced on the obliquity of the ecliptic while the fun moves
along the arch 2; ecliptic, reckoned from the vernal
equinox. When this arch is 90°, is J, and there¬
fore ? is the nutation produced while the fun moves
4 i .
from the equinox to the folftice.
The momentary change of the axis and plane of the
equator (which is the meafure of the changing force) is
2 t k
—“ m n.
2 I _ .41
The momentary change of the obliquity of the echp- The real
. 2,t k p • ar.d mo-
^ mentary
changes
greateft at
^ q' " • the folftices,
Hence we fee that the force and the real momentary ^-^es,
change of pofition are greateft at the folftices, and di- nothing-
minifti to nothing in the equinoxes.
The momentary change of obliquity is greateft at the
oflants, being proportional to x x or to x y.
The whole accumulated change of obliquity is great¬
eft at the folftices, the obliquity itfelf being then
fmalleft.
We muft in like manner find the accumulated quan-
tity
tic is
2 T
, , , ,,. . . 2 tk p
The whole change of obliquity is -—r—x*
P R E [ 273
Precefllon. tity of tke preceflion after a given time, that is, the
]
P R E
4l
Quantity
of precef-
! fion in a
given time
43
Mode of
ding the
ormulse.
'arch BE for a finite time.
We have ER : CD=fm. EA : fin. CA (or cof.
EA)~tan. EA : 1, and EB : ERm : fin. B. There¬
fore EB : CD = tan. EA : fin. B. But tan. EA=
cof. E x tan. ES, =cof. Ex
Ji—x*
and CD = EB :
Log 3240oo'=2? - - - j.51055
Log P - - - _ . 5.21308
Log 5".292 .... 0.72363
The precefiion therefore in a quarter of a year is
Freccffiot*.
cof. long.
Therefore EB : CD =
qx
:P>
fin. obliq. eclip.
tan. long. 0
value found in N° 40. viz.
i—x*
If we now fubflitute for CD its
2T
we obtain EB—
2 f It q x
21 V
the fluxion of the preceflion of the
1—AT
occafioned by the aftion of the fun.
equinoxes
fluent of the variable part
The
; .vy, of which the
fluent is evidently a fegment of a circle whofe arch
is z and fine that is, = ‘Z~-Xs^-lS~x anci the
2
whole preceflion, while the fun defcribes the arch 2;,
is X —xs/1—'x* This is the preceflion of
the equinoxes while the fiin moves from the vernal
equinox along the arch % of the ecliptic.
3tktJ
4T
In this expreflion, which confifts of two parts,
5.292 feconds; and, fince it increafes uniformly, it is
2i,/.i68 annually. * 45
_We mull now recollefl the aflumptions on which 4ffumP"
this computation proceeds. The earth is fuppofed to^^V
be homogeneous, and the ratio of its equatorial diame Zinputa-
ter to its polar axis is fuppofed to be that of 231 to tion pro-
230. If the earth be more or lefs protuberant at thecee<ls’
equator, the preceflion will be greater or lefs in the ra¬
tio of this protuberance. The meafures which have
been taken of the degrees of the meridian are very in-
confillent among themfelves } and although a compari-
fon of them all indicates a fmaller protubeiancy, nearly
-j-xt inftead of -y-fr* their differences are too great to
leave much confidence in this method. But if this
figure be thought more probable, the preceflion will be
reduced to about 17" annually. But even though the
figure of the earth were accurately determined, we have
no authority to fay that it is homogeneous. If it be
denfer towards the centre, the momentum of the protu¬
berant matter will not be fo great as if it were equally
denfe with the inferior parts, and the preceflion will be
diminifhed on this account. Did we know the propor¬
tion of the matter in the moon to that in the fun, we
could eafily determine the proportion of the whole ob-
ferved annual preceflion of 50!" which is produced by
the fun’s aftion. But we have no unexceptionable data
for determining this; and we are rather obliged to in-
^tkqf / \ ^or determining this; and we are rather obliged to in-
and -rp f—x^J 1—J, the firfl: is incomparably fer it from the efleft which fhe produces in difturbing
4 - - ' the regularity of the preceflion, as will be confidered
immediately. So far, therefore, as we have yet pro-
greater than the fecond, which never exceeds 1", and is
always compenfated in the fucceeding quadrant. The
preceflion occafioned by the fun will be - 8, and
4!
from this expreflion we fee that the preceflion increafes
uniformly, or at leaft increafes at the fame rate with
the fun’s longitude iz, becaufe the quantity is con-
4 A
flant.
In order to make ufe of thefe formulae, which are
now reduced to very great fimplicity, it is neceflary to
determine the values of the two conftant quantities
3tkq .
-Jp-» which we fhall call N and P, as faftors of
the nutation and preceflion. Now t is one fidereal day,
and T is 366^. k is  —, which according to
Sir Ifaac Newton is -—3-- -3.5L.
231*
= ; p and
115
are the fine and cofine of 230 28', viz. 0.29822 and
O.91729.
Thefe data give N =  ^ andPrr— , of
141030 61224’ 1
winch the logarithms are 4.85069 and 5.21308, viz.
44 the arithmetical complements of 5.14931 and 4.78602.
heudlkf f* Let US’ f°r an examPle of the ufe of this inveftiga-
f the in/ /°n’ comPute the preceflion of the equinoxes when
ligation. the lan ll.as moved from the vernal equinox to the fum-
mer folftice, fo that ;z is 90°, or 224000".
Vol. XVII. Part I.
ceeded in this inveftigation, the refult is very uhcertain.
We have only afcertained unqueftionably the law which
is obferved in the folar preceflion. It is probable, how¬
ever, that this preceflion is not very different from 20//
annually; for the phenomena of the tides ftiow the di¬
fturbing force of the fun to be very nearly £ of the di¬
fturbing force of the moon. Now 20" is £ of 50". 6-
But let us now proceed to confider the effeft of the Effeft of
moon’s a£lion on the protuberant matter of the earth ; th0 moon’s
and as we are ignorant of her quantity of matter, and adlion on
confequently of her influence in fimilar circumftances btrinTmat
W!th the fun, we ftiall fuppofe that the difturbing force ter of the *
of the moon is to that of the fun as #1 to 1. Thenearth.
{cat ter is paribus') the preceflion will be to the folar pre¬
ceflion in the ratio of the force and of the time of its
aflion jointly. Let t and T therefore reprefent a pe¬
riodical month and year, and the lunar preceflion will
be = This preceflion muft be reckoned on the
plane of the lunar orbit, in the fame manner as the fo¬
lar preceflion is reckoned on the ecliptic. We muft
alfo obferve, that reprefents the lunar preceflion
only on the fuppofition that the earth’s equator is in¬
clined to the lunar orbit in an angle of 234 degrees.
This is indeed the mean inclination ; but it is fometimes
increafed to above 28°, and fometimes reduced to 18°.
Now in the value of the folar preceflion the cofine of
the obliquity was employed. Therefore whatever is
M.m the
P R E
[ 274 ]
P R E
Pr^ceffion. the anple E contained between the equator and the lu-
*“■ "—y mmJ _ , m 7r t Cof. E
nar orbit, the preceflion will be.—
47
Fig. 8.
T ' Cof. 231°’
and it muft be reckoned on the lunar orbit.
Now let W' B (fig. 8.) be the immoveable plane of
the ecliptic, f^EDrC^F the equator in its fir ft Situation,
before it has been deranged by the affion of the moon,
AGRDBH the equator in its new pofition, after the
momentary aftion of the moon. Let EGNFH be the
moon’s orbit, of which N is the afcending node, and
the angle 8' 46".
the angle N, which may be confidered as conftant dur- Preceffiorj
ing the month, and the longitude ‘Y' N, which is alfo near- *
ly conftant, by obferving that fin. E : fin. ripN—fin.N r
fin. qpE.
m 7r t fin.N • fin. ^N’cof.E
Therefore KS=r—— X 7^— *
I coi. qp
Let N'T* the long, of the node be
Sine N'Y’
Cofine NT
Sine qpzr23^
Cofine qp - -
Sine Nr:3.8.46
Cofine N - -
Circumference to radius i,=6.28
Force of the moon
Solar precefiion (fuppofed
tion) -
Revolution of ]) — 27**^
Revolution of ©= 3^^
Revolution of N r= 18 years 7 months
But we muft exterminate the angle E, becaufe it changes
by the change of the pofition of N. Now, in the tri¬
angle <Y' EN we have cof. E—cof. PP N * fin. N • fin. qp —
cof. N * cof. fY', —7/ c a—db. And becaufe the angle E
is neceflarily obtuie, the perpendicular will fall without
the triangle, the cofine of E will be negative, and we
{hall have cof. 'SL—b d—acy. Therefore the nutation
mirt cx(bd—acy)
for one month will be — vp- X ^
-, the node
51
parts of
moon’s a:
i4^,f by obferva-
e
m
t
T
48
Lunar pre
In order to reduce the lunar preceflion to the ecliptic,
S" m'a we muft recoiled that the equator will have the fame
month re- inclination at the end of every half revolution of the lun
being fuppofed all the while in N.
Thefe two expreflions of the monthly preceflion and may bee
nutation may be confidered as momentary parts of the fulered il
uuLdiiuM j j v fmonieiitsi
moon’s a&ion, correfponding to a certain pofition ol
the node and inclination of the equator, or as the 
fluxions of the ivliole variable preceflion and nutation, tion.
while the node continually changes its place, and in the
fpace of 18 years makes a complete tour of the hea¬
vens. , jj
We muft, therefore, take the motion of the node as pr„e§o;
the fluent of comparifon, or we muft compare the fluxions and nuta-
of the node’s motion with the fluxions of the preceflion «on com
and nutation •, therefore, let the longitude of the node l,are ’
be 2;, and its monthly change =sz ; we (hall then have
duced to
the «cliptic.
t : 77—23 : e. and t~ , —-
Let T be = I,
e *Vx—**
in order that n may be 18.6, and fubftitute for t its va-
lue in the fluxion of the nutation, by putting ^i—x'
9
in place of y. By this fubftitution we obtain m w n-^
The fluent of this is tw tt /?
eb
or of the moon, that is, when they pafs through the
equator, becauftf the fum of all the momentary changes
of its pofition begins again each revolution. Therefore
if we negled the motion of the node during one month,
which is only degrees, and can produce but an infen-
fible change, it is plain that the moon produces, in one
half revolution, that is, while {he moves from H to G,
the greateft difference that flie can in the pofition of the
equator. The point D, therefore, half-way from G to  
H is that in which the moveable equator cuts the pn- / dbsji—** )• Simpfon’s Fluxions,
mitive equator, and DE and DF are each 90°. But S \ 2 / _ _
being the folftitial point, is alfo 90°. Therefore
DS—ry1 E. Therefore, in the triangle DGE, we have
fin. ED : fin. Grrfin. EG : fin. D, =EG : D. There¬
fore Dr=EG x fin- G, rrEG X fin. E nearly. Again,
the triangle <y,DA we have fin. A : fin. qpD (or
(d b x x
J1—-v*
' X x^,
in
cof. fy1 E) ~ fin. D : fin. qp A, —D
cpA—
D • cof. (Y> E EG • fin.
ty'A. Therefore
E * cof. qp E,
^ yy.). But when x is=: 0, the nutation muft be —0,
becaufe it is from the pofition in the equinoftial points
that all our deviations are reckoned, and it is from this
point that the period of the lunar a£lion recommences.
But if we make x = 0 in this expreflion, the term
r vanjfljeSj an3 xhe term—dbt^/1—x* becomes
fin. A
rn n t fin. E • cof^
fin. qp
cy> E
fin. 234-
T
49
L   . col. ‘V
This is the lunar preceflion produced in the courfe of
one month, eftimated on the ecliptic, not conflant like
the folar preceflion, but varying with the inclination or
the angle E or F, which varies both by a change in the
angle N, and alfo by a change in the pofition of N on
the ecliptic. .
S?on in We muft find *n 1Ike manner the mltatlon Pro"
the fame m duced in the fame time, reckoned on the colure of the
time, folftices RL. We have R : fin. DS_D : RS, and
RS=D • fin. BS, =D • fin. qpE. But D=EG • fin. E.
rn 7r t cof. E
Therefore RS=EG • fin. E • fin. qp E,
— db ; therefore our fluent has a conftant part
and the complete fluent is ^—db^i »’—•
a c x
. j. Now this is equal \.o mv n—y {db Y, verfed
T * coi. *p
X fin. E X ^ In thIs expreflion we muft fubftitute
5
fine, %—^ a cX verfed fine 2 ss) : For the verfed fine
of * is equal to (1—cof. z) j and the fquare of the fine
of an arch is 4 the verfed fine of twice that arch. ^
This, then, is the whole nutation while the moon s
afcending node moves from the vernal equinox to the
longitude e^N^ss. It is the expreflion of a certain
number of feconds, becaufe w, one of its fadlors, is the
folar preceflion in feconds; and all the other fa&ors are
numbers, or fraftions of the radius I j even e is exprel-
fed in terms of the radius 1.
The fluxion of the preceflion, or the monthly precei-
fion,
54
P R E
rpreceffi«n'
55
[ 27s ]
P R E
fion, is to that of the natation as the cotangent of <Y> E
is to the fine of <Y' • This alfo appears by confidering
fja-. 7. P p meafures the angle A, or change of pofition
of the equator ; but the preceflion itfelf, reckoned on the
ecliptic, is raeafured by P 0, and the nutation by ^0 ; and
the fluxion of the preceflion is equal to the fluxion of
. cot. ‘Y' E gd^-bcy ,
nutation X — —, but cot. qp E=2  , there¬
fore
fine qp
Cot. OP E ctd-^-bc^f 1
fine qp cx
the fluxion of the nutation, gives
(bx—a*) dc—abc'.J
This, multiplied into
nnr n l a b dl
I—x x
would agree better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe PrecelTu ti,
were fubftituted for Mr Machin’s little circle. He
thought that the fliorter axis of this ellipfe, lying in the
colure of the folftices, fliould not exceed 16". Nothing
can more clearly fhow the aftonifliing accuracy of
Bradley’s obfervations than this remark : for it refults
from the theory, that the pole muft really deferibe an
ellipfe, having its ftiorter axis in the foliiitial colure, and
the ratio of the axis muft be that of 18 to 16.8 ; for
the mean preceflion during a half revolution of the
abeK^J
x for the monthly pre
.mTn
node is (d*
2 v
tude «, it will be
■) 5 and therefore, for the longi-
2
25 m 7T n . .. c
* ) ; when this is taken
m ir i
from the true preceflion for that longitude (N0 540>
ceflion. The fluent of this [a d'b *-\-{b*—a*} leaves the equation of preceflion {^b'—ax^dc
dcx — ^abfz — vabc'x , or it is equal fine 2; — £ &c fine 2 2^ j therefore, when the node is
” c1) ab%+ (Z-*—o4) J a be*
m tt >
ab e
fine 2 25^.
Let us now exprefs this in numbers : When the node
has made a half revolution, we have 2=180°, whofe
verfed fine is 2, and the verfed fine of 22, or 360°, is
— o j therefore, after half a revolution of the node, the
nutation (N° 5^0 becomes 2 b d. If, in this ex-
preflion, we fuppofe m—2\, and we fliall find
the nutation to be
Now the obferved nutation is about 18". This re¬
quires m to be 2^0, and v—16^". But it is evident
that no aftronomer can pretend to warrant the accuracy
of his obfervations of the nutation within 1".
To find the lunar preceflion during half a revolution
e
of the node, obferve that then * becomes = -, and the
fine of 2 and of 22 vani(h,d4 becomes 1—c4, and the pre-
ceflion becomes  (d*—), — ^— ( I ),
in the folftice, and the equation greateft, we have it=
n c ^ "We here negleft the fecond term
a be
as infignificant.
69
57
. 58
Gives th«
difturbing
force and
matter of
the moon.
and the preceflion in 18 years is 1—i c*.
We fee, by comparing the nutation and preceflion
, 4 cr/ , .
for nine years, that they are as —to 1—-y c , nearly
as 1 to 17}. This gives 313" of preceflion, correfpond-
ing to 18", the obferved nutation, which is about 35" of
preceffion annually produced by the moon.
And thus we fee, that the inequality produced by
the moon in the preceflion of the equinoxes, and, more
particularly, the nutation occafioned by the variable ob¬
liquity of her orbit, enables us to judge of her (hare in
the whole phenomenon ; and therefore informs us of her
difturbing force, and therefore of her quantity of mat¬
ter. This phenomenon, and thole of the tides, are the
only fafts which enable us to judge of this matter : and
this is one of the circumftances which has caufed this
problem to occupy fo much attention. Dr Bradley,
by a nice companion of his obfervations w'ith the ma¬
thematical theory, as it is called, furnilhed him by Mr
Machin, found that the equation of preceflion compu¬
ted by that theory was too great, and that the theory
r^1 . „ r rr - . 2 ^ ^«C C? Greateft
This greatefl equation ot preceliion is to   > equation of
the nutation of 18", as b1—a* to 2a b ; that is, as ra-prcceffio!,“
dius to the tangent of twice the obliquity of the eclip¬
tic. This gives the greateft equation of preceflion
16".8, not differing half a fecond from Bradley’s obfer¬
vations.
Thus have we attempted to give fome account of this
curious and important phenomenon. It is curious, be-
caufe it affefts the whole celeftial motions in a very in¬
tricate manner, and received no explanation from the
more obvious application of mechanical principles, which
fo happily accounted for all the other appearances. It
is one of the mqft illuftrious proofs of Sir liaac New¬
ton’s fagacity and penetration, which catched at a very
remote analogy between this phenomenon and the li-
bration of the moon’s orbit. It is highly important to
the progrefs of pra&ical and ufeful aftronomy, becaufq
it has enabled us to compute tables of fuch accuracy,
that they can be ufed with confidence for determining
the longitude of a fhip at fea. This alone fixes its im¬
portance : but it is ftill more important to the philofo-
pher, affording the moft inconteftable proof of the uni-
verfal and mutual gravitation of all matter to all matter.
It left nothing in the folar fyftem unexplained from the
theory of gravity but the acceleration of the moon’s mean
motion j and this has at laft been added to the lift of
our acquifitions by M. de la Place.
Quae toties animos veterum torfere Sophorum,
Quaeque fcholas fruftra rauco certamine vexant,
Obvia confpicimus, nube pellente Mathefi,
Jam dubios nulla caligine praegravat error
Queis fuperum penetrare domes, atque ardua cceli
Scandere fublimis genii conceflit acumen.
Nec fas eft propius mortali attingere divos.
Halleij.
PRECISE, (precius, “ early”), the name of the
2ift order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method ;
confifting of primrofe, an early flowering plant, and a
Mm2 few
P R E [2
Fr*l|1£e genera which agree with it in habit and ftruaure,
Predeitina- tl50Ugl1 .not alvvays in the charafter or circumftance ex-
tion. preffed in the title. See Botany, Natural Orders.
'■ v _ PRECIPITANT, in Chemijlry, is applied to any
liquor, which, when poured on a folution, feparates what
is diffolved, and makes it precipitate, or fall to the bot¬
tom of the veffel.
PRECIPII ATE, in Chemiflry, a fubftance which,
having been diffolved in a proper menltruum, is again
feparated from its folvent, and thrown down to the bot¬
tom of the veffel by pouring fome other liquor upon
it. ,
PRECIPITATION, the procefs by which a preci¬
pitate is formed.
PRECOGNI CION, in Scots Law. See Law, Part
III. N° clxxxvi. 43.
PRECORDIA, in Anatomy, a general name for the
parts fituated about the heart, in the forepart of the tho¬
rax ; as the diaphragm, pericardium, and even the heart
itfelf, with the fpleen, lungs, &c.
PREDECESSOR, properly fignifies a perfon who
has preceded or gone before another in the fame office
or employment } in which fenfe it is diflinguilhed from
j anceflor.
The doc- PREDESTINATION, the decree of God, where-
triue ftated. by he hath from all eternity unchangeably appointed
whatfoever comes to pafs ; and hath more efpecially
fore-ordained certain individuals of the human race to
everlafting happinefs, and hath paffed by the reft, and
fore-ordained them to everlafting mifery. The former
of thefe are called the eleB, and the latter are called the
2 reprobate.
Not pecu- This do&rine is the fubjeft of one of the moft perplex-
Chrittia !n?contr<)Verfies that has occurred among mankind. But
nity! a~ js not altogether peculiar to the Chriftian faith. The
opinion, that whatever occurs in the world at large, or
in the lot of private individuals, is the refult of a previ¬
ous and unalterable arrangement by that Supreme Power
which prefides over nature, has always been a favourite
opinion among the vulgar, and has been believed by
many fpeculative men. Thus, in that beautiful fcene in
the lixth book of the Iliad, Hedlor, taking leave of his
wife and his child, fpeaks thus:
Andromache ! my foul’s far better part,
Why with untimely forrows heaves thy heart ?
No hoftile hand can antedate my doom,
Till fate condemns me to the filent tomb.
Fix’d is the term to all the race of earth,
And fuch the hard condition of our birth.
No fprce can then refill, no flight can fave,
All fink alike, the fearful and the brave. 1. 624.
The ancient Stoics, Zeno and Chryfippus, whom the
Jewilh Effenes feem to have followed, afferted the ex-
iftence of a Deity, that, a6Iing wifely, but neceffarily,
contrived the general fyftem of the world ; from which,
by a feries of caufes, whatever is now done in it una¬
voidably refults. This feries, or concatenation of caufes,
they held to be neceffary in every part; and that God
himfelf is fo much the fervant of neceffity, and of his
owm decrees, that he could not have made the fmalleft
objeft in the world otherwife than it now is, much lefs
is he able to alter any thing.
According to the words of Seneca, Eadem necejji-
tas et Deos alhgat. Irrevocabilis divina pariter atque
I
76 ] P R . E
Humana curfus vehit. ///<? ipfc omnium conditor ac rec- Predcftina-
tor fcripjit quidem fata fed Jequitur. Semper par el, feme l don.
juJJitN “ I he fame chain of neceflity conltrains both
gods and men. Its unalterable courfe regulates divine
as well as human things. Even he who wrote the Fates,
the Maker and Governor of all things, fubmits to them.
He did but once command, but he always obeys.” The
ftomal fate, however, differs from the Chriftian predefti-
nation in feveral points. They regarded the divine na¬
ture and will as a neceffary part of a neceffary chain of
caufes j whereas the Chriftians confider the Deity as
the Lord and Ruler of the Univerfe, omnipotent and
free, appointing all things according to his pleafure.
Being doubtful of the immortality of the foul, the Stoics
could have no idea of the do&rine of eledtion and re¬
probation ; nor did they ever doubt their own freedom
of will, or power of doing good as well as evil, as we
fhall prefently fee the Chriftian predeftinarians have
done.
Mahomet introduced into his Koran the do&rine of
an abfolute predeftination of the courfe of human af¬
fairs. He reprefented life and death, profperity and
adverfity, and every event that befals a man in this
world, as the refult of a previous determination of the
one God who rules over all ; and he found this opinion
the beft engine for infpiring his followers with that con¬
tempt of danger, which, united to their zeal, has ex¬
tended the empire of their faith over the faireft portion
of the habitable globe.
The controverfy concerning predeftination firft made When firfl
its appearance in the Chriftian church about the begin-agitated in
ning of the fifth century f. Pelagius a Britiffi, and Cce-the churc.h-
leftius an Iriffi, monk, both lived at Rome during that
period, and poffeffed great celebrity on account of their £<•//.’ ^
piety and learning. They taught that the opinion is
falfe, which afferts, that human nature is neceffarily cor¬
rupted by a depravity derived from our firft parents. 
They contended, that men are born at prefent in a
ftate as pure as that in which Adam was originally cre¬
ated ; and that they are not lefs qualified than he was
for fulfilling all righteoufnefs, and for reaching the
mofl fublime eminence of piety and virtue : that the
external grace of God, which is given unto all, and at¬
tends the preaching of the gofpel, is neceffary to call
forth the attention and exertions of men j but that we
do not want the affiftance of any internal grace to pu¬
rify the heart, and to give it the firft impulfe towards
what is good. Having fled into Africa on account of
the Goths, who at that time invaded Italy, A. D. 410,
Coeleftius remained at Carthage as aprefbyter j but Pe¬
lagius went into the Eaft, where he fettled, and pro-
fpered under the patronage of John bilhop of Jerufa-
lem, to whom his fentiments were agreeable. On the.,
contrary, the celebrated Auguftine, bilhop of Hippo,a p?eVfti-
ftrenuoufly afferted the depravity of human nature fince narian,
the fall of the firft man, the neceffity of a fpecial inter-
pofition of divine grace to enable us to do any one good
aflion •, and confequently, that none could obtain falva-
tion excepting thofe whom God has thought fit to
eledl, and upon whom he beftows this grace. The dif-
pute was carried on with great zeal. Zozimus biftiop
of Rome decided at firft in favour of Pelagius and
Coeleftius, whofe followers were called Pelagians; but
he afterwards altered his opinion •, and 'by the ac¬
tivity of Auguftine, the council of Ephefus was called,
. at
P II E
edeftina-at which the opinion of his antagonifts was formally
non. condemned.
: v In the courfe of the fame century, thefe opinions af-
fumed a variety of forms and modifications. One par¬
ty, called Preile/lindrians, carried Auguftine’s doctrine
fully farther than he himfelf had ventured to do in ex¬
press words *, and afferted, that God had not only pre-
deftinated the wicked to punijhment, but alfo that he
had decreed that they fhould commit thofe very fins on
account of which they are hereafter to be puniihed. 
Another party moderated the do&rine of Pelagius, and
were called Semipelngians. Their peculiar opinion is
exprefled in a different manner by different writers $ but
all the accounts fufficiently agree. Thus, fome repre-
fent them as maintaining that inward grace is not ne-
ceffary to the firft beginning of repentance, but only
to our progrefs in virtue. Others fay, that they ac¬
knowledged the power of grace, but faid that faith de¬
pends upon ourfelves, and good works upon God j and
it is agreed upon all hands, that thefe Semipelagians
held that predeflination is made upon the forefight of
good works. The afliftance of Auguftine, though then
far advanced in life, Avas called in to combat thefe te¬
nets, and he wrote feveral treatifes upon the fubjeft.
In all thefe he ffrenuoufly maintained, that the pre-
deftination of the elefl Avas independent of any forefight
of their good Avorks, but Avas according to the good
pleafure of God only 5 and that perfeverance comes from
God, and not from man. Thereafter the dodlrine of
Auguftine, or St Auftin as he is often called, became
general. He Avas the oracle of the fchoolmen. They
never ventured to differ from him in fentiment; they
only pretended to difpute about the true fenfe of his
j, Avritings.
a j ail the The Avhole of the earliefl: reformers maintained thefe
e;left re- opinions of Auguftine. They affumed under Luther a
more regular and fyftematic form than they had ever
p ' formerly exhibited. But as the Lutherans aftenvards
abandoned them, they are now known by the name
of Calvinijiic DoBrines, from John Calvin of Geneva.
He afferted, that the everlafting condition of mankind
in a future world Avas determined from all eternity by
the unchangeable decree of the Deity, arifing from
his foie good pleafure or free Avill. Being a man of
great ability, induftry, and eloquence, Geneva, Avhere
he taught, and Avbich Avas a free ftate, foon became the
refort of all the men of letters belonging to the reform¬
ed churches, and Avas a kind of feminary from which
miflionaries iffued to propagate the Proteftant doctrines
through Europe. Their fuccefs Avas fuch, that, ex¬
cepting a part of Germany, the principles of all the
reformed churches are profeffedly Calviniftic or Pre-
deftinarian.
The opponents of the do&rine of predeftination a-
imans, niong the Proteftants ufually receive the appellation of
trica Arminians or RemonJIrants. They derive the firft of
d^rigine thefe appellations from James Arminius, aat1io Avas A. D.
ogref- 1602, appointed * profeffor of theology at Leyden. He
ntro- was violently oppofed by Corner his colleague, and
died A. D. 1609. After his death, the controverfy
«tidgioWas conducted Avith great eagernefs on both fides.
The Calvinifts, however, graduallv prevailed. A fynod
*|W;o«cwas called at Dort, A. D. 1618, to Avhich the moft
A^vrch ce^ehrated divines of different countries Avere invited.
There, in a great meafure, by the authority and influ¬
f 277 ]
P R E
• y Cal-
6
R of the
4li
*
HI
et
arum
in b ,de-
ence of Maurice prince of Orange, the Arminians were Predeftina.
condemned as heretics j for by this time ambitious and t^on’
powerful men found themfelves politically interefted in *
this religious conteft. The Arminians prefented to this
fynod a remonftrance, containing a ftatement of their
faith upon the fubje&s in difpute j and from this they
derived the appellation of RemonJIrants. This ftatement
contained the following five articles : I. That God from
all eternity predeftinated thofe to everlafting falva-
tion Avhom he forefaAV Avould believe in Chrift unto
the end of their lives; and predeftinated obftinate un¬
believers to everlafting punifhment. 2. Jefus Chrift
died for the Avhole human race, and for every individual
of it, but believers alone reap the benefit of his death.
3. No man can produce faith in his mind by his own
free Avill, but it is neceffary that man, Avho is by nature
Avicked and unfit for afting or thinking aright, fhould
be regenerated by the grace of the Holy Spirit, impart¬
ed by God for Chrift’s fake. 4. This divine grace con-
ftitutes the fource, the progrefs, and the fulfilment, of
all that is good in man j but it is not irrefiftible in its
operation. 5. Believers, by the afliftance of the Holy
Spirit, are abundantly fitted for every good Avork j
but whether it is poflible for thofe who have once been
truly fuch to fall aAvay, and to perifh finally, is not
clear, and muft be better inquired into by fearching the
facred fcriptures.
In oppofition to thefe, a counter-remonftrance Avas
prefented, containing the opinions of the Calvinifts,
Avhich Avas approved of by the fynod. The fubftance
of it Avas aftenvards adopted, and in nearly the fame ex-
preflions, into the Confeflion of Faith compiled by the
affembly of divines Avhich met at Weftminfter, A. D.
1643, and which every clergyman and probationer for
the miniftry in Scotland is at prefent required to fub- ?
fcribe previous to his admiffion. To give as clear and Calviniftic
as fair an idea as poflible of the Cah'iniftic doftrine up-^0(^rine of
on this head, avc tranfcribe the folloAving paffage from Pre^eftina“
that Confeflion : “ God from all eternity did, by thetKm‘
moft Avife and holy counfel of his oAvn Arill, freely and
unchangeably ordain whatfoever comes to pafs; vet fo, as
thereby neither is God the author of fin, nor is violence
offered to the Avill of the creatures, nor is the liberty or
contingency of fecond caufes taken aAvay, but rather
eftablilhed. Although God knoAvs Avhatloever may or
can come to pafs upon all fuppofed conditions j yet
hath he not decreed any thing becaufe he forefaAV it as
future, or that Avhich would come to pafs upon fuch
conditions. By the decree of God, for the manifefta-
tion of his glory, fome men and angels are predeftina¬
ted unto everlafting life, and others are fore-ordained
to everlafting death. ^ Thefe angels and men, thus pre¬
deftinated and fore-ordained, are particularly and un¬
changeably defigned ; and their number is fo certain
and definite, that it cannot be either increafed or dimi-
niftied. Thofe of mankind that are predeftinated unto-
life, God, before the foundation of the world Avas laid,
according to his eternal and immutable purpofe, and the
fecret counfel and good pleafure of his will, hath cho-
fen, in Chrift, unto everlafting glory, out of his mere
free grace and love, Avithout any forefight of faith, or
good works, or perfeverance in either of them, or any
other thing in the creature, as conditions or caufes mo¬
ving him thereunto ; and all to the praife of his glori¬
ous grace. As God hath appointed the ele& unto glo-
the
[ 278 ]
P R E
Fredeftina- ry5 fo liatli lie, by the eternal and moll free purpofe of
t’on-. his will, fore-ordained all the means thereunto. Where-
£ore) (-hey who are elefted, being fallen in Adam, are
redeemed by Chrift, are effeftually called unto faith in
Chrift, by his fpirit working in due feafon ; are jollified,
adopted, fanftified, and kept, by his power through faith
unto falvation. Neither are any other redeemed by
Chrill effedlually called, jullified, adopted, fanclified,
and faved, but the ele£l only. Ihe reft of mankind,
God was pleafed, according to the unfearchable counfel
of his own will, whereby he extendeth or with-holdeth
mercy as he pleafeth for the glory of his fovereign power
over his creatures, to pafs by, and to ordain them to dif-
bonour and wrath for their fin, to the praife of his glo-
8 rious juftice.”
Supralap- L'here are two kinds of Calvinifts or Predeftinarians,
fanans an 1 tJjg SupvctlnpfnnnTis^ who maintained that God did
Sublapfan- or;gjnally anci gxprefsly decree the fall of Adam, as a
foundation for the difplay of his juftice and mercy \
while thole who maintain that God only permitted the
fall of Adam, are called Sub/apfarians, their fyftem of
decrees concerning eledlion and reprobation being, as it
were, fubfequent to that event. But, as Dr Prieftley
juftly remarks, if we admit the divine prefcience, there
is no*, in fact, any difference between the two fchemes *,
and accordingly that diftindtion is now feldom men-
p tioned.
Difputes in Nor was the church of Rome lefs agitated by the
the church conteft about predeftination than the firft Proteflants
were- The council of Trent was much perplexed how
t e uojo pettje matter without giving offence to the Do¬
minicans, who were much attached to the dodtrine of
Auguftme, and poffeffed great influence in the council.
After much difpute, the great objedt came to be, how
to contrive {uch a decree as might give offence to no¬
body, although it fliould decide nothing. Upon the
whole, however, they feem to have favoured the Semi¬
pelagian fcheme. Among other things, it was deter¬
mined, that good works are of themfelves meritorious to
eternal life 5 but it is added, by way of foftening, that
it is through the goodnefs of God, that he makes his
own gifts to be merits in us. Catarin revived at that
council an opinion of fome of the fchoolmen, that God
chofe a fmall number of perfons, fuch as the bleffed
virgin, the apoftles, &c. whom he was determined to
fave without rny ’forefight of their good works ; and
that he alfo ills that all the reft ftiould be faved, pro¬
viding for them all neceffary means, but they are at li¬
berty to ufe th'm or not. This is called the Baxterian
fcheme in England, from one of its promoters there.
But at all events, the council of Trent feems to have
been extremely anxious that any opinions entertained
among them concerning predeftination might have as
little influence as poflible upon pradlical morality. “ Let
no man (fay they), while he remains in this mortal ftate,
prefume that he is among the number of the eledl, and
that therefore he cannot fin, or fin without repentance j Predeftins
for it cannot be known who are eledfed without a fpe-. tl”ni
cial revelation from God.” Sef. 6. c. 13.
The Jefuits at firft followed the opinion of Auguf-
tine ; but they afterwards forfook it. Molina, one of
their order, was the author of what is called the middle
fcheme, or the doftrine of a grace fufficient for all men,
but fubjedl to the freedom of the human will. /««-
fenius, a dodlor of Louvain, oppofed the Jefuits with
great vigour, and fupported the doctrine of Auguftine.
He wrote in a very artful manner. He declared, that
he did not prefume to ftate his own fentiments upon
the fubjedt. He pretended only to explain and publilh
the fentiments of that great father of the church St
Auguftine. But the Jefuits, in confequence of that in¬
violable fubmiflion to the authority of the pope which
they always maintained, had fufficient intereft at home
to procure the opinions of Janlenius to be condemned
there •, but with this addition fubjoined, that nothing
was thereby intended to be done in prejudice of the
dodfrine of St Auguftine. "I his produced an abfurd
difpute about the pope’s infallibility in matters of fadl.
The Janfenifts affirmed, that the pope had made a mif-
take in condemning the opinion of Janfenius as differ¬
ent from thole of Auguftine 5 whereas in truth they
are the fame, and the one cannot be condemned without
the other. But the Jefuits affirmed, that the pope is no
lefs infallible in points of faft than he is in queftions of
faith ; and he having decided, that the opinions of Jan¬
fenius are different from thofe of St Augufline, every
good catholic is bound to believe accordingly that they
are different. Thefe difputes have never been fully fet¬
tled, and ftill divide the Roman catholic churches.
Some of the ableft fupporters of predeftination have ap¬
peared among the Janfenifts, and particularly among the
gentlemen of Port-Royal. 10'
With regard to Great Britain, the earlieft Engliffi Englifh ai
reformers were in general Sublapfarians, although ome
of them were Supralapfarians. But the rigid Predefti-
narians have been gradually declining in number in that jj^s,
church, although they ftill fubfcribe the 39 articles of
their faith, which are unqueftionably Calviniftic. The
celebrated Scotch reformer John Knox having been edu¬
cated at Geneva, eftabliffied in this country the do&rine
of predeftination in its ftri&eft form : and it has proba¬
bly been adhered to with more clofenefs in Scotland "
than in any country in Europe.
Of late years, however, the difpute concerning pre¬
deftination has affumed a form confiderably different
from that which it formerly poffeffed. Inftead of being
confidered as a point to be determined almoft entirely
by the facred fcriptures, in the hands of a number of
able writers, it has in a great meafure refolved itfelf in¬
to a queftion of natural religion, under the head of the
philofophical liberty or neceffity of the will (a) ; or,
whether all human actions are or are not neceffarily de¬
termined
(a> Dr Prieftley, the moft celebrated Neceffarian of the age,, has written a whole feaion of his Illuf rations,
with a view to (how, that betwreen “ the two fchemes of Calviniftic predeftination and philofophical need ty,
there is no fort of refemblance, except that the future happinefs or mifery of all men is certainly foreknown and
appointed by God. In all other refpeas (fays he) they are moft cffentially different; and even where they agree
in the end, the difference in the manner by which that end is accompliihed is fo very great, that the influence ot the
P R E
[ 279 ]
P R E
Pfedeftina-
tion.
11
Points at
ifliie be¬
tween the
predeftina-
rians and
their oppo.
nents.
li
Arguments
for the doc¬
trine
* CaMtti
Refponf
contra Pig-
iaium, ad
«dum lib.
termined by motives arifing from the char after which
God has impreffed on our minds, and the train of cir-
cumftances amidft which his providence has placed us ?
We have already difcuffed this point (fee Metaphy¬
sics) by giving a candid fiatement of the arguments
on both fides of the queftion. We {hall treat the fub-
jeft of predeftination in the fame manner, avoiding as far
as poflible any recapitulation of what has been advanced
under the head of NecESSITT and Libertij.
From what has been already faid, it will appear that
the points chiefly at iffue between the parties are the
following: Firft, With what views and purpofes did
God create the world and frame his decrees concerning
■ mankind ? Did he contrive a great unalterable fcheme
of creation and providence only for the fake of mani-
fefting his own glory and perfeftions ? Or did he firft
confider the free motions of thofe rational agents whom
he intended to create, and frame his decrees upon the
confideration of what they might choofe or do in all
the various circumftances in which he intended to
place them ?—The fecond and following queftions are
branches of this leading one. Did Chrift die for a par¬
ticular portion of the human race, who fhall therefore
certainly be faved ? or was his death intended as a bene¬
fit to all, from which none are excluded excepting thofe
who willingly rejeft it ? Is the divine grace certainly
and irrefiftibly efficacious in all thofe minds to which it
is given ? or does its effeft depend upon the good ufe
which men may or may not make of it ? Can any good
aftion be done without it ? Do thofe who have once
received it certainly perfevere and obtain eternal lalva-
tion ? or is it poffible for any of them to fall away and
periffi finally ?
We (hall begin by ftating the argument on the fide
of the predeftinarians, and in the language which they
commonly ufe. But it is neceffary to make this pre¬
vious remark, that the general * objeftions to their doc¬
trine are, that it is hoftile to all our ideas of the juftice
of God, reprefenting him as a partial being, rewarding
without merit, and puniflring without fin •, that it ren¬
ders him the author of evil, deftroys moral diftinftions,
makes ufelefs every effort on our part, makes every
prayer abfurd, and even the preaching of the gofpel Predeftina*
vain } feeing that all things are immutably fixed, and Uon' ,
none can believe or be faved excepting the cleft, and
they mult certainly and at all events be fafe. Againft
all this they reafon thus.
The great and everlafting Author of all things ex-
ifted from eternity alone, independent and effentially
perfeft. As there was no other, he could only confider
himfelf and his own glory. He muft therefore have
defigned all things in and for himfelf. To make him
ftay his determinations till he ffiould fee what free crea¬
tures would do, is to make him decree with uncertain¬
ty, and dependently upon them, which falls (hurt of
infinite perfeftion. He exifted alone, and his counfels
could have no objeft excepting himfelf; he could only
then confider the dilplay of his own attributes and per¬
feftion. In doing this, as the end is more important
than the means, Divine Wifdom muft begin its defigns
with that which is to come laft in the execution of
them ; but the conclufion of all things at the laft judge¬
ment will be the complete manifeftation of the wifdom,
the goodnefs, and juftice of God : we muft therefore
fuppofc, that in the order of things, he decreed that
firft, although with him, in the order of time, there' is
no firft nor fecond, but all is from eternity. When
this great defign was laid, the means were next defign¬
ed. Creation, and its inhabitants of every order, form
the means by which the author and difpofer of all things
accompliffies his will. But creatures in his fight are
nothing, and are figuratively faid to be lefs than nothing.
We may entertain proud and elevated conceptions of
our own dignity if we pleafe but if we in our defigns
regard not thQ duft on which we tread, or the lives of
ants and infefts, the omnipotent Lord of all, from whom
we are more infinitely diftant, muft regard us as at leaft
equally inconfiderable, and only valuable as we ferve the
accompliffiment of his great and myfterious purpofes,
which cannot be us or our aggrandifement, but himfelf
and his own glory. _ _ 13
It is only by this view of the divine conduft thatas neceffary
fome of the attributes of God can be explained, or their to explain
exiftence rendered poffible. In the fcriptures he claims
the attribute of prefcience w his diftinguifliing prero¬
gative :
two fyftems on the minds of thofe that adopt and aft upon them is thereverfe of one another. 1 he Calvinnuc doc¬
trine of predeftination, according to a very authentic ftatemewt of the doftrine*, is, that “ God, for his own glory, * shorter
hath foreordained whatfoever comes to pdfs.” The fcheme of philofophical neceffity, as ftated by an intimate friend Catechijm
and warm admirer of Dr Prieftley’s, is, “ That every thing is predetermined by the Divine Being that whateverY A-e f-
has been, muft have been j and that whatever will be, muft be ; that all events are pre-ordained, by infinite Ayildom^.^/^
and unlimited goodnefs •, that the will, in all its determinations, is governed by the fiate of mind J that tins itate Wejimin-
of mind is in every inftance determined by the Deity *, and that there is a continued chain of cauies and effects,
of motives and aftions, infeparably connefted, and originating from the condition in which we aie roug it into
exiftence by the Author of our being.” The author or compiler of the fame book affirms, I hat all motion in¬
deed originates in the Deity \ that the Deity is felf-moved •, that he poffeffes the Angular attribute underived of
moving himfelf.” But it is added in the very fame paragraph from which this laft fcntence is quoted, that ‘ the
very argument w^e employ to prove one underived fource of motion and exiftence, is a grob loleciim m logic j and
that the afcription of this power to the Divine Being is in faft nothing elfe than the lefs o. two palpable abfurdi-
ties, or rather impojjibilities, if thefe could admit of degrees f.” , . . r
The pietv of thefe affertions will be obvious, we are perfuaded, to every one of our readers ; but to fome ^ 15
poffible that their confiftency may not be apparent. We would advife all fuch “ to perufe once and again Pr ty hy Akx.
Prieftley’s Illuftrations,” which we have the beft authority to fay, will remove from their minds all libertarian^^
prejudices, convince them “ that the hypothelis of neceffity is incontrovertibly true,” and mow them that all into Crombie,
defenders of that bypothefis are in perfeft harmony with themfelves and with one another.
P R E [ 280 ] P R E
PieJeftina- gatlve ; but there can be no prefcience of future con-
. tlon- tingencies ; for it involves a contradiflion to fay, that
* things which are not certainly to be Ihould be certainly
forefeen. If they are certainly forefeen, they mujl cer¬
tainly be, and can therefore be no longer contingent.
An uncertain forefight is alfo an imperfedt adt, as it
may be a miftake, and is therefore inconfiflent with di¬
vine perfedtion. On the other fide the difficulty is ea-
fily explained. When God decrees that an event lhall
take place, its exiftence thenceforth becomes certain,
and as fuch is certainly forefeen. For it is an obvious
abfurdity to fay, that a thing happens freely, that is to
fay, that it may be or may not be, and yet that it is cer¬
tainly forefeen by God. He cannot forefee things but
as he decrees them, and confequently gives them a fu¬
ture certainty of exiftence $ and therefore any prefcience
antecedent to his decree muft be rejedted as impoffible.
Conditional decrees are farther abfurd, inafmuch as they
fubjedt the purpofes of God to the will and the adtions
of his creatures. Does he will or wiffi that all man¬
kind ffiould be faved, and ffiall they not all be faved ?
Infinite perfedtion can wiffi nothing but what it can
execute : and if it is fit to wiffi, it is alfo fit to execute
its wiffies. We are indeed certainly informed by the
fcriptures, that all (hall not be faved $ and we therefore
as certainly conclude, that God never intendedlhat they
ffiould be fo 5 for the counfel of the Lordfandeth fajly
and the thoughts of his heart, to all generations.
Chrift died We conclude upon the fame principles, that al-
only for the though the bleffings refulting from the death of Chrift
eledl. are offered to all, yet that intentionally and adtually he
only died for thofe whom the Father had chofen and
given to him to be faved by him. That Chrift ffiould
have died in vain is reprefented by the apoftle Paul as a
great abfurdity (Gal. ii. 21.) : but if he died for all,
he muft have died in vain with regard to the greater
part of mankind who are not to be faved by him. In
fo far as fome inferior bleffings are concerned, which
through him are communicated, if not to all men, at
leaft to all Chriftians, he may perhaps juftly be faid to
have died for all: but with regard to eternal falvation,
his defign, to avoid rendering it fruitlefs, could go no
farther than the fecret purpofe and eledtion of God.
This is implied in thefe words, all that are given me of
my Father, thine they were, and thou gavef them me.
To thefe his interceffion is limited \ 1 pray not for the
world, but for thofe that thou hafl given me; for they are
thine, and all thine are mine, and mine are thine ( Jo. xvii.
9, 10.). Univerfal words are indeed ufed with regard
to the death of Chrift : but the reafon is obvious, the
Jewiffi religion was confined to the family and defen¬
dants of Abraham. In contradidtion to this, the gof-
pel is faid to be preached to every creature, and to all
the world ; becaufe it is not limited to any one race or
nation, and becaufe the apoftle received a general com-
miffion to teach it unto all who ffiould be willing to
receive it. Thefe extenfive expreffions can only be un-
derftood in this manner, becaufe in their ftridt accepta¬
tion they have never been verified. Nor can their mean¬
ing be carried farther without an imputation upon the
juftice of God : for if he has received a fufficient fatis-
fadtion for the fins of the whole world, it is not juft that
all ffiould not be faved by it, or at leaft have the offer
of falvation made to them, that they may accept of it if
they pleafe.
But to return to the divine purpofes and attributes Predeftinsi
in general: it is in vain to affert that God is partial and tion-
unjuft while he prefers without merit, and predeftinates
to puniffiment thofe who have not yet offended. The
fame error mifleads men here that has fo often feduced
them from the true path of fcientific refearch. Inftead
of fubmitting to the patient and humble obfervation of
nature, they boldly form fome plaufible hypothefis of
their own, and vainly attempt to reconcile every appear¬
ance to their favourite fyftem. This mode of procedure
never has proved, and never will prove, fuccefsful in any
branch of true philofophy. We are not entitled to
frame to ourfelves certain notions of the juftice of God,
and from thefe to decide that thus he muft adl, and in
no other manner. He takes no counfel from us concern¬
ing his condiidf, and we have no right to rejudge his
judgments. What he regards as juft or unjuft between
himfelf and his creatures, is a queftion of fadl nof to be
known by ingenious conjedlures, but by the cautious
obfervation of the manner in which he a£ts in the courfe
of his providence, and by attending to what he has de¬
clared concerning himfelf in the lacred fcriptures. If
from thefe it ffiall appear that he does prefer where there
is no merit, and rejedt where there is no crime j it will
be in vain thereafter to affert that fuch condudl is un¬
juft : the fadt will be on our fide of the queftion, and we
fliall leave thofe to account for it who infill that their
limited reafon is capable of comprehending all the myf-
terious ways of an Infinite Being.
In the courfe of providence, then, we fee the great-Great ine-
eft inequalities take place, and fuch as appear alto- qualities in
gether contradidlory to our ideas of juftice. We feethe orcl'na-
the fins of the fathers puniffied in the perfons of thej^J^Jj^
children, who often derive debilitated bodies from tlm
intemperance of their parents, and corrupted manners
from the example of their vices. God frequently affiidts
good men in this life for a great length of time, as in
the cafe of Job, only for the manifeftation of his own
glory, that their faith and patience may be made mani-
feft. Some fins are puniffied with other fins, and often
with a courfe of fevere miferies in the perfons of thofe
who never committed them. We may transfer this
from time to eternity; for if God may do for a little
time what is inconfiftent with our notions, and with
our rules of juftice, he may do it for a longer duration :
fince it is as impoffible that he can be unjuft for a day
as for all eternity : and the fame inequality of manage¬
ment appears in the great as in the private affairs of this
world. During many ages almoft the whole human
race were loft in the darknefs of idolatry: even fince the
Chriftian religion came into the world, how few nations
have received it ; and of thefe few, the number is ftill
fmaller of thofe who have enjoyed it in tolerable purity.
If we confider how many great nations remain under
the delufion contrived by Mahomet; if we refleft upon
the idolatry of the Indies and of China, and the fu-
perftition of the Greek church, and of the church of
Rome—^we ftiall find that very few nations have poffeffed
the moft ordinary means of grace. Even the bleffings
of civilization, of fcience, and of liberty, are fo rarely
fcattered over the face of the earth, that it is to be re¬
garded as a melancholy truth, that with a very few fa¬
voured exceptions the whole human race have hitherto
been funk in the depth of barbarifnt, ignorance, flavery,
and idolatry. When the Arminians think fit to affert,
then.
# Calvini
Traci- de
Etcrm Dei
Prtede/l.
16
The lan¬
guage of
Scripture
nan,
P R E [2
Fredeftina-then, that the doftrine of abfolute decrees is contrary
non. to t|ieJr ideas of the impartiality and juftice of God, we
can only anfwer that we are ferry for them if they have
formed ideas of the chara&er of God which are contrary
to the truth. We prefume not * like them to call his
.attributes before the tribunal of our underftandings j we
only obferve the ways of his providence, and declare
that thus Hands the fa£t. If be leave whole nations in
darknefs and corruption, and freely choofes others to
communicate the knowledge of himfelf to them, we
need not be furprifed if he a£t in the fame manner with
individuals. For furely the rejefling immenfe empires
for fo many ages is much more unaccountable than the
feleilion of a few individuals, and the leaving others in
ignorance and depravity. It is in vain to allege that
he extends his mercy to thofe who make the beft ufe of
the dim light which they have. This does not remove
the difficulty of a choice and a preference \ as it cannot
be denied that their condition is very deplorable, and
that the condition of others is much more hopeful : fo
that the myfterious doctrine of eleftion and reprobation
is an unqueflionable truth under the government of God,
feeing that great numbers of men are born in fuel) cir-
cumftances that it is morally impoffible they ffiould not
periffi in them •, whereas others are more happily fitu-
ated and enlightened.
Nor are we left to common obfervation upon this
point. The language of the facred feriptures is pofitive
jiredeftina- and clear. The whole reafoning in the ninth chapter
to the Romans refolves all the afls of God’s juftice and
mercy, his hardening as well as his pardoning, into an ab¬
folute freedom and an unfearchable depth. More point¬
ed expreffions for .this purpofe can fcareely be conceived
than thofe adtually made ufe of. For the children being
not yet born, neither having done am/ good or evil, that
the purpofe of God according to eleclion might Jiand, not
of works, but of him that calleth, it was faid. The elder
fiallferve the younger. As it is written, Jacob have I
loved, but Efau have I hated. What [ball we fay then ?
Is there unrighteoufnefs with God? God forbid. For he
faith to Mofes, I will have mercy on whom I will have
mercy, and / will have companion on whom I will have
compafjton. So then it is not of him that willeth, nor of
him that runneth, but of God that Jhoweth mercy ; for
the feripture faith unto Pharaoh, Even for this fame
purpofe have I raifed thee up, that l might [how my
power in thee, and that my name might be declared
throughout all the earth. Therefore hath he mercy on
whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hiar-
deneth. If any man ffiall ftill be fufficiently bold to de¬
clare that all this is contrary to what he is pleafed to
confider as juft and impartial, we can only reply to him
I Ubifupra. in the words of the celebrated John Calvin of Geneva f.
Tibi molejlum ejl ac odiofum, Deum plus poffe et facere,
yuam mens tua capiat; ceyuah autem tuo interdum con¬
cedes, ut fuo judicio fruatur Et tu in tanto furore, Dei
mentionem ullam facere audes ? “ Is it painful to thee
that the power and the works of God exceed thy limit¬
ed capacity ? Thou fometimes fuffereft thine equal to
judge of his own condu61 for himfelf, and dareft thou in
thy folly to cenfure the ways of God ?” Or rather we
may reply in thofe words'of the apoftle Paul which im¬
mediately follow thepaflage already quoted. Thou wilt
fay then to me. Why doth he yetfind fault ? for who hath
refilled his will? Nay but, 0 man, who art thou that re-
Vgl. XVII. Part I.
* 11 ■
An objec¬
tion an¬
swered.
8r ] P It E
pliejl againfi God ? Shall the thing formed fay to him that Precleftlna
formed it, Why hajl thou made me thus? Hath not the , t‘l^v"
potter power over the clay; of the fame lump to make
one vefi'el unto honour, and another unto dif honour ? Let
thefe paflages, and even the whole of the chapter novV
alluded to, be explained in any manner that is judged
proper, ftill their import with regard to the prefent ar¬
gument will remain the fame. It God loved Jacob fo
as to choofe his pofterity to be his people, and rejected or
hated Efau and his pofterity, and this without regard to
them or their future conduct, but merely in conlequencc
of the purpofe and defign of his election 5 if by the fame
purpofe the Gentiles were to be grafted upon that flock
from which the once favoured Jews were cutoff; it will
follow, not only that the great and myfterious decree of
final eledlion is unfearchably free and abfolute, but alfo
that all the means of grace are granted or withheld in
the fame unlimited and free manner according to the
fovereign will and good pleafure of God, independent
of any forefight of merit on our part. The words of
our Saviour exprefs this : / thank thee, 0 Father, Lord
of heaven and earth, becaufe thou hajl hid thefe things
from the wife and prudent, and hajl revealed them unto
babes : The reafon of which is given in the following
words, Even fo, Father, for fo itfeemedgood in thy fight,
(Mat. xi. 26.). The paffage immediately preceding this,
Ihows clearly that the means of grace are not bellowed
upon thofe who, it is forefeen, will make a good uie of
them ; nor denied to thofe who will make a bad ufe of
them. Wo unto thee Choraszin, wo unto thee Bethfuda 1
for if the mighty works which were done in you had been
done in Tyre and Sldon, they would have repented long
ago in fackcloth and afhes. But the paffages in ferip¬
ture are innumerable, which declare that the whole cha-
rafler and deftiny of every man is the refult of the coun -
fel and uncontrouled determination of God. The ex-
preffion is often repeated in the book of Exodus 5 God
hardened the heart of Pharaoh, fo that he would not let
his people go, (Exod. iv. 21.), &c. It is faid, that God
has made the wicked man for the day of evil, (Prov. xvi.
4.). On the other hand, it is faiu, as many believed the
gofpel as were appointed to eternal life, (A£fs i. 48.).
Some are faid to be written in the book of life, of the
Lamb (lain from the foundation of the world (Rev. xiii.
8.). Every prayer that is ufed, or direfted to be ufed,
in feripture, is for a grace that opens our eyes, that
turns the heart, that makes us to go, that leads us not
into temptation, but delivers us from evil. All thefe
expreffions denote that we defire more than a power
or capacity to a£l, fuch as is given to all men. In¬
deed we do not, and we cannot, pray earneftly for that
which we know all men as well as ourfelves poffefs at
all times. jg
The grace of God is the medium by which his fove- Sure effi-
reign will and abfolute decrees are accompli filed. Ac- rac)'
cordingly, it is fet forth in feripture by fuch expreffions Srace*
as clearly denote its fure efficacy *, and that it does not
depend upon us to ufe it or not at our pleafure. It is
faid to be a creation ; we are created unto good works,
and we become new creatures: It is called a regenera¬
tion, or a new birth ; it is called a quickening and a re-
furreflion, as our former ftate is compared to a feeble-
nefs, a blindnels, and a death. God is faid to work in
us both to will and to do : His people Jhall be willing in
the day of his power: He will write his laws in their
N n hearts,
P It E f 282 ] P R E
Prtdeftina- hearts, and make them to zva/k in them. In a paffage al-
, tlon- ready quoted, the human race are compared to a mafs of
v_" clav in the hands of the potter, who of the fame lump
makes at his pleafure vejfels of honour and difhonour.
Thefe paiTages, and this lad nrore particularly, prove
that there is an abfolute and a conquering power in di¬
vine grace ; and that the love of God condrains us, as
St Paul exprcffes himfelf. Our Saviour compares the
union and influence that he communicates to believers
to the union of an head with the members, and of a
root with the branches, which imparts an internal, a
'vital, and an efficacious influence. The outward means
may indeed be rejefted, but this overcoming grace ne¬
ver returns empty : thefe outward means coming from
God, the refifling of them is faid to be the rejtjling of
God, the grieving or quenching of his /pint; and in
that fenfe we may refid the grace or favour of God *,
but we can never withfland him wrhen he intends to
overcome us 5 For the foundation of God Jlandeth fare,
having this feal. The Lord knozveth them that are his,
(2 Tim. ii. ip.)* Having predefinated us unto the adop¬
tion of children by Jefus Thrift himfelf, according to the
T good pleafure of his will, (Eph. i. 5.).
Ferfeve- That the faints {hall certainly perfevere unto the end
lance of is a neceflary confequence of abfolute decrees and of ef-
the faints. f5cac;ous grace : all depends on God. He of his own
will begat us ; and with him there is no variablenefs nor
fhadow of turning: whom he loves, he loves to the end:
and he has promifed that he will never leave nor for-
fake thofe to whom he becomes a God. Our Lord
hath faid, / give unto them eternal life, and they Jball
never perifb ; neither /hall any pluck them out of my
hand, (Jo. x. 28.). Hence we mud conclude, that the
purpofe and calling of God is without 1 epentance, (Heb.
xiii. 9.). And therefore, although good men may fall
into great fins, yet of all thofe who are given by the
Father to the Son to be faved by him, none are lod :
The conclufion from the whole is, that God did in him¬
felf, and for his own glory, foreknow a determinate
number in whom he would be both fanclified and glori¬
fied. Thefe he predefinated to be holy, conformable to
the image of his Son 1 they are to be called, not by a
general calling in the fenfe of thefe words, many are
called, but few are chofen ; but to be called according
to his purpofe. He jufifed them upon their obeying
that calling, and in the conclufion he will glorify them ;
for nothing can feparate us from the love of God in
Chrid, (Rom. ix. 19.). And he is not lefs abfolute in
his decree of reprobation than he is in his ele&ion : for
ungodly men are faid to be of old ordained to condemna¬
tion, and to be given up by God unto vile^ affeElions, and
to be given over by him to a reprobate mind.
Arguments Thus far we have defended the doftrine of prededi-
agiunft the nat*,on : we proceed next to date the arguments ufually
doctiine adduced jn favour 0f the Arminian fydem.
attributes God is jud, holy, and merciful. In fpeaking of
of God. himfelf in fcripture, he is pleafed to make appeals to the
human underdanding, and to call upon men to reafon
with him concerning his ways. The meaning, of this
is, that men may examine his aftions and his attri¬
butes with that meafure of intelligence which they
poffefs, and they will be fm-ced to approve of them.*,
nay, he propofes hirofeT to us as a pattern for our imi¬
tation. We are required to be holy as he is holy, and
4
merciful as he is merciful: which is a proof that heFredeftina-
accounts us not incapable of forming jud notions at, llon-
lead of thefe attributes. What then can we think of ' 1 J
a jud ice that (hall condemn us for a faft that we ne¬
ver committed ? that defigns fird of all to be glorified
by our being eternally miferable, and which afterwards
decrees that we diall commit fins to juflify this previous
decree of our reprobation ? For if God originally de-
figns and determines all things, and if all his decrees
are certainly effedled, it is inconceivable how there
ffiould be a judice in punifliing that which he himfelf,
by an antecedent and irreverfible decree, appointed to
be done. Or, fetting judice afide, is it poffible that
a being of infinite holinefs, and who is of purer eyes than
to behold iniquity, would by an antecedent decree fix our
committing fo many fins, in fuch a manner that it is
not poffible to avoid them ? He reprefents himfelf in
the fcriptures as gracious, merciful, fow to anger, and
abundant in goodnefs and truth. It is often laid, that he
defires that no man fhould perif), but that allJhould come
to the knowledge of the truth : this is even faid with the
folemnity of an oath, As I live, faith the Lord, 1 take
no pleafure in the death of finners. What fenfe can thefe
w'ords bear if v'e believe that God did by an abfolute
decree doom fo many of them to everlading mifery ?
If all things that happen arife out of the abfolute de¬
cree of God as their fird caufe, then we mud believe
that God takes pleafure both in his own decrees and
in the execution of them, confequently that he doth take
pleafure in the death of finners; and this in exprefs
contradi&ion to the molt pofitive language of fcrip¬
ture. Befides all this, what are we to think of the
truth of God, and of the fincerity of thofe offers of
grace and mercy, with the exhortations and expodu-
lations upon them that occur fo frequently in fcrip¬
ture, if we can imagine that by antecedent a£ts he de¬
termined that all thefe (hould be ineffedlual ? In one-
word, are we to regard our exidence as a bleffing, and
to look up with gratitude to that paternal goodnefs
which has placed us in a land of hope, which formed
our nature, weak indeed and expofed to many imper-
feftions, but capable of rifing by virtuous efforts and
by a patient continuance in well-doing to excellence
and to high and immortal felicity ? or, are we to curfe
the hour in which we were born under the dominion of
a mader, vffio is not only fevere, but abfurd, and even
adds infult to cruelty 5 who, after placing us in a good¬
ly habitation, binds us hand and foot, locks the door,
blocks up the windows, fets fire to the fabric, and
then very mercifully calls upon us to come forth led we
is not true that rational beings are nothing in
the fight of their Maker. Compared to his Almighty
firength and uncreated exidence, our powers do indeed
diminidi into weaknefs, and our years into a moment :
yet although our intereds may be unimportant in them-
felves, the attributes of God with which they are con-
nefted are far from being fo. There was no neceffity
for his calling us into exidence ; but the indant he be-
dowed upon us that gift, and conferred upon us facul¬
ties capable of rifing to happinefs by the contempla¬
tion of himfelf and of his works, he became our parent,.,
and granted to us a right to look up to him for protec¬
tion and mercy, and to hope that our exidence and
our faculties were not bellowed in vain. Nor will he,
trample
peri dr
It
P It E [28
Ifteiiefthia-trample upon the juft and reafonable hopes of the mean-
tion. 0f his creatures. He is watchful over our interefts j
},e hath fent his Son to die for us; his providence has
been exerted for no other purpofe but to promote our
welfare •, and there is joy in heaven even over one finner
that repenteth. Let it be allowed, that the univerfe
was formed for no other purpofe but to promote the
glory of God j that glory can furely be little promoted
by the exertion of undiftinguifhing and blind adls of
power, in the arbitrary appointment to eternal repro¬
bation of millions of unrefifting and undeferving wretch-
* Co-cfoon-^*’ it not'more honourable to the Deity to con-
denrebe- ceive of him as the parent, guide, governor, and judge
tween of free beings, formed after the likenefs of himfelf, with
Price and p0Wers of reafon and felf-determination, than to con-
Priejlley. cejye 0f him as the former and conductor of a fyftem
of confcious machinery, or the mover and controuler
of an univerfe of puppets, many of whom he is pleafed
to make completely roiferable ? The moft important
and fundamental point of religion, confidered as a fpe-
culative fcience, confifts in our forming high and juft
ideas of God and of his attributes, that from them we
may underftand the maxims of true and perfect mora¬
lity. But were we to attempt to form our own natures
upon the idea of the divine charafter that is given us
by the doflrine of abfolute decrees, we would certainly
become imperious, partial, and cruel; at leaft we fhould
not readily learn the virtues of kindnefs, mercy, and
2I compaftion.
The diffi- It is true that, fetting afide predeftination, it is
culty of not eafy to ftiow how future contingencies fhould be
preference certainly forefeen ; but it is obvious that fuch forefight
10 vec‘ involves no contradi&ion, (fee Metaphysics,'N°308);
and if the aftions of men be free, we know from the
train of prophecies, which in the facred feriptures ap¬
pear to have been made in one age and fulfilled in ano¬
ther, that contingencies are forefeen by that infinite
Being who inhabiteth eternity, and to whom a thou-
fand years are but as one day. The prophecies concern¬
ing the death and fufferings of Chrift Avere fulfilled by
the free acts of the Jewilh priefis and people : Thefe
men finned in aceomplilhing that event, Avhich proves
that they afted rvith their natural liberty. From thefe
and all the other prophecies both in the Old and Ncav
Teftaraeitt, it muft be confeffed that future contingen¬
cies Avere certainly foreknoAvn, but Avhere to found that
certainty cannot be eafily refolved. We ftouDt not,
lioAvever, that avc* may fafely refer it to the infinite per-
fe&ion of the Divine mind. And it ought to be ob-
ferved that this difficulty is of a very different nature
from that, to which our antagonifts are reduced on their
fide of the argument. They are compelled to confefs
that they cannot reconcile their do&rine with the juftice
of God/an attribute the nature of Avhieh avb clearly
underftand, and which is held forth to our imitation;
whereas Ave are only at a lois how to explain the mode
in which the divine prefeience is exerted ; an attribute
Avhich God claims as peculiarly his own, and which it
is not to be expelled that Ave ffiould be able in the fmai-
left degree to comprehend. We can go farther than
this. Heaven hath given to man two revelations of it-
felf. The one confifts in the knowledge which avc pro¬
cure by the right ufe of our rational faculties; and the
other is beftowed by means of the facred fcnptures.
Without intending to derogate from the authority of
3 ] P R E
infpiration, it is fair to affert, that Ave are more certain Predeftina
that God is the author and beftower of our reafon,, tu/1'
than that he is the author of the feriptures ; at leaft
it is certain that the laft cannot contradict the firft, be-
caufe God cannot contradict himfelf. By the primary
revelation from heaven then, that is, by our reafon, avc
are informed that God is true, and juft, and good. If
an angel from heaven (liould preach a doCtrine contrary
to this, Ave are entitled to fay Avith the apoftle, let him Scripture
be accurfed. If our antagonifts then ihould fucceed in^3™1.^^"
proving that the doCtrine of abfolute decrees, Avhich /// dic_
reprefents the Deity as cruel and unjuft, is contained in tates 0f
feripture, the confequence Avould be, not that avc Avould reafon.
believe it, for that is impoffible, but that avc Ihould be
reduced to the neceffity of rejecting the authority of
the feriptures, becaufe they contradict the previous fure
revelation of God, our reafon. We believe that the
doCIrines contained in the feriptures are certainly true,
becaufe they Avere taught by thofe Avho wrought mi¬
racles and foretold future events in proof of their be¬
ing infpired by the God of truth. But miracles and
prophecy are dir eel evidences of nothing but the power
and wifdom of their Author; and unleis Ave know by
other evidence, that this powerful and Avife Being is
likeAvife the father of truth and juftice, avc cannot be
fure that the feriptures, notwithftanding their fource, are
any thing better than a tiffue ot falfehoods. the very
arguments therefore by Avhich predeftination is fupport-
ed, tend to fap the foundation of that revelation from
which its advocates pretend to draw them. The cafe
is very different Avhen no doCIrine is afferted that is not
contradictory to our reafon, but only above it. For
example, when Ave are told that God can create rational
beings, that he attends without diftraCtion to the mi-
nuteft affairs that pafs in a thoufand worlds, that he,
knoAvs all things, the pail, the prefent, and the future,
Ave do not prefume that Ave comprehend Iioav he can do
all this: but there is nothing in it that contradicts our
reafon ; we ourfelves poffefs a certain degree of power,
can attend at once to a certain number of objeCts, can
in fome cafes form very fure conjedures about futurity,
and we refolve all the reft into the infinite nature and
perfections of God,
It is farther to be obferved, that prefeience does
not make effeCts certain becaufe they are forefeen; but
they are forefeen becaufe they are to be : lb that the
certainty of the preference is not the eaufe, but the
confequence of the certainty of the event. The Bo-
nuin republic has fallen ; but our knowledge or igno¬
rance of that event does not render it more or lefs true
and certain. That it was to fall, Avas as furely true be¬
fore it happened as it is now ; and had we known it
beforehand, as many men of fenfe probably did, it
would neither have fallen fnoner nor later on that ac¬
count. This fhows that the knowledge which an in¬
telligent being has of a paft or future event need not
have any influence upon thec;rcumftances that produce
that event.
On force occafions the feripture takes notice of a con- Condif;onal
ditjonal prefeience L God anfwered David, that baulprt)cience.
would come to Kebab, and that the men of Keilah * t j>am.
would deliver him up; yet both the one and the other
refted upon the condition of his flaying there ; and he1*’
going from thence, neither of them ever happened.
Such alfo ay as the f prophecy of Jonah, at the failure t Chap. iii.
N n 2 of4’
. 24.
Thrill died
for the
whole
world.
*5
Freedom
dfential to
moral
agents.
P R E [2
of which he was fo abfurdly offended : and fucli tv as
Chrift’s faying, That thofe of Tyre and Sidon, Sodom
and Gomorrah, would have turned to him, if they had
feen the miracles that he wrought in the towns of Ga¬
lilee. Since, then, this prefcience may be fo certain
that it can never err or miflead the exertions of provi¬
dence, and frnce by this, both the attributes of God are
vindicated, and the due freedom of man is afferted, all
difficulties feem to be thus eafily removed.
With regard to the purpofe of Chrift’s death, he is
faid to be the propitiation for the fins of the whole
world; and the Avicked are faid to deny the Lord that
bought them. His death, as to its extent, is fet in op-
pofition to the fins of Adam ; fo that as by the offence of
one judgment came upon all men to condemnation, fo
by the righteoufnefs of one the free gift came upon all
men to juftification of life, (Rom. v. 18.). I he all on
the one fide muft be as extenfive as the all on the other :
fo, fince all are concerned in Adam’s fin, all muft like-
Avife be concerned in the death of Chrift. lo this avc
may add, that all men are commanded and required to
believe that Chrift died for their fins ; but no man can
be obliged to believe Avhat is not true : he muft there¬
fore have died for all. The folloAving paffages exprefs
clearly the univerfality of the objeft of Chrift’s death.
If any man fin, we have an advocate with the Father,
Jtfus Chrifi the righteous : and he is the propitiation for
our fins : and not for ours only, but alfo for the fins of
the 'whole world (1 Jo. ii. I, 2.). The love of Chrifi
confiraineth us ; becaufe we thus judge, that if one died
for all, then were all dead: and that he died for all,
that they which live fhould not henceforth live unto them-
felves, (2 Cor. v. 14.). God fo loved the world that he
''gave his only begotten Son, that whofoever believeth in
him might not perifh, but might have everlafiing life.
(Jo. iii. 16.).
But a proper attention to the nature of man will fet
the juftice of our argument in a ftill flronger point of
view. It is obvious, that fuch an inward freedom as ren¬
ders a man the matter of his own conduct, and able to do
or not do what he pleafes, is fo neceflary to the morality
of our actions, that without it they are neither good nor
evil, neither capable of reAvards nor punithments. Mad¬
men, or men afleep, are not to be charged with the good
or evil of what they do 5 therefore at lead fome fmall
degree of liberty muft be left us, otherwife why are Ave
praifed or blamed for our conduct ? All virtue and reli¬
gion, all difeipline, and induftry, arife out of this as their
fir ft principle, that there is a power in us to govern our
own thoughts and actions, and to raife and improve our
faculties. If this be denied, all efforts, all education, all
attention beftowed upon ourfelves or others, become fruit-
lefs and vain. If a man account himfelf under an inevi¬
table decree, as he will have little remorfe for the evil
he does while he imputes it to that inevitable force that
conftrains him, fo he Aviil naturally conclude that it is to
no purpofe for him to ftruggle with impoffibilities. Men
are fufficiently inclined to throw all cenfure off from
themfelves, and to indulge in indolence j and upon the
do&rine of abfolute predeftination Avho can blame them,
feeing that their efforts can be of no value ?
Matter is inactive of itfelf, and only moves in confe-
quence of its being a&ed upon by fome other being. Man
is poffeffed of a power to begin motion, and to determine
it in any direction that he may judge proper. This power
84 ] P R E
and this intelligence conftitute his liberty, and form that PreJeftlna-
image of God that is ftamped upon his nature. Whether don-
man poffeffes this poAver of acting originally and of him- v J
felf, or whether he is incapable of forming any refolu- 26
tion, or making any effort, Avithout being acted upon by or
a foreign caufe, is not a point to be reafoned on or dif-qUeftio^^
puted about : it is a queftion of faft, which, as far as itfa<a.
can poffibly be known, every man has it in his poAver to
determine by the evidence of his oAvn conffioufnefs. We
do aver, then, that e\’ery man is confcious that he is a free
agent, and that it is not poffible for the molt ftaunch
predeftinarian that has ever yet appeared ferioufty and
pradtically to convince himfelf of the contrary. It is not
poffible for a man in his fenfes to believe, that in all thofe
crimes which men charge themfelves Avith, and reproach
themfelves for, God is the agent j and that, properly
fpeaking, they are no more agents than a fword is when
employed to commit murder. We do indeed, on fome
occafions, feel ourfelves hurried on fo impetuoufly by vio¬
lent paffions, that Ave feem for an inftant to have loft our
freedom j but on cool refledlion Ave find, that Ave both
might and ought to have reftrained that heat in its firft
commencement. We feel that Ave can divert our
thoughts, and overcome ourfelves in moft inftances, if
we fet ferioufly about it. We feel that knoAvledge, re¬
flexion, and proper fociety, improve the temper and
difpofition $ and that ignorance, negligence, and the fo¬
ciety of the Avorthlefs and abandoned, corrupt and de¬
grade the mind. From all this Ave conclude, that man
is free, and rot under inevitable fate, or irrefiftible mo¬
tions to good or evil. This conclufion is confirmed by
the Avhole ftyle of feripture, which upon any other fup-
pofition becomes a folemn and umvorthy mockery. It is
full of perfuafions, exhortations, reproofs, expoftulations,
encouragements, and terrors. But to Avhat purpofe is it
to fpeak to dead men, to perfuade the blind to fee, or
the lame to run ? If Ave are under impotence till the ir¬
refiftible grace comes, and if, Avhen it comes, nothing can
withftand it, Avhat occafion is there for thefe folemn dif-
courfes Avhich can have no effeX ? They cannot render
us inexcufable, unlefs it Avere in our poAver to be im¬
proved by them ; and to imagine that God gives light
and bleflings, which can do no good, to thofe whom he
before intended to damn, only to make them more in¬
excufable, and for the purpofe of aggravating their
condemnation, gives fo ftrange an idea of his eharaXer
as it is notf’fit to exprefs in the language that naturally
arifes out of it. 17
Our antagonifts feem to have formed ideas of the Some of
divine perfeXion and fovereignty that are altogether the afts of
falfe. There is no imperfeXion implied in the luppo-
fition that fome of the aXs of God may depend upon [j“ c°n(jua
the conduX of his creatures. PerfcXion eonfifts in 0f his crea-
forming the wifeft defigns, and in executing them by tures.
the moft fuitable means. The Author of Nature con-
duXs the planets in their orbits with immutable preci-
fion according to fixed rules : but it would be abfurd
to pretend to manage free agents, or their affairs, in
the fame' manner by mathematical or mechanical prin¬
ciples. The providence that is exerted over material
objeXs is fixed and fteady in its operations, becaufe it
is fit that material objeXs which cannot move of them¬
felves fliould be moved in a regular manner : but free
and intelligent beings enjoy a Avider range, and ought
not to be confined to a preferibed train of exertions; it
may
i8
he ine-
jualities of
rovidence
ccounted
P R E [ 2
may therefore be neceflary that the providence which
fuperintends them thould accommodate itfelf to circum-
ftances. This, however, is not injurious to the divine
fovereignty; for God himfelf is the author of that free¬
dom of agency which he is pleafed to watch over. He
is not lefs the Lord of the univerfe •, and furely his
wifdom and benevolence are more conlpicuous when he
brings good out of evil, and renders the perverfe wan¬
derings of the human heart fubfervient to purpofes of
mercy, than when he hurls into the immenfity of fpace
the moll enormous mafs of dead and paffive matter fub-
jefted to unerring laws.
As for the inequalities of moral fituation that are to
be obferved in the world, and the giving to fome na¬
tions and perfons the means of improvement, and the
denying them to others, the Scriptures do indeed a-
fcribe thefe wholly to the riches and freedom of God’s
grace. And we confefs, that the ways of Providence
are often dark and myfterious. In this'world there are
many things which are hard to be underflood, and many
which appear altogether unaccountable : we fee the
wicked man profpering in his wickednefs, though it
impofe mifery upon thoufands •, we fee truth hiding its
head, and the world governed by fraud and abfurdity.
Still, however, we can venture to affert, that God be¬
llows upon all what is neceflary to enable them to ful¬
fil the obligations expefled from the (late in which they
are placed ; and it is elfewhere drown, that phyfical evil
is among men the parent of moral good. (See Pro¬
vidence). God winketh at the times of ignorance;
much is required of them to whom much is given ; and
it fliall be more tolerable in the day of judgment for the
inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah than for the en¬
lightened cities of Galilee. Thus God will be juft
when he judges ; none will meet with condemnation ex¬
cepting thofe who are inexcufable. For although he
grants more to fome than may be abfolutely neceflary,
yet he grants lefs to none; and where he grants little,
he will fuit his judgments to the little which he gave.
There is no injuftice in this. If it was the intention
of the great Creator that his creation fliould contain
within its ample bofom every poffible variety of intelli¬
gent natures, it was neceflary that there ftiould be fome-
where fuch a being as man ; and, in forming all poflible
varieties of human minds and fituations, it was neceflary
that every particular individual fliould exift. Hence a
man may as well complain that he was not formed one
of the flaming feraphims that furround the throne of the
Eternal, as that he is not placed in other circumfiances
in life than thofe which he now occupies ; for if little
is given, little will be required from him. Thus the
defigns of Providence go on according to the goodnefs
and mercy of God. None can complain, though fome
have more caufe for joy than others. What happens
to individuals may happen to nations in a body ; fome
may have higher privileges, and be placed in happier
circumftances than others; but none can complain of
the wife and juft difpofer of all,- who has given enough.
85 ] P R E
although we may have good reafon to complain of our-H®deflina-
felves, for not ufing what was fufficient. , tlon‘
As to the cafe of thofe who are not blefled 'ftith the
light of the gofpel, we may confider, that if they have
fewer and lefs advantages than others, their nature and
capacities muft likewife be inferior ; to which their fu¬
ture ftate may be proportioned. God is not obliged to
make all men equally perfe£l in the next world any more
than in this ; and it their capacity be rendered lefs than
that of an ordinary Chrijlian, a lower degree of happinefs
may fill it. However, we need not be extremely felici¬
tous about their rtate, much lefs call any ungrateful im¬
putations on the Governor of the world for not having-
dealt fo bountifully with them as he has with ourfelves ;
fince we know that Chrift died for the whole race of
mankind; that every one will at length be ‘ accepted
according to that he has, and not according to that he
has not; and that to whomfoever much is given, of him
flrall much be required’ (b).
Upon thefe principles, we can eafily explain r11 the Scriptural
pafifages in the New Teftament concerning the purpofe, expreffions
the e left ion, the foreknowledge, and the predef motion of ext1*a‘ne^'
God. They relate to the defign of calling the Gentile
wrorld to the knowledge of the Meflias : This was kept
fecret, though hints had been given of it by feveral of
the prophets, fo that it was a myftery ; but it was reveal¬
ed when the apoftles, in confequence of Chrift’s commif-
fion, to go and teach all nations, went about preaching
the gofpel to the Gentiles. This w'as a ftumbling-blcck.
to the Jews, and it was the chief fubjeft of difpute be¬
twixt them and the apoflles at the time when the Epift-
les were written ; fo that it was neceflary for them to
clear up this point very fully, and to mention it fre¬
quently. But in the beginning of Chriftianity there was
no need of amufing men with high and unfearchable fpe-
culations concerning the decrees of God ; the apoftles
therefore take up the point in difpute, the calling of the
Gentiles in a general manner. They flrow, that Abra¬
ham at firft, and Ifaac and Jacob afterwards, were cho-
fen by a diferiminatingfavour, that they and their pofte-
rity ftiould be in covenant with God ; but that, never-
thelefs, it always was the intention of Providence to call
in the Gentiles, though it was not executed till thefe
later times.
With this key we can explain coherently the whole
of St Paul’s difeourfes upon this fubjedl, without aflert-
ing antecedent and fpecial decrees as to particular per¬
fons. Things that happen under a permiflive and direfl¬
ing Providence, may, by a largenefs of expreflion, be a-
feribed to the will and counfel of God ; for a permiflive
will is really a will, though it is not the agent or caufe
of the effect. The hardening of Pharaoh''s heart may be
aferibed to God, though it is faid that his heart har¬
dened itfelf, becaufe he took advantage of the refpites
which God granted him from the plagues, to encou¬
rage himfelf to longer refiftance. Belides this, he was
a cruel and bloody tyrant, and deferved fuch judgments
for his other fins; fo that he may be confidered as at that
time
(b) See Bifliop Law’s Confderations on the Theory of Religion, where this queftion is treated in a very mafterly
manner. The work, though .lefs known than it ought to be, has great merit, and of the author we have given a
biographical Iketch.
P 11 E
[ 286 ]
P R E
30
Grace not
irreliftible.
Pmkftina- time under final condemnation, and only preferved from
tlon- the firft plagues, to afford a ftriking indance of the
avenging jullice of God. That this is the meaning of
the paffage, appears extremely probable from the man¬
ner in which Exod. ix. 16. is rendered in the Vatican
and Aldus’s edit, of the LXX. Inftead of faying, as in
our tranflation, “ And in very deed for this caufe have
I raifed thee up, for to Ihow in thee my power, &c.”
God is reprefented in that verfion as faying, “ And in
very deed for this caufe have I kept thee utive till now,
for to fliow,” &.c. Whom he will he hurdeneth, is an ex-
preffion that can only be applied to fueh perfons as
this tyrant was. It is obvious that the words of our
Saviour concerning thofe whom his Father had given
him, are only meant of a difpenfation of Providence,
and not of a decree ; fince he add«, And / have lojl
none of them except the fon of perdition : for it cannot be
faid that Judas Ifcariot rvas in the decree, and yet
was loft. And in the fame paffage in which God is faid
to won: in us both to will and to do, we are required to
work out our own falvation with fear and trembling.
The word ordained to eternal lifealfo fignifies fitted and
difpofed to eternal life. The queflion, Who made thee
to differ? (l Cor. iv. 7.) refers to thofe extraordinary
gifts which, in different degrees and meafures, were be¬
llowed upon the firft Chriftians, in which they were un-
queftionably paffive.
If the decrees of God are not abfolute, neither can
his grace be fo efficacious as abfolutely and neceffarily
to determine our condudl, elfe why are we required
not to grieve God's fpirit ? why is it faid, ye do always
refyl the Holy Ghof; as your fathers did,fo do ye? How
often would I have gathered you under my wings, and ye
would not ? What could I have done in my vineyard that
has not been done in it ? Thefe expreflions indicate a
power in us, by which we not only can, but often do,
refill the motions of grace. But if the determining
efficacy of grace be not acknowledged, it will be much
harder to believe that we are efficacioufly determined to
fin. This fuppofition is fo contrary both to the holi-
nefs of God, and to the whole ftyle ox the facred wri¬
tings, that it is unneceffary to accumulate proofs of it.
0 Ifrael, thou haft defrayed thyfelf but in me is thy help:
ye will not come unto me that ye may have life : Why
will you die, 0 houfc of Ifrael ?
The great- As for' perfeverance, we may remark, that the ma-
eft faint on ny piomifes made in the facred fcriptures to them
earth may overcome, that continue ftedfaft and faithful to the
death, do certainly infinuate that a man may fall from
a good ftate. The words of the apoftle to the Hebrews
are very clear and pointed : For it is impoftible for thofe
who were once enlightened, and have tafted of the heaven¬
ly gfli an<t were tnade partakers of the Holy Ghoft, and
have tafted the good voord of God, and the powers of the
world to come, if they fhailfall away, to renew them again
unto repentance (YlFo. vi. 4.). It is alfo faid, The juftftoall
live by faith: but if he draw (c) back, myfottljball have
no pleafure in him, (Heb. x. 38.). And it is faid by the
prophet, When the righteous turneth away from his righ-
teoufnefs, and committeth iniquity, all his righleoufnefs that
f&U
he hath done ft: all not be mentioned; in his ftn that he hath PreJefltnw
finned /hallhe die, (Ezek. viii. 24.). Thefe paffages, with ^ ^n'
many others, give us every reafon to believe that a good
man may fall from a good ftate, as well as that a wick¬
ed man may turn from a bad one.
We conclude the whole by obferving, that the only i
difficulty which attends the queftion arifes from theculties
myfterious, and apparently partial and unequal, courfei()lve(l at
of the divine government in our prefent Hate*, but1^; ^ cr-|
there is an important day approaching, when God will^Ut‘^ment'
condefcend to remove thefe obteurities, and to vindicate
the ways of his providence to man. On that great day,
we are well affured, that the queftion will be decided
in our favour \ for we know that judgment will be gi¬
ven, not according to any abfolute decree, but accord¬
ing to the deeds which we ourleives (hall have ireely
done in the body, whether they have been good, or whe¬
ther they have been evil.
Thus have we ftated, we hope with fairnefs and im¬
partiality, a funimary of the arguments cn both fides of
this long-agitated queftion. We need hardly add, tha*
it is a queftion involved in confiderable difficulties.—
Milton, who was an eminent philofopher and divine,
as well as the firft of poets, when he wiflied to exhibit
the fallen angels themfelves as perplexed by queftions
above their comprehenfion, fet them to diipute about
predeftination.
They reafon’d high, of knowledge, will, and fate,
Fix’d fate, free-will, fore-knowledge abfolute j
And found no end, in wand’ring mazes loft.
Paradife Loft.
The weak fide of the Calviniftic doflrine conlifts m -j^e wt,a{.
the impoffibility of reconciling the abfolute and uncon-fide of each
ditional decree of reprobation with our ideas of the tlo&rine.
juftice and goodnefs of God. The weak fide of the
Arminian fcheme confifts in the difficulty of account¬
ing for the certainty of the divine fore-knowledge, upon
the fuppofition of a contingency of events, or an abfo¬
lute freedom of will in man.
To elude the former of thefe difficulties, fome of the
late writers upon philofophical neceffity, and Dr Prieft-
ly is among the number, have given up the dotlrine of
reprobation, and afferted, that this world is only a ftate
of preparation for another, in which all men, of every
defeription and charafter, {hall attain to final and ever-
lafting happinefs, when God ftoall be all, and in all.—
On the other fide, fome of the fupporters of free agen¬
cy, and Mbntefquieu * is among the number, have
been difpofed to deny' the divine attribute of prefei- perf.
ence.
Whatever may be thought of the pra£Ueal tendency
of the two opinions, there is one remark which we think
ourfelves bound in juftice to make, althougn it ap¬
pears to us to be fomewhat fingular. It is this, that
from the earlieft ages down to our own days, if we con-
fider the character of the ancient Stoics, the Jewifti Ef-
fenes, the modern Calvinifts, and Janfenifts, when com¬
pared with that of their antagonifts the Epicureans, the
Sadducees, Arminiaps, and the Jefuits, we fhall find that
they
* LettrtT
(c) In our tranflation we read, “ if any man draw back,” &c. •, but the words any man are not in the original j
and if they do not make nonfenfe of the text, they muft at leaft be acknowledged to obfeure its meaning.
Prede.ftina-
tion
34 „
Mutual for¬
bearance
recom¬
mended.
* Exp oft-
\tm of the
| ip Articles.
| flip Peri-
F fan-tics
; maintained
pie eternity
||f the
rorld.
P R E [2
tliey have excelled in no {mail degree in the pra&ice of
the mod rigid and rcfpeclable virtues, and have been the
higheft honour of their own ages, and the bed models
for imitation to every age fucceeding. At the fame time,
it mud be confefled, that their virtues have in general
been rendered unamiable by a tinge of gloomy and fe-
vere auderity.
So far as the fpeculative foundation of their princi¬
ples is confidered, however, neither party feems liable to
cenfure in a moral point of view. Each of them withes
to fupport, though in a difterent manner from the other,
the honour of the divine characler. The Calvinids be¬
gin their argument with the notion of infinite perfedlion,
independency, and abfolute fovereignty, and thence de¬
duce their opinions ; making every difficulty yield to
• thefe fird and leading ideas. Their opponents are more
jealous of the refpeft due to the divine attributes of juf-
tice, truth, holinefs, and mercy, and deduce their fenti-
ments from the idea which they have formed of thefe.
Each party lays dorvn general maxims that are admitted
by the other, and both argue plaufibly from their fird
principles. Dr Burnet, whom we have here followed
very clofely, judly obferves *, that “ thefe are great
grounds for mutual charity and forbearance.”
PREDETERMINATION, in Philofophiy and The
ology, is that concurrence of God which makes men a<d,
and determines them in all their adlions, both good and
evil, and is called by the fchoolmen phyjtcul predeter¬
mination or premotion. See METAPHYSICS, Part III.
chap, v.-and PREDESTINATION.
PREDIAL slaves. See Predial SLAVES.
PREDIAL Tithes, are thofe that are paid of things
arifing and growing from the ground only j as corn,
hay, fruit, &c.
PREDICABLE, among logicians, denotes a general
quality which may be predicated, or aflerted of ieveral
things : thus animal is prcdicable of mankind, beads,
birds, fifnes, &c.
PREDICAMENT, among logicians, the fame with
category. See Category and Philosophy.
PREDICATE, in Logic, that which, in a propo¬
rtion, is affirmed or denied of the fubje£L In thefe
propnfitions, /now is white, ink is not white ; whitenefs
is the predicate which is affirmed of fnow, and denied of
ink.
PRE-EMPTION, a privilege anciently allowed the
king’s purveyor, of having the choice and fird buying
of corn and other provifions for the king’s houfe : but
taken away by the datute 19 Car. II.
PREENING, in Natural Hijloru, the a£lion of birds
cleaning, compofing, and dreffing their feathers, to en¬
able them to glide more eafily through the air. For this
purpofe they have two peculiar glands on their rump,
which fecrete an unfluous matter into a bag that is per¬
forated, out of which the bird occafionally draws it with
its bill.
PRE-EXISTENCE, a priority of being, or the
being of one thing before another. Tims a eaufe, if
not in time, is yet in nature pre-exident to its effieft.
Thus God is pre-exident to the univerfe. Thus a hu¬
man father is pre-exident to his fon The Peripate¬
tics, though they maintained the eternity of the world,
were likewife dogmatical in their opinion, that the uni¬
verfe was formed-, actuated, and governed, by a fove-
reign intelligence. See Arijlotle on the Soul, and our
87 ] P R E
articles Creation and Earth. See alfo the Philofo- Pre-exift-
phical TjJ'aijs of Dr Ifaac Watts, and the Principles of erict!-
natural and'revealed Religion, by the Chevalier Ramlay, v
where the fubjeft of the world’s eternity is difeuffed.
Mr Hume’s {peculations alfo, on this abdrufe and ardu¬
ous fubjeft, had a greater tendency to ciiffipate its gloom
than that philofopher himfelf could imagine. 2
The pre-exidence of the human foul to its corporeal Pre-exift-
vehicle had been from time immemorial a prevailing ®nce °^t^c
opinion among the Afiatic fages, and from them was
perhaps transferred by Pythagoras to the philofophy of iages.
the Greeks •, but his metempfyehofis, or tranfmigration
of fouls, is too trivial either to be ferioudy propofed or
refuted. Neverthelcfs, from the fentiments of Socrates
concerning the immortality of the foul, delivered in his
lad interview with his friends, it is obvious that thd tenet
of pre-exidence was a dodfrine of the Platonic ichool. If
at any period of life, iay thefe philofophers, you ffiould
examine a boy, of how many ide as, of what a number of
principles, of what an extent of knowledge will you
find him poflefTed : thefe without doubt could neither be
felf-derived nor recently acquired. W ith what avidity
and promptitude does he attain the knowledge of arts
and feiences, which appear entirely new to’ him ! thefe
rapid and fuccefsful advances in knowledge can only be
the eflfedts of rcminifcence, or of a fainter and more indi-
din£I fpecies of recolleffion. But in all the other opera-Socmtc
tions of memory, we find retrofpedfive impreffions atten- arguments
ding every object or idea which emerges to her view •, for Pre-ex-
nor does die ever fugged any thought, word, or aftion, re”
without informing us, in a manner equally clear and evi¬
dent that thofe impreffions had been made upon our
fenfes, mind, or intellect, on fome former occafion..
Whoever contemplates her progrefs, will eafily difeo-
ver, that aflociation is her moll faithful and efficacious
auxiliary ; and that by joining impreffion with impref-
fion, idea with idea, cireumdance with eircumdance, in
the order of time, of place, of fimilarity or diffimilarity,
ffie is capacitated to accumulate her treafures and en¬
large her province even to an indefinite extent. But
when intuitive principles, or fimple conclufions, are eli¬
cited from the puerile underdanding by a train of eafy
quedions properly arranged, where is the retrofpt&ive
a<51 of memory, by which the boy recognifes thofe
truths as having formerly been perceived in his mind r1
Where are the crowds of the concomitant, antecedent,
or fubfequent ideas, with which thofe recollections
ought naturally to have been attended ? In a word,
where is the fenfe of perfonal identity, which feems ab-
folutely infeparable from every aft of memory ? This
hvpothefis, therefore, will not fupport pre exidence.
After the Chridian religion had been confidtrably dif-
fufed, and warmly combated by its philofophical anta-
gonids, the fame doftrine was refumed and taught at
Alexandria, by Platonic profelytes, not only as a topic pre.eqft_
condituent of their madei’s philofophy, but as an an-ence taught
fwer to thofe formidable objeftions which had been de- by (’hriltiaiy
dueed Rom the doftrine of original fin, and from the ^aton^'
vices which dain, and from the calamities which dif-
turb human life : hence they drenuoudy aflerted, that
all ihe human race were either introduced to being
prior to Adam, or pre-exident in his perfon ; that they
were not, therefore, reprefented by our fird parents, but
actually concurred in their crime, and participated their.
ruin.
The
^re-exifl-
J$ut no fo-
lution of
P R E [
The followers of Origen, and fuck as entertained the
notion of Pre-adamite* *, might ai'gue from the doc¬
trine of pre-exiltence with fome degree of plauhbility.
For the human beings introduced by them to the theatre
of probation had already attained the capacity or dig¬
nity of moral agents as their crime therefore was vo-
!r"Tf ■■ luntary> their puniihment might be juft. But thofe who
1 believe the whole human race created in Adam to be
only •re-exiftent in their germs or ftamina, were even
deprived of this miferable fubterfuge 5 for in thcle ho¬
munculi we can neither fuppofe the moral nor rational
conftitution unfolded. Since, therefore, their degene¬
racy was not fpontaneous, neither could their fufferings
be equitable. Should it be faid that the evil of original
fin was penal, as it extended to our firft parents alone,
and merely confequential as felt by their pofterity, it will
be admitted that the diftindlion between penal and con¬
fequential evil may be intelligible in human affairs, where
other laws, affortments, and combinations fhan thofe
which are Amply and purely moral, take place. But
that a moral government, at one of the moll cardinal
periods of its adminiftration, fhould admit gratuitous or
confequential evil, feems to us irreconcileable with the
attributes and conduct of a wife and juft legiflator. Con¬
fequential evil taken as fuch, is mifery fuftained without
demerit •, and cannot refult from the procedure of wif-
dom, benignity, and juftice ; but mull flow from necef-
fity, from ignorance, from cruelty, or from caprice, as
its only poffible fources. But even upon the fuppofition
of thofe who pretend that man was mature in all his fa¬
culties before the commiffion of original fin, the objec¬
tions againft it will flill remain in full force : for it is ad¬
mitted by all except the Samian fage, that the confciouf-
nefs of perfonal identity which was felt in pre-exiftence,
is obliterated in a fubfequent ftate of being.
Now it may be demanded, whether agents thusrefuf-
citated for puniihment have not the fame right to mur¬
mur and complain as if they had been perfedlly innocent,
and only created for that dreadful cataftrophe ? It is
upon this principle alone that the effects of puniihment
can be either exemplary or difeiplinary ; for how is it
poflible, that the puniihment of beings unconfcious of a
crime Ihould ever be reconciled either to the juftice or
beneficence of that intention with Avhich their fufferings
are inflidled ? Or how can others be fuppofed to become
wife and virtuous by the example of thofe who are nei¬
ther acquainted with . the origin nor the tendency of
their miferies, but have every reafon to think themfelves
affiidled merely for the fake of afflifting ? To us it
feems clear, that the nature and rationale of original fin
lie infcrutably retired in the bofom of Providence ; nor
can we, without unpardonable prefumption and arro¬
gance, form the moll Ample conclufion, or attempt the
minuteft difeovery, either different from or extraneous
to the clear and obvious fenfe of revelation. This fenfe
indeed may with propriety be extrafled from the whole,
or from one paffage collated with another •, but inde¬
pendent of it, as reafon has no premiffes, fhe can form
no deductions. The boldnefs and temerity of philofo-
phy, not fatisfied with contemplating pre-exiftence as
merely relative to human nature, has dared to try how
far it was compatible with the glorious Perfons of the
facred Trinity. The Arians, who allowed the fubor-
dinate divinity of our Saviour, believed him pre-exiftent
to all time, and before all worlds 5 but the Socinians,
3
288 ] P
who efteemed his nature
R E
well as his perfon merely Pre-txift.
human, infilled, that before his incarnation he was only ,rce
pre-exiftent in the divine idea, not in nature or perfon.
But when it is confidered, that children do not begin
to deduce inftruftions from nature and experience, at a
period fo late as we are apt to imagine ; when it is ad¬
mitted, that their progrefs, though infenfible, may be
much more rapid than tve apprehend ; when the op¬
portunities of fenfe, the ardour of curiofity, the avidity
of memory, and the aftivity of underftanding, are re¬
marked—we need not have recourfe to a pro exiftent
ftate for our account of the knowledge which young
minds difeover. It may likewife be added, that moral
agents can only be improved and cultivated by moral
difeipline. Such effefts therefore of any ftate, whether
happy or miferable, as are merely mechanical, may be
noxious or falutary to the patient, but can never enter
into any moral economy as parts of its owm adminiftra¬
tion. Pre-exiftence, therefore, whether rewarded or
punilhed, without the continued impreflion of perfonal
identity, affords no folution of original fin.
PPiEFACE, fomething introductory to a book, to
inform the reader of the defign, method, &c. obferved
therein, and generally whatever is neceffary to the un¬
derftanding of a.book.
PREFECT, in ancient Rome, one of the chief ma-
giftrates who governed in the abfence of the kings, con-
fuls, and emperors.
This power was greateft under the emperors. His
chief care was the government of the city, taking cog¬
nizance of all crimes committed therein and within 100
miles. He judged capitally and finally, and even pre-
fided in the fenate. He had the fuperintendence of the
provifions, building, and navigation.
The prefeCt of modern Rome differs little from the
ancient pnefetfus, his authority only extending to 40
miles round the city.
PREFECT of the Preetorium, the leader of the preto-
rian bands deltined for the emperor’s guard, confifting,
according to Dion, of 10,000 men. This officer, ac¬
cording to Suetonius, was inftituted by Auguftus, and
ufually taken from among the knights.
By the favour of the emperors his power grew very
confiderable •, to reduce which, Conftantine divided the
prefecture of the prsetorium into four prefectures, and
each of thefe he fubdivided again into civil and military
departments, though the name was only referved to him
who was invefted with the civil authority, and that of
comes belli given him who commanded the cohorts.
PREG ADI, in HiJIonj, a denomination given to the
fenate of Venicfe, in which refides the whole authority
of the republic. At its firft inftitution, it was compo-
fed of 60 fenators, to whom 60 more have been added.
See Venice.
PREGNANCY, the ftate of a woman who hiis con¬
ceived, or is with child. See Midwifery.
PREHNITE, a mineral firft brought by Colonel
Prehn from the Cape of Good Hope, whofe name it
bears. See Mineralogy Index. t
PREJUDICE, or Prejudgment, from pra and Definition.
judicium, means a judgment formed beforehand, with¬
out examination j the prepofition pree exprefling an an¬
ticipation, not fo much of time as of knowledge and due
attention : hence the fchoolmen have called it anticipa¬
tion and a preconceived opinion. _ .
Prejudice
P R E C 289 3 P R E
prejudice. Prejudice arifes from the affociating principle, which
‘—-v—' we have explained at large in another article (fee Me-
Orio-inof TAPHyslcs> Parti, chap. 5.), and it is a weaknels
prejudice. from which no human mind can be wholly free. Some
are indeed much more than others under its influence j
but there is no man who does not occafionally aft upon
principles, the propriety of which he never inveftigated }
or who does not hold fpeculative opinions, into the
truth of which he never ferioully inquired. Our pa¬
rents and tutors, yea, our very nurfes, determine a mul¬
titude of our fentiments : our friends, our neighbours,
the cuftom of the country where we dwell, and the efta-
blifhed opinions of mankind, form our belief 3 the great,
the pious, the learned, and the ancient, the king, the
prieft, and the philofopher, are characters of mighty
efficacy to perfuade us to regulate our conduCt by their
praCtice, and to receive as truth whatever they may
dictate.
The cafe cannot indeed be otherwife. The occa-
fions of aCting are fo frequent, and the principles of ac¬
tion are fo various, that were a man to inveltigate accu¬
rately the value of every fingle motive which prelents
itfelf to his mind, and to balance them fairly againft
each other, the time of aCting would in moft inltances
pafs away long before he could determine what ought
to be done ; and life would be waited in ufelefs {pecula¬
tion. The great laws of religion and morality, which
ought to be the general and leading principles of aCtion,
no man of fcience will take upon truft 3 but in the
courfe of a bufy life a thoufand circumitances will oc¬
cur in which we muft aCt with fuch rapidity, that, after
being fatisfied of the lawtulnefs of what we are about
to do, we muit, for the prudence of it, confide entirely
in the general cuftoms of our country, or in the praCtice
of other individuals placed in circumitances fimilar to
ours. In all fuch cafes, though we may aCt properly,
V we aCt from prejudice.
Its■exten- But the dominion of prejudice is not confined to the
five domi- aCtions of the man of bufinefs : it extends over the {pe¬
culations of the philofopher himfelf, one half of whofe
knowledge relts upon no other foundation. All hu¬
man fciences are related to each other (fee Philo¬
sophy, N° 2.), and there is hardly one of them in
which a man can become eminent unlefs he has fome
general acquaintance with the whole circle 3 but no man
could ever yet inveftigate for himfelf all thofe propofi-
tions which conftitute the circle of the fciences, or even
comprehend the evidence upon which they reft, though
he admits them perhaps as truths incontrovertible. He
muft therefore receive many of them upon the autho¬
rity of others, or, which is the fame thing, admit them
by prejudice.
To this reafoning it may be obje&ed, that when a
man admits as true abftraft propofitions, which, though
not felf-evident, he cannot demonftrate, he admits them
not by prejudice, but upon teftimony, which has been
elfewhere Ihown to be a fufficient foundation for human
belief (fee Metaphysics, N° 138.). The objeftion is
plaufible, but it is not folid 3 for teftimony commands
belief only concerning events'which, falling under the
-cognizance of the fenfes, preclude all poffibility of mif-
take 3 whereas abftraift propofitions, not felf-evident,
can be proved true only by a procefs of reafoning or by
■Ajeries of experiments ; and in conducing both thefe,
the moft vigorous mind is liable to miftake. When Sir
VOL. XVIL Part I.
Ifaac Newton told the world that it was the fall of an Prejudice,
apple which firft fuggefted to him the general law of' "" 3 f
gravitation, he bore teftimony to a fatf concerning
which he could not be miftaken 3 and we receive his
teftimony for the reafons affigned in the article referred
to. When he lays down the method of obtaining the
fluxion or momentum of the re&angle or product of two
indeterminate quantities, which is the main point in his
do&rine of fluxions, he labours to eftablilh that method
on the bafis of demonftration 3 and whoever makes ufe
of it in pra&ice, without underftanding that demonftra¬
tion, receives the whole do&rine of the modern geome¬
trical analyfis, not as a matter of fatt upon the credit
of Sir Ifaac’s teJHmony, but as a fyftem of abftraft truth
on the credit of his underfunding : in other words, he
is a fluxionift by prejudice.
In vain will it be faid, that in mathematical demon¬
ftration there is no room for mifiake 3 and that there¬
fore the man who implicitly adopts the method of
fluxions may be confidered as relying upon the veracity
of its author, who had no inducement to deceive him,
and whofe comprehenfion was confefledly greater than
his. In fluxionary mathematics, which treat of matters
of which it is extremely difficult, if not impoffible, to
have adequate and fteady conceptions, the moft edmpre-
henfive mind is liable to fniftake 3 and it is well known
that the celebrated bilhop of Cloyne wrote his Analif
to prove that the incomparable author of the method of
fluxions had committed tveo mifakes in bis fundamental
propofition, which balancing one another, produced a
true conclufion by falfe reafoning. One or other of
thefe great men, of whom the leaf! was an eminent ma¬
thematician, muft have been bewildered in his reafoning,
and have fallen into error ; and therefore whoever fol¬
lows either of them implicitly without perceiving the
error of the other, is unqueftionably under the influence
of prejudice. This is the cafe with the writer of the
prefent article. He perceives not the error of Biffiop
Berkeley’s reafoning, and yet he admits the doftrine of
fluxions on the authority of Sir Ifaac’s demonftration.
That demonftration, however, he pretends not to un-
derftand j and therefore he admits the doftrine through
prejudice.
We have made thefe obfervations, to point out the Impoilible
abfurdity of the faffiionable cry againft the harbouring to eradicate
of any prejudices. To eradicate all prejudices froma11 Prejud,“
the human mind is impoffible 3 and if it were poffible, it
would be very unwife : for we fee that prejudice may ^
exift on the fide of truth as well as on that of falfehood 3
and that principles profefled and believed by any indi¬
vidual may be ufeful and true, though he was brought
to them not by a train of fair and candid reafoning-,
but through the medium of prepoffeffion or authority.
Indeed fuch is our nature, and fuch are the laws of af-
fociation, that many of our beft principles, and our ob¬
ligation to perform many of the moft amiable of our
duties in common life, murt evidently be acquired in
this way. From endearing afibciations and authorita¬
tive inftruftion, we acquire a knowledge of our duty to
our parents, and a facility in performing it, together
with the firft principles of religion, without a fingle ef¬
fort of our own reafon. Even when reafon has begun
to aflert its power, and (hows us the propriety of fuch
duties, we are wonderfully affifted in performing them
by the amiable prejudices which we had before acquired,
® * an4-
F II E
Prejudice.
•V"—
. S
which
would not
be wife if
it were
pofiible.
6
! Good ef-
fedts of
fome pre¬
judices.
and which now appear to be natural to us.
has never had the advantage of fuch aflociations, and
who acquires a knowledge of the duties fuggefted by
them after he has come to the years of diferetion, and
chiefly by the efforts of his own reafon, will feldom, cce-
teris paribus, perform thefe duties with an energy and
delight equal to that of the perfon who has. This, re¬
mark appears to be confirmed by experience ; for it is
often found, that the children of the great, who have
been given out to nurfe in their infancy, and who have
feldom been in the company of their parents till their
reafoning faculties have been far advanced, are much
lefs dutiful and affectionate than tliofe in the middle or
lower ftations of life, who have fcarcely ever been out
of their parents company.
Would it then be wife, even if it were practicable, to
diffolve all thofe affociations which tend fo powerfully
to increafe the mutual affeCtions of parents and chil¬
dren ? We cannot think that it would ; as we believe it
might be eafily fhown that public fpirit fprings out of
private affeCtion. Plato indeed held an opinion very
different from ours ; for in order to extend that affec¬
tion Avhich is ufually lavifhed at home to the whole
ftate, he propofed that children fhould be educated at
the public expence, and never be permitted to know
the authors of their being. But this is only one. of
the many vifionary projeCts of that great man, of which
daily experience fhows the abfurdity. In modern times,
we are certain that lefs dependence is to be had upon
the patriotifn of the man who, for the love which he
pretends to his country, can overlook or forget his own
partial connections in it, than on him who, at the fame
time that he wiflies his country well, is feelingly alive
to all the endearments of kindred affeCtion.
Such affeCtion may be called partial, and very pro¬
bably has its foundation in that which is the fource of
all our prejudices : but if it be properly trained in early
life, it will gradually extend from our neareft rela¬
tions to the perfons with whom we affociate, and to
the place which not only gave us birth, but alfo fur-
nifhed our youthful and molt innocent enjoyments. It
is thus that the amor pair ire is generated (fee Passion
and Patriotism), which in minds unfeduced by falfe
principles is exceedingly ftrong ; and, though a partial
affeCtion, is of the moft general utility. It is this pre¬
judice which reconciles the Laplander to his freezing
fnows, and the African to his burning fun ; which at¬
taches the native of the Highlands or of Wales as much
to his mountains and rocks, as the apparently happier
inhabitant of the fouthern counties of England is to
the more fertile and delightful fpot where lie drew’ his
firfl breath. And we find in faCt, that when a native
of Kent and a Scotch Highlander have in fome diftant
corner of the world gained a competent fortune without
being corrupted by luxury, they return, the one to his
hop-gardens, and the other to his mountains. Were
this prejudice, for fuch it furely is, w'holly eradicated
from the human mind, it is obvious that large traCls of
country which are now full of inhabitants would be to¬
tally deferted •, and that the hungry barbarians, to make
room for themfelves, would exterminate the proprietors
of more favourable climes. From an affeCHon to our
friends and to our country, we naturally contraft.an af-
feftion for that mode of government under which we
and unlefs it be particularly cppreifive to our-
ave
[ 290 ] P R E
He who felves or any order of citizens, we come as naturally to Prejudice,
prefer it to all other modes, whether itdeferve that pre- '"■“-v—'
ference or not. This no doubt is prejudice, but it is a
beneficial prejudice j for were the multitude, who are
wholly incapable of eftimating the excellencies and de¬
fers of the various modes of government, to become
dilfatisfied with their own, and rife in a mafs to change
it for the better, the moft horrible confequences might
juflly be dreaded. Of this truth the prefent ftate of
Europe affords too melancholy and convincing a proof.
The man therefore who, under the pretence of enlight¬
ening the public mind and extirpating prejudices, paints
to the illiterate vulgar, in aggravated colours, the abide
of that government which has hitherto prote&ed them
from the ferocity of each other, is one of the greateft
criminals if his view’s be felfilh, and one of the worft
reafoners if they be difinterefted, that human imagina¬
tion can eafily conceive. 7
With the felfilh patriot we have at prefent no con- Danger of
cern 5 but we may with propriety afk the difinterefted '^proper
lover of truth, whether he thinks it poflible, that in a 10
large community, of which nine-tenths of the members
are neceffarily incapable of taking comprehenfive views
of things, or feeling the force of political reafonings, any
form of government can be acceptable to the people at
large, which does not gain their affeftions through the
medium of prejudice ? It has been ftiown by Mr Hume
with great ftrength of argument, that government is
founded on opinion, which is of two kinds, viz. opinion
of intereft, and opinion of right. By opinion of intexefl,.
he underftands the fenfe of the general advantage
which is reaped from government, together with the
perfuafion that the particular government which is
eftablilhed is equally advantageous with any other that
could eafily be fettled. The opinion entertained of the
right of any government is always founded in its anti¬
quity j and hence arifes the paflionate regard which
under ancient monarchies the people have for the true
heir of their royal family. Thefe opinions, as held by
the philofopher converfant with the hiftory of nations,
are founded upon reafoning more or lefs conclufive j but
it is obvious, that in the minds of the multitude they
can have no other foundation than prejudice. An illi¬
terate clown or mechanic does r\eA. fee how one form of
government promotes the general intereft more than
another 5 but he may believe that it does, upon no other
evidence than the declamation of a demagogue, who, for
felfifli purpofes, contrives to flatter his pride. I he fam
is the cafe with refpe£l to the rights of hereditary monar¬
chy. The anatomift finds nothing more in the greateft
monarch than in the meaneft peafant, and the moralift
may perhaps frequently find lefs j but the true philofopher
acknowledges his right to the fovereignty : and though
he be weak in underftanding, or infirm in years, would,
for the fake of public peace and the liability of govern¬
ment, maintain him in his throne againft every compe¬
titor of the moft Ihining talents. The vulgar, however,
who would a£i with this philofopher, are influenced by
no fuch views, but merely by their prejudices in favour
of birth and family y and therefore it is ridiculous to
think of changing the public mind with refpeft to any
form of government by pure reafoning. In f ranee a
total change in the minds of the people has indeed been
effeffed, and from the moft violent prejudices in favour
of royalty, they have now become more violently preju¬
diced
P R E
[ 291 ]
P R E
Prejudice.
8
Abfurdity
of keeping
children ig.
norant of
religion
from the
dread of
prejudice.
„ . 9
Origin of
bigotry.
diced in favour of republicanifm. Bad as tlieir govern-
ment unquertionably was, the change that has now taken
place is not the effect of calm reafoning and accurate in¬
quiry (for of that the bulk of mankind appears to be in¬
capable), nor are their prejudices lefs violent than they
were before. They are changed indeed j but no one will
deny that prejudice, and that of the molt violent kind,
leads them on at prefent •, nor can any one affect that
their new prejudices have rendered them more happy,
or their country more flourilhing, than their former ones,
which made them cry Vive le Roi under the tyrannic
government of Louis XIV.
The influence of prejudice is not more powerful in
fixing the political opinions of men, than in diftating
their religious creed. Every child of a religious father
receives his faith by inheritance long before he be ca¬
pable of judging whether it be agreeable or difagreeable
to the word of God and the light of reafon. This ex¬
perience (hows to be the fad •, and found philofophy de¬
clares that it cannot be otherwife. Parents are appoint¬
ed to judge for their children in their younger years,
and to inftrud them in what they fhould believe, and
what they fhould pra&ife in the civil and religious life.
This is a didate of nature, and doubtlefs would have
been fo in a Hate of perfed innocence. It is impoffible
that children ftiould be capable of judging for tbem-
felves before their minds are furniflied with a compe¬
tent number of ideas, and before they are acquainted
with any 'principles and rules of juft reafoning 5 and
therefore they can do nothing better than run to their
parents, and receive their diredions what they ftiould
believe and what they ftiould pradife.
This mode of tutoring the infant mind, and giving
to our inftrudions the force of prejudice, before reafon
can operate with much effed, will, we know, be high¬
ly difpleafing to many who challenge to themfelves alone
The epithet of liberal. With them it will be cramping
the genius and perverting the judgment: but we cannot
' help thinking that fuch an objedion, if it ftiould be
made, would be the offspring of ignorance $ for it re¬
quires but very little knowledge of human nature to be
able to fee, that if children be not reftrained by audio-
ritv, and if we do not infinuate a love of good principles
into their minds, bad ones will infinuate themfelves,
and a little time will give thein the force of inveterate
prejudice, which all the future efforts of reafon and phi¬
lofophy will find it difficult to eradicate. The idea of
keeping a child ignorant of the being of a God, and the
grand duties of morality and religion, till he ffiall come
to years of diferetion, and then allowing him to reafon
them out for himfelf, is an abfurd chimera ; it is an ex¬
periment which never has been tried, which to us it ap¬
pears impoffible to try, and which, if it could be tried,
could not poffibly produce any good effedh For fup-
pofe we had a youth juft arrived at years of diferetion,
totally ignorant of all thefe things, and unbiaffed to
any fyftem of opinions, or rather poffeffed of no opi¬
nions at all—it would, in the firft place, we fufpedl, be
abfolutely neceffary to diredl his thoughts into a parti¬
cular train, and for fome perfon to lead him on from
one idea to another, till he ffiould arrive at fome con-
clufion : but in all this there is the influence of autho¬
rity, affociation, and of prejudice.
It being therefore abfolutely neceffary that fentiments
of religion be inftilled into the minds of children before
iwered.
they be capable of difeovering by the ufe of their reafon Prejudice,
whether thofe fentiments be juft or not, it need not —v**"—^
excite wonder, nor is it any refledtion upon religion,
that moft men adhere with bigotry to the creed of
their fathers, and fupport that creed by arguments
which could carry convidlion to no minds but their
own. The love and veneration which they bear to the
memory of thofe from whom they imbibed their earlieft
opinions, do not permit them to perceive either the
falfehood of thofe opinions, or their little importance,
fuppofing them true. Hence the many frivolous dif-
putes which have been carried on among Chriftians j
and hence the zeal with which fome of them maintain
tenets which are at once contrary to feripture, to reafon,
and to common fenfe. A due refiedlion, however, on
the fource of all prejudices ought to moderate this zeal j
for no man is wholly free from that bias which he
is fo ready to condemn in others : and indeed a man
totally free from prejudice, would be a more unhappy
being than the moft violent bigot on earth. In fcience,
he would admit nothing which he could not himfelf
demonftrate j in bufinefs, he would be perpetually at a
ftand for want of motives to influence his condudl : he
could have no attachment to a particular country j and
therefore muff be without patriotifm, and without the
folaces of friendffiip ; and his religion, we are afraid,
would be cold and lifelefs. 10
What, it will be faid, are the authors of a work 4n objec‘
which profeffes to enlighten the public mind by laying [.10n an~
before it a general view of fcience and literature, be¬
come at laft the advocates of prejudice, which is the bane
of fcience, and the prop of fuperfition ? No, we are ad¬
vocates for no prejudice which is either inimical to fci¬
ence or friendly to abfurdity j but we do not think that
the moralift would aft wifely who ftiould defert his pro¬
per bufinefs to make himfelf mafter of the higher ma¬
thematics, merely that he might not be obliged to truft
occafionally to the demonftrations of others. The wri¬
ter of this article is not {killed in trade j but it is not
his opinion that the merchant would foon grow rich,
who fhould never make a bargain till he had previoufiy
calculated with mathematical exaftnefs all the probabi¬
lities of his gain or lofs. That to diffolve all the affoci-
ations which are the fource of partial attachments of
kindred, affeftion, and private friendftiip, would tend to
promote the public happinefs, we cannot poffibly believe.
And we think, that the experience of the prefent event¬
ful day abundantly confirms Mr Hume’s opinion, that
far from endeavouring to extirpate the people’s prejudi¬
ces in favour of birth and family, we ftiould cherifli fuch
fentiments, as being abfolutely requifite to preferve a due
fubordination in fociety. That men would be better
Chriftians if they were to receive no religious inftruftion
till they fliould be able by their own reafon to judge of
its truth, daily obfervation does not warrant us to con¬
clude 5 for we fee thofe who have feldom heard of God
when children, “ live without him in the world” when,
they are men.
Pernicious prejudices we have traced to their fource
elfewhere, and fhown how they may be bell prevented
by proper attention in the education of children. (See
Metaphysics, N°98.). We lhall only add here, that
the earlier fuch attention is paid, the more effeftual it
will be found and that it is much cafier to keep pre¬
judices out of the mind than to remove them after
0 0 2 they
P R E f 292 1 r R E
Prejudice they have been admitted. This however rauft be fome-
 'times attempted ; and where prejudices are ftrong, fe-
veral methods have been recommended for rendering the
attempt fuccefsful. The following are taken mofdy from
IT Dr Watts’s Improvement ofthe Mind.
Proper me- I. Never attack the prejudice <//rai?/y,butlead theper-
thods of fon who is under its influence ftep by ftep to the truth,
removing PerhapS y0Ur neighbour is under the influence offuper-
prejudices. and lig0try in the Jimplicitij of his foul; you muft
not immediately run upon him with violence, and (how
him the abfurdity or folly of his own opinions, though
you might be able to fet them in a glaring light j but
you muft rather begin at a diftance, and eftablifli his
affent to fome familiar and eafy propofitions, which
have a tendency to refute his millakes, and to confirm
the truth-, and then filently obferve what impreflion
this makes upon him, and proceed by flow degrees as
he is able to bear, and you muft carry on the work per¬
haps at diftant feafons of converfation. i be tender or
difeafed eye cannot bear a deluge of light at once. .
Overhafinefs and vehemence in arguing is oftentimes
the effeft of pride ; it blunts the poignancy of the ar¬
gument, breaks its force, and disappoints the end. If
you w-ere to convince a perfon of the falfehood of the
do&rine of iranfubf antiation, and you take up the con-
fecrated bread before him and fay, “ You may fee, and
tafte, and feel, this is nothing but bread; therefore whilft
vou affert that God commands you to believe it is not
bread, you moft wickedly accufe God of commanding
you to tell a lie,” This fort of language would only
raife the indignation of the perfon againft you, inftead
of making any impreffions upon him. He will not fo
much as think at all on the argument you have brought,
but he rages at you as a profane wretch, fetting up
your own fenfe and reafon above facred authority fo
that though what you affirm is a truth of great evi¬
dence, yet you lofe the ben: fit of your whole argu¬
ment by an ill management, and the unreafonable ufe
°f it.
2. Where the prejudices of mankind cannot be con¬
quered at once, but will rife up in arms againft the
evidence of truth, there we muft make fome allow¬
ances, and yield to them for the prefent, as far as
we can fafely do it without real injury to truth ; and
if we would have any fuccefs in our endeavours to
convince the world, we muft pra&ife this complaifance
for the benefit of mankind. Take a Undent who has
deeply imbibed the principles of the Peripatetics, and
imagines certain immaterial beings, called fubflantial
forms, to inhabit every herb, flower, mineral, metal, fire,
water, &c. and to be the fpring of all its properties and
operations ; or take a Platonift, who believes an anima
mundi, “ an univerfal foul of the world,” to pervade all
bodies, to aft in and by them according to their nature,
and indeed to give them their nature and their fpecial
powers perhaps it may be very hard to convince thefe
perfons by arguments, and conftrain them to yield up
thofe fancies. Well 'hen, let the one believe his uni-
verfal foul, and the other go on with his notion offub-
flantialforms, and at the fame time teach them how by
certain original laws of motion, and the various fizes,
ffiapes, and fituations of the parts of matter, allowing
a continued divine concourfe in and with all, the fever-
al appearances in nature may be folved, and the varie¬
ty of effefts produced, according to the corpufcular
2
philofophy, improved by Defcartes, Mr Boyle, and Sir Prejudice..
Ifaac Newton ; and when they have attained a degree ’'■““v—
of Ikill in this feienee, they will fee thefe airy notions
of theirs, thele imaginary powers, to be fo ulelefs and
unnecefiary, that they will drop them of their own ac¬
cord. The Peripatetic forms will vanifti from the mind
like a dream, and the Platonic foul of the world will ex¬
pire.
We may give another inftance of the fame praftice,
where there is a prejudicate fondnefs of particular words
and phrafes. Suppofe a man is educated in an un¬
happy form of fpeech, whereby he explains fome great
doBrine of the gofpel, and by the means of this phrafe he
has imbibed a very falfe idea of that deftrine ; yet he is
fo bigotted to his form of words, that he imagines if
thofe words are omitted the form is loft. Now, if we
cannot poffibly perfuade him to part with his improper
terms, u-e will indulge them a little, and try to explain
them in a feriptural fenfe, rather than let him go on in
his miftaken ideas. A perfon who has been bred a Pa-
pif, knows but little of religion, yet he refolves never
to part from the Roman Catholic faith, and is obftinately
bent againft a change. Now it cannot be unlawful to
teach fuch an one the true Chriftian, i. e. the Prote-
font religion out of the Epifle to the Romans, and Ihow
him that the fame doftrine is contained in the Catholic
Epiftles of St Peter, James, and Jude; and thus let him
live and die a good Chriftian in the belief of the reli¬
gion taught him out of the New Teftament, while he
imagines he is a Roman Catholic ftill, becaufe he finds
the doftrine he is taught in the Catholic Epiftles and
in that to the Romans. Sometimes we may make ufa
of the very prejudices under which a perfon labours,
in order to convince him of fome particular truth, and
argue with him upon his own profeffed principles as
though they w'ere true. Suppofe a Jew lies fick of a.
fever, and is forbidden fleffi by his phyfician; but hearing
that rabbits were provided for the dinner of the family,
defired earneftly to eat of them 5 and fuppofe he became
impatient, becaufe his phyfician did not permit him, and
he infifled upon it that k could do him no hurt—furely
rather than let him perfift in that fancy and that defire,
to the danger of his life, we might tell him that thefe
animals were ftrangled, a fort of food forbidden by the
Jewifti law-, though we ourfelves might believe that law
to be aboliffied.
Where we find any perfon obftinately perfifting in a-
miftake in oppolkion to all reafon, efpecially it the
miftake be very injurious or pernicious, and we know
this perfon will hearken to the fentiment or authority
of fome favourite name -, it is needful fometimes to urge
the opinion and authority of that favourite perfon, fince
that is likely to be regarded much more than reafon.
We are almoft athamed indeed to fpeak of ufing any
influence of authority in reafoning or argument; but m
fome cafes it is better that poor, filly, perverfe, obftinate
creatures, ffiould be perfuaded to judge and aft right,
by a veneration for the fenfe of others, than to be
left to wander in pernicious errors, and continue deaf
to all argument, and blind to all evidence. 1 hey are
but children of a larger fizej and fince they perfift all
their lives in their minority, and rejeft all true reafon¬
ing, furely we may try to perfuade them to praftife
what is for their own intereft by fueh childifh reafons
as they, will hearken to. We may overawe them irooi
purfuing
P R E [ 293 ] P R E
Prejudice purfuing their own ruin by the terrors of a folemn (ha¬
ll dow, or allure them by a fugar plum to their own happi-
|>reraon- nepg> -gut after we mu{t conclude, that wherefoever
ftrantes. done, it is bed to remove and root out thofe
prejudices which obttruft the entrance of truth into the
mind, rather than to palliate, humour, or indulge them ;
and fometimes this muft neceffarily be done, before you
can make a perfon part with feme beloved error^ and
tl lead him into better fentiments.
Mutual On the whole, we would recommend more mutual
I forbearance an(j iefs acrimony than is commonly found
recom- atnong writers on difputed fubjefls, as the only means
men 6 by which our differences in religion, politics, and fcience,
ever can be healed, and truth certainly difcovered. If
men were lefs violent in defending their particular
opinions, they would always gain a more patient hear¬
ing, they would be lefs fufpedted of, and lefs liable to,
prejudice, and of courfe more apt either to convince
or to be convinced. They would likewife by fo doing
Ihow, in the mod unequivocal manner, their attention
to found philofophy, and above all to genuine Chri-
ftianity ; which, though it is far from encouraging fcep-
tieifm, or a temporizing fpirit, recommends in the
ftronged terms, among all its profeffors, unwerfal cha¬
rity and mutual forbearance. See Probability, Truth,
and Superstition.
PRELATE, an ecelefiadic raifed to fome eminent
and fuperior dignity in the church j as bidiops, archbi-
ftiops, patriarchs, &c.
PRELIMINARY, in general, denotes fomething
to be examined and determined before an affair can be
treated of to the purpofe.
PRELUDE, in Mujic, is ufually a flouriff, or irre¬
gular air, which a mufieian plays off-hand, to try if his
indrument be in tune, and to lead him into the piece to
be played.
PREMISES, in Logic, an appellation given to the
two fird propofitions of a fyllogifm. See Logic.
Premises, in Law, properly fignifies the land, &c.
mentioned in the beginning of a deed.
PREMIUM, or Premium, properly fignifies a re¬
ward or recompenfe: but it is chiefly ufed in a mercan¬
tile fenfe for the fum of money given to an infurer,
whether of (hips, houfes, lives, &c. See Insurance.
PREMNA, a genus of plants belonging to the didy-
namia clafs. See Botany Index.
PREMONSTRANTES, or Pr^emonstratenses,
a religious .order of regular canons indituted in 1120,
by S. Norbert \ and thence alfo called Norbertines.
The fird monadery of this order was built by Nor¬
bert in the Ifle of France, three leagues to the wed of
Laon •, which he called Pramonfre, Prdemonjlraturn,
and hence the order itfelf derived its name 5 though as
to the occafion of that name, the writers of that order are
divided. At fird the religious of this order were fo very
poor, that they had only a Angle aL, which ferved to
carry the wood they cut down every morning, and fent
to Laon in order to purchafe bread. But they foon re¬
ceived fo many donations-, and built fo many monadc-
ries, that in 30 years after the foundation of the order,
they had above 100 abbeys in France and Germany :
and in procefs of time the order fo increafed, that it had
monafleries in all parts of Chridendom, amounting to
TO00 abbeys, 300 provolldiips, a vad number of prio¬
ries, and 500 nunneries. But they are now greatly di-
minifhed. The rule they followed was that of St Au- Prensrtw
gudine, with fome flight alterations, and an addition of ftra|JteI
certain fevere laws, whofe authority did not long furvive prepara_
their founder. tion
The order was approved by Honorius II. in 1126, —y—J
and again by feveral fucceeding popes. At fird the
abdinence from flefh was rigidly obferved. In 124:;
Innocent IV. complained of its being neglected to a
general chapter. In 1 288, their general, William, pro¬
cured leave of Pope Nicholas IV. for thofe of the order
to eat flefh on journeys. In 1460, Pius II. granted
them a general permiflion to eat meat, excepting from
Septuagefima to Eafler. The drefs of the religious
of this order is white, with a fcapulary before the caf-
fock. Out of doors they wear a white cloak and-
white hat ; within, a little camail; and at church, a
furplice, &.c.
In the fird monaderies built by Norbert, there was
one for men and another for women, only feparated by
a wall. In H37» ^7 a decree of a general chapter,
this pra6tice was prohibited, and the women removed
out of thofe already built, to a greater didance from
thofe of the men.
The praemondratenfes, or monks of Premontre, vul¬
garly called white canons, came fird into England,
A. D. 1146. Their fird monaflery, called Wm-zW/e,
w’as erefted in Lincolnfliire, by Peter de Saulia, and
dedicated to St Martial. In the reign of Edward L
this order had 27 monafleries in England.
PRENAN i'HES, a genus of plants belonging to
the fyngenefia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Comprfitce. See Botany Index.
PR-ENOMEN, Prtenomen, among the ancient
Romans, a name prefixed to their family name, and an-
fwering to our Chriflian name : fuch are Caius, Lucius,
Marcus, &c.
PRENGTION, pRyTNOTio, or Prcecognitio, is a
notice or piece of knowledge preceding fome other in
refpeft of time. Such is the knowledge of the antece¬
dent, which mud precede that of the conclufion. It is
ufed by Lord Bacon for breaking off an endlefs fearch,
which he obferves to be one of the principal parts of
the art of memory. For when one endeavours to call
any thing to mind, without fome previous notion or
perception of wrhat is fought for, the mind exerts itfelf
and drives in an endlefs manner : but if it hath any
fliort notion before-hand, the infinity of the fearch is
prefently cut off, and the mind hunts nearer home, as
in an enclofure. Thus verfe is eafier remembered than
profe •, becaufe if we flick at any word in a verfe, we
have a previous notion that it is fuch a word as mud
fland in a verfe. Hence alfo, order is a manifefl help
to memory; for here is a previous notion, that the thing
fought for mud be agreeable to order. Bacon’s Works
Abr. vol. i. p. 136. and vol. 11. p. 473.
PREPARATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
difpofing things in fuch a manner as to render any fore-
feen event more advantageous or lefs hurtful according
to its nature.
PREPARATION of Di/fonances, in Mufic, is their did
pofition in harmony in fuch a manner, that, by fome¬
thing congenial to what precedes, they may be ren¬
dered lefs harfh to the ear than they would be without
that precaution : according to this definition, every
difcord ought to be prepared. But when, in order to
prepare
P K E [ 294. ] ' P R E
Pi^parra- prepare a diffonance, it is exafted that the found which
, t|l)11~ forms it rtiould before have formed a confonance, then
v there is fundamentally but one fingle diflonance which
is prepared, viz. the feventh. Nor is even this prepa¬
ration neceffary in the chord which contains the fenfible
note, becaufe then the diffonance being charafleriftical,
both in its chord and in its mode, the ear has fufEcient
reafon to expeft it : it accordingly does expeft it, and
recognife it •, nor is either deceived with refpedl to its
chord nor its natural progrefs. But when the feventh
is heard upon a fundamental found which is not effential
to the mode, it ought then to be prepared, in order to
prevent all ambiguity j to prevent the ear, whilft lirt-
ening to this note, from loling its train : and as this
chord of the feventh may be inverted and combined in
feveral different manners, from this arife likewife a
number of different ways by which it may feem to be
prepared, which, in the main, always ilfue however in
the fame thing.
In making ufe of diffonances, three things are to be
confidered ; viz. the chord which precedes the diffo¬
nance, that in which it is found, and that which is im¬
mediately fubfequent to it. Preparation only refpedls
the two firft; for the third, fee Resolution.
When we would regularly prepare a difcord in or¬
der to arrive at its chord, we muff choofe fuch a ca¬
reer of the fundamental bafs, that the found which
forms the diffonance may be a protraflion into the
perfect time of the fame note which formed a confo¬
nance formerly ftruck in the imperfeft in the preceding
chord ; this is what we call Jincopation. See Sincopa-
TION.
From this preparation two advantages refult j viz.
I. That there is neceffarily an harmonical connexion
between the two chords, fince that connexion is formed
by the diffonance itfelf j and, 2. That this diffonance, as
it is nothing elfe but the continuation of the fame found
which had formed a confonance, becomes much lefs
harflr to the ear than it would have been with any found
recently ftruck. Now this is all that we expeft to gain
by preparation. See Cadence, Discord, and Har¬
mony.
By what has been juft faid, it will appear that there
is no other part peculiarly deftined for preparing the
diffonance, except that in which it is heard j fo that if
the treble fhall exhibit a diffonance, that muft be fin-
copated 5 but if the diffonance is in the bafs, the bafs
muft be fincopated. Though there is nothing here but
what is quite fimple, yet have mafters of mufic miferably
embroiled the whole matter.
Some diffonances may be found which are never pre¬
pared : fuch is the lixth fuperadded : fome which are
very unfrequently prepared ; fuch is the diminilhed fe¬
venth.
Preparations, in Pharmacy, the medicines when
mixed together in fuch a manner as to be fit for the ufe
of the patient. See Pharmacy, under Materia
Medica.
Preparations, in Anatomy, the parts of animal
bodies prepared and preferved for anatomical ufes.
Ldin. Med. The manner of preferving anatomical preparations,
Ejfays, is either bv drying them thoroughly in the air, or put-
voi. 11 p. tjng. tiiem int0 a proper liquor.
In drying parts which are thick, when the weather
3
is warm, care muft be taken to prevent putrefa&ion, Prepara.,
fly-blows, infefts, &c. This is ealily done by the ufe ^°n-
of a folution of corrofive fublimate in fpirit of wine,
in the proportion of two drams of fublimate to a
pound of fpirit : the part ftiould be moiftened with
this liquor as it dries, and by this method the body of
a child may be kept fafe even in fummer. Dried pre¬
parations are apt to crack and moulder away in keep¬
ing •, to prevent this, their furface ftiould be covered
with a thick varnifti, repeated as often as occafion re¬
quires.
Though feveral parts prepared dry are ufeful, yet
others muft be fo managed as to be always flexible,
and nearer a natural ftate. The difficulty has been to
find a proper liquor for this purpofe. Dr Monro fays,
the beff he knows is a W'ell redlified colourlefs fpirit of
w ine, to which is added a fmall quantity of the fpirit
of vitriol or nitre. When thefe are properly mixed,
they neither change their colour nor the confiftence of
the parts, except where there are ferous or mucous
liquors contained in them. The brain, even of a
young child, in this mixture grows fo firm as to admit
of gentle handling, as do alfo the vitreous and cry-
ftalline humours of the eye. The liquor of the feba-
ceous glands and the femen are coagulated by this
fpirituous mixture j and it heightens the red colour of
the inje£tion of the blood-veffels, fo that after the part
has been in it a little time, feveral veffels appear which
were before invifible. If you will compare thefe ef-
fefts with what Ruyfch has faid of his balfam, you will
find the liquor above mentioned to come very near
to it.
The proportion of the two fpirits muft be changed
according to the part prepared. For the brain and
humours of the eye, you muft put two drams of fpirit
of nitre to one pound of fpirit of wine. In preferving
other parts which are harder, 30 or 40 drops of the
acid will be fufficient ; a larger quantity will make
bones flexible, and even diffolve them. The part thus
preferved ftiould be always kept covered with the
liquor : therefore great care (hould be taken to flop
the mouth of the glafs with a W’axed cork and a blad¬
der tied over it, to prevent the evaporation of the
fpirit ; fome of which, notwithftanding all this care,
will fly off’, therefore frefti muft be added as there is
occafion. When the fpirits change to a dark tinfture,
which will fometimes happen, they fliould be poured off,
and frefti put in their room 5 but with fomewhat lefs
acid than at firft.
The glaffes which contain the preparations ftiould
be of the fineft fort, and pretty thick ; for through
fuch the parts may be feen very diftinftly, and of a
true colour, and the objedl will be fo magnified as to
ftiow veffels in the glafs which out of it were not to be
feen.
As the glafs when filled with the liquor has a cer¬
tain focus, it is neceffary to keep the preparation at a
proper diftance from the fides of it, which is eafily
done by little flicks fuitably placed, or by fufpending it
by a thread in a proper fituation. The operator ftiould
be cautious of putting his fingers in this liquor oftener
than is abfolutely neceffary ; becaufe it brings on a
numbnefs on the Ikin, which makes the fingers unfit for
any nice operation. The beft remedy for this is to wafti
them
P n E [ 295 ] P R E
Prepara- them in water mixed with a few drops of oil of tartar
tion per deliquium.'
11 Dr Chrift. Jac. Trew prefers the rectified fpirit of
grain for preferving anatomical preparations to ipirit of
wine, or to compofitions of alcohol, amber, camphor,
&.c. becaufe thefe foon change into a brown colour,
whereas the fpirit from malt preferves its limpid ap¬
pearance. When any part is to be preferved wet, wath
it with water till it is no more tin&ured. The water is
next to be wafhed away with fpirits, and then the pre¬
paration is to be put among fpirits in a glafs, the mouth
of which is to be clofely covered with a glafs head, over
which a wet bladder and leaf-tin are to be tied. Com.
Lit. Norimb. 1*131, femeji. i.fpecim. 9. See alfo Pole's
Anatomical Injirucior, and American Tranfu&ions, vol.
ii. p. 366.
PREPENSED, in Law, denotes fore-thought. In
which fenfe w'e fay prepenfed malice, &c. If, when a
man is (lain upon a fudden quarrel, there were, malice
prepenfed formerly between them, it makes it mur¬
der j and, as it is called in fome flatutes, prepenfed mur-
ther.
PREPOSITION, in Gratnmar, one of the parts of
fpeech, being an indeclinable particle which yet ferves
to govern the nouns that follow it ; fuch as per, pro,
propter; and through, for, with, &c.
F. Buffier allows it to be only a modificative of a part
of fpeech, ferving to circumftantiate a noun.
PREPUCE, in Anatomy, the forelkin, being a pro¬
longation of the cutis of the penis, covering the glans.
See Penis, Anatomy Index.
PREROGATIVE, an exclufive or peculiar privi-
lege.
Royal PREROGATIVE, thatfpecial pre-eminence which
the king hath over and above all other perfons, and out
of the ordinary courfe of the common law, in right of
his regal dignity. It fignifies in its etymology (from
prce and rogo') fomething that is required or demanded
before, or in preference to, all others. And hence it
follows, that it muft be in its nature fingular and eccen¬
trical ; that it can only be applied to thofe rights and ca¬
pacities which the king enjoys alone in contradiftinftion
to others, and not to thofe which he enjoys in common
with any of his fubjedts : for if once any one prerogative
of the crown could be held in commogi with the fubjedl,
it would ceafe to be prerogative any longer. And there¬
fore Finch lays it down as a maxim, that the prerogative
is that law in cafe of the king, which is law in no cafe
of the fubjeft.
Prerogatives are either direPl or incidental. The di-
re& are fuch politive fubftantial parts of the royal cha-
ra£ler and authority, as are rooted in, and fpring from,
the king’s political perfon, confidered merely by itfelf,
without reference to any other extrinfic circumftance j
as, the right of fending ambafladors, of creating peers,
and of making war or peace. But fuch prerogatives
as are incidental bear always a relation to fomething
elfe, diftinft from the king’s perfon ; and are indeed
only exceptions, in favour of the crown, to thofe gene¬
ral rules that are eftablilhed for the reft of the commu¬
nity : fuch as, that no cofts lhall be recovered againft
the king y that the king can never be a joint tenant $
and that his debt ftiall be preferred before a debt to
any of his fubjedts.
Thefe fubftantive or dir eft prerogatives may again Preroga-
be divided into three kinds : being fuch as regard, tlV6‘
firft:, the king’s royal character or dignity ; fecondly,
his royal authority or power ; and, laftly, his royal in¬
come. Thefe are necelfary, to fecure reverence to his
perfon, obedience to his commands, and an affluent
fupply for the ordinary expences of government 5 with¬
out all of which it is impoffible to maintain the execu¬
tive power in due independence and vigour. Yet, in
every branch of this large and extenfive dominion, our
free conftitution has interpofed fuch feafonable checks
and reflriftions, as may curb it from trampling on thofe
liberties which it was meant to fecure and eftablifh.
The enormous ■weight of prerogative, if left to itfelf,
(as in arbitrary governments it is), fpreads havock and
deftruftion among all the inferior movements: but,
when balanced and bridled (as with us) by its proper
counterpoife, timely and judicioufly applied, its opera¬
tions are then equable and regular ; it invigorates the
whole machine, and enables every part to anfwer the
end of its conftruftion.
I. Of the royal dignity. Under every monarchical
eftablifliment, it is neceffary to diftinguifh the prince
from his lubjefts, not only by the outward pomp and
decorations of majefty, but alfo by afcribing to him
certain qualities as inherent in his royal capacity, di-
ftinft from, and fuperior to, thofe of any other indivi¬
dual in the nation. For though a philofophical mind
will (fays Sir William Blackftone) confider the royal
perfon merely as one man appointed by mutual confent
to prefide over many others, and wdll pay him that re¬
verence and duty which the principles of fociety de¬
mand 5 yet the mafs of mankind will be apt to grow in-
folent and refraftory, if taught to confider their prince
as a man of no greater perfection than themfelves. The
law therefore afcribes to the king, in his high politi¬
cal charafter, not only large powers and emoluments,
which form his prerogative and revenue, but likewfife
certain attributes of a great and tranfcendant nature ;
by which the people are led to confider him in the light
of a fuperior being, and to pay him that awful refpeft
which may enable him with greater eafe to carry on the
bufinefs of government. This is what we underftand
by the royal dignity; the feveral branches of w’hich wre
fflall now proceed to enumerate.
1. And, firft, the lav/ aferibes to the king the attri¬
bute offovereignty, or pre-eminency. See Sovereign¬
ty.
2. “ The law alfo (according to Sir William Black¬
ftone) afcribes to the king, in his political capacity, ab-
foluteperfection.' ‘ The king can do no wrong.’ Which
ancient and fundamental maxim (fays he) is not to bo
underftood as if every thing tranfafted by the govern¬
ment was of courfe juft and lawful ; but means only
two things. Firft, that whatever is exceptionable in
the conduft of public affairs, is not to be imputed to
the king, nor is he anfwerable for it perfonally to his
people : for this doftrine would totally deftroy that con-
ftitutional independence of the crown, which is necef¬
fary for the balance of power, in our free and aftive,
and therefore compounded, conftitution. And, fecond¬
ly, it means that the prerogative of the crown extends
not to do any injury; it is created for the benefit of
the people, and therefore cannot be exerted to their
prejudice.
■preroga¬
tive.
P R E [
prejudice.—“ The king-, moreover, (he cbferves), is
, not only incapable of doing wrong, but even of think¬
ing wrong j he can never mean to do an improper thing:
in him is no folly or weaknefs. And, therefore, if the
crown Ihould be induced to grant any franchife or pri¬
vilege to a fubjeft contrary toreafon, or in any wife pre¬
judicial to the commonwealth or a private perfon, the
law will not fuppofe the king to have meant either an
unwife or an injurious adion, but declares that the king
was deceived in his grant j and thereupon fuch grant is
rendered void, merely upon the foundation of fraud and
deception, either by or upon thofe agents whom the
crown has thought proper to employ. For the law
will not caff an imputation on that magiftrate whom
it entrufts with the executive power, as if he was ca¬
pable of intentionally difregarding his truft: but attri¬
butes to mere impofition (to which the moft perfeft
of fublunary beings mull ftill continue liable) thofe
little inadvertencies, which, if charged on the will
of the prince, might leiien him in the eyes of his fub-
je£ls.”
But this doftrine has been expofed as ridiculous
and abfurd, by Lord Abingdon, in his Dedication to
the colleElive Body of the People of Eng/and. “ Let us
fee (fays he) how thefe maxims and their comments
agree with the conftitution, with nature, with reafon,
with common fenfe, with experience, with fa£f, with
precedent, and with Sir William Blackftone himfelf;
and whether by the application of thefe rules of evi¬
dence thereto, it will not be found, that (from the
want of attention to that important line of diftindlion
which the conftitution has drawn between the king of
England and the crown of England) what was attri¬
buted to the monarchy has not been given to ihe monarch,
what meant for the kingfhip conveyed to the king, what
defigned for the thing transferred to the perfon, what in¬
tended for theory applied to practice; and fo in conle-
quence, that whilfl; the premifes (of the perfe&ion of
the monarchy) be true, the conclufion (that the king
-can do no wrong) be not falfe.
“ And, firft, in reference to the conftitution: to which
if this matter be applied (meaning what it exprefles,and
if it do not it is unworthy of notice), it is fubverftve of
a principle in the conftitution, upon which the prefer-
vation of the conftitution depends; I mean the prin¬
ciple of refiftance; a principle which, whilft no man will
now venture to gainfay. Sir William Blackftone him¬
felf admits, 4 is jujlifiable to the perfon of the prince;
when the being of the ftate is endangered, and the
public voice proclaims fuch refiftance neceffary*,’ and
thus, by fuch admiffion, both difproves the maxim,
and overfets hi> own comment thereupon; for to fay
that ‘ the king can do no wrong,’ and that ‘ he is
incapable even of thinking wrong,’ and then to admit
that ‘ refiftance to his perfon is juftifiable,’ are fuch
jarring contradictions in themfelves, that, until reconci¬
led, the neceffity of argument is fufpended.
“ With refpeCt then, in the next place, to the agree¬
ment of this maxim, and its comment, with nature, with
reafon, and with common fenfe, I ftmuld have thought
myfelf fufficiently juftified in appealing to every man’s
own reflection for decifion, if I had not been made
to underftand that nature, reafon, and common fenfe,
had had nothing to do with either. Sir William Black-
ftonc fays, ‘ That though a philofophical mind will con-
296 ] P It E
fider the royal perfon merely as one man appointed
by mutual confent to prefide over others, and will pay
him that reverence and duty which the principles of fo-
ciety demand, yet the mafs of mankind will be apt to
grow infolent and refraCtory if taught to confider their
prince as a man of no greater perfection than themfelves;
and therefore the law aferibes to the king, in his high
political character, certain attributes of a great and
tranfeendent nature, by which the people are led to
confider him in the light of a fuperior being, and to pay
him that awful refpeCt which may enable him with
greater eafe to carry on the bulinefs of government.’ So
that, in order to govern with greater eafe (which by
the bye is mere afiertion without any proof), it is necef-
faiy to deceive the mafs of mankind, by making them
believe not only what a phiiofophical mind cannot be¬
lieve, but what it is impofiible for any mind to believe;
and therefore, in the inveftigation of ibis fubjeCt, ac¬
cording to Sir William, neither nature, reafon, nor com¬
mon fenfe, can have any concern.—*—
“ It remains to examine in how much this maxim and
its comment agree with experience, with faCl, with pre¬
cedent, and with Sir William Blackftone himfelf. And
here it is matter of moft curious {peculation, to obferve
a maxim laid down, and which is intended for a rule
of government, not only without a fingle cafe in fup-
port of it, but with a ftring of cafes, that may be car¬
ried back to Egbert the firft monarch of England, in
direft oppofition to the doctrine. Who is the man,
that, reading the paft hiftory of this country, will fhow
us any king that has done no wrong? Who is the read¬
er that will not find that all the wrongs and injuries
which the free conftitution of this country has hitherto
fuffered, have been folely derived from the arbitrary
meafures of our kings? And yet the mafs of mankind
are to look upon the king as a fuperior being; and the
maxim, that ‘ the king can do wrong,’ is to remain as
an article of belief. But, without pufhing this inquiry
any farther, let us fee what encouragement Sir William
Blackftone himfelf has given for our credulity. Af¬
ter ftating the maxim, and prefenting us w’ith a moft
lively pidfure, ‘ of our fovereign lord thus all perfedl and
immortal? what does he make this all-perfedtion and
immortality in the end to come to ? His words are
thefe: ‘ For when King Charles’s deluded brother at¬
tempted to enfave the nation,’ {no wrong this, to- be
fare'), ‘ he found it was beyond his power: the people
both could, and did, refift him ; and in confequence of
fuch refiftance, obliged him to quit his enterprife and his
throne together * Comment
The fum of all is this : That the crown of England v0*‘
and the king of England are diftinguifh&ble, and notP‘4
fynonymous terms: that allegiance is due to the crown,
and through the crown to the king : that the attributes
of the crown are fovereignty, perfedlion, and perpetuity;
but that it does not therefore follow that the king can
do no wrong. It is indeed to be admitted, that in high
refpeft for the crown, high refpe61 is alfo due to the
wearer of that crown; that is, to the king: but the
crown is to be preferred to the king, for the firft vene¬
ration is due to the conftitution. It is likewife to be
ftppofed that the king will do no wrong: and as, to
prevent this, a privy council is appointed by the confti¬
tution to aflift the king in the execution of the go¬
vernment ; fo if any wrong be done, ‘ thefe men, as
Montefquieu
P R E
preros*- Monterquieu expreffes it, ‘ may be examined and pu-
n ifhed (a).’
“ But if any future king fhall tliink to fcreen thefe
evil counfellors from the juft vengeance of the people,
by becoming his own nunijler; and in fo doing, ftiall
take for his fanftion the attribute of perfeSiion, ftiall truft
to the deception of his being afuperior being, and cloak
himfelf under the maxim that the king can do no wrong ;
I fay, in fuch a cafe, let the appeal already made to
the conftitution, to nature, to reafon, to common fenfe,
to experience, to faff, to precedent, and to Sir William
Blackftone himfelf, fuffice j and preclude the neceflity
of any further remarks from me (b).”
To proceed now to other particulars: The law de¬
termines, that in the king can be no negligence or
LACHES •, and therefore no delay will bar his right.
Nullum tempus occurrit regi, is the (landing maxim upon
all occalions ; for the law intends that the king is al¬
ways bufied for the public good, and therefore has not
leifure to aflert his right within the times limited to
Black/!. fubjefts. In the king alfo can be no (lain or corruption
-Comment. q£ jq00(j . for jf jiejr to Grown were attainted of
treafon or felony, and afterwards the crown ftiould def-
cend to him, this would purge the attainder ipfo faBo.
And therefore, when Henry VII. who as earl of Rich¬
mond flood attainted, came to the crown, it was not
thought neceffary to pafs an a£l of parliament to reverfe
this attainder *, becaufe, as Lord Bacon in his hiftory of
that prince informs us, it was agreed that the aflumption
of the crown had at once purged all attainders. Nei¬
ther can the king, in judgment of law, as king, ever
be a minor or under age ; and therefore his royal grants
and aflents to a£ts of parliament are good, though he has
not in his natural capacity attained the legal age of 21.
By a ftatute, indeed, 28 Hen. VIIL c. power was
given to future kings to refcind and revoke all a&s of
parliament that ftiould be made while they were under
the age of 24 : but this was repealed by the ftatute
I Edw. VI. c. II. fo far as related to that prince, and
both ftatutes are declared to be determined by 24
Geo. II. c. 24. It hath alfo been ufually thought pru¬
dent, when the heir apparent has been very young, to
appoint a protedlor, guardian, or regent, for a limited
time : but the very neceflity of fuch extraordinary pro-
'vifion is fufficient to demonftrate the truth of that
maxim of common law, that in the king is no mino-
Vol. XVII. Part I.
P R E
rity $ and therefore he hath no legal guardian. See Re- Prercgi-
GENT. ^ dvc.
3. A third attribute of the king’s majefty is his per¬
petuity. The law afcribes to him, in his political capa¬
city, an ablolute immortality. The king never dies.
Henry, Edward, or George, may die 5 but the king fur-
vives them all. For, immediately upon the deceafe of
the reigning prince in his natural capacity, his kingfhip
or imperial dignity, by a£t of law, without any interreg¬
num or interval, is veiled at once in his heir j who is ea
injlanti, king to all intents and purpofes. And fo ten¬
der is the law of fuppoftngeven a poflibility of his deathr
that his natural diflblution is generally called his demife;
dimijjio regis vel corona?: an expreffion which fignifies
merely a transfer of property •, for, as is obferved in Plow-
den, when we fay the demife of the crown, we mean
only, that, in confecpence of the difunion of the king’s
body-natural from his body-politic, the kingdom is tranf-
ferred or demifed to his fucceffor, and fo the royal dig¬
nity remains perpetual. Thus, too, when Edward IV.
in the tenth year of his reign, was driven from his
throne for a few months by the houfe of Lancafter, this
temporary transfer of his dignity was denominated his
demife ; and all procefs was held to be difcontinued, as
upon a natural death of the king.
II. We are next to confider thofe branches of the
royal prerogative which inveft this our fovereign lord
with a number of authorities and powers; in the exertion
whereof confifts the executive part of government. This
is wifely placed in a Angle hand by the Britifti conftitu¬
tion, for the fake of unanimity, ftrength, and defpatch.
Were it placed in many hands, it would be fubjedl to
many wills : many wills, if difunited and drawing dif¬
ferent ways, create weaknefs in a government; and to
unite thofe feveral wills, and reduce them to one, is a
work of more time and delay than the exigencies of ftate
will afford. I he king of England is therefore not only
the chief, but properly the foie, magiftrate of the na¬
tion j all others aftingby commiflion from, and in due
fubordination to, him : in like manner as, upon the
great revolution in the Roman ftate, all the powers of
the ancient magiftracy of the commonwealth were con¬
centered in the new emperor j fo that, as Gravina ex¬
preffes it, in ejus unius perfona veteris rei pub Here vis
atque majejlas per cumulatas magijlratuum potefates ex-
primebatur.
P p In
C 297 1
(a) Except the parliament, which is the great council of the nation, the judges, and the peers, who, being the
hereditary eounfellors of the crown, have not only a right, but are bound in for0 confeientice to advife the king for
the public good, the conftitution knows of no other counfel than the privy-council. Any other counfel, like Clif¬
ford, Arlington, Buckingham, Aftiley, Lauderdale, and, as the initial letters of thefe names exprefs,is a CABAL,
mid as fuch ftiould be fuppreffed. Nat. Bacon, fpeaking of the lofs of power in the grand council of lords, fays,
“ The fenfe of ftate once contracted into a privy-council, is foon recontrafted into a cabinet-council, andlaft of all
into a favourite or two; which many times brings damage to the public, and both themfelves and kings into ex¬
treme precipices ; partly for want of maturity, but principally through the providence of God overruling irregular
eourfes to the hurt of fuch as w'alk in them.” Pol. Difc. part ii. p. 201.
(b) For experience, faCl, and precedent, fee the reigns of King John, Henry III. Edward II. Richard II.
Charles I. and James II. See alfo Mirror of Jufice; where it is faid, “ that this grand affembly (meaning
the now parliament, or then Wittena-gemotte) is to confer the government of God’s people, how they may
be kept from fin, live in quiet, and have right done them, according to the cuftoms and laws j and more
efpecially of wrong done by the king, queen, or their children : to which Nat. Bacon adds this note : “ At this
time the king might do wrong, &c\ and fo fay BraClon and Fleta of the kings in their time.” Difc. part i. p. 37.
Lond. 1739.
P R E
t 298 J
P R E
Preroga¬
tive.
Blackjl.
Comment.
In the exertion of lawful prerogative the king is held
to be abfolute *, that is, fo far abfolute, that there is no
legal authority that can either delay or refift him. He
may rejeft what bills, may make what treaties, may coin
what money, may create what peers, may pardon what
offences, he pleales : unlefs where the conftitution hath
exprefsly, or by evident conkquence, laid down fome
exception or boundary 5 declaring, that thus far the pre¬
rogative {hall go and no farther. For otherwife the
power of the crown would indeed be but a name and. a
iliadow, infufficient for the ends of government, if,
where its jurifdiflion is clearly eflablifhed and allowed,
any man or body of men were permitted to difobey it,
in the ordinary courfe of law : we do not nowT fpeak of
thofe extraordinary recourfes to the firft principles, which
are neceffary when the contraas of fociety are in danger
of diffolution, and the law proves too weak a defence
againft the violence of fraud or oppreflion. . And yet
the want of attending to this obvious diftinaion has.oc-
cafioned thefe doaHnes, of abfolute power in the prince
and of national refiftance by the people, to be much
mifunderltood and perverted, by the advocates for
{laverv on the one hand, and the demagogues of faaion
on the other. The former, obferving the abfolute fo-
vereignty and tranfeendent dominion of the crown laid
down (as it certainly is) moll ftrongly and emphatically
in our law-books as well as our homilies, have denied
that any cafe can be excepted from fo general and pofi-
tive a rule •, forgetting how impoflible it is, in any prac¬
tical fyftem of laws, to point out beforehand thofe ec¬
centrical remedies, which the fudden emergence of na¬
tional diftrefs may diftate, and which that alone can juf-
tify. On the other hand, over-zealous republicans, feel¬
ing the abfurdity of unlimited paflive obedience, have
fancifully (or fometimes faclioufly) gone over to the
other extreme : and, becaufe refiftance is juftifiable to
the perfon of the prince when the being of the date is
endangered, and the public voice proclaims fuch lefid-
ance neceffary, they have therefore allowed to every in¬
dividual the right of determining this expedience, and
of employing private force to refill even private oppref-
fion. A do&rine produ&ive of anarchy, and (in con-
fequence) equally fatal to civil liberty as tyranny itfelf.
For civil liberty, rightly underftood, confifts in protedl-
fng the rights of individuals by the united force of fo¬
ciety : fociety cannot be maintained, and of courfe can
exert no pn>te£lion, without obedience to fome fove-
reian power and obedience is an empty name, if every
individual has a right to decide how far he himfelf {hall
obey. .
In the exertion, therefore, of thofe prerogatives which
the law has given him, the king is irrefidible and abfo¬
lute according to the forms of the conflitution. And
yet,’if the confequence of that exertion be manifeftly.to
the’grievance or dilhonour of the kingdom, the parlia¬
ment will call his advifers to a juft and fevere account.
For prerogative confiding (as Mr Locke has well defined
it) in the diferetionary power of aaing.for the public
good where the pofitive law's are filent, that ducre-
tionary power be abufed to the public detriment, fuch
prerogative is exerted in an unconnitu^ional manner.
Tin s the king may make a treaty with a foreign ftate,
which {hall irrevocably bind the nation j and yet, when
fuch treaties have been judged pernicious, impeachments
have purfued thofe m’mifters by whofe agency or advice
they were concluded. Ui
The prerogatives of the crown (in the fenfe under
which we are now confidering them) refpeft either this
nation’s intercourfe with foreign nations, or its own do-
meftic government and civil polity.
With regard to foreign concerns, the king is the dele¬
gate or reprefentalive of his people. It is impoffible
that the individuals of a {late, in their colleflivc capa¬
city, can tranfadl the affairs of that ftate with another
community equally numerous as themfelves. Unanimity
muft be wanting to their meafures, and ftrength to the
execution oi their counfels. In the king, therefore, as
in a centre, all the rays of bis people are united, and
form by tliat union a confiftency, fplendour, and power,
that make him feared and refpeaed by foreign poten¬
tates 5 who would fcruple to enter into any engagement,
that muft afterwards be revifed and ratified by a popular
affembly. What is done by the royal authority, with
regard to foreign powers, is the a£l of the whole na¬
tion : what is done without the king’s concurrence, is
the aft only of private men. And lo far is this point
carried by our law, that it hath been held, that Ihouid
all the fubjefts of England make war with a king in
league with the king of England, without the royal af-
fent, fuch war is no breach of the league. And, by the
ftatute 2 Hen. V. c. 6. any fubje£l committing ads of
hollility upon any nation in league with the king, was
declared to be guilty of high trealon : and, though that
ad was repealed by the ftatute .20 Hen. VI. c. 11. fo
far as relates to the making this offence high treafon,
yet ftill it remains a very great offence againft the. law
of nations, and puniftiable by our laws, either capitally
or otherwife, according to the circumftances of the
cafe.
1. The king, therefore, confidered as the reprelenta-
tive of his people, has the foie power of fending ana-
baffadors to foreign ftates, and receiving ambaffadors
at home.
2. It is alfo the king’s prerogative to make treaties,
leagues, and alliances, with foreign ftates and princes.
For it is, by the law of nations, effential to the goodnefs
of a league, that it be made by the fovereign power;
and then it is binding upon the whole community : and
in Britain the fovereign power, quoad hoc, is veiled in
the perfon of the king. Whatever eontrads, therefoie,
he engages in, no other power in the kingdom .can le¬
gally delay, refift, or annul. And yet, left this pleni¬
tude of authority fhould be abufed to the detriment of
the public, the conftitution (as was hinted before) hath
here interpofed a check, by the means of parliamentaiy
impeachment, for the punifhment of fuch minifieis as
from criminal motives advife or conclude any treaty,
which {hall afterwards be judged to derogate from the
honour and intereft of the nation.
3. Upon the fame principle the king has alfo the foie
prerogative of making war and peace. For it is held
by all the writers on the law of nature and nations, *h.at
the right of making war, which by natme fubfifteo in
every individual, is given up by all private perfons that
enter into fociety, and is veiled in the fovereign power .
and this right is given up, not only by individuals, but
even by the entire body of people that are under the do¬
minion of a fovereign. It would indeed be extremely
improper,
Preroga¬
tive.
t
P K E [2
Preroga- Improper, that any number of fubje&s (hould have the
uve. puvver of binding the tupreme magiftrate, and putting
him againft his will in a Hate of war. Whatever hofti-
lities, therefore, may be committed by private citizens,
the'Hate ought not to be affetled thereby j unlefs that
thould juftify their proceedings, and thereby become
partner in the guilt. And the reafon which is given by
Grotius, why, according to the law of nations, a de¬
nunciation of war ought always to precede the aftual
commencement of hoftilities, is not fo much that the
enemy may be put upon his guard (which is matter ra¬
ther of magnanimity than right), but that it may be
certainly clear that the war is not undertaken by pri¬
vate perfons, but by the will of the whole community;
whofe right of willing is in this cafe transferred to the
fupreme magiftrate by the fundamental laws of fociety.
So that, in order to make a war completely effeflual,
it is neceffary with us in Britain that it be publicly de¬
clared and duly proclaimed by the king’s authority; and
then, all parts of both the contending nations, from the
higheft to the lowed, are bound by it. And where-
ever the right refides of beginning a national war, there
alfo muH refide the right of ending it, or the power of
making peace. And the fame check of parliamentary
impeachment, for improper or inglorious conduft, in be¬
ginning, conducing, or concluding a national war, is
in general fufficient to reft rain the minifters of the crotvn
from a wanton or injurious exertion of this great prero¬
gative.
4. But, as the delay of making war may fometimes
be detrimental to individuals who have fuffered by de¬
predations from foreign potentates, our laws have in
fome refpefts armed the fubjefl with powers to impel
the prerogative ; by diredling the minifters of the crowrn
to iftue letters of marque and reprifal upon due demand :
the prerogative of granting which is nearly related to,
and plainly derived from, that other of making war ;
this being indeed only an incomplete ftate of hoftilities,
and generally ending in a formal denunciation of war.
Thefe letters are grantable, by the law of nations, when¬
ever the fubje&s of one ftate are oppreffed and injured
by thofe of another, and juftice is denied by that ftate
to which the oppreflbr belongs. In this cafe, letters of
marque and reprifal (words in themfelves fynonymous,
and fignifying a taking in return) may be obtained, in
order to feize the bodies or goods of the fubjefls of the
offending ftate, until fatisfadlion be made, wherever they
happen to be found. And indeed this cuftom of repri-
fals feems dictated by nature herfelf; for which reafon
we find in the moft ancient times very notable inftances
of it. But here the neceflity is obvious of calling in the
lovereign power, to determine when reprifals may be
made ; elfe every private fufferer would be a judge in
his own caufe. In purfuance of which principle, it is
with us declared by the ftatute 4 Hen. V. c. 7. that if
any fubjefls of the realm are oppreffed in time of truce
by any foreigners, the king will grant marque in due
form to all that feel themfelves grieved. See Marque.
5. Upon exaftly the fame reafon ftands the preroga¬
tive of granting fafe-condu&s 5 without which, by the
law of nations, no member of one fociety has a right to
intrude into another. And therefore Puffendorf very
juftly refolves, that it is left in the power of all ftates
to take fuch meafures about the admiflion of ftrangers as
t hey think convenient; thofe being ever excepted who
99 ] P R E
are driven on the coafts by neceffity, or by any caufe Preroga
that dcferves pity or compaffion. Great tendernefs is tl’’e‘
fhown by our laws, not only to foreigners in diftrefs
(fee Wreck), but with regard alfo to the admiflion of
ftrangers who come fpontaneoufly : for fo long as their
nation continues at peace with ours, and they them¬
felves behave peaceably, they are under the king’s pro¬
tection ; though liable to be fent home whenever the
king fees occafion. Bui no fubjeft of a nation at war
with us can, by the law of nations, come into the realm,
nor can travel himfelf upon the high feas, or fend his
goods and merchandife from one place to another, with¬
out danger of being feized by our fubjeds, unlefs he has
letters of fafe-conduft ; which, by divers ancient fta-
tutes, mult be granted under the king’s great feal and
inrolled in chancery, or elfe they are of no effedt ; the
king being fuppofed the beft judge of fuch emergencies,
as may deferve exception from the general larv of arms.
But palTports under the king’s fign-manual, or licenfes
from his ambaffadors abroad, are now more ufually ob¬
tained, and are allowed to be of equal validity.
Thefe are the principal prerogatives of the king re-
fpe£ling this nation’s intercourfe with foreign nations ;
in all of which he is confidered as the delegate or re-
preientative of his people. But in domeftic affairs, he
is conlidered in a great variety of chara&ers, and from
thence there arifes an abundant number of other prero¬
gatives.
1. He is a conftituent part of the fupreme legiflative
power ; and, as fuch, has the prerogative of rejefling
fuch provifions in parliament as he judges improper to
be pafled. The expediency of which conftitution has
before been evinced at large under the article Parlia¬
ment. We {hall only farther remark, that the king is
not bound by any a61 of parliament, unlefs he be named
therein by fpecial and particular words. The moft ge¬
neral words that can be devifed (any perfon or perfons,
bodies politic, or corporate, &c.) aflfeft not him in the
leaft, if they may tend to reftrain or diminilh any of his
rights or interefts. For it ■would be of moft: mifchievous
confequence to the public, if the ftrength of the execu¬
tive power were liable to be curtailed, without its own
exprefs eonfent, by conftruffions and implications of the
fubjeil. Yet, where an aft of parliament is exprefsly
made for the prefervation of public rights and the fup-
preflion of public wrongs, and does not interfere with
the eftabliftsed rights of the crown, it is faid to be bind¬
ing as well upon the king as upon the fubjeft : and,
likewife, the king may take the benefit of any particular
aft, though he be not efpeeially named.
2. The king is confidered, in the next place, as the
generaliflimo, or the firft in military command, within
the kingdom. The great end of fociety is to proteft
the weaknefs of individuals by the united ftrength of the
community ; and the principal ufe of government is to
direft that united ftrength in the beft and moft effeftual
manner, to anfwer the end propofed. Monarchical go¬
vernment is allowed to be the fitteft of any for this pur-
pofe : it follows therefore, from the very end of its in-
ftitution, that in a monarchy the military power mull
be trufted in the hands of the prince.
In this capacity, therefore, of general of the king¬
dom, the king has the foie power of railing and regulat¬
ing fleets and armies. The manner in which they are.
raifed and regulated is explained under the article Ml -
P P 3 Lirfc'v
P R E
r 3°° ]
P R E
LITARTState. We are now only to conflder the pre¬
rogative of enlirting and of governing them: which in¬
deed was difputed and claimed, contrary to all reafon
and precedent, by the long parliament of King Chas. I.j
but, upon the reiteration of his fon, was folemnly de¬
clared by the llatute 13 Charles II. c. 6. to be in the
king alone: for that the foie fupreme government and
command of the militia within all his majelty’s realms
and dominions, and of all forces by fea and land, and
of all forts and places of ftrength, ever was and is the
undoubted right of his majefty, and his royal predecef-
fors, kings and queens of England j and that both or
either houfe of parliament cannot, nor ought to, pretend
to the fame.
This ftatute, it is obvious to obferve, extends not
only to fleets and armies, but alfo to forts and other
places of ftrength within the realm j the foie preroga¬
tive, as well of erecting, as manning and governing of
which, belongs to the king in his capacity of general
of the kingdom: and all lands were formerly fubjeft to
a tax, for building of caftles wherever the king thought
proper. This was one of the three things, from contri¬
buting to the performance of which no lands were ex¬
empted, and therefore called by the Anglo-Saxons the
trinoda necejfitas; fc. ponds reparation arc is conjlru&io,
et expeditio contra hojlem. And this they were called
upon to do fo often, that, as Sir Edward Coke from
M. Paris aflures us, there were in the time of Henry II.
1113 caftles fubfifting in England. The inconvenien-
cies of which, when granted out to private fubjedts, the
lordly barons of thofe times, were feverely felt by the
whole kingdom 5 for, as William of Newburgh remarks
in the reign of King Stephen, erant in Anglia quodam-
modo tot rcges, vel podus tijranni, quot do??nni cajlelio-
rum; but it was felt by none more fenftbly than by two
fucceeding princes, King John and King Henry III.
And therefore, the greateft part of them being demo-
lilhed in the barons wars, the kings of after times have
been very cautions of fuffering them to be rebuilt in a
fortified manner: and Sir Edward Coke lays it down,
that no fubjedt can build a caftle, or houfe of ftrength
imbattled, or other fortrefs defenfible, without the li-
cenfe of the king-, for the danger which might enfue,
if every man at his pleafure might do it.
It is partly upon the fame, and partly upon a fifcal
foundation, to fecure his marine revenue, that the king
has the prerogative of appointing ports and havens, or
fuch places only, for perfons and merchandife to pafs
into and out of the realm, as he in his wifdom fees pro¬
per. By the feodal law, all navigable rivers and ha¬
vens were computed among the regalia, and were fub-
jedt to the fovereign of the ftate. And in England it
hath always been held, that the king is lord of the
whole Ihore, and particularly is the guardian of the
ports and havens, which are the inlets and gates of the
realm: and therefore, fo early as the reign of King John,
we find ihips feized by the king’s officers for putting in
at a place that was not a legal port. Thefe legal ports
were undoubtedly at firft affigned by the crown; fince
to each of them a court of portmote is incident, the ju-
rifdidtion of which muft flow from the royal authority:
the great ports of the fea are alfo referred to, as well
known and eftabliffied, by ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 20.
which prohibits the landing elfewhere under pain of con-
fifeation: and the ftatute 1 Eliz. c. II. recites, that
the franchife of lading and difeharging had been fre- Preroga
quently granted by the crown. _ ^ tlve-
But though the king had a power of granting the
franchife of havens and ports, yet he had not the power
of refumption, or of narrowing and confining their li¬
mits when once eftabliffied 5 but any perfon had a right
to load or difeharge his merchandife in any part of the
haven: whereby the revenue of the cuftom was much
impaired and diminiffied, by fraudulent landings in ob-
feure and private corners. This occafioned the ftatutes
of 1 Eliz. c. 11. and 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 11. § 14.
which enable the crown by commiffion, to afeertain the
limits of all ports, and to affign proper wharfs and quays
in each port, for the exclufive landing and loading of
merchandife.
The ereftion of beacons, light-houfes, and fea-marks,
is alfo a branch of the royal prerogative: whereof the
firft was anciently ufed in order to alarm the country in
cafe of the approach of an enemy j and all of them are
fignally ufeful in guiding and preferving veffels at fea
by night as well as by day. See Beacon.
3. Another capacity in which the king is confidered
in domeftic affairs, is as the fountain of juftice and gene¬
ral confervator of the peace of the kingdom. See the
article Fountain of JUSTICE.
4. The king is likewife the fountain of honour, of of¬
fice, and of privilege: and this in a different fenfe from
that wherein he is ftyled \\\e fountain of jujlice; for here
he is really the parent of them. See the articles Four*
tain of Justice and Fountain of HONOUR.
3. Another light, in which the laws of England con-
fider the king with regard to domeftic concerns, is as-
the arbiter of commerce. By commerce, we at prefent
mean domeftic commerce only j for the king’s preroga¬
tive with regard to which, fee Regulation of WEIGHTS
and Meafur.es, Money, &c.
6. The king is, laftly, confidered by the laws of Eng¬
land as the head and fupreme governor of the national
church.
To enter into the reafons upon which this prerogatn-e-
is founded is matter rather of divinity than of law. We
ffiall therefore only obferve, that by ftatute 26 Hen.
VIII. c. 1. (reciting that the king’s majefty juftly and
rightfully is and ought to be the fupreme head of the
church of England and fo had been recognifed by the
clergy of that kingdom in their convocation) it isenaft-
ed, that the king ffiall be reputed the only fupreme
head on earth of the church of England and fhall have,
annexed to the imperial crown of this realm, as well the
title and ftyle thereof, as all jurifdiftions, authorities,
and commodities, to the faid dignity of fupreme head of
the church appertaining. And another ftatute to the
fame purport was made, 1 Eliz. c. 1.
In virtue of this authority the king convenes, pro¬
rogues, reftrains, regulates, and diffolves, all ecclefiafti-
cal fynods or convocations. This was an inherent prero¬
gative of the crown long before the time of Henry VIII.
as appears by the ftatute 8 Hen. VI. c. 1. and the many
authors, both lawyers and hiftorians, vouched by Sir
Edward Coke. ' So that the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 19.
which reftrains the convocation from making or putting
in execution any canons repugnant to the king’s prero¬
gative, or the laws, cuftoms, and ftatutes of the realm,
was merely declaratory of the old common law: that
part of it only being new, which makes the king’s royal
P R E [30
freroga- aflent actually neceffary to the validity of every canon,
tive Xhe convocation or ecclefiaftical fynod, in England,
J] differs confiderably in its conllitution from the fynods
Lrfe X’> of other Chriftian kingdoms : thefe confifting wholly of
bifhops $ whereas in England the convocation is the mi¬
niature of a parliament, wherein the archbifhop prefides
with regal (late •, the upper houfe of bifhops reprefents
the houfe of lords *, and the lower houfe, compofed of
reprefentatives of the feveral diocefes at large, and of
each particular chapter therein, refembles the houfe of
commons with its knights of the (hire and burgeffes.
This conftitution is faid to be owing to the policy of
Edward I. who thereby at one and the fame time let in
the inferior clergy to the privileges of forming ecclefiaf¬
tical canons (which before they had not), and alfo in¬
troduced a method of taxing ecclefiaftical benefices, by
confent of convocation.
From this prerogative alfo, of being the head of the
church, arifes the king’s right of nomination to vacant
bifhoprics, and certain other ecclefiaftical preferments.
As head of the church, the king is likewife the der¬
nier refort in all ecclefiaftical caufes j an appeal lying
ultimately to him in chancery from the fentence of every
ecclefiaftical judge : which right was reftored to the
crown by ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 9.
III. The king’s fifcal prerogatives, or fuch as regard
his revenue. See the article Revenue,
P R E HOG ATI VE- Court, an Englifh court eftablifhed
for the trial of all teftamentary caufes, where the deceaf-
ed hath left bona notabilia within two different diocefes.
In which cafe the probate of wills belongs to the arch-
bifhop of the province, by way of fpecial prerogative.
And all caufes relating to the wills, adminiftrations, or
legacies of fuch perfons, are originally cognizable here¬
in, before a judge appointed by the archbifhop, called
the judge of the prerogative court ; from whom an appeal
lies by ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. to the king in chan¬
cery, inftead of the pope as formerly.
PRESAGE, in Antiquity, denotes an augury, or fign
of fome future event 5 which was chiefly taken from the
flight of birds, the entrails of viflims, &c. See Augu¬
ry and Aruspices.
PRESBURG, the capital of the kingdom of Lower
Hungary, called by the inhabitants Pofony and Prefpo-
ren, fituated on the Danube, about 46 miles eaft from
Vienna, and 75 from Buda. The caftle, in which the
regalia are kept, (lands on a hill above the town. Here
the dates affemble } and in the cathedral, dedicated to
St Martin, the king is crowned. The town is not very
large, or well built ; but is very ancient, pleafantly fitu¬
ated, and enjoys a good air. T he population is com¬
puted at 27,000. Its fortifications are only a double
wall and ditch. In the lower fuburbs is a hill, where
the king, after his coronation, goes on horfeback, and
brandifhes St Stephen’s fword towards the four cardinal
points, intimating, that he will defend his country againft
all its enemies. Befides the cathedral, there are feveral
other Popiih and one Lutheran church* with a Jefuits
college, three convents, and two hofpitals. It gives name
to a county, and is the refidence of the archbiftiop of
Gran, who is primate, chief fecretary, and chancellor of
the kingdom, legatus natus oi the Papal fee, and prince
of the holy Roman empire. E. Long. 17. 30. N. Lat.
48. 20.
ERESBYTiE, perfons whofe eyes are too flat to re-
] P R E
fraft the rays fufficiently, fo that unlefs the object is at Prelbyt*
fome diftance, the rays coming from it will pafs through prJj te
the retina before their union, confequently vifion is con- rjans
fufed 5 old people are ufually the fubjefts of thisdifeafe. * — v-i.
In order to remedy, or at lead to palliate, this defeat,
the perfon (hould firft ufe glaffes which do not magnify,
and from them pafs gradually to more convex fpedlacles,
which (horten the focus.
PRESBYTER, in the primitive Chriftian church, an
elder, one of the fecond order of ecclefiaftics ; the other
two being biftiops and deacons. See the article Bishop
and Deacon.
Prelbyter, or elder, is a word borrowed from the
Greek tranflation of the Old Teftament, where it com¬
monly fignifies ruler or governor; it being a note of of¬
fice and dignity, not of age j and in this fenfe biftiops
are femetimes called prejbyters in the New Teftament.
The prefbyters might baptize, preach, confecrate, and
adminifter the eucharift in the bifliop’s abfence, or in his
prefence if he authorifed and deputed them $ and the
biftiops did fcarce any thing in the government of the
church without their advice, confent, and amicable con¬
currence.
The grand difpute between the followers of the Ge¬
neva and Roman difcipline, is about the famenefs and
difference of prefbyters and biftiops at the time of the
apoftles. See Episcopacy, Independents, and the
following article. t
PRESBYTERIANS, Proteftants fo called from Difcrimi-
their maintaining that the government of the church na.ting
appointed in the New Teftament was by Prefbyteries,
that is, by affociations of minifters, and ruling elders, terians. **
poffeffed all of equal powers, without any fuperiority
among them either in office or in order.
The Prelbyterians believe, that the authority of their
minifters to preach the gofpel, to adminifter the facra-
ments of baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, and to feed the
flock of Chrift, is derived from the Holy Ghoft by the
impofition of the hands of the prefbytery 5 and they op-
pofe the independent fcheme of the common rights of
Chriftians by the fame arguments which are ufed for that
purpofe by the Epifcopalians, (fee Episcopacy). They
affirm, however, that there is no order in the church as
eftabliftied by Chrift and his apoftles fuperior to that of
prefbyters} that all minifters being ambaffadors of Chrift,
are equal by their cominiffion ; that prejbyter and bijhop,
though different words, are of the fame import; and
that prelacy was gradually eftabliftied upon the primi¬
tive practice of making the moderator or fpeaker of the
prefbytery a permanent officer. %
Thefe pofitions they maintain againft the Epifcopa Scriptural
lians by the following fcriptural arguments. They ob- arguments
ferve, that the apoftles planted churches by ordaining aga,nft E-
biftiops and deacons in every city-, that the minifterspi
which in one verfe are called biftiops, are in the next
perhaps denominated prefbyters *, that we nowhere read
in the New Teftament of biftiops, prefbyters, and dea¬
cons, in any one church } and that therefore we are un¬
der the neceffity of concluding bi/hop and prejbyter to
be two names for the fame church officer. This is ap¬
parent from Peter’s exhortation to the elders or prejby¬
ters who were among the Jewifh Chriftians. “ The
elders (prefbyters) which are among you I exhort, who
am alfo an elder, and a witnefs of the fufferings of
Chrift, and alfo a partaker of the glory that ftiall be re¬
vealed (
* i Peter
v. x, a, 3-
P R E [ 302 ]
vealed : Teed the flock bf God which is among you,
taking the overjight thereof (iTMrKOTrdvylis, affing as bi-
jhops thereof), not by conftraint, but willingly j not for
filthy lucre, but of a ready mind j neither as being
Lords over God’s heritage, but being enfamples to the
flock From this pafTage it is evident, that the pref-
byters not only fed the flock of God* but alfo govern¬
ed that flock with epifcopal powers ; and that the
apoftle himfelf, as a church officer, was nothing more
than a prefbyter or elder. The identity of the office of
biffiop and prefbyter is ftill more apparent from Ileb.
xiii. 7. 17. and 1 ThefT. v. 12.; for the bishops are there
reprefented as governing the dock, fpeaking to them
the word of God, watching for their fouls, and difchar-
ging various offices, which it is impoffible for any man
to perform to more than one congregation*
Reafins for From the lad cited text it is evident, that the biffiops
tbppofing (rtgotrlxitiSi/ovi) of the Theffalonian churches had the paf-
bifhops and toral care of no more fouls than they could hold perfo-
^fGhe^amena^ conimun*on God’s worfhip •, for they were
order. as t^ie PeoP^e were to bnow, ejleem. and /ow,
as thofe that not only were 6ver them, but alfo “ clofely
laboured among them, and adinpnifhed them.” But
diocefan bifhops, whom ordinarily the hundredth part
of their dock never hear nor fee, cannot be thofe biffiops
by whom that dock is admoniffied, nor can they be, what
Peter requires the biihops of the Jewiffi converts to be,
enfamples to thefiock. It is the opinion of Dr Ham¬
mond, who was a very learned divine, and a zealot for
epifcopacy, that the elders whom the apoftle James de¬
fires f the fick to call for, were of the higheft perma¬
nent order of ecclefiaftical officers j but it is felf-evident
that thofe elders cannot have been diocefan biffiops,
otherwife the fick muft have been often without the
reach of the remedy propofed to them.
There is nothing in Scripture upon which the Epif-
copalian is more ready to reft his caufe than the alleged
epifcopacy of Timothy and Titus ; of whom the former
is faid to have been biffiop of Ephefus, and the latter
biffiop of Crete ; yet the Preffiyterian thinks it as clear
as the noon-day fun, that the preffiyters of Ephefus were
fupreme governors under Chrift of the Ephefian church¬
es, at the very time that Timothy is pretended to have
been their proper diocefan.
In A61s xx. 17, &c. we read, that “ from Miletus
Paul fent to Ephefus, and called the elders (preffiyters)
of the church. And when they were come to him, he
faid unto them, Ye know, from the firft: day that I
came into Afia, after what manner I have been with
you, at all feafons. And now I know that ye all, among
whom I have gone preaching the kingdom of God, (hall
fee my face no more. Wherefore, I take you to record
this day, that I am pure from the blood of all men. For
I have not ffiunned to declare unto you all the counfel
of God* Take heed therefore unto yourfelves, and to
all the flock over which the Holy Ghoft hath made you
overfeers (tTitrxbTroi/f, bifhops'), to feed the church of
God, which lie hath purchafed with his owm blood.
For I know this, that after my departure ffiall grievous
wolves enter in among you, not fparing the flock. Al¬
fo of your ownfelves ffiall men arife, fpeaking perverfe
things, to draw away difciples after them. Therefore
■watch, and remember, that by the fpace of three years,
$ ceafed not to warn every one night and day with tears.
P R E
f Chap. v.
’*4-
And now, brethren, I recommend you to God, and to Prefbyte.
the word of his grace,” &c. rians.
From this paflage, it is evident that there was in the '■“v-—j
city of Ephefus a plurality of paftors of equal authority xhe pafton;
without any fuperior paftoror bifliop over them; for theof Ephefus
apoftle directs his difeourfe to them all in common, andof equal
gives them equal power over the whole flock. Dr Hara-amllority'
mond indeed imagines, that the elders whom Paul called
to Miletus were the bi/hops of Afa, and that he fent
for them to Ephefus, becaufe that city was the metro¬
polis of the province. But were this opinion well-
founded, it is not conceivable that the facred writer
would have called them the elders of the church of
Ephefus, but the elders of the church in general, or the
elders of the churches in Afa. Befides, it is to be re¬
membered, that the apoftle was in fuch haiie to be at
Jerufalem, that the facred hiftorian meafures his time
by days; whereas it muft have required feveral months
to call together the biffiops or elders of all the cities of
Afiai and he might cerlainly have gone to meet them
at Ephefus in lefs time than would be requifite for their
meeting in that city and proceeding thence to him at
Miletus. They rnuft therefore have been either the
joint paftors of one congregation, or the paftors of dif¬
ferent congregations in one city ; and as it was thus in
Ephefus, fo was it in Philippi; for We find the apoftle
addreffing his epiflle “ to all the faints in Chrift Jefus
which are at Philippi, with the biffiops and deacons.”
From the paflage before us it is likewife plain, that the
prefbyters of Ephefus had not only the name but the
whole power of biffiops given to them by the Holy
Ghoft ; for they are enjoined to do the whole work of
biffiops—-TsttfAccmii tjjv s>£KA9jir<«v tov ©jov.—which figni-
fies, to rule as well as fed the church of God. Whence
we fee, that the apoftle makes the power of governing
infeparable from that of preaching and watching; and
that according to him, all who are preachers of God’s
word, and watchmen of fouls, are necelfarily rulers or
governors of the church, without being accountable for
their management to any prelate, but only to their
Lord Chrift from whom their power is derived. ^
It appears, therefore, that the apoftle Paul left in the Timothy
church of Ephefus, which he had planted, no otherfuc-no
ceflors to himfelf than pmjbijter-bijbops, or Preffiyterian
minifters, and that he did not devolve his power upon
any prelate. Timothy, whom the Epifcopalians allege
to have been the firft hiffiop of Ephefus, was prefent
when this fettlement was made * ; and it is furely not to * Ads va>
be fuppofed, that, had he been their bifliop, the apoflle 5.
would have devolved the whole epifcopal power upon
the preffiyters before his face. If ever there wfas a fea-
fon fitter than another for pointing out the duty of this
fuppofed bifliop to his diocefe, and his preffivters duty to
him, it was furely when Paul was taking his final leave
of them, and difeourfing fo pathetically concerning the
duty of overfeers, the coming of ravenous wolves, and
the confequent hazard of the flock. In this farewel
difeourfe, he tells them that “ he had not fliunned to
declare unto them all the counfel of God.” But with
what truth could this have been faid, if obedience to a
diocefan biffiop had been any part of their duty either
at the time of the apoftle’s fpeaking or at any future
period ? He forelaw that ravenous wolves would enter
in among them, and that even feme of themfelves ffiould
ariffi
P R E
C 303 ]
P R E
Prefbyte-
rianb.
6
but an e-
Tanjelift.
* t Tim. iv,
f Phil. ii.
ij.
1 Cor. iv.
27. xvi. xo,
u.
i Tim. i.
Prefbyte-
tate the
aigheft per
■uanent of¬
fice in the
Aurch.
arlfe fpeaking perverfe things $ and if, as the Epifcopa-
lians allege, diocefan epifcopacy was the remedy pro¬
vided for thofe evils, is it not ftrange, pading drange,
that the infpired preacher did not forefee that Timothy,
who was ftanding befide him, was deftined to fill that
important office ; or if he did forefee it, that he omitted
to recommend him to his future charge, and to give him
proper inftruclions for the difcharge of his duty ?
But if Timothy was not biihop of Ephefus, what, it
may be afked, was his office in that city ? for that he
refided there for fome time, and was by the apoftle in-
veiled with authority to ordain and rebuke prefbyters,
are fails about which all parties are agreed, and which
indeed cannot be controverted by any reader of Paul’s
epiftles. To this the Preibyterian replies with confi¬
dence, that the power which Timothy exercifed in the
church of Ephefus was that of an evangelitl *, and not
a fixed prelate. But, according to Eufebius, the work
of an evangelift was, “ to lay the foundations of the
faith in barbarous nations, and to conftitute among
them pallors ; after which he palled on to other coun¬
tries.” Accordingly we find, that Timothy was refi-
denl for a time at Philippi and Corinth f as well as
at Ephefus, and that he had as much authority over
thofe churches as over that of which he is faid to have
been the fixed biffiop. “ Now, if Timotheus come,
fee that he may be with you without fear, for he work-
eth the wmrk of the Lord, as I alfo do. Let no man
therefore defpife him.” This text might lead us to fup-
pofe, that Timothy was biffiop of Corinth as well as of
Ephefus *, for it is {Longer than that upon which his
epifcopacy of the latter church is chiefly built. The
apoftle fays, “ I befought thee X to abide ftill at Enhe-
fus, when I went into Macedonia, that thou mighteil
charge fome that they teach no other dodlrine.” But
had Timothy been the fixed biffiop of that citv, there
would finely have been no neceffity for befeeching him
to abide with his flock. It is to be obferved, too, that
the firft epiille to Timothy, which alone was written to
him during his refidence at Ephefus, was of a date prior
to Paul’s meeting with the elders of that church at Mi¬
letus j for in the epiftle he hopes to come to him ffiortly,
whereas he tells the elders at Miletus, that they fhould
fee his face no more. This being the cafe, it is evident
that Timothy was left by the apoftle at Ephefus only to
fupply his place during his temporary abfence at Mace¬
donia, and that he could not poffibly have been confti-
tuted fixed bifhop of that church, fince the epifcopal
powers were afterwards committed to the prefbyters by
the Holy Ghoft in his prefence.
The identity of the office of biffiop and preffiyter be¬
ing thus clearly eftabliffied, it follows, that the preffiv-
terate is the higheft permanent office in the church,
and that every faithful pallor of a flock is fucceffor to
the apoftles in every thing in which they were to have
any fucceflbrs. In the apoftolic office there were in¬
deed fome things peculiar and extraordinary, fuch as
their immediate call by Chrift, their infallibility, their
being witnefles of our Lord’s refurreflion, and their
unlimited jurifdiftton over the whole world. rfhefe
powers and privileges could not be conveyed bv impofi-
tron of hands to any fucceffors, whether called preffiy-
ters or biihops •, but as rulers or* office-bearers in parti¬
cular churches, we have the confeffion of “ the very
-iffiiefeft apoftles,” Peter and John, that they were no-
Pretbyte-
rians.
thing more than preffiyters or pariffi minifters. This
being the cafe, the difpute, which in the early part of
the paffing century was fo warmly agitated concerning v
the validity of Prefbyterian ordination, may be foon de¬
cided ; for if the ceremony of ordination be at all effen-
tial, it is obvious that fuch a ceremony performed by
preffiyters muft be valid, as there is no higher order of
eccleliallics in the church by whom it can be performed.
Accordingly we find that Timothy himfelf, though
faid to be a biffiop, was ordained by the laying on of
the hands of a preffiytery. At that ordination indeed
St Paul prefided, but he could preiide only as pn~
mus in paribus; for we have leen that, as permanent
officers in the church of Chrift, the apoftles themfelves
were no more than prelbyters. If the apoftles hands
Avere impofed for any other purpofe, it muft have been
to communicate thofe charifmata or miraculous gifts
of the Holy Spirit, which Avere then fo frequent *, but
Avhich no modern preffiyter or bifhop Avill pretend to
give, unlefs his underftanding be clouded by the groffefl
ignorance, or perverted by the moil frantic enthufi-
afm. g
But if the office of bifhop and preffiyter Avas origi-RHe of E-
nally the fame, how, it Avill be afked, came diocefan e-pifcopacy.
pifeopacy to prevail fo univerfally as it is confeffed to
have done before the converfion of Conflantine and the
civil eftabliffiment of Chriftianity in the Roman em¬
pire ? To give a fatisfa&ory anfvver to this queftion is
certainly the moft arduous talk Avhich the advocate for
preffiytery has to perform ; but it is a talk not infur-
mountable.
From many paflages in the New Teftament *, it is * A<fb xi.
evident, that Avhen the apoftles planted churches in dif- 29- xiii. 1.
ferent cities, they generally fettled more than one pa-2\ 3-.xv*
ftor in the fame church, to feed and govern it with
joint authority. The propriety of this conftitution is
obvious. In thofe days, when the difciples of Chrift
Avere perfecuted for their religion, and often obliged to
meet in the “ night for fear of the Jews,” they could
not with any degree of prudence aflemble in large num¬
bers ; and therefore, had there been no more than one
pallor in a city, the Chriftian converts, though, when
affembled, they might have amounted to but a fmall
congregation, could net all have enjoyed the benefit
of public worfhip on the fame day ; at leafl it is obvious
that they could not poffibly have aflembled for this pur¬
pofe fo often as their want of inftrinfiion, and the duty
of “ breaking of bread and of prayer,” required them
to meet. It was therefore Avith great Avifdom that the
apoftles ordained feveral prefbyters in the fame church j
but as thefe prefbyters would have oecafion to meet fre¬
quently, and to deliberate on the flate of the flock which
it was their duty to feed, and over Avhieh they had all
equal authority, they would be under the neceffity of
eledling one of their own number to be prefident or mo¬
derator of the preffiytery, that order might be preferved,
and all things done with decency: At firll there is rea-
fim to believe that thofe prefidents held their office no
longer than Avhile the preffiyteries fat in which they were
elefted. Among the apoftles themfelves there Avas no
fixed prefident, Peter indeed appears to have been moll
frequently admitted to that honour but there is one
very memorable occafion on record f, when James the . A<ft;s.KT,
Lord’s brother prefided in an afttmbly of apoftles, elders, '
and brethren, held at Jerufalcm, to determine the quef¬
tion
PEE [ 304 ] PEE
Pre/byfe- tioii concerning the neceflity of circumcifing the Gen-
nans tj]_e^ an(i commanding them to keep the law of Moles.
Upon this model were the primitive prelhyteries
formed. They confifted of feveral prelhyters poffeffed
of equal powers, who at their meetings appointed one
of their own number to difcharge the office of modera¬
tor or temporary prelident; but to this prelident they
gave no prelatieal powers or negative voice over the de¬
liberations of his brethren j for, as Jerome informs us,
9 the church was then governed communi prejbijlerormn
According concUio, “ by a common council of prelbyters.” It ap-
to Jerome, pears, however* that when an apoftle, an-apoftolical man,
or an evangelift, fixed his refidenee in any city, and took
upon himfelf the paitoral care of part of the flock, his
co-prefbyters, from refpeft to his Angular gifts, made
him their conftant and fixed moderator. Hence Timo¬
thy, during his abode at Ephefus, was moderator of the
prefbytery •, and hence too Mark the evangelift, who
refided many years in Alexandria, has been called the
firft biffiop of that church, though he appears to have
been nothing more than permanent moderator. We
advance this upon the authority of Jerome, one of the
moft learned fathers of the Chriftian church, who in¬
forms us, that upon the death of the evangelift, the
prefbyters of Alexandria, for more than 200 years, chofe
their biffiops from their own number, and placed them
in the epifcopal chair, without dreaming that they ought
to be raifed to a higher order by a new confecration ;—•
Prefbyteri mum ex fe eleBwn in exceljiori gradu colloca-
tum, epifcopum notmnabant. As this praftice of making
the moderator of the prefbytery of Alexandria a per¬
manent officer, was thought a good expedient to guard
the infant churches againft fchifms and divifions, thole
. churches gradually adopted it. For, as Jerome tells us,
Poftquam unufqmfque eos quos bapti%averat, fuos put abut
c/je, non ChriJH, in toto orbe decretum ejl, ut units de pref-
byteris cleRus, fuperponeretur cceteris, ad quern omnis ec-
vlefice cura pertineret, et fchiftmtum fetnina tollerentur.
The advantages which, in difplaying his talents and
authority, the perpetual prefident or fpeaker of any af-
fembly has over his colleagues in office, are fo obvious,
that when the practice of elefting their moderators for
life became univerfal among the prefbyteries of the pri¬
mitive church, it is eafy to conceive how ambitious men
might fo magnify the difficulties and importance of their
ftation, as to introduce the cuftdtn of filling it by a new
confecration of the biffiop eleit. But when this was
done, diocefan epifcopacy, with all its powers and pre¬
rogatives, would follow as a thing of courfe, until “ by
little and little (as Jerome expreffes himfelf) the whole
paftoral care of the flock w&s devolved upon one man.'**
Our limits will not permit us to trace more minutely
the rife and progrefs of this ecclefiaftical ufurpation,
as the Preffiyterian calls it •, but the reader who wiffies
for fuller information, after ftudying the remains of the
four firft centuries of the Chriftian church, may confult
An Inquiry into the Con/litution, Difcipline, and Worjhip,
.of the Primitive Church, faid to have been written by Sir
Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor of England.
As an impartial lover of truth, he will do well to con¬
fult alfo a book entitled, An original Draught of the
Primitive Church, which was publiffied as an anfwer to
the Inquiry ; and he may read with much advantage to
himfelf A Letter from a parochial bijhop to a prelattcal
■gentleman, with An apology for the Church of Scotland,
both written by Mr Willifon fome time minifter in Dun- Preibyte.
dee, and both evincing confiderable learning and great r‘ans-
ingenuity in their pious author. ' ^ I
Of the churches at prefent formed upon this model, The church i
we believe, that without incurring the imputation of of Scotlarui
national prejudice, we may fafely affirm the church of
Scotland to be by much the moft refpeftable. Her
mode of worffiip is fimple and folemn j her eftabliffied
faith agreeable to the confeffions of moft other Pro-
teftant churches j her judicatories are calculated to
maintain the rights of the people j and her pallors are
eonfeffedly men of liberal and enlightened minds. On
thefe accounts it appears to us, that we cannot more
properly conclude this article than with a ftiort view of
her conftitution, as being that in which our Preffiyterian
readers are undoubtedly moft interefted.
No one is ignorant, that from the firft dawn of refer- ,
mation among us, till the era of the revolution, there
■was a perpetual ftruggle between the court and the peo¬
ple for the eftabliffiment of an Epifcopal or a Preffiyte¬
rian form of church government: The former model of
ecclefiaftical polity was patronifed by the houfe of Stu¬
art on account of the fupport which it gave to the pre¬
rogatives of the crown } the latter was the favourite of
the majority of the people, perhaps not fo much on ac¬
count of its fuperior claim to apoftolical inftitution, as
becaufe the laity are mixed with the clergy in church
judicatories, and the two orders, which under epifco¬
pacy are kept fo diftinft, incorporated, as it were, into
one body. In the Scottiffi church, every regulation of
public worffiip, every a£l of difcipline, atid every eccle- i»
fiaftical cenfure, which in other churches flows from the governed
authority of a diocefan biftiop, or from a convocation of ^
the clergy, is the joint work of a certain number oflaymen>
clergymen and laymen a£ling together with equal autho¬
rity, and deciding every queftion by a plurality of voi¬
ces. The laymen who thus form an effential part of the
ecclefiaftical courts of Scotland, are ruling elders ;
and hold the fame office, as well as the fame name, with
thofe brethren * who joihed with the apoftlesand elders # a£SX7,
at Jerufalem in determining the importaiit queftion con¬
cerning the neceflity of impofing upon the Gentile con¬
verts the ritual obfervahces of the law of Mofes. Thefe
lay-elders Paul enjoined Timothy f to account worthy f 1 Tim.y
of double honour, if they ffiould rule well, and difcharge 17.
the duties for which they were feparated from the multi¬
tude of their brethren. In the church of Scotland every
pariffi has two or three of thofe lay •■■elders, who are grave
and ferious perfons, chofen from among the heads of fa¬
milies, of known orthodoxy and Heady adherence to the
worffiip, difcipline, and government of the church. Be¬
ing folemnly engaged to ufe their litmoft endeavours for
the fupprefllon of vice and the cheriftiing of piety and
virtue, and to eXercife difcipline faithfully and diligent¬
ly, the minifter, in the prefence of the congregation,
fets them apart to their office by folemn prayer ; and
concludes the ceremony, which is fometimes called ordi¬
nation, with exhorting both elders and people to their
refpeftive duties. _ 12
The kirk-feffion, which is the loweft ecclefiaftical ju-The kirk-
dicatory, confifts of the minifter and thofe elders of the l0n*
congregation. The minifter is ex officio moderator, but
has no negative voice ever the decifion of the feffion j
nor indeed has he a right to vote at all, unlefs when
the voices of the elders are equal and oppofite. He
may
Pr?fbyte-
rians.
13
Hie pref-
tytery.
Hie pro¬
vincial fy-
sod.
»5
The gene¬
ral affem-
»ly»
? R E [ 3^5 } P R E
may indeed enter his proteft againfl their fentence, if he
think it improper, and appeal to the judgment of the
prefbytery j but this privilege belongs equally to every
elder, as well as to every perfon who may believe him-
felf aggrieved by the proceedings of the feffion. The
deacons, whofe proper office it is to take care of the poor*
may be prefent in every feffion, and offer their counfel
on all queftions that come before it; but except in what
relates to the diftribution of alms, they have no decifive
vote with the minifter and elders.
The next judicatory is the prejbytery, which confifts
of all the pallors within a certain diilridl, and one ruling
elder from each parilh, commiffioned by his brethren to
reprefent, in conjun6tion with the minifter, the feffion
of that parilh. The prelbytery treats of fuch matters as
concern the particular churches within its limits ; as the
examination, admiffion, ordination, and cenfuring of
minifters •, the licenfing of probationers, rebuking of
grofs or contumacious linners, the direfling of the fen¬
tence of excommunication, the deciding upon references
and appeals from kirk-feffions, refolving cafes of con-
fcience, explaining difficulties in doftrine or difeipline j
and oenfuring, according to the word of God, any he-
refy or erroneous doftrine which hath either been pub¬
licly or privately maintained within the bounds of its
jurifdiflion. Partial as we may be thought to our own
church, we frankly acknowledge that we cannot alto¬
gether approve of that part of her eonftitution which
gives an equal vote, in queltions of herefy, to an illite¬
rate mechanic and his enlightened pallor. We are per-
fuaded that it has been the fource of much trouble to
many a pious clergyman ■, who, from the laudable de¬
fire of explaining the feriptures and declaring to his
flock all the counfel of God, has employed a variety of
expreffions of the fame import, to illullrate thofe articles
of faith which may be obfeurely expreffed in the ella-
blilhed llandards. The faft however is, that, in pref-
byteries, the only prerogatives which the pallors have
over the ruling elders, are the power of ordination by
impolition of hands, and the privilege of having the
moderator chofen from their body.
From the judgment of the prelbytery there lies an
appeal to the provincial fynod, which ordinarily meets
twice in the year, and exercifes over the prelhyteries
within the province a jurifdidlion limilar to that which
is veiled in each prefbytery over the feveral kirk-feffions
within the bounds. Of thefe fynods there are in the
church of Scotland fifteen, which are compofcd of the
members of the feveral prelbyteries within the refpeflive
provinces which give names to the fynods.
The highell authority in the church of Scotland is
the general affembly, which confids of a certain number
of minilters and ruling elders delegated from each pref¬
bytery, and of commiffioners from the univerfities and
royal boroughs. A prelbytery in which there are fewer
than twelve pariffies, fends to the general affembly two
minillers and one ruling elder : if it contain between
1 2 and 18 minillers, it fends three of thefe, and one ru-
ling elder : if it contains between 18 and 24 minillers,
it fends four minillers and two ruling elders : and of 24
minillers, when it contains fo many, it fends five with
two ruling elders. Every royal borough fends one ruling
elder, and Edinburgh two : whofe eleftion mull be at-
telled by the kirk-feffions of their refpe£live boroughs.
Every univerfity fefids one commiffioner from its own
Vol. XVII. Part I,
body. The commiffioners are chofen annually fix weeks Prelby.te-
before the meeting of the affembly; and the ruling elders nij.ns
are often men of the firll eminence in the kingdom for prefGr;p_
rank and talents. In this affembly, which meets once tion.
a-year, the king prefides by his commiffioner, who is al- 1 -v""'11 *■
ways a nobleman \ but he has no voice in their delibera¬
tions. The order of their proceedings is regular, though
fometimes the number of members creates a confufion,
which the moderator, who is ehofen from among the
miniilers, to be, as it were, the fpeaker of the houfe,
has not fufficient authority to prevent. Appeals are
brought from all the other ecclefiallical courts in Scot¬
land to the general affembly j and in quellions purely
religious no appeal lies from its determinations.—In the
fubordination of thefe affemblies, parochial, prelbyte-
rial, provincial, and national, the lefs unto the greater,
confills the external order, llrength, and lledfallnefs of
the church of Scotland.
PRESCIENCE, in Theology previfion or fore¬
knowledge ; that knowledge which God has of things
to come.—The dodlrine of predellination is founded on
the prefcience of God, and on the fuppofition of all fu¬
turity’s being prefent to him. See Predestination.
PRESCRIPTION, in Zniu, is a title acquired by
ufe and time, and allowed by law $ as when a man
claims any thing, becaufe he, his ancellors, or they
whofe ellate he hath, have had or ufed it all the time
whereof no memory is to the contrary : or it is where
for continuance of time, ultra memoriam hominis, a par¬
ticular perfon hath a particular right againll another.
There is a difference between prefeription, cuflom,
and ufage. Prefeription hath refpecl to a certain perfon,
who bij intendment may have continuance for ever ; as
for inllance, he and all they whofe ejlate he hath in fuch
a thing •, this is a prefeription : but cufom is local, and
al ways applied to a certain place ; as, time out of mind
there has been fuch a cufom in fuch a place, &c. And
prefeription belongeth to one or a few only 5 but cufom
is common to all. Ifage differs from both, for it may
be either to perfons or places ; as to inhabitants of a town
to have a way, &c.
A cuftom and prefeription are in the right; ufage is
in the poffefion ; and a prefeription that is good for the
matter and fubftance, may be bad by the. manner of fet-
ting it forth : but where that which is claimed as a cuf
tom, in or for many, will be good, that regularly will
be fo when claimed by prefeription for one. Prefeription
is to be time out of mind ■, though it is not the length of
time that begets the right of prefeription, nothing being
done by time, although every thing is done in time j
but it is a prefumption in law, that a thing cannot con¬
tinue fo long quiet, if it was agaihf right, or injurious to
another.
Prescription, in Scots Law. See Law, p. 675.
and 702.
Prescription, in Theology, was a kind of argument
pleaded by Tertullian and others in the 3d century
againll erroneous doftors. This mode of arguing has
been defpifed by fome, both becaufe it has been ufed by
Papills, and becaufe they think that truth has no need
of fuch a fupport. But furely in difputed points, if it
can be fhown that any particular do&rine of Chrillia-
nity was held in the earlieft ages, even approaching the
apollolic, it mull have very confiderable weight ; and
indeed that it has fo, appears from the univerfal appeals
O q of
P R E [ 306 j PR E
Prefcrip- of all parties to thofe early times in fupport of their
t1011- particular opinions. Befides, the thing is in itfelf natu-
■“ * ral ) for if a man finds a variety of opinions in the world
upon important paffages in fcripture, where (hall he be
fo apt to get the true fenfe as from cotemporary writers
or others who lived very near the apoftolic age ? and if
fuch a man fhall find any doflrine or interpretation to Prefcrip.
have been univerfally believed in the firft ages, or as , tIori~
Vincentius Lirinenfis words \t,femper ubique et ab omni- 't "~~
bus, he will unqueftionably be difpofed to think fuch
early and univerfal confent, or fuch prefcription, of very
confiderable weight in determining his opinion.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Introduc¬
tion.
Nature of
a medical
prefcrip¬
tion.
2
Examples.
3
Parts of a
prefer ip-
tion.
4 r
Parts of a
formula.
A Prescription, in a medical fenfe, fignifies much
the fame with what in common language is called
a receipt, being “ a form of direction for the prepaiation
and adminiftration of lome compound medicine.” I hefe
medical receipts are commonly called formitlce by phyfi-
eians 5 and the term prefcription is applied to what is
written by a phyfician on feeing his patient, inftru£ling
the apothecary what medicines are to be prepared, how
they are to be compofed, and how adminiftered to the
patient. In this fenfe, a prefcription may contain two or
more formula:.
Thefe preferiptions are almoft always written, in
Latin, and are exprefled in a peculiar ftyle, which,
though w'ell known to phyficians and apothecaries, may
require the illuftration of an example. The.following is
a fpecimen of a modern prefcription, as it would be
written by an Edinburgh and a London phyfician, ac¬
cording to the nomenclature of their refpeclive corlege
Pharmacopoeias.
Edinburgh Prefcription.
For Mr  
Pulv. Rad. Rhei palmati gr. xxv.
Tartritis Potaffae 5ij.
Tinfturae Sennae compofitse,
Syrupi Rofse centifolige aa 3ij«
Aquae Menthae piperitae 3ifs.
M.f. Potio fummo mane fumenda.
Jan. 31. 1809. G. F.
London Prefcription.
]£, Pulv. Rhei gr. xxv.
Kali Tartarifati 3ij.
Tinfturae Senae
Syrupi Rofae aa 3ij*
Aquae Menthae piperitidis 3’ifs.
M. &c.
From the above examples, it will be feen that a pre¬
fcription, properly fo called, contains feveral circum-
ftances befide the formula or receipts, as the name of
the patient, for whom the prefcription is written \ the
fignature of the physician, as G. F. for George Fordyce,
&c. and the date of prefer ibing ; none of which Ihould
be omitted, as the preferiptions are carefully preferved
by the apothecary, for future reference.
It may be proper to explain fome circumftances re-
fpe&ing the formula given in the above prefcription.
The ^0 with which it commences fignifies recipe ox take;
and is prefixed to all medical receipts. Then follow the
feveral ingredients of which the medicine is to be com¬
pofed, with the quantities of each. Thefe quantities are
ulually marked by peculiar charadlers- or fymbols, which
will be examined hereafter ; and the numbers employed Introduc-
are ufually the Roman numerals. After the ingredients, tlon'' .
have been enumerated, and their quantities Specified, v '
there follows the title of the medicine, as Potio in the
prefent inftance, fignifying potion or purging draught,
with M. f. prefixed to it, which ftand for mifeefat, or
mifee ut fiat, mix to make ; and lallly the direftion how
the medicine is to be taken or adminiftered ; fummo
inane fumenda ; to be taken early in the morning. In
England, thefe diredlions are always written in Latin,
but in Scotland it is, we believe, more common to write
them in Englifii. We (hall confider the propriety of
this latter mode in a future part of this article.
The ingredients of which a formula is compofed have
been, by writers on medical preferiptions, arranged un¬
der four heads : 1. The bafis of the formula, which in
the prefent inftance is the rhubarb, cor.ftituting the prin¬
cipal ingredient, on whofe a61ion, modified where neeef-
fary, the chief fuccefs of the medicine, in fulfilling the re¬
quired indication, is to depend. 2. The adjuvant or
auxiliary, added to the bafis, for the purpofe of increaf-
ing its power, expediting its aftion, or rendering it more
eafily foluble in the juices of the ftomach ; in the above
formula the tartrate of potafi) is the principal adjuvant.
3. The correBor, added to the bafis, when we wifti to
moderate or delay its aiftion, to corredl fome unpleafant
or injurious property of it, fuch as its odour, tafte, acri¬
mony, &c. or to prevent it from a£ling on the body in a
different manner from that which the indication requires:
thus, in the prefent formula, the warm tinSiure of fenna
is added, rather to correft the griping quality of the
rhubarb, than to increafe its a£lion, and the fyntp of
rofes to correft the unpleafant tafte of the medicine ;
and the effential oil in the peppermint-water contributes
to both thefe purpofes : thefe, therefore, are to be con-
fidered as the correctors. 4. The conjlituent, or that in¬
gredient which ferves to reduce the reft into the form
which is confidered as moft convenient for the exhibi¬
tion of the medicine •, in the prefent cafe the pepper-
mint-water is the conftituent, ferving to reduce the me¬
dicine to the form of a potion or draught.
Medical formula are either officinal, or extemporane-
ous ; the former being fuch as are direfted by authority forrnu]x,
of fome public medical college to be kept in the Ihops
of apothecaries, and the preparation of W'hich is de-
feribed in their pharmacopoeias or difpenfatories 5 the
latter fuch as are preferibed by the phyfician or furgeon
as occafion may require. ^
Having explained the nature of a prefcription, and j)jvj£oa 0f
enumerated the feveral circumftances which are ufually the
comprifed in it, we propofe, in the prefent article, to
confider the importance of acquiring the habit of writing
preferiptions with cafe, elegance, and fcientific accura¬
cy j
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
3°7
Advanta¬
ges of coni
pofition.
Importance cy ; the previous information required by a phyfician,
of the to enah]e him to preferibe properly in the feveral cafes
, SabJedl- , which come under his care •, the general rules which we
deem Jt neceffary to lay down for attaining the art of
prefcribing with neatnefs and accuracy ; and laftly, we
propofe to give a brief hillorical view of the progrefs of
pharmacy from the revival of literature to the prefent
time, with a critical examination of fome of the belt
^ writings on this fubje£t.
I. Before confidering the importance of learning the
art of prefcribing, it may be proper to explain why fuch
an art is required, or to point out the advantages to
be expe&ed from the compofition of feveral fimples in
the fame medicine. There are indeed a few drugs,
which cannot be more efficacious in the generality of
cafes than when in their moft Ample Bate. Thus,
crude opium in a pill, cinchona bark or ipecacuan in
powder, mixed with fome ordinary liquid, afford the moil;
effeftual, as well as the moft fimpie remedies. The
fame may be remarked of mujlard feeds, white pepper,
and garlic fwallowed whole, and fo of a few others. In
general, however, it is much more convenient, and in
many cafes it is abfolutely neceffary, to have recourfe to
compofttion. Many remedies cannot be taken or ap¬
plied in their Ample ftate, efpecially fuch as are ufed ex¬
ternally ; while others are rendered more certain, fafe,
or expeditious, by being combined with others. Thus
opium and tartrate of antimony and potafh are both dia¬
phoretics, or fweating medicines j but when combined,
their effeft in this way, is confiderably increafed (See
Kirby’s Tables, 27. and 28.). So of jalap and
calomel as purgatives (Ibid. form. 49•)• Opium with
many patients produces headach j but if citric acid (le¬
mon juice) be added, this unpleafant fymptom feldom
takes place. (Tables, formula 137.). Chemical me¬
dicines are for the moft part compound from their very
nature ; but even fuch of thefe as are contained in the
catalogues of the materia tnedica can feldom be em¬
ployed except in compofition. Mercury in its native
ftate is nearly inert, and yet how many valuable and
powerful remedies are formed by its union with other
bodies. Sulphuric acid and alcohol form cether, but aether
cannot be fwallowed except in combination. Thus we
fee, that independently of neatnefs and convenience,
which, though they ought to have their weight, are fe-
condary confiderations, there are many pofitive argu¬
ments to prove the utility of compofition 5 and if com¬
pofition be o? ufe, it muft furely be of fome confequence
to know the fcientific principles on which this is to be
8 founded.
Importance The importance of acquiring a readinefs at writing a
of the fub- neat and fcientific prefcription, feems not to be generally
Je ' underftood. Indeed few parts of a medical education
have been more neglected than this department of phar¬
macy, efpecially in Britain. In many of the continental
medical fchools, there is a profeffor appointed to give
lectures on the art of writing prefcriptions, while in our
colleges this fubjeft is at moft confined to a fingle lec¬
ture from the profeffor of materia medica, and the ftu-
dent is left to learn the art as he can, by copying the
General prefcriptions of the phyticians whofe clinical practice he
courfes of has an opportunity of witrveffing, or by attendance in
medicine an apothecary’s {hop.
‘.nufficient When a gentleman has paffed through the ufual courfe
ticrC' of education at a medieal fchool, and has received a di¬
ploma, it is fuppofed that he is fully qualified to e'nteiT'hportance
on his career with confidence, and proceed with fuccefs.
Let us for a moment confider what are his ufual qualifi- <  y
cations. He has, we fhall fuppofe, acquired a tolerably
acurate knowledge of the ftrudlure and fun ft ions of the
human body 5 he has been made acquainted with the na¬
ture, properties, and, fo far as known, the mode of aftion
of the various fimpie and compound bodies, which, as me¬
dicines, food, and poifons, exert an influence on the ani¬
mal economy ; he has been inftrufted in the general na¬
ture of difeafe, the various fymptoms or appearances by
which its prefence is indicated, and the general means
to be employed for their removal. He has more particu¬
larly taken a view of many of the maladies to Which the
human frame is fubjeft ; has feen them exerting their
influence on patients, and has frequently witneffed the
effefts of remedies in expelling them from the fyftem, or
in alleviating the diftrefs which they occafioned. Here,
it will be faid, is a complete phyfician, and fuch, to a fu
perficial obferver, he may appear. With all this know¬
ledge, however, (and without all this no man is quali¬
fied for the aftive duties of the profeffion) many gentle¬
men are ftill deficient in a moft important point, the ca¬
pacity of applying this knowledge to aftual praftice. A
phyfician may be able to diftinguifti a difeafe at a glance 1
he may be prompt and accurate in forming his indications
of cure, and may be W7ell acquainted with the general
nature of the remedies by which thefe indications are to
be fulfilled, and ftill, if he be not mafter of the form and
method in which thefe are to be exhibited ; if he be not
familiar with the praftice of writing prefcriptions, he
will often be placed in a moft unpleafant predicament*
and will not unfrequently expofe himfelf to the ridicule
of thofe who are far his inferiors in knowledge and abi¬
lities, by writing prefcriptions which, though they con
tain the effential means of cure, yet wanting the mode
and faihion of the day, will be read wdlh a fmile, or per¬
haps be imperfeftly underftood, by the apothecary or
the druggift to whom they are prefented. Ia
This, however, is an inconvenience which, as it may Neeeffity of
not be attended with ferious effefts, is trifling in com-acquiring
parifon of fome which he will encounter. a habit of
From a want of habit in prefcribing, or from a want p^np.
of fome medical or chemical information, which we ftialltions.
prefently explain, he will be often liable to jumble toge¬
ther fubftances which, though rvhen fingle, they are pof-
feffed of fimilar medical properties, may, when combin¬
ed, exert an aftion greater or lefs than he had intended
to produce, or even altogether of an oppofite nature. I r
By way of illuftration let us fuppofe a young prafti-niugratios.
tioner, at his firft outfet, called to a patient labouring-
under tetanus, or that difeafe of which a locked jaw is
one of the moft obvious fymptoms. The patient is in
the moft diftreffing fituation, and it is expefted that
every renewal of the fpafm will end in thofe convulfions
which moft frequently bring on the fatal termination of
this formidable difeafe. How is he to aft ? The reme¬
dies to be employed are evidently antifpafmodics, and
of thefe he has heard opium and mercury highly recom¬
mended in this difeafe. Which of thefe is he to employ,
or is he. to make a trial of both ? He determines to give
opium : in what form is he to order its adminiftration ?
That of pill is the moft obvious ; but perhaps the patient
cannot, in the ordinary ftate of his health, fwallow pills,
and every effort of the mufcles of deglutition, increafes
Q q 2 ‘the
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Importance the difeafe. He mufl then prefcribe it in a liquid form,
of the Shall he order it in the form of laudanum to be given by
u ^ the attendants, or {hall he prefcribe draughts or a mix¬
ture, with a certain proportion of tin61 urn opii ? What is
the dofe of the opium ? He knows that a perfon affefted
with this difeafe can bear a large dofe. Is he to give this
large dofe at once, or is he gradually to increafe it ? In
a (hurt time the patient can perhaps no longer fwallow
even liquids. Can he adminifter opium in any other
form ? He has heard of opiate clyllers. What is the
beft formula for them ? Is the fame quantity of opium
as when taken by the mouth, fufficient for a clyfler ?
Again, if the patient cannot fwallow, how is he to be
fupported ? By nutritive injections. How is thephyfi-
cian to prefcribe a nutritive injection ? Should it be
large or fmall in quantity ? and is there any mode of
making the bowels retain it for a fufficient time, to draw
from it the proper nouriffiment ? We might carry this
illuftration, fimple as it is, to a much greater length ;
but we forbear, that we may not be thought tedious.
We need fay little to perfuade thofe who are at all ac¬
quainted with the practice of phyfic, that it is the duty
of every phyfieian who values the comfort and fafety of
his patient, or who has any regard for his own reputa¬
tion and refpeclability, to fpare no pains in enabling hira-
felf to write a prefcription with facility, perfpieuity, and
i a neatnefs.
Attendance Xo thofe who, previous to their attending medical
in a fhop le£lures, have been for fome time in an apothecary’s
but'notT, ffi°p. inftru&ions for the writing of prefcriptions may
lone fuffi- be thought ufelefs or impertinent. In the daily habit of
ciant. perufing and copying formulae from the hands of various
phyficians, it may be thought “ cuftom hath made it in
them a property of eafinefs.” Certainly, with refpeft to
form and method, dofes and proportions, they can re¬
quire but little information. But after all, this knour-
ledge is merely imitative ; they have learned to write
prefcriptions as a parrot learns to fpeak, and unlefs they
have added eonfiderable chemical knowledge to their
praftical information, they can only copy what they have
feen, and will often find themfelves very much at a lots.
This is confidering the matter in the faireft point of
view, taking it for granted that they have been under a
mafter who had abilities, leifure, and inclination to give
them all the neceffary information •, to point out to them
howr particular formulae were fuited to particular indica¬
tions ; to ffiew them why one is preferable to another,
and how they fhould diftinguiffi a feientific from an em¬
pirical prefcription.
How feldom this is the cafe, and how eafy k is for a
young man to be feveral years in an apothecary’s (hop,
and learn but little, we leave to the judgment of others
to decide. We truft it would not be difficult to ffiow,
that many of the formulae which they have witnefled,
may be fimplified or improved ; that many of them are
pnfcientific, and not a few abfurd.
We would, however, by no means be underftood to
confider attendance on a (hop as an unneceffary part of
a medical education •, far from it. We are of opinion
that every one who intends to pra&ife medicine, whether
it be as furgeon, apothecary, or phylician, fhould for
fome time accuftom himfelf to the preparing of medi¬
cines, and the keeping of an apothecary’s day-book :
and we conceive that a young praftitioner without this
experience, will commence praftice under confider able
5
difadvantages. By perufing, copying, and preparing Previous
the formulae of various practitioners, the lludent cer- P^qvifites.
tainly acquires a readinels at prefcription which he can- * 1
not fo eafily and imperceptibly attain in any other way.
To thofe who have had little opportunity of profiting in
this way, and their number is by no means fmall, the in-
llruClion intended to be conveyed in the following obfer-
vations will be peculiarly adapted j and probably fuch
as have pafl'ed fome time behind a compter, will learn
fomething which had before efcaped their notice, or will
at lead be convinced that the fubjeft admits of confider--
able improvement by the application of recent chemical
difcoveries. , ,
It maybe thought, that fuch as have, during their Hofpital
refidence at college, given diligent attention to ho-mutire in-
fpital praClice, will there have received all the informa- |u®^nt
tion on the fubjeCt of prefcription which is neceiiary e
to qualify them for private practice. But thofe who
are familiar with both will readily agree, that what is
fufficient for the one, is by no means calculated for the
other. The unexperienced phyfician, aceuftomed to
the hofpital routine, thinks it fufficient if he prefcribe
the proper quantities of the proper medicines in the molt
fimple form. Is an emetic required r He will order
gr. xv. or Si of powdered ipecacuanha. Is a gentle di¬
aphoretic indicated ? He would prefcribe Jij of mi*
Jiura fa/ina to be taken every four hours. Were his
future practice to be confined to an infirmary, to the
negroes of a Weft India plantation, or the crew of a
man of war, this might be fufficient *, but if he aim at
extenfive or genteel pradtice, he will find it neceffary to
take a much wider range.
II. The fubje£t of extemporaneous prefeription may 14
be confidered as confiituting the fiailhing part of a phy-
fician’s education 5 fo far, at leaft, as we can fay, that
the ftudy of a profeffion, for the perfect attainment of
which the father of medicine has declared life too fhort,
may admit of a completion. This is truly the. pradli-
cal part of a phyfician’s duty •, it is this for which all Ids
previous ftudies are intended to prepare him. Having
acquired a knowledge of difeafes and their remedies, he
is, when entering on the a£live duties of his profeffion,
to apply that knowledge to the beft advantage, fo as to
cure or relieve his patient in the eafieft, iafeft, and moil
expeditious manner. It is not merely the mechanical
bufinefs of penning a medical receipt, which he might
copy from his memory or his vads mecum, that we are
bere confidering as the pra&ical duty of a phyfician. It
is the adapting of the means which he poffeffes to the
peculiar cafe that is under his care j the modifying his
prefcription according to the circumftances of the pa¬
tient the age, fox, temperament, peculiarity of con-
ftitution, feafon, climate, and many other circumftances 5
the choice of remedies, and the neceffary variation of
them ; it is thefe which conftitute the duty of a prac¬
tical phyfician, fe far as relates to the bufinefs of pre-
feription. .
Before a phyfician can attempt to prefcribe for Hs previ0us re-
patient, it is requifite that he poffefs much previous in- qUifites.
formation.
In the firft place, he muft be well acquainted with the knowledge
nature and feat of the difeafe, the cure or alleviation of of difeata.
which he is about to attempt j witk the fymptoms which
ufually appear in fimilar cafes, and the variations which
are likely to take place, with the caufes, fo far as
known,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
previous known, which predifpofe to the difeafe, or which remote-
Jtequifites. jy or immediately have a tendency to produce it j with
the probable termination of fuch a cafe, and the gene¬
ral indications of cure. This knowledge prefuppofes an
acquaintance with anatomy, phyfiology, and pathology,
without a competent (hare of which a phyfician can no
more effeft a cure of a difeafe, than an algebraift can
accomplifh the folution of an equation, while he is igno-
17 rant of its terms.
Materia rjp]ie prefcriber muft alfo be familiar with the Mate-
Medica. rja ]yjec];ca an(q pharmacy, from which he learns the
natural hidory, the chemical and medical properties
of the various fimple fubilances employed in medicine j
their ufual dofes and their officinal compounds, as con¬
tained in the pharmacopoeia of the country in which he
reiides ; as it is thefe articles that are to form the ingre¬
dients of which the medicines he prefcribes are to be
compofed. As without confiderable pradlical experi¬
ence few men are able to retain all the requifite in¬
formation refpe&ing each article of the Materia Medica,
it v'ould be of great advantage to the young prefcriber
to have by him a tabular Iketch, which might, within
a fmall compafs, contain the information more immedi¬
ately neceflary for writing a prefeription. Nothing is
found to affift the memory, or to facilitate the attainment
of knowledge, more than thefe tabular views ; and fo
much is the learned world convinced of this, that fuch
5C9
views are daily becoming more faffiionable, and are now Previous
applied to almoft every branch of fcience. It was with Pequifites^
the intention of affifting the young practitioner in writing
prefcriptions, that Dr Kirby, a few years ago, publiflied utility of
his tables of the Materia Medica, containing a concifetabular
view of the molt material circumftances refpefting thev‘ew*
various fimple and compound medicines admitted into
the catalogues of the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Pharmacopoeias. In this volume the articles are ar¬
ranged Under J 8 clafles ; the titles and order of which
are much the fame with thofe given in our article Ma¬
teria Medica j and of each article are given the
fyftematic name, the fynonymous pharmaceutical name,
the country in which it is produced, or from which it is
brought ; the part employed in medicine j the form in
which it is commonly adminiftered, and the ufual dofes
of the fimple, and of the feveral officinal compounds. In
the original draught of thefe tables, the circumftances
above mentioned were arranged in columns ; but it
was found, that the difficulty and confequent expence of
printing the work in that form would be fo great, as
nearly to counterbalance the advantage which might
be derived from it. We are, however, of opinion that
the arrangement in columns is better adapted to ftrike
the eye, and ive (hall here give a fpecimen of fuch an
arrangement, taken from one of the ffiorteft claffes in the
above work (a).
Table of EXPECTORANTS.
SIMPLES.
I. VEGETABLES.
5. Cephaelis Ipecacuanha.
Ipecacuanha. Ed. Lond.
Dub.
6. NicotianaTabacum. Ed.
Nicotiana. Lond. Dub.
Scilla Maritima. Ed.
Scilla. Lond. Dub.
13. Allium Sativum. Ed.
Allium. Lond. Dub.
14. Ammoniacum. Ed. Lond.
Dub.
15. Arum Maculatum. Ed
Arum. Lond.
16. CoLCHICUM AuTUMNALE.
Ed.
Colchicum. Lond. Dub
Country.
E. Indies
& Brazil.
America.
South of
Europe.
Do.
India.
Part.
Root.
Leaves.
Root frefh
or dried.
Freftiroot
Gum refin.
Britain. ^Freffi root
Britain. Frefti root
Form.
Powder, gr.j. every
3 or 4
Smoke and
extradl.
Conferve,
powder,
pill, &c.
Subftance.
Pill, mix¬
ture.
Dose.
hours.
Grs. 1
to 2.
L
Dr. 1 to 2.
Grs. 10 to
20.
OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS.
I
Vinum Ipecacuanhae. Ed. Lond. Dr. 1 or 2.
Dub.
a. Acetum Scilke Maritimae. Dr. 2 to 4.
Ed.
Acetum ScilLe. Lond. Dub. Iu compo-
b. Syrupus Scillae Maritimse. fition.
Ed.
c. Oxymel Scillae. Lond. Dub. Gts. 30 to 40
d. Conferva Scillse. Lond.
e. Tinftura Scilloe. Lond. Gts. 10 to dr.
f. Pilulae Scilliticae. Ed. 1.
P Unite Soil Ice. Lond. Dub. Gr. 10 to 15.
Syrupus Allii. Dub. About a table
fpoonful
Lac Ammoniaci. Lond. Qz. j to 2,
Conferva Ari. Lond. Dr. 4 to 1
a. Syrupus Colchici autumnalis.fDr. 2 to loz.
Ed.
b. Oxymel Colchici. Lond. Do.
Dub.
Dose.
Cases.
Peripneumo¬
nia and ajlh-
ma.
Confump-
tion.
Peripneu-t
monia,
afthma.
(a) The fimples in the firft columns of the above table have numbers prefixed to them. To explain why thefe. do
not follow each other in a regular feries, it is neceflary to mention, that the articles marked 5, 6, 8, 11, and 12,
are, in the tables of Materia Medica from which this fpecimen is altered, inferted in a former clafs, viz. emetics.
3io
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Table continued.
SIMPLES.
I. VEGETABLES. Country.
i 7. Ferula Asafoetid a. Ed. Perfia.
Afa fcetida. Lond. Dub
18. Hyssopus Officinalis. Britain.
Hyjfopus. Dub.
19. MarrUbium Vulgare. Do.
Lond.
20. Myrrha. Ed. Lond.Dub. Arabia.
21. Pimpinella Anisum. Ed. Alia.
Anifutn. Lond. Dub.
22. Polygala Senega. Ed. America.
Seneha. Lond. Dub.
23. Styrax Benzoin. Ed. Sumatra.
Ben<zoinum. Dub. Ben-
%oe. Lond.
24. Alcohol. Ed.
Spt. Vinofus Reftificatus.
Lond. Dub.
II. MINERAL PRODUC
TIONS.
ii.Sulphuretum Antimonii. Britain.
Ed. Dub.
Antimonium. Lond.
Gumreiin,
Herb.
Leaves.
Gum refin
Seeds.
Root.
Balfam.
25. Sulphur Sublimatum.
Ed. Dub.
Flores Sulphuris. Lond.
12. Zincum. Ed. Lond. Dub
Part.
Form.
Pill, mix¬
ture.
Tea.
Domeftic
fyrup.
Powder or
pill.
Infufion,
oil.
Decoc¬
tion.
Pill.
Grs. 10 to
15-
Dose.
OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS.
10 grs.
1 dr.
Dose.
Lac Afae foetida. Lond.
1 oz. to 2.
to
Oleum Volatile Pimpinellae
Anifi. Ed.
01. EJfentia/e Anijl. Lond.
Dub.
Decoftum Polygake Senegae.
Ed.
a. Acidum Benzoicum. Ed.
Sal Betrzoini. Dub. F/or-
res Ben^oes. Lond.
_ b. Tindtura Benzoes Compofi
ta. Lond.
/Ether Sulphuricus. Ed. Dub.
JFther Vitriolicus. Lond
a. Tartris Antimonii. Ed.
Tartarum Antimoniatum.
Dub. Antimonium Tar¬
tar if atum. L ond.
Vinum Tartritis Antimonii.
Ed.
Vinum Antimonii Tartarifati.
Lond.
Sulphuretum Antimonii Pre
cipitatum. Ed.
Sulphur Antimonii Precipita-
tum. Lond. Sulph. Ant.
Fufcum. Dub.
Sulphur Sublimatum Lotum.
Ed. Dub.
Flores Sulphuris. Lond.
Trochifci Sulphuris. Lond
Oleum Sulphuratum. Ed
Lond. Dub.
Sulphas Zinci. Ed. Dub.
'Zincum Vitriolatum. Lond.
Hooping
cough.
Gt. 2 to 6.
1 oz. to 1-* oz
Grs. 1 to 2.
Gt. 15 to 30
Vapour inhal¬
ed.
Gr. to 4- re¬
peated.
Dr. 1 to 2.
Dr. 4 to 1.
Gr- 3—5-
Gr. 1 c to
dr. 4-.
Ad libitum.
Gt. 10—20.
Gr. 4 to 1
three times
a day.
Cases.
Croup and
pneumonia
Catarrh.
Afthma.
1
I
}> Aflhma.
Confumption
and hooping
mh.
19
Explana-
-tion.
The above table contains eight columns. In the firft
are written the fcientific and correfponding pharmaceu¬
tical names of the feveral fimple fubftances, diflributed
into departments, according as they are taken from
the vegetable or the mineral kingdom, and arranged
alphabetically } in the fecond is written the name of the
country where the article is found, or from which it is
procured 5 in the third the part of the fimple ufually
employed in medicine } in the fourth the form in which
it is ufually adminiifered ; in the fifth the dofe of the
fimple. In the fixth column are arranged all the offi¬
cinal preparations of each fimple which properly belong
1
to the clafs of expeftorants, and named according to the
nomenclature of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with
the correfponding fynonymous names of the other two
colleges ; in the feventh are given the ufual dofes of
thefe compound medicines, and in the eighth are noted
the difeafes to which the fimple or its compound is more
peculiarly adapted. 2»
The ufe of fuch tables is pretty obvious. Having Ufe.
before him all the remedies that are fuited to anfwer
any particular indication, as in the prefent inftance, that
of promoting expe6loration, the prefcriber can feleft fuch
articles as are beft fuited to the particular cafe in hand,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
,,Previous or wTiich can be mofl: eafily procured *, and be has at
IReqmfites. once before bitu the cireumftances refpeding it which
'l—‘ it is molt nectiflary he fliould know.
Therapeu- It is next required of a prefcriber, that he be thorough-
jjjcs. ly acquainted with therapeutics, a part of the institu¬
tions or principles of medicine which inftrudfs him in
the nature and effe£b of the various claffes of medicines
as Suited to different indications of cure.
Chemiftry ' An extenfive acquaintance with the elementary parts
of chemiftry is alfo neceffary, as the fubjeft of extem¬
poraneous prefcription forms a part of pharmacy, which
is effentially a chemical art. It is therefore as impof-
fible for a phyfician to be a fcientific prefcriber without
a competent lhare of chemical knowledge, as for the
captain of a ftrip to be a fcientific failor, without a
knowledge of aftronomy and navigation. It is cer¬
tainly poftible for a phyfician to write a prefcription
without having ftudied chemiftry, and for a failor to
conducl a veffel to the Weft Indies without being ac¬
quainted with the mathematical principles of naviga¬
tion : but tbef* men are both empirics; they have a cer¬
tain mechanical wray of proceeding, which they have
learned by long experience, and much more fevere labour
than it would have coft them to acquire a knowledge of
the fcientific principles of the arts which they profefs.
Rational ^ ^ importance that a phyfician ftiould
jrefeription be able to aflign a reafon for every article which he in-
iepends ferts in his preferiptions ; that he fhould, as correftly as
hiefly on poffjble, know w'hat part each will aft in the compofi-
! principles, tion the medicine, and what effeft the whole com¬
pound will produce on his patient ; in ftrort, that he
ftiould not preferibe a certain formula merely becaufe lie
has feen it preferibed by others in fimilar cafes, but
fhould form his preffription on fcientific principles, and
from the refult of reafon and refleftion. In the prefent
improved ftate of chemiftry this is more peculiarly ne-
eeffary, and it is alfo become much more eafy. Not
many years ago phyfieians had fcarcely a clue to guide
them in their preferiptions, except that of experience;
they faw certain refillts take place, and certain effefts
produced, but why thefe refults took place,,or how thefe
effefts were brought about, they were almoft entirely
ignorant. The reafoning employed by old writers on
pharmacy concerning the preparation and operation of
compound medicines, is to a modern chemift highly en¬
tertaining. We fhall not fwell this article by fpeci-
mens of fuch reafonings, but fhall refer thofe who wfifh
to amufe themfelves in this way, to Strother’s Le&ures
on the Rationale of Medicine ; Quincy's Complete Dif-
penfatory; Fuller’s Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea, and
the Pharmaceutical works of Dr Willis,
lemical When a phyfician fits down to write a prefeription,
he fliould imagine the preparation going on under his
eye, and fhould know whether or not the materials
which he is ordering will aft chemically on each other ;
and if they do, what changes will be produced. It
very frequently happens that from the union of two or
more fubftances there arifes a compound poffeffed of
very different properties, and which is likely to produce
very different effefts from any of the component articles.
File refult will fometimes be advantageous, fometimes
inert, and fometimes injurious. It is the bufinefs of the
prefcriber to be acquainted with the advantages and
difadvantages of thefe combinations, that he may avail
himfelf of the former, and avoid the latter. This de-
firable objeft is to be attained only by a correft and ex- Previous
tenfive knowledge of chemical affinity. This will teach
what fubftances are capable of combining together, or
of decompofing what are already united; and will in¬
form us whether we ean derive any advantage from their
aftion. ^
lor want of this chemical knowledge many of the Common
formulas preferibed by fome of our belt praftical writers, errors in
are much lefs fimple and fcientific than they might bethis Point’
made by an attention to chemical principles. The fa¬
mous tonic remedy, commonly called Griffith's myrrh
mixture, fo much, and we believe, fo juftly extolled in
cafes of general debility, was originally compofed in the
following manner.
IJo Myrrhce dr. j. Solve terendo in mortario cum
Aquae Alexeteriae limp. unc. vi. fs.
   cujullibet Spirituoffe dr. vi. vel unc. j.
Dein adde
Salis Abfynthii, dr. fs.
 Martis, gr. xii.
Syrupi fimplicis, dr. ij. m *.
From the gravity with which the author fpeaks offers
this compofition, and the various proportions he allows of
the fait of w'ormwood and the fait of fteel, together with
the different methods ol mixing the ingredients, it is
pretty clear that he' had no idea that any of them were
fuperfluous or unneceffary, nor probably was he aware
that the two falls aft on each other, and undergo a mu¬
tual decompofition. It feems therefore to be quite an
empirical prefcription. Analyfing it according to our
prefent chemical knowledge, we know that the prin¬
cipal part of it conlifts of an emulfion of myrrh, contain¬
ing in fufpenfion a quantity of carbonate of iron, and
having diffolved in it a fmall quantity of fulphate of
potafti, and perhaps a little fubcarbonate, of potalh.
Now, as there is no reafon to believe that the two laft
are of any confequence in the medicine, it would furely
be much more fcientific to form a medicine of myrrh
and carbonate of iron, with the addition of fuch cordials
and fyrups as may add to its tonic power, and render it
palatable. A medicine of this kind is the following.
26
Griffith’*
myrrh mix¬
ture.
* Griffith
Pulv. Myrrh, dr. i.
Carbonat. Ferri praecip. dr. 4,
Syrup. Citri Aurant. unc. -§-• Simul tere, et adde
Aquae Menth. piper, unc. 6.
Tinftur. Cinchon. compof. unc. i. M f.
In Dr Strother’s 19th lecture there is noticed a me¬
dicine which was then confidered as a valuable noftrum
in the cure of fmallpox. The principal ingredients are,
fpirit of fait (muriatic acid), and fait of hartfhorn (im¬
pure carbonate of ammonia). A tyro in modern che¬
miftry need not be told that this medicine contains mu¬
riate of ammonia, produced by the combination of the
acid with the alkali. If, therefore, fuch a medicine is
ufeful in fmallpox, it would furely be much lefs labo¬
rious, and much more feientific, to employ the muriate
of ammonia, commonly called fal ammoniac, which tve
have prepared to our hands.
As the fecondary falts form a clafs of bodies which
conftitutes a confiderable part of the materia medica, it
is proper for the phyfician to be intimately acquainted
with their nature and chemical properties. Here he
will again find the advantage of fyftematic tables, con¬
taining.
f Kirby's
Tables,For¬
mal. 106.
27
28
313
Previous
Ilequilites,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
taining the principal circumftances refpefting the com- view, only divided, for the fake of convenience, into Prevjo« ^
pofition and decompofition of fuch of thefe falls as are two tables, the firft containing the compofition of the
employed in medicine. A table of this kind is printed falls, and the fecond the fubftances employed in medi-
in Dr Kirby’s Tables, and we fhall here give a fimilar cine, by which they may be decompofed.
TABLE I.
Salt.
i. Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash.
2. Sulphate of Magnesia.
3. Sulphate of Potash.
4. Sulphate of Soda.
5. Sulphate of Copper.
6. Green Sulphate of Iron.
7. Sulphate of Zinc.
8. Subsulphate of Mercury.
9. Nitrate of Potash.
10. Nitrate of Silver.
11. Muriate of Barytes.
12. Muriate of Lime.
13. Muriate of Soda.
14. Muriate of Ammonia.
Solubility.
At 6o° 20.
2120, 1.
Composition.
Base.
Cryft. 12.
Dry 63> 75-
62°, I.
•75
15. Mild Muriate of Mercury, or Calomel.
16. Corrosive Muriate of Mercury.
17. Muriate of Antimony.
18. Phosphate of Lime.
19. Phosphate of Soda.
20. Carbonate of Barytes.
2i. Carbonate of Lime.
6o°, 16
2120 4.5
6o°, 2.6
212
.8
Efflorefcent.
Cryft. 18.48
Dry 44.
60 , 4-
212°, 2.
6o°, 2.
212°, .73
6o°, 2.5
6o°, 2000
6o°, 7-
212°, I.
Acid.
Water.
17.66
36-25
17-
54-8
32-
28.
20.
29-35
45-2
23-52
56-
33-
26.
40.
87.
51.8
6o°, 1.
6o°, 5.
Cryft. 57.
Deliquefcent.
6o°, 5.
6o°, 2.8
Dried 53.
60°, 3-
212°, I.
Infoluble.
6o°, 20.
212°, 2.
Deliquefcent.
Infoluble.
6o°, 4.
212°, 2.
Infoluble.
Red hot,
50.
Sublimed.
25-
88.5
82.
49.
19.
22.
10.
44.
32-
42.
38.88
42.75
18.
5i-
15-
Infoluble.
55-
78.
45-
70.24
o.
53-65
o.
58.
o.
35-
46.
40.
4.2
11.
8.
8.12
32.25
o.
66.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Previous
Kequifites.
Salt.
22. Carbonate of Magnesia.
23. Carbonate of Potash.
24. Subcarbonate of Potash.
25. Carbonate of Soda.
26. Carbonate of Ammonia.
27. Carbonate of Iron.
28. Carbonate of Zinc.
29. Acetate of Potash.
30. Acetate of Lead. Ph. Ed.
31. Subborate of Soda.
32. Sufertartrate of Potash.
33. Tartrate of Potash.
34. Tartrate of Potash and Soda.
35. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash, or Emetic
Tartar.
Solubility.
Infoluble.
6o°, 4.
212°, I.5
Deliquefcent.
Efflorefcent.
6o°, 2.
Infoluble.
Infoluble.
Deliquefcent.
6o°, 4.
6o®, 18.
2120, 6.
6o°, 60.
212°, 13.
_6o°, 4.
Deliquefcent.
6o°, 5.
Efflorefcent.
6o°, 15.
212°, 3.
Composition.
—  A 
Base.
45-
40.
Dry 64.
Cryft. 21.58
Dried 59.85
58.
I7*
33-
Tart. Pot.
54-
Ox. of Ant.
38-
Potafh 16.
Acid. Water.
34-
43-
3°-
14.42
40.05
26.
39-
67-
Tart. of
Soda.
46.
34-
21.
I7-
64.
o.
16.
44.
12.
29
Explana¬
tion.
313
Previous
Requifites.
In this firft part of the table of fecondary falls there
are five columns, in the firft of which are fet down the
names of moft of the fecondary falls employed in medi¬
cine, according to the moft approved chemical nomen¬
clature. The fecond column fhewsthe degree of attrac¬
tion which fubfifts between each fait and water, name¬
ly, how many parts of water at the temperatures of 6o°
and 212° of Fahrenheit are required todiffolve one part
of the fait, in the ftate in which it is ufually employed,
TAB
and whether the fait be deliquefcent or efflorefcent.
The three remaining columns point out, as far as has
been afeertained, the proportional quantities of the com¬
ponent parts of each fait, the third column (hewing how
many parts in the 100 confift of bafe $ the fourth how
many of acid, and the fifth how many of water of com~
pofition. In fome cafes two proportions are given, and
it is expreffed in the third column under what ftate of
the fait thefe proportions exift.
LE II.
Decomposition by (Single Affinity.
Barytes.
Potafti.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Ammonia.
Tannin.
Gallic Acid.
Oxalic Acid.
Tartaric Acid.
Vol. XVII. Part I,
Salt.
0
W H
H O
Ph
Hi
D
C/3
oi
M
Ph
to
to
Decomposition by Double Affinity.
Nitrate of Potafh.
 Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
• —   Lime.
 Soda.
 Ammonia.
Carbonate of Barytes.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Potafh.
Soda.
Ammonia.
Acetate of Lead.
Subborate of Soda.
Rr
3H
Previous
ivequifites.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Decomposition by Single Affinity.
Barytes.
Potafh.
Soda.
Lime.
Ammonia.
Barytes.
Barytes.
Potafh.
Barytes.
Potafti.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Ammonia.
Tartaric Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Zinc.
Iron.
Tin.
Barytes.
Potafti.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Ammonia.
Same as the laft.
Salt.
w
H
<
K
CM
D
co
<!
H
O
W
H
<
S3
a
&
CO
<
a
o
CO
w
H
*3
M
Ph
iJ
&
CO
o
U
w
H
<
K
PL,
l4
D
co
Decomposition by Double Affinity.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
■  Lime.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Red Muriate of Iron.
Carbonate of Lime.
 Potalh.
 —■ Soda.
•■■■■  Ammonia.
Acetate of Mercury.
-   Lead.
Subborate of Soda.
Tartrate of Potafh.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
  Soda.
 Ammonia.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Phofphate of Soda.
Carbonate of Barytes.
Acetate of Mercury.
   Lead.
Tartrate of Potafh, partially.
Nitrate of Potafli.
—— Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
    Lime.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Acetate of Mercury.
 Lead.
Tartrate of Potafh.
Previous
Itequifite?,
Subfulphate of Mercury.
Nitrate of Potafh.
 Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
 Soda.
 Ammonia.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Phofphate of Soda.
Carbonate of Potafh.
■   Soda.
Acetate of Mercury.
 Lead.
Subborate of Soda.
D
C/D
55
X
o
o
x
3 *
» H-I
£ °
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Acetate of Mercury.
 Lead.
Subborate of Soda.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
Acetate of Lead.
Previous
Jiequifites.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Decomposition by Single Affinity.
Barytes.
Sulphuric Acid.
Heat.
Barytes.
Potaih.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Ammonia.
Zinc.
Muriatic Acid.
Tin.
Phofphoric Acid.
Copper.
Mercuryr.
Sulphuric Acid.
Barytes.
Pota!h.
Magnefia.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Boracic Acid.
Pliofphoric Acid.
Barytes.
Potafh.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Barytes.
Potath.
Soda.
Lime.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Barytes.
Potaih.
Soda.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Ammonia.
Copper.
Salt.
£
W W
2 pi
g <
>5 W
Decomposition by Double Affinity.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potaih.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
■— Soda.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
315
Previous
Requifites,
All the Sulphates employed in Medicine.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
 Soda.
 Ammonia.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Red Muriate of Iron.
...   Antimony.
Phofphate of Soda.
All the Carbonates employed in Medicine.
Subborate of Soda.
M .
H W
>—t
^ i-3
U-4
o
w .
< «
s °
g co
a «
g w
w ^
All Sulphates more or lefs.
Nitrate of Silver.
Phofphate of Soda.
Carbonate of Potaih.
  Soda.
  Ammonia.
Subborate of Soda.
All Sulphates.
Nitrate of Silver.
Phofphate of Soda.
Carbonate of Ammonia.
Superlulphate of Alumina and Potaih.
Sulphate of Potaih.
—Copper.
Nitrate of Silver.
Acetate of Mercury.
■ ' '    Lead.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potaih.
Sulphate of Putalh.
    Copper.
Nitrate of Silver.
Carbonate of Barytes.
_____   Potafh.
   Soda.
Acetate of Potafh.
Subborate of Soda.
Tartrate of Potaih.
Molt Sulphates.
Carbonate of Barytes.
   Lime.
Magnefia.
   Potaih.
______   Soda.
   — Ammonia.
R r 2
3i 6
Previcas
Requifites.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Decomposition by Single Affinity.
Barytes.
Potafh.
Soda.
Phofphoric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Barytes.
Oxalic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Tartaric Acid.
Phofphoric Acid,
Nitric Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Citric Acid.
Boracic Acid.
Acetic Acid.
Barytes.
Potalh.
Soda.
Lime.
Oxalic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Tartaric Acid.
Citric Acid.
Boracic Acid.
Acetic Acid.
Barytes.
Lime.
Oxalic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Tartaric Acid.
Citric Acid.
Boracic Acid.
Acetic Acid.
Barytes.
Potafli.
Lime.
Oxalic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Nitric Acid, &c. as before.
Barytes.
Potafh.
Soda!
Lime.
Oxalic Acid.
Sulphuric Acid, &c. as above.
Salt.
w
33 Q
£ o
cfl (73
O
33
o<
w
H
<1
O
m
<
u
w
H
53
O
K?
BS
<3
U
H
O
CL
W
H
<1
53
O
«
P3
<3
U
PQ C7)
P3
<3
u
W <1
^ S
^ S
^ 2
o s
5 s
u
Decomposition by Double Affinity.
Sulphate of Potafli.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Lime.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potalli.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
 Potalh.
  Soda.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Ammonia.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Supertartrate of Potalh.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potalb.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
Nitrate of Silver.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Supertartrate of Potafli.
Previous
Requifites.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potafli.
Nitrate of Silver.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Carbonate of Iron.
Supertartrate of Potaflu
All the Sulphates except thofe of Potafh and Soda
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Ammonia.
Corrofive Muriate of Mercury.
Supertartrate of Potafli.
Sulphates as in the laft.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
 Soda.
Supertartrate of Potafli.
Supertartrate of Alumina and Potafh.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriates of Barytes and Lime.
Supertartrate of Potafh.
3
Previous
julequifites.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Decomposition by Single Affinity.
Acids as in the laft.
Salt.
Acids as in the laft, and, befide,
Phofphoric Acid.
Sulphuric, Nitric, Muriatic, and Phofphoric
Acids.
Oxalic, Tartaric, Boracic, and Citric Acids.
Barytes.
Potafti.
Soda.
Lime.
Ammonia.
Magnefia.
Gallic Acid.
Muriatic Acid.
Oxalic Acid.
Phofphoric Acid.
Sulphuric Acid.
Tartaric Acid.
Citric Acid.
Boracic Acid.
Subftances as above, and nearly in the fame or¬
der.
Five firft fubftances as before.
Tin.
Gallic, Sulphuric, Oxalic, and Tartaric Acids.
Benzoic, Muriatic, Nitric, and Citric Acids.
Lime.
Barytes.
Magnefia.
Gallic Acid.
Sulphuric, Nitric, and Muriatic Acids.
Phofphoric Acid.
Oxalic and Tartaric Acids.
Citric and Acetic Acids.
Lime.
Barytes.
Magnelia.
Potafti.
Soda.
Ammonia.
Almoft all other Acids.
Lime.
Barytes.
Magnefia.
I '-w
O °
eq w
3 H
w s
h £
w
H
<
H ^
W °
o
<1
pq CO
«
CO
S< '-w .
° a
^ £
QS ©
H
Decomposition by Double Affinity.
Supertartrate of Potafti.
Muriate of Ammonia.
Tartrate of Potafli and Soda.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
    Potafti.
    Soda.
 Copper.
  Iron.
Muriate of Soda.
Sulphates of Alumina, Magnefia, Potafti, Soda,
Copper, and Iron.
Muriate of Soda.
Superfulphate of Alumina and Potafti.
Sulphate of Magnefia.
 Copper.
Iron.
Nitrate of Silver.
Muriate of Barytes.
■   Lime.
Carbonates of Barytes, Lime, Magnefia, Potafti,
Soda, Ammonia, and Iron.
Sulphates of Magnefia, Potafti, and of Soda.
Muriate of Ammonia.
3*7
Previous
Requifites,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
S' s
'■•evicus
T-quifites.
Decomposition by Single Affinity.
Salt.
Barytes.
Lime.
Sulpiiuric, Muriatic, and Nitric Acids.
Soda.
Lime.
Ammonia.
Gallic, Sulphuric, Nitric, and Muriatic Acids.
M w •
H 5
P
^ H O
H O CO
. ’ U-> C
-S O C6
Deco mposition by Double Affinity.
< <1
Carbonate of Soda.
  —~—_ Ammonia.
Previcm
Requrfites,
30
Explana¬
tion.
TJfes of the
tables.
This fecund part of the table of fecondary falls con-
fifts of three columns. In the middle column are fet
down the names of the fecondary falls employed in me¬
dicine, in the fame order as in the former table 5 and in
the adjoining columns on each fide are noted thofe fub-
ftances employed in medicine which are capable of ef¬
fecting a decompofition of each fait 5 thofe in the left-
hand column being fach as decompofe the fait by what
is called affinity, in confequence of that fubftance
having a' fuperior attraction for the acid or the bafe of
the fait •, while the fubftances in the right-hand column
are fecondary falls, between which and the oppofitefalt
in the middle column fuch an action may take place as
to effedt their mutual decompofition.
With tables of this kind before him, a preferiber will
avoid feveral miftakes into which he might be betrayed
from a deficiency of chemical knowledge. Thus,
knowing the folubility of any fait, he will not preferibe
a greater quantity of it than is capable of being retain¬
ed in folution in the watery part of any draught.or mix¬
ture which he is to order. For inltance, knowing that
fu/phate of potaflo requires fixteen parts of water at 6o°
'for its folution, he will, if he propofed to preferibe a
draught containing two drams of this lalt, be awaie
that fiich a quantity would require at leal! four ounces
of water •, but this making the draught too large is a
great obje&ion to giving the medicine in that form.
Or fuppofe that he wifiied to give half an ounce of fiper-
tartrate ofpotajh (cryfals of tartar),hy way of laxative;
he fees, that to diffolve this quantity it would require at
leatl two pounds of water, and therefore that he cannot
order it in the form of folution, though, when mixed up
with fyrup into an eleftuary, it affords a good and effi¬
cacious cooling laxative. Again, knowing that
of foda efflorefees in the air, and thereby lofes nearly
half its weight, he will take care always to preferibe it
in the form of eryftals ; and if he is to order a laxative
draught containing one ounce of this fait, he muft pre¬
feribe at leaft three ounces of liquid.
The information conveyed in the fecond column re-
fpe&ing the deliquefcence or efflorefcence of certain
falls or the readinefs with which they imbibe water
from the atmofphere, or part with their water of cryftal-
lization, is extremely ufeful in pointing out the proper
forms of exhibition. Seeing, for inftance, that acetate
ofpotajh {diuretic fait) is a deliquefeent fait, no one
would think of preferibing it in the form of pills •, while,
on the other hand, carbonate of foda being efflorefeent,
is well adapted to that form, and accordingly has been
4
fo preferibed by Dr Beddoes j (fee Kirby's Tables, for-
tnula 153.).
Knowing the proportional quantities of the component
part of any fait, we can, by calculation, afeertain pretty
nearly how much of the one is required to decompofe
the other, and thus employ no more of either than is
neceffary. Thus, fuppofe it were required to decom¬
pofe IOO grains oi green fu/phate of iron by carbonate
of foda, in order to procure the greateft poffible quantity
of carbonate of iron. We find by the firit table, that
100 grains of the fulphate contain 28 grains of oxide
of iron, and to fa'turafe this, we find by computation,
that there are required 9 grains of carbonic acid. Now,
on examining the compofition of carbonate of foda, we
find that 100 grains of this fait contain about 14-^ grains
of carbonic acid, and confequently, that about 60 grains
of carbonate of foda are fufficient to decompofe ico
grains of green fulphate of iron.
Further, knowing the fubfiances that are capable of
decompofing any particular fait, a preferiber will not
order any of thefe fubftances in the fame formula with
that fait, unlefs fome manifeft advantage were to be the
re full of their mutual a&ion. He knows that fulphate
of •zinc and acetate of lead decompofe each other, and
that the acetate of zinc formed by their mixture, is a
better remedy in cafes of ophthalmia than either of the
former falls. Here then is an advantage. Tartrate of
antimony and potajl) is a good remedy in fever, fo is
decociion of Peruvian barb ; but we find by the tables,
that this fait is decompofable by gallic acid, and we
know that decodlion of cinchona contains this acid, ef-
pecially after having flood for fome time. It would
therefore be improper to preferibe thefe remedies in con-
jumBion, as has fometimes been recommended, becaufe
the fait would be fo much altered by the decompofition
as to be no longer the medicine we propofe to adnum-
fter. A fimilar inftance of unfcientific prefeription, arif-
ing from a want of chemical knowledge, occurs in a
formula attributed to Mr Coleman, and publifhed in the
fifth edition of the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica, p. 58.
under the title of Co/lyrium hydrargyn munati cum
cake. It is compofed of a fcruple of muriate of mer¬
cury diffolved in an Engliffi pint of boiling diftilled
water, with the addition of two drams of quicblime,
and after the whole is completely mixed, we are direct¬
ed to filter the.clear liquor through paper. The author
of this Pharmacopoeia feems aware that “ the different
elective attractions operating in the mixture of the lime,
with the folution of muriate of mercury, are fuch as
produce
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Previous
Kequifite:
3*
Dover’s
; powder.
33
j krnt
ponge.
. 34
t ■n’orsin re
'edltocoa
. 35
ater.
produce a new chemical arrangement, in which the a£H-
Sl vity of the ingredients is mutually diminifhed. The
faft is, that the large quantity of lime here direfted will
completely decompofe the muriate of mercury, fo that
the clear liquor will contain nothing but uncombined
lime, and muriate of lime. Hence the muriate of mer¬
cury is an unnecellary ingredient, and if the medicine
be efficacious as a collyrium, it would be better to form
it at once by the addition of a fmall quantity of muriate
of liirie to limexvater.
A phyfician who is familiar with the principles of
chemiftry will not direft a chemical medicine to be pre¬
pared of more ingredients, or in a more operofe manner,
than is requifite to produce the defired effeft. When
Dr Dover firft gave to the public the compofition of his
fu dor ifc powder, he ordered it to be prepared in the
following manner. Four ounces of nitre, and the fame
quantity of vitriolated tartar (fulphate of potafjf are to
be thrown into a red-hot crucible, and kept llirring till
the deflagration ceafes. To the mixture, while hot, is
to be added an ounce of fliced opium. The whole is
then to be reduced to powder and well mixed with an
ounce of powdered ipecacuanha, and the fame quantity
of powdered liquorice root. It is well known to the
chemitts of the prefentday, that nitrate of potajl), when
thrown on an ignited combuftible body, deflagrates,
and is decompofed ; but that it does fo when thrown
into an ignited crucible, with an incombuftible body,
fuch as the fulphate ofpotafh, we can fearcely conceive.
If it does, the effect muft be, that the nitric acid is car¬
ried off, and there remains the potajh, which is an un-
neceffary ingredient in the compofition. Again, the
only ufe of heating the fait, would be to dry the opium
and thus render it more eafily pulverifed ; but as dried
opium is alway kept in the fhops, and by means of ful¬
phate of potajh, is very eafily reduced to powder, that
part of the operation is fuperfluous. Accordingly, a
powder equally efficacious, and much lefs operofe, is
prepared by rubbing together fulphate of potajh, opium,
and ipecacuanha, forming the prefent/wA>/r ipecacuanha:
ct opii, Ed. or pulvis ipecacuanha: compoftus, Lond.
From the fame want of chemical knowledge, fome
medicines have been extolled as efficacious remedies,
from not knowing their real nature. Thus burnt
fponge has long been celebrated for the cure of fcrofula.
We do not altogether deny its efficacy in this complaint:
but as burnt fponge is compofed almoft entirely of char¬
coal, with the addition of a little carbonate of foda, a
pov/der eompofed of thefe ingredients muft be equally
efficacious.
Under this head we may notice an error which is fre¬
quently made by preferibers who have not been ac-
cuflomed to fee and prepare the remedies which they
preferibe. We have often feen a mafs for pills ordered
to be prepared of fuch ingredients as are naturally too
hard to form into pills, as for inftance, extraft of cin¬
chona, and extraft of liquorice, and yet there has been
dire&ed a quantity of liquorice powder, to form the
mafs of a proper confiftenee. Sometimes again, the
matters directed are already too foft, or become too
foft by mixture, as when aloes and extract of gentian
are direfted to be beaten together with a proper quan¬
tity of fyrup, to form a mafs for pills. See the Edin.
Phar. edit. 1783.
We ffiall conclude this part of our fubjed with re-
36
319
marking, that it is of confequence in a chemical point Previous
of view, to preferibe as the conftituent of a liquid me- Peqahhes.
dicine, iuch Avater as will not decompofe any of the y—
other ingredients. It is common to order the water by
the name of aqua pura, or aqua fontana. Now, if this
water be hard, i. e. impregnated with fulphate of lime,
&c. it will decompofe many of the fecondary falls, and
thus diminith their efficacy. Acetate of lead, for in-
llance, is always decompofed by hard water, and a tur¬
bid liquor is thus formed, which by Handing depofits a
fediment. It would therefore be better in all cafes to
preferibe diltilled water, or where this is not likely to
be found, as in fraall Country towns, foft water.
III. We have thus confidered at fome length the
previous knowledge required by a pra&itioner before
he can pretend to preferibe for his patient in a fcientific
manner. We fhall now endeavour to apply the obfer-
vations that have been made, and from the application
deduce fome general rules for extemporaneous preferip-
tion. ,
When a pra&itioner is called to a patient, he will practical
firft examine into the fymptoms and caufes of the ma- hints,
lady under which the patient labours, and attend to the
age, fex, and peculiar habit of the patient. He will
then confider whether or not a cure is probable, or
whether it may be in his power only to relieve the di-
flreffing fymptoms. If a cure appears to be practicable,
he will proceed to form his indications, and in conformi¬
ty with thefe he will preferibe the remedies that feem
belt adapted to the cafe. It is this method of procedure
that diftinguiffies the fcientific practitioner from the
ignorant empiric. The latter, from a fuperficial view
ol the moft obvious fymptoms, haftily determines the
nature of the complaint, which he probably contrives
fliall be fome one of which he has witneffed many cafes,
or for the cure of which he is in poffeffion of fome fa¬
vourite remedy. Having refolved what the difeafe
fhall be, he has nothing to do but apply his remedy, and
this he does without confidering whether exifting cir-
cumftances may not render the adminiflration of it im¬
proper.
lo return from this digreffion, we ffiall endeavour tt»
give an example as fimple as will anfwer our purpofe, to
illuftrate the above method of procedure. We {hall
fuppofe that a praCIitioner is fent for to a middle-aged
man, in moderate circumftances, who has been for fome
days labouring under a tertian intermittent fever, with
which he had never before been affeCled, but had com¬
monly been ftrong and healthy. The pra&itioner fees
nothing in the circumftances of the cafe which can lead
to an unfavourable prognofis, and he therefore has little
hefitation in pronouncing, that the fever a ill probably
foon be removed. Confidering the indications ufually
laid down in practical writers on intermittents, he pro¬
ceeds to preferibe the remedies which appear beft fuited
to the cafe in point. Thus the indications given by Dr
Cullen are,
1. In the time of intermiffion to prevent the recur¬
rence of paroxfms,
2. In the time of paroxyfms to condmff thefe fo as to
obtain a final folution of the difeafe.
3. To take off certain circumftances which might
prevent the fulfilling of the two firft indications *. * Cullin'*
In confidering the firft indication, the praflitioner Fny? Z/ww*.
refle&s on the effed of the ufual exciting caufe of an in- $ 2l8<
termittent,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
320
Kales for termittent, marjh minfmat a, which he fees to be a debi-
Prefunp- i;tatecl fl;ate 0f the fyftem. This he learns is to be re-
. tl0n;i' . moved by tonics ; and of thofe the bark of the cinchona
officinalis is juftly celebrated in the cure of intermit-
tents. This then he would immediately prefcribe ; but
that experience has (hewn it to be better to begin the
adminiftration of this medicine as foon as poflible after a
paroxijfm. We (hall fuppofe, however, that the laid pa-
roxyfm took place the day before he faw the patient,
and confequently may be expefted to return the next
day. He finds alfo that the patient is coftive, a circum-
ftance which mull; be removed according to the third
indication. Now, attending to the fecond indication,
he knows that this is generally bell fulfilled by the ex¬
hibition of an emetic at the commencement of the cold
fit, and of an opiate at the commencement of the hot
fit *, but the coftiven'efs of the patient contraindicating
the ufe of opium, he mull endeavour to find for it a
fubllitute which has not a tendency to excite or increafe
conftipation. He will perhaps prefcribe as follows:
Example of Vini ipecacuanhae, unc. I.
prefcrip-  Tartritis antimonii (Edini) unc. -J* M. fiat
*i»n. haullus.
Signetur. The emetic to be taken jujl as the next cold
Jit is coming on.
Pulveris Rhei Palmati, gr. 25.
Submuriatis Hydrargyri, gr. 3.
Succi Spilfati Hyofcyami, gr. 4.
Syrupi q. s. Fiat bolus.
Signetur. To be taken jujl as the next hot Jit is com¬
ing on.
R. Pulveris Cinchonae officinalis, fcr. 2.
  Croti Elutheriae, gr. 10. M. f. pulvis.
Signetur. One to be taken in a little wine and water4
as foon as the hot fit has gone off, and repeated every two
hours till the expeBed return of the next cold fit.
The analyfis of this prefcription will afford us fome ufe-
39 ful praftical obfervations.
Arrange- 1> will be obferved that the formula are arranged
formal® *n ^ie orc^er which the medicines are to be exhibited, a
circumllance to which it is always proper to attend,
when the prefcription is to contain more than one for¬
mula or circumllance to be direfled by the practitioner.
Thus when any thing is required immediately, as bleed¬
ing, the application of leeches, or of a bliller, this ffiould
form the firll claufe in the prefcription, in the following
manner.
Mittatur fanguis e brachio STATIM ad unc. 12. ”, or,
Applicentur quamprimum temporibus hirudines fex ; or,
Applicetur fiatim emplafirum veficatorium capite rafo.
4°
Arrange- 2. The ingredients direBed in each formula ffiould be
ment of in- cirranged in the order in which they are to be mixed by
gredients. ^ comp0unger% This may be thought a matter of
flight importance, but it is more deferving of notice
than is generally fuppofed. For the moll part, indeed,
in whatever order the praftitioner may arrange the in¬
gredients in his formula, a Ikilful apothecary will com¬
bine them in that order which experience has fliewn
him to b .1 ; molt convenient ; but it is furely much
neater that the order of preparation Ihould be preferred
in the prefcription, this being confidcred as the guide by Rules for
which the compounder is to direft his operations. Sup- brefcrip.
pofe we were to prefcribe a medicine containing cafior . tl°ns‘ J
oil, dijlilled water, mucilage of gum arable, fjrup of ,1
rhubarb, and tinBure of fenna. In the preparation of
this medicine the apothecary will firft rub together the
oil and mucilage ; he will then add the fyrup, and per¬
haps the tinBure, and laftiy the water. In this order
then it w7ould be bell to exprefs the formula. ' See
Kirby’s Tables, formula 54. In this manner the neat-
nefs of the medicine is infured, and the preparation of
it rendered more eafy and expeditious. It is very ufual
for preferibers to begin with the article that is to be
moll abundant in the medicine, as the wTater, and fo
gradually defeend to that of leaft quantity j and parti¬
cular care is generally taken to place in fucceffion thofe
ingredients that are employed in equal quantities, with
the fign {fid fingulorum, of each) after the laft. This
feems rather a puerile method, and is commonly incon-
fillent with the praftice of compofition.
There are other reafons for arranging the ingredients
in the order of compolition. In fome cafes a very vola¬
tile fubftance forms a part of the medicine, as aether, or
ammonia ; and it is proper that this ftiould be the laft;
ingredient in the compofition of the medicine, that as
little as poffible of it may be diffipated. It is proper,
therefore, that it ftiould Hand laft in the formula (fee
Kirby’s Tables, formulae 126, 129 and 130.). There is
a formula given in the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica for an
embrocation, to be compofed of 2 drams of tinBure of
camphor {camphorated fair it), I dr. of water of aceta-
ted litharge {Goulard's cxtraB) and a pound of difiilled
water. We are told that the mixture of fhefe ingre¬
dients is to take place in the order in which they are
fet down, otherwife the camphor will be feparated *. * Pham.
We have already mentioned (N° 3) the names °f
the feveral parts of which a compound medicine may be^ ^ !
formed, as the bajis, the adjuvant, the correBor, and
confiituent; and have explained the reafons for the ad¬
dition of the three latter. There are fome rules re-
fpedling thefe, which it will be proper to confider in this
place.
3. The bafis fhould always be Jingle, unlefs fome ma- gules for
nifefi advantage is expeBed to arife from the employment the bafc; j
of two or more remedies of the fame kind. The reafon of
this rule is fufficiently obvious, as the effect of a Angle
remedy is much more eafily determined and proportion¬
ed than that .of two or more employed together. The
advantages of fimplicity in prefcription will be confider-
ed prefently.
4- H more than one bafis be employed, they Jhould be
of the fame nature, or fuch as produce the fame effeBs.
This needs no illuftration. 4s
5. With refpe£t to the adjuvant, we (hall remark on-for the ad
ly that one ufe generally affigned to it, viz. that of fa-juvant>
cilitating the folution of the bafis in the ftomach, ap¬
pears equivocal. It is not uncommon to order refinous
drugs to be made up into pills with foap, which is con-
fidered by many as adling in the way of promoting fo¬
lution. Soap is often a good conftituent, but we do not
think it can produce the effeft above alluded to. 44
6. The ufe of the correBor requires a little more dif-for the cor
cuffion. One of the firft intentions of the correftor isreftor.
to diminilh the too violent aiftion of the principal reme¬
dy, or to prevent its exerting an aftion in an improper
part of the body. Thus, mucilage may be added to
coloqynth.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Rules for
prefcri')-
;tU>n5.
44
Abufe of
Endures.
coloajnth, {bitter apple), or given after it, to blunt
or leffen the acrimony which this fubftance is commonly
j found to poffefs. So again, mercury is often combined
with opium, when it is required to introduce a confider-
able quantity of the former into the fyftem, or to fpeak
more properly, to acquire the full benefit of its accu¬
mulated ftimidus. This can fcarcely be effedled, if it
be allowed to run off by the bowels. Camphor is often
given after the application of a blifter, to obviate the
ftrangury which frequently attends the external appli¬
cation of cantharides. In fome cafes the cinchona bark
produces ficknefs or purging, and here the addition of
a few drops of tinElure of opium to each dofe is pro¬
per.
7. Another ufe of the corre&or is to obviate or dif-
guife the unpleafant tafte or odour of the principal re¬
medy. Thus, the emetic in our prefcription is ordered
to be prepared of the wine of ipecacuanha infleadof the
powder, as the wine that forms the folvent of that re¬
medy difguifcs its unpleafant tafte. The articles ufually
employed as correftors of flavour, are fyrups and tinc¬
tures of various kinds, ejfential aromatic oils, &c. and
the ufe of thefe has been often much abufed. The ad¬
dition of a large quantity of fugar, in fome cafes, efpe-
cially in dyfpepfia or indigeftion, feldom fails of increaf-
ing the fymptoms of the difeafe, as in a debilitated ftate
of the ftomach it quickly paffes into a ftate of fermen¬
tation, and produces flatulence, pain, and anorexia or
lofs of appetite, the very fymptoms which we are to re¬
move. It is a common pra&ice to add fyrup to feveral
of the neutral falls, as fulphate of foda,fulphate of iron,
&-c. with a view to improve their flavour 5 but we ap¬
prehend that whoever has tafted the naufeous mixture
will fcarcely agree with the prefcriber that he has gain¬
ed his point.
8. 1 he abufe of alcohol in the form of tinftures has
been fometimes carried to a great, and, we think, a cul¬
pable excefs. This has arifen fometimes from the de¬
fire of the patient to have his medicines made ftrong and
good, and not unfrequently, perhaps, from mercenary
views in the practitioner, to induce the patient to fwal-
low a greater quantity of medicine, becaufe it is ren¬
dered agreeable to his palate. We have no doubt that
many well-meaning practitioners order a confiderable
dofe of tinCture from a miftaken complaifance to their
patients, without apprehending any ill confequences
from it ; bat in faCt, the intemperate ufe of thefe tinc¬
tures is injurious to the ftomach, and has, we believe,
not unfrequently drawn fome of the molt fober perfons
into a habit of dram-drinking. The propenfity to the
ufe of cordials, which is now become fo prevalent, has
probably arifen from this fource. The quantity of al¬
cohol ordered by fome prefcribers is truly attonilhing.
A book lately came into our hands, which is called a
iranflation of elegant medical prefcriptions for various
diforders, by the late Dr Hugh Smith. For the accu¬
racy of the tranflation we cannot vouch, not having feen
the original ; but if it be accurate, the fpirituous cinna¬
mon water (fpint of cinnamon'), feems to have been a
very favourite article in Dr Smith’s catalogue of medi¬
cines, as it is no unufual thing to fee ^n ounce, or 14
ounce of it ordered in a fingle draught, or four ounces
in an eight-ounce mixture. Did not this occur fo fre¬
quently in the prefcriptions of Dr Smith, we ftiould fup-
pofe it to be fome blunder of the tranflator or tranfcriber,
Voi, XVII. Part I.
32f
Prefcrip-
tions.
45
in miftaking the character denoting dram for the fym- Rules for
bolical charader fignifying ounce.
9. A third ufe of the corrector is to render the me¬
dicine more agreeable to the ftomach. Thus, fulphate
offoda is to many perfons very naufeous, and is not un¬
frequently rejeCled by vomiting ; but the addition of a
fmall quantity of lemon juice, or of fupertartrqte of pot-
afh, is found to correCt this unpleafant quality. The
bark of cinchona does not agree with fome ftomachs,
without the addition of an aromatic ; the cafcarilla or¬
dered in the above powders, affords a ufeful addition,
with the view of rendering it more agreeable to the
ftomach.
The unpleafant odour of a medicine is more difficult
to correft than its flavour. In internal medicines this
is ufually beft effeCled by regulating the form in which
they are exhibited ; as, in prefcnbing the fulphurate of
potaffi, it is better to order it in the form of a powder
to be fweetened with fugar, to be fwallowed dry (fee
Kirby’s Tables, formula 68), than by way of draught or
mixture. The odour of external medicines is belt cor-
reCled by the efl'ential oils and perfumes. Thus, in
ytfvag fulphur for cutaneous difeafes, it is ufual to add a
quantity of effence of bergamot or oil of lavender,
which, though they do not entirely deftroy the odour
of the fulphur, have a eoniiderable effeCt in difguifing
l1, t , • o 47
10. In ordering a correftor, the praftitioner flrould Qaaritlty 1
be aware that it is not the quantity of the balls, but itsot arcmcny
quality that he is to correft. If a dofe of digitalis or ]”teX rC8U'
of fquill makes the patient fick, we ffiould not think of
giving opium or effervefcing draughts to prevent this
effeCl, but w'e fliould lelfen the quantity of the medicine
at its next exhibition. We have been rather minute on
the fnbjeCt of the corrector, as we conceive that much
will depend on the adroit management of this part of
a formula, in fliowing the neatnefs and addrefs of the
prefcriber. By a proper ufe of correClors he can often
regulate the aClion of a medicine, and confiderably re¬
lieve the feelings of his patient. 4s
11. The conjlituent employed in a formula will ofRem:,rks
courfe vary with the form of the medicine. In the0.1?1116 con"
more folid compofitions, as bolufes, pills, and eleClua- (_tltutint:'
ries, it is generally fyrup, conferve, confeClion, or ex-
traCl. In liquid medicines, it is either Ample water, or
fome watery liquid, as decoSlions, infufions, or water
difilled from fome aromatic plant. It is proper to re¬
mark, that the preferiber fliould confider whether a
conftituent ordered as fuch, be neceffary, for it often
happens, that the extraCIs or pilular maffes kept in the
fhops, are already of a proper confiftence for making in¬
to pills. It is obvious that the conftituent, if it be not
Ample water, fliould have fimilar qualities with the
other parts of the medicine, unlefs when it contains in
it the correCIor.
12. In the prefcription which we have given as anName^of
example, the names of the articles are written at length, ingredients
We do not, however, approve of this being generally nee^ not ',e
done in praCHce. To an apothecary’s apprentice it can at
anfwer no other end than to exercife his latinity, and 45
difplay the erudition of the prefcriber. In faCt, it may
even tend to miflead him \ for as the names of the ar¬
ticles kept in his mafter’s ffiop, are always painted on
the labels, or drawers, in an abbreviated form, the
words at full length are not better underftood by the
S f compounder,
322
Rules for
Prefcrip-
tions.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
5°.
Symbolical
characters
to be a-
voided.
compounder, and indeed they are often more intelligible
in the concife form in which he is accuftomed to fee
them. Add to this, that the writing of the words at
full length may occafionally betray the praflitioner in¬
to an unguarded mi.ftake, which may call in queftion
his grammatical accuracy. In Fox’s 'Formula Se/efla,
culomelas perpetually occurs as the genitive inftead
of calomelanos ; and in a work on midwifery, publiflh-
ed by Dr Pugh of Chelmsford, grammatical errors both
in the names and in the direffions are to be detected
pajjim. The only advantage that writing at length
feems to pofifefs, is that it teaches a beginner to read a
prefcription, which by the way is often at firft no eafy
matter. But praftice foon renders this familiar.
13. The quantities of the ingredients in the above
prefcription are not expreffed in the ufual fymbols, but
we have employed the contrafted forms of the words
uncia and drachma, and the common Arabian figures,
as recommended in the preface to Dr Kirby’s Tables.
The dire&ions alfo are written in Englilh. The rea-
fons affigned in the work above referred to, are as fol¬
low. “ The characters 5 and 3 are fo fimilar, that they
may eafily be written for each other, and that they have
fometimes been fo written cannot be denied. The con-
fequence is obvious $ a ftroke of the pen too much may
kill the patient, and a ftroke too little may produce a
medicine of little or no efficacy. Strange ! that phy-
ficians fhould have been fo milled by an affe&ation of
myftery or concealment, (for to what elfe can be attri¬
buted the ufe of thefe hieroglyphics) ? as to place the
fafety of their patients at the mercy of a tapfus pennce /
Vnc. and dr. can never be written for each other, and
we fee no good reafon why thefe abbreviations fhould
not be employed for uncia and drachma, as well as gr.
and gtt. for granum and gutta. Dr Spens, in his ele¬
gant edition of the Pharmacopoeia Nofocomii Edinbur-
genfis, has employed thefe contracted words, but has re¬
tained the Roman numerals.
“ The ufe of the Arabian figures appears calculated
to infure both perfpicuity and difpatch. They are more
eafily written, occupy lefs room in a prefcription, and
(by their familiarity) remove all poffibility of mif-
take.
“ As to the directions, they fhoutd always be writ¬
ten in the vernacular language. In a prefcription, per¬
fpicuity is always our firft objeCt; it is not here that
we are called upon to difplay our learning and claffical
elegance ; and whoever confiders that thefe are proper¬
ties not always to be met with in the (bop of an apothe¬
cary or a druggift, will readily wave them, in order to
infure the perfeCt underftanding of his prefcriptions. It
does not indeed require any great knowledge of Latin
to tranflate the directions which ufuall'y occur in pre¬
fcriptions ; but as there are cafes in which a long and
rather complex direftion is employed, we fhould leave
nothing to the contingency of the learning or ignorance
of the compounder, but by writing the directions our-
felves in the received language of the country, put it
out of his power to injure our reputation, or endanger
the fafety of the patient.”
The dofes of medicines muft, in a great meafure, be
the doles of determined by experience •, but after having thus afeer-
xiedicines. tained the medium dofe proper for an adult under ordi¬
nary circumftances, and of an ordinary conftitution,
there are certain general confiderations, according to
51
Rules for
Rules foj
Prefcrip.
tions.
5s
which we may proportion the dofes of the fame fubflance
to various conflitutions and ages. In regulating the
dofes of medicines, we are to attend chiefly to the fol¬
lowing confiderations.
a. The circumftances of the difeafe and the vital
powers of the patient.
b. The powers, mode of exhibition, and particular
intention of the medicine employed.
c. The age, fex, conflitution, and habits of the pa¬
tient.
14. The circumjlances of the difeafe to be attended to, Dofes regu.
are its nature, feat, period, and degree of violence, fated by
There are feveral difeafes that require Herculean reme-^6 difeafe,
dies, and thefe in very large dofes. It is well known
that maniacs require much greater dofes to produce the
fame effeCt than moft other patients. If we are to ad-
minifter an emetic to a perfon in this fituation, it would
be of no ufe to prefcribe 2 or 3 grains of tartrate of
antimony and potafl), or a fcruple of ipecacuanha, the
ufual dofes in ordinary cafes. Lels than 6 grs. of the
former will fcarcely excite vomiting, and it is fome¬
times neceffary to order 10 or 15 grs. If we wifh to
procure fleep to thefe wretched beings, a few grains of
opium are a trifle. Dr Darwin mentions two cales of
infanity, in one of which 2 fcruples of folid opium were-
adminiflered, and four hours after, a third fcruple 5 while
in the other, a furious maniac was rendered calm and
rational in the fpaee of a few hours by a dole of 40a
drops of tinflure ol opium.
Again, the more violent the difeafe,. the larger dofes
are generally required for its removal \ but, on the other
hand, the later the period or flages of feveral difeafes,
as fever, eonfumption, and fimilar affe£lions attended
with great debility, the lefs is the quantity required to
produce the fame effedt; or rather the lefs able will the
patient be to bear the ufusl dofes. When the vital
powers are much diminiftied, a large dofe may be at¬
tended with very ferious'confequences. Thus, in cafes
of fufpended animation by drowning, where the vital
energy is nearly exhaufted, if, when the powers of life
are juft returning, we were to oblige the patient to
fwallow a quantity of brandy, or even a glafs of pure
wine, we finould probably fmother the glimmering {park.
Again, in tafes of torpor from cold, if we expofe the
frozen limb to a fudden confiderable heat, a gangrene
enfues •, whereas, had we in the former cafe given a lit¬
tle wine and water, and in the latter applied a mode¬
rate gradually increafing warmth, attended with gentle
fridlion, we fhould probably have reftored the patient,
and preferved the limb. ^
15. The powers, form, and intention of the medicine By the na-
muf be coafdered. The more adlive remedies muft be ture-and ^
adminiftered with greater caution than fueh as are of
inferior efficacy. Thus, if we are to exhibit the corrofive
muriate of mercury, the oxide of urfenic, the nitrate of
fiver. Or other powerful and dangerous remedies, we
muff begin with a quantity rather below than above the
medium dofe, and gradually increafe it according to
the effed! produced. On the other hand, however, we
muft not defcend to dofes that are trifling and inert. It
is as ridiculous to prefcribe a fcruple of cinchona twice
or thrice a day, to reftore vigour to a debilitated fyilem,
as it would be improper to order half an ounce of rhu¬
barb for an ordinary cathartic. A prudent pradlitioner
will avoid both extremes of timidity and raflmefs, and
win
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Rules for will neither rilk the fafety of his patient by an exceflive
PrtionsP" nor SIve lingering fufpenfe and pain, for
■ ^' . want of the due application of the proper remedies.
Much will depend on the form in which the medicine
is to be exhibited. Thus, if we are to employ exter¬
nally, or by way of blifter, fuch medicines as are ufually
given by the mouth, it is necedary to order them in
much larger quantity. The ufual dofe of tin&ure of
opium is 25 or 30 drops; but if this is to be applied by
fri&ion, from 2 drams to half an ounce will fometimes
be required for one application ; and in a glyfter it is
ufual to prefcribe a dram or two. The tinfture of can-
tharides, whether given internally, or applied by fric¬
tion to the furface, is a powerful remedy ; but in the
former cafe, 2b or 30 drops are fufficient, while in the
latter a dram or two is ufually employed. Similar re¬
marks might be made with refpeft to the ufe of mercu¬
ry, and many other remedies.
The intention with which the medicine is adminifter-
ed mull alio be taken into confideration, as there are
many fubftances that produce different effe&s, according
to the quantity employed. Thus, tartrate of antimony
and potafh may be given as an emetic, a diaphoretic, an
expeBorant, or a cathartic, according to the magnitude
or repetition of the dofe. Two or three grains given at
once, or a grain every 15 minutes, ufually excite vo¬
miting ; but from gr* t° J gr- given every 5 or
6 hours, generally keeps up a conftant naufea without
vomiting, and thus, by fympathy, the medicine afts as
a diaphoretic or antifpafmodic. The medicine given in
the dofe of a third of a grain twice or thrice a-day is a
good expectorant; and in the dofe of -3- gr. every two
or three hours, ufually operates by the bowels. It is
well known that the effeCt of opium varies confidera-
bly, according to the dofe and the interval at which it is
adminiftered. If we wilh to promote deep, or relieve
pain, we give what is called a full dofe, that is, a grain
or two. It thus a£ts as a narcotic, and an antifpafmo¬
dic or a diaphoretic. Given in fmall repeated dofes, it
a£ls as a general ftimulus, promotes abforption, and att-
323
fwers the purpofes of a diuretic and an aftringent. Ten Itulesfor
or twelve grs. of aloes exhibited at once, are cathartic ; i>refcr;p-
but one or two grs. given twice or thrice a day gently . t’°nS' .
ftimulates the re&um and neighbouring parts, and aCts
m particular cafes as an emmenagogue.
We need fcarcely remark, that when two or more
articles of a fimilar nature are prefcribed in the fame
formula, the dofe of each muCt be proportionally leffen-
ed.
16. We mujl regulate our dofes according to the age, Agef&o
fex, confitution, and habits of the patient. of the pa-
It is evident that various ages mull require various dent,
proportions ; but experience Ihews that the required
dofes are not direftly proportional to the ages, as might
d priori be expeCled, and as the mathematical phyficians
in the beginning of the 18th century believed (b).
Experience has enabled us to contlruCl a table, in which
may be fhewn the dofes proportioned to various ages,
adjutted from a certain medium dofe for an adult: fuch
a table is the following.
Age.
Weeks,
Months, 7
J4
28
Years,
3t
5
7
14
21
63
77
100
Proportional dofe
Abfolute dofe, dr.
grs. 4
grs* 5
grs. 10
grs. 12
grs. 15
fcr. 1
dr. \
fcr. 2
dr. 1
gr- 55
gr* 5°
fcr. 2
5$
Table.
S f 2
The
(b) At the time when Newton had by his difcoveries rendered the fludy of mathematics as fafhionable as it is
ufeful, medicine partook of the general bias, and feveral phyficians of ingenuity and erudition attempted to reduce
its theory and practice under the dominion of their favourite fcience. Among thefe Dr Strother read and publilh-
ed a courfe of lectures on the rationale of medicines, which he entitles Pre/eBiones Physico-mathicee et Medico-
praBiccc. In his 2lft le<ffure he treats of the dofes of medicine, and after difcuffing in a very philofophical man¬
ner the general mode of regulating thefe according to the fize and fhape of the particles of medicines, and their
momentum as determined by their celerity multiplied by their quantity of matter, he proceeds to point out how
we are to proportion the dofes to various ages. He has the following queftion : If a perfon of 30 years of age
takes 60 grains of any medicine, how much muf a child of 5 years of age take $ This queftion he of courfe refolvee
by the rule of proportion in the follow manner.
30 : 5 :: 60 :
10
In order to render this generally applicable to every cafe, he calls in the aid of algebra, and (iibftituting fjrmbolc
£or the above numbers we have
*! y ....... ... »
rrrthe greater age given
an the lefs age given
t~the dofe given
errthe dofe required.
Then r \ a \\ t \ =:
324
Rules for
Fiefcrip-
tior.s.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
-*7
Cliuiate.
. 5*'
Idiofyn-
<racy.
The above table may ferve as a general guide to the
young pvaftitioner. The fecond column fliovvs the ali¬
quot parts of the medium dole for an adult, that are
adapted to different ages from feven weeks to 100 years,
fuppofing this medium dofe to be I; and the third column
gives the abfolute quantities in grains, &c. taking the
medium dofe at I dr. This table, however, will by no
means apply in all cafes. Thus, the dofe of opium ad-
tufted from this table, for a child of five years old, is
4 gr. and that of fubmuriate of mercury or calomel,
i gr.; but in cafes of phrenitis hydrocephalica (water in
the head), we may adminifter half a grain of the for¬
mer, and three or four of the latter. Females in general
require Id's dofes than males ; and perfons of a robuft
and vigorous conftitution, fuch as country labourers, the
more adive mechanics, fervants, and thofe of the me¬
lancholic and phlegmatic temperaments, will, all other
things being equal, require larger dofes than perfons of
asi oppofite defcription.
The climate alfo feems to have fome influence in this
refpecf. In America and the Weft Indies we are in¬
formed that much larger dofes of fubmuriate of mercury
are given than are ufually prefcribed in Britain. In
cafes where we would give three or four grains, they
would order 10 or 15. We are told, too, that in fome
parts of India, in order to excite vomiting in a native,
it is fometimes neceffary to give 2,0 fcruples of ipecacu¬
anha. The Germans, and efpecially, according to Gau-
bius, the inhabitants of Saxony and Weftphalia, require
much larger dofes than the inhabitants of any other
.country in Europe.
Peculiarities of conftitution, commonly called idiofyn-
cra/ie.t, require attention on the part of the prefcriber.
It is therefore proper to inquire whether any circum-
ftance of this kind occurs in any individual, efpecially
when called for the firft time.
The habits of the patient muft alfo be regarded, as in
general medicines lofe fome of their effed by being of¬
ten repeated, and therefore require to have their dofe
increafed. Thus, perfons who are accuftomed to the
ufe of opium, will derive no benefit from the ordinary
dofes of that medicine, but when labouring under a com¬
plaint that requires the exhibition of opium, they muft
take a quantity fomewhat larger than that to which they
are habituated.- It is well known what quantities of Rules for
opium are confumed by fome of the eaftern nations j and fre^'riP‘
the writer of this article has feen a travelling gypfy who . ^t
never went to reft w ithout taking more than half a dram
of folid opium (c). ^
17. Perfpicuity is effentially neceffary in writing a Perfpicuity,
prefcription, and every thing which can in any degreea PmiclPal
diminifti it ought to be carefully avoided. Many of the^^ldera*
obfervations already made have been direded to this
point} and we have yet one or two remarks to complete
this part of our fubjed. A prefcriber ftiould be very
careful not to introduce into his prefcription articles
which are obfolete, or which are no longer contained in
our pharmacopoeias, unlefs he is certain that the apothe¬
cary who is to prepare the medicine keeps fuch articles
befide him •, and even then, as it is moft likely that they
have been long prepared, and have loft much of their
efficacy, he cannot depend on their anfwering the end
he propofes. Thus, few would now think of prefcribing
the confeclio paulina, the theriaca Andromachi, or the
aqua alexiteria fimplex, or many other compounds, which
have given place to more Ample and convenient forms.
18. The fame cautions will apply, though perhaps Obfolete
with fome limitations, to thofe medicines which are®runcom-
rarely met with, or have been newly introduced into™^1^1*
our Pharmacopoeias. Before we venture to prefcribe anonjcre(j
article of this defcription, we ffiould afcertain whether with caua
or not it is to be procured in or near the place where,tion.
the patient refides, or, where poffible, we ftiould give
timely notice to the apothecary to provide himfelf with
fome of it. Many unpleafant circumftances may arife
from not attending to this caution, efpecially where the
patient is apprifed that he is about to take a new re¬
medy which has been found very beneficial in caies
fimilar to his own. For inftance, the Rhus Toxico¬
dendron has lately been much extolled in the cure of
palfy. Suppofe a phyfician in a provincial town, at a
great diftance from the‘capital, were to prefcribe this
medicine. The apothecary has none of it, nay, perhaps,
has never heard of the medicine, and it muft be procur¬
ed from the capital. This occafions a delay for feveral
days, and in the mean time the paralytic perfon is im¬
patient to try the effeft of the new remedy, and probably
refufes to take any other. When the medicine arrives,
the
(c) Before difmiffing the fubjeft of the Dofes of Medicine, we muft notice an improvement lately propofed,
and which appears likely to be adopted by the London College in the intended new edition of their Pharmacopceia,
we mean that of aboliftiing the ufual method of meafuring fmall dofes or quantities of liquids by drops. There
can be no doubt that in many cafes this method of dropping liquids is liable to great uncertainty 5 the fize of the
drops, and of courfe the quantity of liquid which they contain, varying greatly according to the nature of the li¬
quid, the fize and form of the neck of the phial from which they are let fall, and even the ftate of the atmofphere.
The dram, by meafure, of difilled water, will afford only 60 drops from an ordinary two ounce phial with a neck
of the ufual diameter j whereas the fame bulk of proof fpirit may be divided into 120 drops, and fome tindlures
will afford many more. Confidering this uncertainty, it is propofed to aboliffi the very name of drops {gutti) in
preferiptions, and to employ the fmall graduated meafures of Lane, in which the dram is divided into 60 equal
parts, which may be called grains. Thus, inftead of ordering 30 of tinB. opii, we (hall order gr. 15. {fif¬
teen grains') or of a dram, allowing for the difference between water and fpirit. This will certainly be an im¬
provement where moderate dofes are to be prefcribed, but when the dofe does not exceed two or three drops, as
in feme of the effential oils, arfeniate of potajh, &c. fo much would be loft in the meafure that the dofe would be
rendered very uncertain.
On the whole, we would recommend that in all cafes the medicine (hall be fo diluted that the dofe ffiall not be
lefs than half a dram, and fpoons might be made for family ufe that ffiould contain that quantity, as an ordinary
tea-fpoon now contains a dram.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
6l
Compounds,
not offici¬
nal, to be
fpecifically
defcribed.
Rules for the patient has perhaps, as not unfrequently happens,
Prefcrip- j0{| Jj;s enthufiafm, and begins to take it with reluc-
tlons' , tance or difguft, feelings which not a little influence the
fuccefs of a remedy, and thus difappoint the hopes both
of the patient and phyfician.
Under this head of avoiding uncommon medicines, it
may be proper to remark, that though a phyfician in
this empire is allowed to prefcribe articles from any of
the national difpenfatories, he fhould in general confine
himfelf to that which is mod: ufed in the part of the em¬
pire where he refides, and if he mentions an article from
either of the others, he fhould fabjoin to the name of
that article the initials Ph. Ed. Ph. Land, or Ph. Dub.
to prevent miftakes, thus,
R. Tin&urse Scillce (P//. Londi) dr. 2.
R. Tinfturae Anguftune (P/i. Dub.') unc. 1.
R. Solutionis muriatis Calcis (Ph. Ed.) dr. 1.
19. With the fame view of enfuring perfpicuity, we
fhould never prefcribe a compound medicine which is
not officinal, merely by its ufual title, without fpecifying
the component parts, or at lead the proportions of thefe.
Thus, if we propofe to order an infujion of quajjia, or a
decoBion sf oak bark, it would not be fufficient to ivrite
in the formula inf if quafice, or decoBi quercus, but
it would be proper, either to prefcribe the mode of pre¬
paring them at full length, thus,
R. Rafurae ligni quafliae excelde, dr. 1.
Aquae didillatse ferventis, Ibj
Inf unde per horam, et cola ; or,
R. Quercus contud, unc. 1.
Aquas didillatae ftuj.
Coque ad dimidium, et cola ;
And then to prefcribe the proper quantity, as,
R. Infufi hujufce, unc. 7, &c. or,
R. Decofri fupra praefcripti, unc. 8, &c.
Or, it would at lead be proper to mention within a
parenthelis, the proportions to be employed in the com-
pofition, in the following manner :
R. Infud quaffiae excelfae (cum dr. 1. ad aquae
tbj. &c.) -, or,
R. Decofti quercus (cum corticis uncia 1 ad
aquae Ibj.) &c.
Again, it would be abfurd in private praftice to pre¬
fcribe the citrate of potafh or of ammonia by the names
of mifura ftilina, or julepwn neutrale ; but it would be
neceffary to introduce into the formula the proper quan¬
tities of lemon juice and of carbonate of potaffi, or car¬
bonate of ammonia, to prepare thefe fecondary falts.
6% See Kirby’s ’P?lo\q's,, formula 13.
Simplicity 20. That we may the better avoid miflakes in compo-
^LcT ^U" fltiQni it is udv fable to fudy fmplicity as much as pojji-
ble: the phyfician is confidered as the aflidant of na¬
ture, and ought to follow her example in producing ef¬
fects by the mod fitnple means. Nothing looks fo un-
fcientific as a crowded formula •, it bears the marks of
empiricifm in its very face, and always reminds us of
thofe monuments of pharmaceutical folly, the theriaca
and the mithridate to be hereafter noticed. It feems as
if the prefcriber faid to himfelf, “ I will put plenty of
ingredients into this medicine, and the deuce is in it if
feme of them do’nt anfwer.” There are many favourite
63
Errors in
point of 1
fimplicity.
325
recipes of old praftitioners handed down from father to Rules for
fon, or from mader to apprentice, which feem to owe
their celebrity chiefly to the multitude of their ingredi- ■ ^.
ents. The Lifbon diet drinks have long been famous in
the cure of difeafes of the fkin. The following is one
of thefe, as taken from the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica.
R. Deco&um Lulitanicum, No. 2.
Sarfaparillae concifae,
Ligni fantali rubri,
Ligni fantali citrini,y5/?j. unc. ifs. j
Radicis glycyrrhizse,
Radicis meietei,fng. drach. ij.
Ligni rhodii,
Ligni guaiaci officinalis,
Ligni faflafras,y£V/§-. unc. fs. j
Antimonii unc. j.
Aquae didillatae ib v.
Thefe ingredients are to be macerated for 24 hours,
and afterwards boiled till the fluid is reduced to half its
original quantity. From one to two pints are given
daily *. * Pharm.
Some praflitioners adhere to this form; but others,lefs Chirurg.
bigotted to old cudoms, have recourfe to a contracted P'
form of it, retaining only the guaiacum, fadafras, and li¬
quorice, and adding raidns, fimilar to the deco£tum guai¬
aci eompofitum of the Pharmacopoeias.
The following is given in Fox’s Formulce as a remedy
for dropfy.
R. Succ. limon. rect unciam,
Sal abfynth. fcrupulos duos,
 corn. cerv. fcrupulum,
Tinct. cinnam. et
Aceti fcillit.y?/?^. drachmas duas,
Tinft. cort. Peruv. femunciam,
Aq. menth. vulg. dmp. et
—— purae fng. unciam,
Vini antim. Huxhami guttas quadraginta,
Tindt. Theb. guttas viginti.
Fiat midura, pro dofibus duabus.
On examining this prefcription, we diall find the re-
fulting medicine to be compofed of citrate of potafh,
acetate of ammonia, a folution of tartrate of antimony
and potafh, and tinBure of opium, all which are dia¬
phoretics ; of [quill, which is diuretic; and of cinna¬
mon, Peruvian bark, alcohol, and mint water, which are
tonic and Jlimulant. Now, a diaphoretic, a diuretic,
and a dimulant, may not form a bad compound in drop¬
fy, but as they may be given in a much more fitnple
form, the prefent medicine is abfurdly complex and un-
fcientific. It might be reduced as follows :
R. Aquae acetitis ammonise, unc. 1.
Tindlurae fcillae, dr. 1.
. lauri cinnamomi, unc.
Vini tartritis antimonii, dr. I.
Tindlurae opii, gt. 40.
Aquae didillatae, unc. vi. M.
We (hall quote one other example of a medical far¬
rago, taken from De Gorter’s Formulae. It is for a pow¬
der formed of vegetables ; and we may remark it is in
the vegetable kingdom that preferibers have mod exu¬
berantly difplayed their talent at compofition.
R. Rad,
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
R. RaJ. Imperator
Ariftolochii utriufque
 zedoar.
Siler, montan. aa dr. I.
Zinzib. fcr. 2.
Flor. Centaur, min. dr. I.
— Rorifmar. fcr. i.
• Gratiol. German, dr.
Bacca Lauri
 junip- aa dr. ils.
Thymi,
Serpylli,
Abfinthiee,
Tanaceti,
Summitat. Santon. aa. dr. I. M. f. pulv.
Such a powder as this may vie in compofition with
the theriaca and mithridate of redoubted fame. As this
medicine iscompofed of fo many ingredients, pofleffed of
various powers, it muft of courfe be endowed with many
virtues, or m(ift be a pulvis po/ychreffus. Accordingly,
its author acquaints us, in the margin, that it is refolvent,
fudorific, ftimulant, roborant, calefacient, aromatic, fto-
machic, difcutient, diaphoretic, diuretic, and aperient j
that it is of fervice in dropfy, cklorojis, paralysis, apo¬
plexy, fever, delirium, and fifty other difeafes and morbid
affe&ions, for a full detail of which we muft refer our
readers to the work itfelf.
One would think that the abfurdity of thefe complex
formulae would be abundantly evident to every man of
common fenfe •, but the empirical prefcriber will pro¬
bably fay, fuch is the medicine which I have frequently
feen given with fuccefs, and how am I fure that, by
omitting one of the materials, I may not deftroy the
64 efficacy of the medicine !
Difadvan- The more compounded a medicine is, the more diffi-
tages of cu|t it will be to alcertain and proportion the effects
formula: Pr°duced by its feveral parts on the human fyftem.
When feveral articles are employed at the fame time,
we cannot be certain to which of them we are to attri¬
bute the benefit which appears to refult, or the noxious
qualities which the compound may poflefs. This rage
for compofition has been one great obftacle to the im¬
provement of medicine. The effe&s of various fubftan-
ces on the body have been but little attended to •, and
indeed the inveftigation is difficult, and requires a long
feries of careful and nice experiments, and thefe made,
not on the inferior animals, but on man himfelf. The
adminiftration of medicines to the lower claffes of ani¬
mals, can throw but little light on their aftion upon the
human body. Several fubftances which are highly inju¬
rious to man, are taken by fome other animals with im¬
punity. The old ftory of the origin of the name of an¬
timony is probably well known to many of our readers.
See Antimony. On the contrary, fome fubftances are
poifons to many of the lower animals, but are much lefs
injurious to man. A fmall quantity of mix vomica will
deftroy a garden moufe, but a man may take five or ten
grains with fafety, and even advantage. The dofes of
medicines, too, bear no proportion in the various ani¬
mals. A few grains of aloes are fufficient to purge a
man, but a horfe requires from half an ounce to a whole
ounce. It is therefore neceflary that man himfelf ftiould
be the fubje£t of experiment; and where great nicety
is required, the enquirer ftiould make the experiment on
his own perfon. Innumerable are the dogs, birds, and Rules for
frogs, that have been facrificed on lire altar of fcience. frffrrip.
Few experimentalifts have, like Pelletier and Davy, tums'
ventured to operate on themfelves j and even where this 1
has been done, the effects of prejudice and previous hy-
pothefis have confiderably diminilhed the value of their
refearches.
It is advifable that every pradtitioner ftrould, from the
number of his patients, felect a few cafes to which he
may particularly attend, carefully obferving and com¬
paring the effedis of the medicines prefcribed. In this
way he will in time collect a body of information, from
which he may be able to draw fome valuable conclufions.
It is more peculiarly requifite to make obfervations on
the effedls of compound medicines, and compare them
with thofe produced by the component limples, when
given feparately. , ■
It would be unfair to difmifs this part of our fubjedt, All Com-
without admitting that there are foroe c» mpound medi-plex medi¬
cines-, the good effedts of which muft be acknowledged, c'nes not to
though we cannot, in the prefent ftate of medical fcience,
explain their adtion. There are two medicines of this
kind, which the writer of this article has often feen pre¬
fcribed by phyficians of wbofe abilities and experience he
has a high opinion, with evident good effedl, and which
yet have much of the complex empirical air that we
have been condemning. One of thefe is a remedy for
the advanced ftage of dyfentery, and is prefcribed near¬
ly in the following manner.
R. Infufi quaftise (cum dr. I. ad aquae Ibj) unc. 6,
Magnefiae uftae dr. 2.
Tindf uree fennee unc. 2. *
  opii dr. 2.
Eledfuarii aromatici dr. 1.
Syrupi Rbei dr. 3. M.
Signetur. Three or four table fpoonsful to be taken
every fx hours, Jhaking the phial, and one fpoonful after
every loofefool.
Here are a bitter, an abforbent, a ftimulant, a laxa¬
tive, and a narcotic, combined in the famer medicine.
To which of thefe are we to attribute the good effedls
which have appeared to us to refult from the exhibition
of the whole ? Probably the flight laxative and the ab¬
forbent are here of little ufe, and the chief benefit is to
be afcribed to the bitter and the ftimuli, confidering the
opium in this light.
The other medicine to which we allude is confidered
as an antifeptic, and is frequently ordered in putrid dif¬
eafes, efpecially in cynanche maligna or fcarlatina angi-
nofa. It is as follows.
R. Muriatis fodse dr. i-J,
Succini limonis, dr. i^-.
Sacchari purificati, unc.
Spiritus myriftic. mofehati, dr. 3.
Attheris fulphurici cum alcohole, dr. 2.
Aquae menthae piperitae, unc. 6. M.
Signetur. Three table fpoonsful to be taken every
four hours find in cynanche fome of it to be frequently
xfed by way of gargle).
What an apparent confufion of fait and four, of fweet
and ftrong ! It is true that there is here no decompofi-
tion, and yet the medicine is certainly unfcientific and
empirical.
326
Rules for
Prefcrip-
tions.
^ ■■■ ■
,21. ^
! Rules for
Prelcrip-
tions.
46
•ed.
EXTEMPORANEOUS
11. A prefcriber Jhou/d adapt fas prefcription, as far
as may be, to the worldly circumftances of his patient, di-
re&ing for the poorer clafs thofe forms whic'h are lead
expenlive, fuch as powders, pills, eleftuaries, and ingre¬
dients for teas and deco&ions, with proper directions how
to prepare them. To his more wealthy patients he may
prefcribe thofe forms which, by uniting neatnefs with
convenience, will both pleafe his patient, and allow an
adequate remuneration to the apothecary, who in moil
places derives from his praftice little profit, except what
arifes from the fale of his medicines. The forms belt
adapted to fuch patients are thofe of draughts, bolufes,
f powders, and julep. &c.
S'eatnefs to 22. Neatnefs in prefcription fhould always be regarded;
jeobfer- for as the efiFeCls of medicines often depend much on the
feelings of the patient, we ftiould take care that his tafte,
fight, and fmell, be offended as little as poffible, that dif-
guft may not either prevent his taking the medicine at
all, or at leaft prevent him from taking it with confi¬
dence. In liquid medicines, we ought as much as pof¬
fible to avoid powders, and every thing which can ren¬
der the liquid unpleafant to the eye; and if we prefcribe
a formula containing oil, we ought to take care that
this be intimately mixed with the other ingredients.
Thus, fuppofe, when about to employ opium by fritlion,
we were to order equal parts of tinClure of opium and oil
of olives. Though when well ihtken together, thefe in¬
gredients would incorporate luff.ciently to anfwerthepur-
pofe of opiate friClion, yet when allowed to ftand, they
would fpeedily leparate, and give the embrocation an un¬
pleafant appearance. It would be better, therefore, to
infure their combination by adding a little folution of
ammonia.
23. In this refpeCI much will depend on the form of
the medicine ; and a phyfician fhould be perfectly aware
what form is belt adapted to the articles he is to em¬
ploy, as well as what is moft agreeable to the patient.
This fubjedl of forms was fufficiently explained in the
article Materia Medic a, Part III. chap. 2.
We have now finifhed all that appeared moft import¬
ant on the general rules for extemporaneous prefcrip-
tions; but it may be proper to bring under one general
view the principles which have been laid down. The
great objeft of a pradlitioner is to cure his patient fafely,
agreeably, and expeditioufly. That he may cure him
fafely, he is to fludy perfpicuity and fimplicity. To in¬
fure perfprcuity, he fhould arrange his formulae in the
order of exhibition; write the words fo that they may
be moft intelligible; arrange the articles of each formu¬
la in the mode of compofition; ufe abbreviated Words
for quantities inflead of fvmbols ; employ the common
numerals; write the diretftions in Englltli; avoid obfo-
lete or uncommon remedies, and order no article, not of¬
ficinal, merely by its name. To infure fimplicity, he
rnuft employ no more ingredients than are uecefiary-.
That he may cure his patient agreeably, he mult ob-
ferve neatnefs in his prefcriptions; adapt his forms to
the nature of the remedies employed, and not prefcribe
offenfive remedies where thofe that are agreeable or pa¬
latable will arifwer the fame purpofe.
That he may cure his patients expeditioufly, he fhould
employ the moft efficacious remedies in the proper dofes,
and take care they are adminiftered in fuch a manner as
to be moft likely to produce the defired effcft.
We fhall now conclude theie general obfervations on
PRESCRIPTIONS.
32?
6S
ecapitu-
prefcription with a few praflical cautions, for which we Rules f°r
are chiefly indebted to Dr Percival.
1. A pradlitioner fhould attend to the feelings and . “ ' 1
prejudices of his patient. Dr Percival ordered bleeding
to a patient labouring under peripneurdony, who had a
great dread of the operation, and appears to have died
in confequence of its having been attempted.
2. A phyfician, after having afeertained the nature
of a difeafe, in confidering the treatment which he means
to adopt, fhould firft refledl whether any evacuation be
neceflary, as bleeding, the application of leeches or of
blifters, cupping, vomiting, purging, &c.
3. He fhould next enquire whether any particular
fymptom, fuch as hemorrhage, great pain, exceffive
vomiting or purging, be fo violent or fo diftrefling as to
require immediate attention.
4. He is to confider whether the difeafe under notice
is one for the cure of which any fpecifie remedy has been
difcovered, fuch as mercury in fphylis, cinchona in in-
termittents, &c.
5. In chronic difeafes, where the ufual remedies fail
of fuccefs, it is often of confequence to endeavour to
roufe the fyftem into a new adlion by mercury, eleftri-
city, opium, &e. This practice appears rather empiri¬
cal, but the experience of many able phyficians has evin¬
ced its propriety.
6. In commencing the treatment of any cafe, it is pro¬
per to begin with the fimpleft and fafeft method; and if
this does not faceted, to try others of a more complex
and bolder defeription.
7. A phyfician ffiould not change his plan or his re¬
medies too foon or too often.
8. The cafes of new born infants require peculiar
caution, as a moderate dole of a powerful medicine may-
prove fatal. Four drops of tinilure of opium have been
given to a child a few weeks old for gripes. The in¬
fant was feized with ftupor and convulfions, and died.
A pradlitioner of midwifery gave an infant two tea-
fpoonsful of caftor oil by way of purgative; fevere
vomiting and convulfions came on, and the child funk
under them. ^
IV. Modern pharmacy may be faid to commence Origin of
about the middle of the 15th century, at which time itrn°dern
appears to have been in a moft deplorable ftate of empi-^“armac^
rical barbarity. Though it is probable that, among the
earlier pfadlitinners of medicine, remedies were employ¬
ed in their moft fimple forms, the art of compounding a
number of fimples together into one medicine had, by
the time of which we are now fpeaking, arrived at a
pitch of extravagance which has never been exceed¬
ed.
What carried this oftentation of compofition to the
higheft excefs, wa^- the pfoj'edt of framing antidotes,
which being previoufiy adminiftered, might defend a-
gainft any poifon whatever, that fhould afterwards be
taken into the body. To this feheme is owing the enor-
rnous length of the celebrated mithridate and theriaca ;
for fuch medicines muft of courfe recommend themfelves
by the number and variety of their ingredients, as they
were to contain a proper antidote for every poffible fpe-
cies of poifon, and more ofpecially as thefe compofitions
were to be farther wrought up into little lefs than uni-
verfal remedies for all difeafes to which the human body
is fubjetft.
The firft of thefe antidotes was faid to be compofed
from
*23 EXTEM FORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Hiftorjcal from tlie refult of experiments made feparately with all-
^Sketches. k;n(]s 0f flmple antidotes by the famous king vvhofe
y0 name it bears j but as no records are left us of any of
Account of thofe particular experiments, vve may reafonably confi-
fhe mithri- Jer this tale as fabulous. As it is not likely that this
date. medicine and the theriaca will ever again appear in our
Pharmacopoeias, we (hall, for the amufement of our
readers, deferibe the compofition of each, as given in the
London Pharmacopoeia publifhed in 1746. The mi-
thridate is thus compofed.
“ Take of cinnamon 14 drams, of myrrh 11 drams *,
agaric, fpikenard, ginger, faffron, feeds of treacle mu-
llard, or of mithridate muftard, frankincenfe, chio tur-:
pentine, of each 10 drams; camel’s hay, coitus, or in
its Head zedoary, Indian leaf, or in its Head mace,
French lavender, long pepper, feeds of hartwort, juice
of the rape of ciftus, (trained Itorax, opopanax, (trained
galbanum, balfam of Gilead, or in its (lead expreffed oil
of nutmegs, Ruffian caftor, of each an ounce ; poley-
mountain, water-germander, the fruit of the balfam
tree, or in its (lead cubebs, white pepper, feeds of the
carrot of Crete, bdellium (trained, of each feven drams;
Celtic nard, gentian root, leaves of dittany of Crete,
red rofes, feeds of Macedonian parfley, the leffer cardo-
mom feeds freed from their hulks, fweet fennel feeds,
gum Arabic, opium (trained, of each five drams; root
of the fweet Hag, root of wild valerian, anife-feed, faga-
penum (trained, of each three drams ; fpignel, St John’s
■wort, juice of acacia, or in its (tead Japan earth, the
bellies of feinks, of each two drams and a half; clarifi¬
ed honey, thrice the weight of all the reft. Diffolve the
opium firlt in a little wine, and then mix it with the honey
made hot ; in the mean time melt together in another
veflel the galbanum, ftorax, turpentine, and the balfam
of Gilead, or the expreffed oil of nutmeg, continually
-ftirring them round, that they may not burn ; and as
foon as thefe are melted, add to them the hot honey, firft
rby fpoonfuls, and afterwards more freely: laftly, when
this mixture is nearly cold, add by degrees the reft of
the fpecies reduced to powder.
Account of The preparation of the Theriaea andromachi, or Ve-
the the- nice treacle, is th-us direfted.
daca. “ Take of the troches of fquills, half a pound ; long
pepper, opium (trained, dried vipers, of each three
ounces ; cinnamon, balm of Gilead, or in its (lead ex¬
preffed oil of nutmeg, of each two ounces ; agaric, the
root of Florentine orris, water-germander, red rofes,
feeds of navew, extradt of liquorice, of each an ounce
and a half; fpikenard, faffron, ammomum, myrrh, co¬
itus, or in its ftead zedoary, camel’s hay, of each an
ounce ; the root of cinquefoil, rhubarb, ginger, Indian
leaf, or in its ftead mace, leaves of dittany of Crete, of
horehound, and of calamint, French lavender, black
pepper, feeds of Macedonian parfley, olibanum, Chio tur¬
pentine, root of wild valerian, of each fix drams ; gentian
root, Celtic nard, fpignel, leaves of poleymountain, of St
John’s wort, of ground pine, tops of creeping germander,
with the feed, the fruit of the balfam tree, or in its ftead
cubebs, anifefeed, fweet fennel feed, the leffer cardamom
feeds freed from their hulks, feed of bi(hop’s-weed, of
hartwort, of treacle muftard or mithridate muftard,
juice of the rape of ciftus, acacia, or in its ftead Japan
earth, gum Arabic, ftorax drained, fagapenum drained,
Xemnian earth, or in its ftead bole Armenic or French
bole, green vitriol calcined, of each half an ounce *, root HiftonVnl I
of creeping birthwort, or in its ftead of the long birth- Sketche-.
w*ort, tops-of the lefler centaury, feeds of the carrot of "
Crete, opopanax, galbanum drained, Ruffia caftor, Jews
pitch, or in its ftead white amber prepared, root of the
fweet flag, of each two drams ; of clarified honey thrice
the weight of all the reft. The ingredients are to be
mixed in the fame manner as in the mithridate.
The theriaca may be confidered as a modification of
the mithridate by Andromachus, though we are not in¬
formed what were his reafons for the variations, except
that by the addition of the viper’s fleth the medicine
w7as rendered more ufeful againft the bite of that ani¬
mal *. The theriaca was in fo great repute before the * Qalen de
decline of the Roman empire, that even the wife Mar- Antidotis,
cus Aurelius was induced to make a daily ufe of it, tohk.i.cap. 1
the great prejudice of his health ; for we are told by
Galen, that his head w’as fo much affedted, that he dofed
in the midft of bufinefs ; and when on this account he
omitted the opium in the compofition, he could not
deep at all.
It is not a little amufing to obferve the reafons that Origin of
induced the ancient compounders of medicines to crowd ^ leverai
their receipts with fuch a multitude of ingredients. Me- a
dicines were then diftributed into four qualities, of heat¬
ing, cooling, drying, and moijlening, by the combination
of which, and the ftrudlure of the fubftance in which
they adhered, whether confiding of grofs or fubtle parts,
was deduced another head of qualities from confequen-
tial effedfs they were fuppofed by this means to have
on the body, of inciding, attenuating, incrajfating, re¬
laxing, ajlringing, and the like ; by a farther profecu-
tion of this fpeculation was derived from the fame fource
a third arrangement of cepha/ics, hepatics, Jlomachics,
diuretics, and others ; thefe orders being clofed by a
fourth head, to comprehend fuch, whofe effedts fur-
mounted even the acutenefs of this fyftem to explicate;
thefe were faid to operate tota fubjlantia. The firft of
thefe qualities, as well as thofe which depended on
them, were farther divided into four degrees, and
each of thefe into three fubdivifions, whereby medicines
might be adapted to each cafe with the niceft fubtilty
by the rules of arithmetic. Again, when the compofi.
tion was thus happily adjufted, it was farther to be en¬
quired, whether the medicine after all might not be fuf-
pedled of fome noxious quality, requiring corredlion ;
and this, whether real or imaginary, was by the farther
addition of fome proper accompaniment to be provided
for. It was alfo to be confidered, that a medicine
might be ferviceable to a remote part, but expofed to be
deftroyed by the powers of digeftion before it arrived
there ; then it was to be affifted by fome material, by
which it ftiould be defended and conduced fafely, fo as
neither to be afted upon, nor aft, till it reached the de-
figned part, and then be left to operate without impe¬
diment, its guide and proteftor being itfelf there oppor¬
tunely confumed : fome medicines were pretended to
run too fwiftly through the body, others to move on too
fluggifhly ; the firft of thefe required a curb, the others a
fpur : often a direftor was neceffary, that the medicine
might not dray from its deftined courfe ; every medicine
was fuppofed to have its peculiar ftation, in which, left to
itlelf, its operation would be exerted ; if it were requi¬
red to perform its office fooner, it was to be committed
73
Improve¬
ments in-
mifts
JSftorlcal to tlie cuflody of fome other, which might fix it to the
Sketc!ies , region defired j if it were defigned to proceed farther,
it inuft have an affiffant to open it a paflage.
How much ingenious men have been perplexed to
account for thefe irregularities and fuperfluities of the
earliefi pharmaceutical writers, may in fome meafure be
conceived from Bauderon’s comment on the Aurea
A/cxandrwa, the firlt compofition in the colle&ion of
Nicholaus whom we fhall prefently notice. Opium,
it feems, is the bafe whole powers are heightened by
other ingredients, which require alfo others to correct
their ill qualities. Befides thefe, one lift of ingredients
is to dirett the operation to the head, another let to the
breaft, others to the heart, ftomar.h, fpleen, liver, kid¬
neys, and other parts •, infomuch, fays the author, that
this one medicine, in regard to the difeafes he enume¬
rates, may very juftly be confidered as a whole apothe¬
cary’s (hop, contained in a gallypot. Rondelet, in his
remarks on the Syrupus Hyjjbpi Mefuce, feems lefs dif-
pofed to admire what he did not underftand, when he
tells us, he long doubted with himfelf, under what head,
whether of attenuants or incraffants, it ought to be ranged,
it containing fo many fpecies of each kind ; and at laft
has recourfe to this frank reafon for retaining it at all,
erit nobis ufui, cum nondum erimus cert:\ incraffurene,
un attenunre oporteat.
When the alchemifts had extended the bounds of
their art from the mere drudgery of manufacturing gold
the aldie'^an(^ to the more noble and philofophic employ¬
ment of compofing an univerfal elixir that fhould fecure
its poiTelTor from difeafe, and prolong his life to an in¬
definite period, pharmacy derived from their labours
confiderable and folid advantages. The experiments
inftituted by thefe vifionaries with the metals, led to
the accidental difcovery of fome of the moft efficacious
remedies which we at prefent employ, efpecially the
preparations of antimony and mercury, and moft of what
are called the neutral or fecondary falts. By calling in
the aid of fire, they enabled us to produce in bodies,
changes which, without the affiftance of this powerful
agent, we ffiould have been unable to effeCt. Now,
every thing was fubmitted to dige/iion, calcination, fer¬
mentation, dijlillation, and fublimation ; but, as general¬
ly happens in cafes of innovation or reform, thefe new
methods of obtaining aftive remedies were carried to an
abfurd and ridiculous extent. Finding that the healing
powers of many lubftances were eliminated or increafed
by the application of heat, they feemed to imagine that
tne fimple medicine could in no cafe poflefs any medi¬
cal virtue till it had been placed upon the fii*e, or kept
for fome hours in a furnace. Hence the immenfe num¬
ber of diftilled waters and fpirits, effential and empyreu-
matic oils, with which the old pharmacopoeias are
crowded, and which feem in many cafes to poflefs no
other powers than what they derive from the water or
the fpirit that forms the bulk of the preparation. Not
only plants and minerals, but animals and animal mat¬
ters of all kinds were diftilled, digefted, or calcined.
Ihus, we find a water of fnails, a fpirit of millipedes,
an oil of earth worms, &c. &c. The abfurd and
pompous names by which the preparations were diftin-
guiffied, are truly ridiculous. Magifcrial half am, hiera-
ptcra, Ethiops mineral, ens veneris, fores mortis, ca-
lomelas, aquila alba, are a few which long retained their
feat, both in public and private difpenfatories. As thefe
Vol. XVII. Part I.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS. 329
preparations were, from their contrivers, denominated Hiftorical
chemical; the more ancient medicines which were drawn Sketches.^
almoft entirely from the animal and vegetable king- V*—“T
doms, were denominated Galenical, becaufe chiefly em¬
ployed by the followers of Galen. Hence the divifion
of medicines into Galenical and chemical, a divifion
which ootained for fome hundred years, and which only
a few years ago was preferved in the fale catalogues of
the London druggifts.
However amufing to a fcientific modern chemift it 74
may be to wander through the labyrinths of the earlier
pharmaceutical rvriters, it is neceffary for us to be brief
upon the fubjedt. Thefe abfurdities are now fait dif-
appearing 5 and pharmacy, guided by the increafing
brightnefs of her younger but more enlightened filter,
has begun to aflume a more fcientific and a more de¬
cided character. I he principles and improvements of
modern chemiftry have been introduced into our phar¬
macopoeias, and the civilized nations of Europe are now
vying with each other in the amelioration of thefe guides
to the medical pradtitioner. In our own country, the
Edinburgh college led the way to this reform. They
have been followed by the Dublin phyficians ; and we
may foon expedt the completion of the revolution in our
national pharmacy, by the publiffiing of a new edition
«f the London Pharmacopoeia, which is, we underftand,
now under review.
I he progrefs of our prefent officinal pharmacy, from pr0fr|fs
the time of its firft introdudfion by the Arabians, fo far modern
as we can trace it through the obfcurities attending its pharmacy,
origin, has been as follows. Saladinus of Afcoli, an
author who wrote about the middle of the 15th century,
Avhile as yet there were no pharmacopoeias eftablilhed
by any public authority, informs us, that the books with
which the apothecaries were generally furnifhed, were
thefe : a book of Avicenna and another of Serapion,
which treat on fimples j Simon Januenfis de fynonymis ;
a treatife of an Arabian author under the name of Liber
Servitoris, containing the preparations of fimples, and
the chemical medicines then in ufe ; likewife two Sln-
tidotana, one of Johannes Damafcenus or Mefue, and
another of Nicholaus de Salerno.
Some time after, Nicholaus Praepofitus of Tours wrote
a general difpenfatory, that might fupply the place of
all thefe ; in which the compofitions are almoft entirely
taken from Mefue, and the forementioned more ancient
Nicholaus. ihe 2 hefaurus Aromatariorum written near
the fame time, and the Lumen Apothecanorum, confift
alfo of fimilar extradls ; and in the Luminare Majus
publiffied foon after, which contains a more extenfive
colledlion, thefe two authors generally lead each head.
The fame Aniidotaria have alfo been made the general
bafis of the modern pharmacopoeias, though we know
little more of their authors than that they were the
favourites of thofe barbarous times in which they
lived.
It is probable that Mefue lived about the
tury, which is all that we can afeertain refpedting a
writer to whofe authority fuch implicit fubmiffion has
been paid ; and even this circumftance has been dif-
puted : for fome have confounded him *vith a much
earlier writer of the fame name, who refided at the
court of Bagdat,
Of the other father of pharmacy, Nicholaus, littlemore vr- JX
is known. From his being ftyled of Salerno, we might 1C loIaUS>
* 1 imply
. 76
tin cen- Mefue,
330
Hiftorical
Sketches.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
78
Foreign
public
Pharmaco
pceias.
imply that he rcfided in that fchool. Of his work, Sa-
ladin gives the following account : that there were two
Antidotaria under the name of this Nicholaus, the one
diftinguilhed by the title of Nicholaus Magnus, and the
other by that of Nicholaus Parvus ; that t he lattei was
in mod frequent ufe, and was only an epitome of the
former, containing bi.it a part of the compofitions, mid
thofe reduced to lefs quantities. Among the collections
of pieces often publifhed together as a fupplement io
iVIefue, one is entitled Antidotarium Nicholas, and in this
are contained the competitions which were delivered
by difpenfatory writers, under the name of Nicholaus.
This is the leffer antidotarium, and there is alfo a copy
of the greater, publithed under the name of Nicholaus
Alexandrinus, as tranllated from the Greek by Nicho¬
laus of Reggio, the fir ft tranflator of Galen. In this
tranllation, as in the former antidotarium, the compofi¬
tions are arranged in the order of the Latin alphabet .
whereas, in the original, the Greek alphabetical order
feems to have been followed. Here, betide a much
greater number of articles than in the other Nicholaus,
thofe which they have in common are in greater quan-
tities.
The firft Pharmacopoeia which was fet forth by pub¬
lic authority, was that of Valerius Cordus, publithed in
1542, under the fantlion of the fenate of Nuremberg.
This contifts almoft entirely of colleftions from the two
authors above mentioned, with ftiort notes in relation
to fuch names of plants or drugs in the compofitions as
were of doubtful fignification. Subfequent pharmaco¬
poeias, however they might be rendered more copious
by additions from other authors, alfo paid the like re¬
gard to Nicholaus and Mefue. This Pharmacopoeia of
Cordus has been made more celebrated from the com¬
ments made on it by Hoffman. In 1561, Clufius pub-
liftied at Antwerp a Latin tranflation of the Florentine
Antidotarium, In 1581 was publifhed at Bergamo in
Italy, the Pharmacopoeia Bergamenjis, which was fol¬
lowed by the Pharmacopoeia Auguftana, at Augfburg
in 1601 *, republiftied at Rotterdam, with notes by
Zwelfer in 1654, and again in 1666. I he Pharmaco¬
poeia of the faculty at Paris firft appeared in 1637, and
about the fame time there avas publifhed at Paris a col-
le&ion of Arabian formula?, called the Perjian Phar¬
macopoeia, In the latter end of the 17th century, the
incorporated phyfieians of Sweden publifhed their Di
penfatory under the title of Pharmacopoeia Uolmieiijis,
which was republiftied in 1775 anc^ I7^4 by the title
oi Pharmacopoeia Saecica. 1 he Pruflian Difpenfatory,
Pharmacopoeia BoruJJica, was firft publifhed in 1799'
The Pharmacopoeia of Vienna was firft publifhed in
1729, and republiihed in 176$•
Befides theft:, we have feen or heard of the follow¬
ing
The Difpenfatory of Wirtemburg, of which the firft
edition is that of 177I- .
Pharmacopoeia Genevenjis, pubhfhcd in I7®^> repub¬
liftied in Italian in 1800.
Difpenfatorium Lippmcum in 1792.
Pharmacopceia Bremenjis in 1792.
Pharmacopoeia Aujlriaco-provincialis, 1794.
Pharmacopoeia Aujlriaco-coiftrenfis, 1795.
Pharmacopoeia Rqffica, publifhed at St Peterfbuigh
firft in 1798, and again in 1803. .
Of the Britifh Pharmacopoeias, the earheft is that 01
the London college, which was firft publifhed in 1618. Hiflorkal
It was again publifhed either at the clofe of the 17th, .
or beginning of the 18th century in i8mo ; again in ^
1746 in 410, and laft in 1791. The college is now Br;t;lh pub_
preparing a new edition, and has circulated among its lie Pharma,
members a fpecimen of the propofed alterations. We copoeias.
have been favoured with a perufal of this fpecimen, and
we have no doubt, that with reipeft to accuracy of pre¬
paration, and judicious feledfion of remedies, the new
work will not be inferior to the late editions of the
Edinburgh and DuhYm Pharmacopoeias. In point of
nomenclature, however, we cannot help thinking, that
the committee have in a great meafure failed in their
defire to avoid error and confufion. Should the no¬
menclature of the fpecimen be adopted in the publijheol
edition, we fear that the novelty of the terms will be
the fmalleft objeaion to their ufe *, but that being fo
perfectly different, both from the language of modern
chemiftry and of the late pharmacy of the London
druggifts and apothecaries, will occalion ferious incon¬
venience both to preferibers and compounders. It would
be indecorous for us to particularize inftances, but we
chiefly allude to the names of Xhefecondary falls, which
we coniider as very objeaion able. I he new edition
will be evidently much improved, many new articles are
admitted, and not a few of fuch as were lefs efficacious,
or which may be prepared exterwporaneoufly, are omit-
ted.
The college of Edinburgh firft publiffied their Phar¬
macopoeia in 1722*, and improved editions have fuccef-
fively appeared in 173^’ I747> I75^’- I775»
1792, 1803, and 1805, this laft being little mure than
a new impreflion of the preceding. The Dublin col¬
lege firft publifhed, or rather printed, a Pharmacopceia
in 1794 ; and they have lately, viz. in 1807, republiffied
it with confiderable improvements. . In this edition they
have chiefly followed the plan of the Edinburgh Phar¬
macopoeia, but they retain the ufual pharmaceutical
names of the fimples, though they have in general
adopted the reformed chemical nomenclature. 1 he
moft material improvements will be noticed in the ap¬
pendix to this article. _ go
Befides the Pharmacopoeias printed under the aut '°' ■p(.reign
rity of public colleges, a great many have been pub-priVate Dif-
lifiied by individuals both on the continent and in Bn-penfatones,
tain. We (hall notice the principal of thefe in chrono¬
logical order. .
The earlieft of thefe that we find on record, aiter
thofe of Nicholaus, is the Antidotarium Speciale ~ of
Wecker, which was printed in 1361. Four years after
appeared the Antidotarium of Montagna, publiffied at
Venice; and at the fame place in 1600, appeared a
work by Fioraventi, entitled Secreti Rationah Intorno
Alla Medicina. In 1608, Renodaeus publifhed at Pa¬
ris his Offcina Pharmaceutica feu Antidotarium. Myn-
ficht’s Armamentarium Medico-chymicum appeared in
1631 ; and in 1656, Schroeder publifhed at Leyden
his Pharmacopoeia Medico-Chemica. In 1676 iaras
publifhed his Pharmacopee Galenique et Chemique at Pa¬
ris, and in 1684 the fame work was republiffied m La¬
tin at Genoa. In 1698 appeared the celebrated Phai-
macopee Vniverfelle of Lemery ; and in the fame year
the Pharmacopoeia Spagyrica of Poterius. Of thole that
have appeared in the 18th century, befide thofe men¬
tioned in the introduction to Materia Medica, mc
may
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Hiftoneal may notice as being of fuperlor merit; Triller’s Difpen-
Skttches. Jator{um Pharmaceuticum Univcrfule, publiihed at Frank-
' ^~~' fort in 1764 ; Spielman’s Pharmacopoeia Generalis at
Straiburg in 1783, and Reufs’sDifpenfatorium (Jniverfale
8r at the fame place.
Britiili pri- In our own country, feveral ufeful works of this kind
vate Dif- have been produced. One of the earlieft (d), and
penfatories. among- the moft remarkable of thefe, is the Pharmaco¬
poeia OJicinalis et Extemporanea, or Complete En^li/f)
Difpenfatory of Dr Quincy, which was firft publiflied
in 1718, again in 1722, and in 1739 had reached the
eleventh edition, now before us. Confidering the time
at which it was written, this is an excellent perfor¬
mance, and is the more interefting, as it formed the
foundation on which were compofed thofe more accu¬
rate and fcientific works the New Difpenfatory of
Lewis, and the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory. Quin¬
cy’s Difpenfatory was followed by fimilar works, as by
James’s Difpenfatory in 1747, Lewis’s in 1753, and
the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory by Web tier in 1786.
At length, in 1803, Dr Andrew Duncan, Junior, pub-
lirtied his Edinburgh New Difpenfatory, which, from
the important additions and improvements progreffively
introduced in four editions, muft be confidered as a new
work, and has entirely fuperfeded every fimilar publica-
Sz ti°n‘
Collections Of colle&ions of formulae, both by continental and
of formulae. Englifh writers, there is no want ; but it will be diffi¬
cult for an unexperienced prefcriber to make a judicious
feleffion from among them. rI he befl we have feen in
this country are, the Thefaurus Medicaminum, now ad¬
mitted to be the produftion of Dr R. Pearfon *, the
Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica; and perhaps we may add thofe
publifhed in Dr Kirby’s Tables of the Materia Mediea.
The firft of thefe was publifhed in 1794, and a third edi¬
tion of it materially improved appeared in 1804. The
Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica is a valuable felefrion of for¬
mulae, chiefly intended for furgeons, and drawn up prin¬
cipally from the praftical Pharmacopoeice of the differ¬
ent London hofpitals. The firft edition appeared, we
believe, in 1794; and in 1802 there was publifhed a
fifth edition, with the addition of a fynoptical table of
the formuhe contained in the volume, arranged accord¬
ing to the order of their principal ineredients. The
formula; annexed to each of the claffes in Dr Kirby’s
Tables are intended principally to ferve as examples of
the method of prefcribing the principal articles enume¬
rated in the clafs to which they are attached. They
are felefted partly from the beft writers on extempora¬
neous prefcription and the pra£tice of medicine, and are
partly derived from the private experience of the author
or his medical friends.
Of the older colleftions of formulae, we may notice
the Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea of Fuller, which con¬
tains 1000 felecl formulae, arranged in alphabetical or¬
der, and accompanied by pra&ical and pharmaceutical
remarks. This work went through many editions, both
in England and on the Continent. The beft which we
331
have feen is that publifhed at Paris in 1768, under the Hiftorscal
care of Theodore Baron. .^cl:^ict;‘ _
We know of very few works that have been written, g ,
containing praflical rules for the writing of prefcrip-Works on
tions. In our own country, almoft the only work on cxtempora-
the fubiedt with which we are acquainted, is guinea'sneoiispre-
Led arcs on Pharmacy ; a work now very little known, 1
though the principal parts of it were introduced under
their proper heads, in the later editions of the complete
Englifh Difpenfatory. Quincy’s rules, though now a
little antiquated, are for the moft part very good ; and
allowing for the imperfedl ftate of chemical fcience in
the beginning of the 18th century, may Hill be perufed
with advantage. Similar rules, which were indeed lit¬
tle more than modifications of thofe given by Quincy,
were laid down by Dr Lewis in his New Difpenfatory. 84
One of the moft celebrated foreign elementary works Gaubius.
on this fubjedl, and that which we believe is beft know n
in this country, is Libellus de Methodo Ccncinnandi For¬
mulas Medicarnentorum, by Gaubius, a fecond edition of
which was publiftied at Leyden in 1752. After laying
down fome general rules to be obfervtd before prefcrib¬
ing, Gaubius gives an account of the nature and con-
ftrudlion of formulae in general, and then treats parti¬
cularly of the feveral forms of medicines ufually employ¬
ed. Thefe he divides into internal and external, reckon¬
ing among the former powders, bolufes, electuaries, ec-
legmata or lyndtufes, pills, lozenges, &c. which he diftin-
guilhes into tabellee and rotuli, infufions, decodtions, ex-
preflcd juices, emulfions, juleps, mixtures, and draughts
or contracted mixtures. External forms he divides into
injeCtions, adfpergines (powder fprinkled on thefurface),
fomentations, dry epithems, cataplafms or poultices,
baths, fumigations, pi afters, cerates, ointments, odorifer¬
ous balfams, liniments, epifpaftics or bliftering plafters,
friCtions, colhjria or eye-waters, errhines or fnuffs, denti¬
frices or tooth-pow'ders, apophlegmatifms, gargles, cly-
fters, fuppofilories, and peffaries. He gives ample rules
for the preparation of each of thefe forms, w'ith ex¬
amples. This work, however, from the antiquated ftyle
and prolixity with which it is written, and the obfolete
names that every where occur throughout the examples,
is of little ufe except as a book of reference. 85
In 1714, Joannes Petrus Eberhard, profeflbr of me-Gerhard,
dicine in the univerfity of Halle, in the duchy of Magde¬
burg, publifhed his Methodus Confcribendi Formulas Me¬
dicos, a fmail pamphlet in i8mo, containing rules ar¬
ranged in a tabular form. In this little work the au¬
thor firft treats of the nature of a medical formula, and
explains the charaCfers ufually employed in prefcription.
He then lays down his plan of divifion, and laftly treats
of the preparation of each particular form, with practi¬
cal hints refpeCting the ingredients proper for each form,
with their proportional dofes, and the cafes to which
they are more particularly adapted. This work rvas firft
intended for the profeffor’s pupils, but he publiftied it
under the conviCtion that it would be found of advan¬
tage by praftitioners in general. On the whole, it is a
T t 2 ufeful
(d) The only Pharmacopoeias worth notice in this country that preceded the Difpeniatory of Quincy, were, we
believe, the Pharmacopoeia Bateana, edited by Dr Thomas Fuller, and the Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea, drawn
up by the fame author, (to be prefently noticed), both publilhed early in the 18th century.
332 EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Hiftoncal ufeful publication, but is as much too brief as that of
^Sketches. Gaubius is too prolix. The rules are not illuilrated i.y
g(j examples.
Griiner. The beft work that we have feen on the elements of
extemporaneous prefcription, is entitled, Via et Ratio
Formulas Medicos confcribenrfi, by Griiner, profeffor of
medicine in the univerfity of Jena. As we have feen
only one copy of this work, belonging to the college
library Edinburgh, and when this article went to
prefs, could not procure a fecond perufal of it, we can¬
not prefent our readers with any analyfis of its contents j
but from the favourable impreflion we received on exa¬
mining it feveral years ago, we confider it as a valuable
87 work.
Albert. The laft writer on this fubjeft whom we fhall notice
is M. Alibert, who, at the end of the fecond volumeiof
his Nouveaux E/emens de Therapeutique et de Mat:ere
Medicals, has given what he calls a New Eifay on the
Art of Prefcribing; in the firfl part of which he treats of
the general rules of the art, and in the fecond explains
the particular formulae which aft on the vital properties
of the different organic fyftems of the human body. M.
Alibert’s arrangement is peculiar, and we {hall therefore
give a fketch of it. He arranges his formulae under
fix feftions, and divides each feflion into feveral articles.
In the firll fedlion he treats of the formulae or com¬
pound medicines which the medical art principally di¬
rects towards the vital properties of the fyftem of the
digeftive organs. In the firft article of this feftion he
deferibes the compound medicines which are particular¬
ly dire&ed to the mufcular contra&ility of the ftomach,
in common language, emetics j in the fecond article,
thofe which are particularly diredted to the mufcular
contradlility of the inteftinal canal, viz. cathartics $
in the third article he treats of thofe which are particu¬
larly adapted to the changes of the vital properties that
Table I. A Comparifon of French Grammes with
refult from the prefence of worms in the ftomach and Hiftorical
inteftines, namely, anthelmintics ; in the fourth article, Sketches,
of thoie which are particularly diredted againft the ef- v~—
fedts of poifons introduced into the ftomach or intef¬
tines \ and in the fifth, of thofe compound medicines
which are particularly diredted to the vital properties of
the larger inteftines.
In the fecond fedlion he treats of thefe medicines
which the art particularly adapts to the vital properties
of the urinary paffages j diuretics.
In the third fedtion he deferibes thofe that particular¬
ly refer to the vital properties of the refpiratory organs,
viz. expedtorants and refrigerants.
In the fourth fedtion he treats of thofe compound me¬
dicines which are particularly diredted to the vital pro¬
perties of the dermoidfyjlem, or the {kin ; namely, dia¬
phoretics, emollients, and epifpaftics.
In the fifth fedtion he notices thofe medicines which
are particularly diredted to the vital properties of the
nervous fyftem; viz. antifpafmodies, narcotics, fternuta-
tories and fialagogues.
In the fixth and laft fedtion he treats of the compound
medicines that the art particularly diredts toward the
vital properties of the fyftem of generation.
Some other late French writers on Pharmacy have
given a number of examples of medical formulae, efpe-
cially M. Bouillon La Grange, in his Manuel du Phar-
macien. In all thefe formulae is employed the new
French ftandard of weights and meafures, commonly ac¬
companied by the fynonymous troy weights and mea¬
fures, as ufed by the French apothecaries under the
old government; but as neither of thefe are familiar to
Englifti readers, we fhall here add two tables of the
French weights and meafures of capacity, reduced to
Englifli wine meafures and troy and apothecary weights,
Troij, French, and Nuremberg, Apothecary Grains,
Grammes.
2—
3—
4—
5=
6=
7=
8=
9—
10—
Troy grains.
15.444=:
30.888 =
46.332=
61.776=
77.220=
92.664=
108.108=
1 23-552=
128.996=
154.440=
Old French Grains.
18.883=
37.766=
56.649=
75-532=
94-4I5=
113.298 =
132.181 =
151.064=
169.947=
188.830=
Nuremberg Grains.
16.128
32.2?6
48.384
64.512
80.640
96.768
112.896
129.024
145.! 52
161.280
Table II. French Meafures of Capacity, reduced to cubic inches, and Englifj Wine Meafure,.
French Meafures.
Englifh cubic inches.
Tuns
Hhds.
Gallons.
Pints.
Millilitre =
Centilitre zr
Decilitre =
Litre =
Decalitre =
Hecatolitre =
Chiliolitre =
Myriolitre =
.06102
.61028=
6.10280=
61.02800=
610.28000=
6102.80000=
61028.00000=
610280.00000=
o
o
o
o
o
o
1
10
o
o
o
o
2.
26.419
12.19
58-9
.002
.021 I
.2113
2.1133
5-I352
■appendix;
Appendix.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
APPENDIX.
Preparation b. Decoctum CORNU
Decoction of hartfhorn.
333
CERVINI, Dub. Appendix.
ss
89
Carbonate
if ammo-
aa.
9°
olution of
arbonate
f ammo-
ia.
, 91
iydroful-
I huret of
mmonia.
| Lromatic
i"moniat-
i d alcohol.
hofphate
flime.
The new edition of the Dublin Pharmacopeia hav¬
ing appeared fince the printing of our article Materia
Medica, it becomes us to notice the principal improve¬
ments introduced by the Dublin college ; and as parti¬
cular circumftances prevented our doing fo under Phar¬
macy, we have referved them for an appendix to the
prefent article. We (hall alfo take this opportunity of
fupplying fome omiftions in the article Materia Me-
DICA, rendered unavoidable by the circumftance of that
article coming on at the conclufion of a volume, beyond
which we could not with propriety extend it, efpecially
by the addition of a complete table of the fynonymous
Latin names of all the officinal compounds.
We ffiall notice the additions and improvements of
the Dublin college in the fame order which we have ob-
ferved in Materia Medica, Part IV.
Chap. I. Animal Subjlances.
2. Murias Ammonite (e).
Preparation c. Carbonas Ammonite. See Mate-
ria Medica, N° 238.
In the preparation of this fait, the Dublin college
now employ carbonate of foda for decompoling the mu¬
riate of ammonia, in dead of chalk. The only advantage
of this feems to be that the decompolition is effected at
a lower temperature.
Preparation d. Aqua Carbonatis Ammonite. Ma¬
teria Medica, N° 239.
Here too carbonate of foda is employed in the pro¬
portion of 28 oz. to the pound of muriate of ammonia.
Preparation f. Hydrosulphuretum Ammonia:.
Materia Medica, N° 241.
This is now introduced into the Dublin Pharmaco¬
poeia, and is dire&ed to be prepared much in the fame
manner as in the pharmacopoeia of Edinburgh.
Preparation h. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aroma-
ticum. Materia Medica, N° 243.
The only change made in the preparation is, in fub-
ftituting 4 oz. of nutmegs for 2 drs. of the effential oil,
and dillilling off the ammoniated alcohol, thus render¬
ing the folution of the aromatic principles more com¬
plete.
5. Cervus Elaphus.
Preparation a. Phosphas CALcis. Materia Me¬
dica, Np 254.
The Dublin college order this under the name of
Pulvis cornu cervini ujli, to be prepared in theufual man¬
ner as direfted by the Edinburgh, pharmacopoeia. .
94
This is made by boiling two ounces of burnt hartf-^j^^11
horn reduced to powder, and 3 drs. of gum arabic, in 3 horn,
pints of water to 2 pints, continually flirting, and then
{training the liquor.
In this way a confiderable quantity of the phofphate
of 1 ime is, by means of the gui arabic, fufpended in the
water ; but we do not think this fo good a method of
adminiltering the remedy as giving the powder itfelf,
mixed with fyrup or mucilage.
Chap. II. Vegetable Subjlances.
24. Alcohol. Materia Medica, N° 294.
tv • * 95
Preparation a. ALCOHOL. Akcholf
The new procefs of the Dublin college for preparing
alcohol is as follows : A gallon of rectified fpirit of wine
is firfl mixed with an ounce of cauftic potaffi in powder ;
then a pound of pearl afhes dried at the heat of 300°
of Fahrenheit, and reduced to powder, is added while
ftill warm, and the mixture digefled for three days in a
clofe veffel with frequent agitation. The fpirit is then
poured off, mixed with half a pound of dried muriate of
lime (which is ufually obtained from the refiduum after-
the preparation of pure ammonia), and diflilled with a
moderate heat till what remains in the retort begins to
grow thick.
26. Acidum Acetosum impurum.
Preparation b. Acidum acetosum forte, E! Ma¬
teria Medica, N° 307.
Acidum aceticum, Dub.
This is prepared by putting into a tubulated re- AcetfAcid.
tort, 3 ounces by weight of fulphurie acid, and adding
to it gradually in fmall portions, 6 ounces of acetate of .
potaffi, waiting after each addition till the mixture be
cold ; and after the whole is mixed, diftilliag to dry-
nefs. What comes over is the acetic acid.
Preparation d. Acidum acetosum Camphoratum,
E. Materia Medica, N° 309.
Acidum aceticum camphoratum, Dub.
Prepared much in the fame manner with the
burgh acid, only with half the quantity of acid.
29. Cera. Materia Medica, N° 319.
Preparation a. Cera FLAVA PURIFICata,
Purified yellow wax.
Wax is purified by melting it with a moderate heatpurjf^d
(ar in a water bath), feumming it, and pouring off the wax.
clear fluid from the dregs.
32. Angustura, Materia Medica, N° 331.
Preparation
97"
Edm- Camphora¬
ted acetic
acid.
Dub.
(e) In the following enumeration the numbers prefixed to the fimple articles correfpond to thofe in the fame fi-
tuation in the arrangement of Part IV. in Materia Medica 5 while thofe which follow fome of the articles re¬
fer to the paragraphs of that article as numbered in the marginal notes.
4
334*
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Preparation a. XlKCTURA AnQUSTURAC, Dub. Tine- Thu is made by adding to the purging clyfter to be
ture of Anguftura. deferibed prefently, 2 drs. of tinfture of atafoetida. |
This is prepared by digefting two ounces of coarfely
powdered anguftura bark in two pints of proof fpirit for
90 feven days, and {training.
Tincture of This preparation, now firft made officinal by the .Dub-
anguftura, college, is a good form for exhibiting the anguftura
in fmall dofes. Ordinary dofe about 2 drs. generally in
compofitiu.1.
Class II. Order 3. Diandria Trigynia.
4?. Piper Nigrum.
Ointmentof Preparation a. UnGUENTUM PlPERIS XIGRI, Dub.
black pep. Ointment of black pepper. A ftimulating ointment,
Per* made by mixing 4 oz. of finely powdered black pepper,
with a pound of prepared hogs lard.
Class III. Order 1. Triandria Monogynia.
48. Valeriana Officinalis, Materia Medica,
I0I N° 354*
Infufion of Preparation d. InFUSUM VALERIANiF, Dub. Infu-
valerian. 0on 0f valerian.
This is made by digefting 2 drs. of valerian root,
coarfely powdered, in 7 oz. by meafure of boiling water,
for an hour, and draining off the liquor when cold.
This is a good antifpafmodic, efpecially in hyfteric
cafes, and the ftomach is faid to bear it better than the
powder. Dofe, a glafsful twice or thrice a-day.
In our Materia Medica, in the names of the pre¬
parations of valerian, the genitive cafe of valeriana is in¬
advertently printed valeriani.
Class VI. Order 2. Hf.xandria Trigynia.
ioS
112*. Rumex A^UATICUS, Dub. Great water dock. Great wa.
The root. ter dock,, j
One of the new additions to the Dublin Materia Me¬
dica.
It ranks among aftringents, and has been celebrated
as a remedy in feurvy, difeafes of the {kin, and venereal
complaints. It is generally given by way of infulion.
Class VII. Order 1. Heptandria Monogynia.
113. Aisculus Hippocastanum. i;57
Now adopted by the Dublin college.
127. Cassia Senna.
Preparation h. Syrupus SENNiE, Dub. Syrup of Syrup os
Senna. See Syrupus Mannve, Materia Medica,fe™a*
N° 795-
Class X. Order 1. Decandria Monogynia.
130. Swietenia Febrieuga. ICP
Now alfo firft adopted in the Dublin pharmacopoeia.
134. Quassia Excelsa.
no
Preparation a. TjNCTURA Quassia, Dub. Tine-Tindure«
ture of quaffia. quadra.
Class V. Order 1. Pentandria Monogynia.
6q. Hyoscyamus Niger.
X02 ^
Tindure of Preparation b. TiNCTURA HyoSCYAMI NiGRI, Ma-
henbane. TERiA MEDICA, N° 392.
Now added by the Dublin college, and made rather
ftronger than the Edinburgh tin&ure, the proportions
being 2^ ounces of the dried leaves in coarfe powder, to
10, an Englifti pint of proof fpirit.
Infufion of Cinchona Officinalis.
esnenona. '
Preparation a. INFUSUM ClNCHONAC OFFICINALIS, E,
Materia Medica, N° 402.
Infusum Cinchona sine calore, Dub.
This is prepared by digefting an ounce of quaffia
fhavings in 2 pints of proof ipirit for 7 days, and filter¬
ing.
This forms a ftrong folution of the bitter principle of
quaflia.
j37. Styrax Officinale.
111
Preparation b. Pilule E STYRACE, Dub. St or ax storax pil]
pills.
Prepared by beating well together 3 drs. of purified
ftorax, 1 dr. of foft purified opium, and the fame quan¬
tity of faffron.
This may properly be confidered as a preparation of
opium, of which it contains a fifth part.
Prepared by macerating an ounce of cinchona bark in
coarfe powder in 12 ounces of cold water for 24 hours j
then pouring off the liquor.
Order 2. Digynia.
104
Decodion g^. ULMUS CAMPESTRIS.
of elm bark.
Preparation a. Decoctum ULMI.
The Dublin college order this decoftion to be prepar¬
ed much in the fame manner as that of the London phar¬
macopoeia.
90. Ferula Asafoetida.
Fetid cly- Preoaration f. Enema foetidum, Dub. Fetid clyfter.
fter. * r
Class XI. Order 2. Dodecandria Digynia.
m
142*. Agrimonia Eupatoria, Dub. The herb. Agrimony
A flight aftringent now added by the Dublin college.
Class XII. Order 5. Icosandria Polyginia.
irj
158. Geum urBanum, Dub. Avens. 1. he root. AvenS
This has now obtained a place in the pharmacopoeia
of Dublin, and as a ufeful indigenous tonic, merits par¬
ticular notice. Dofe of the powder from half a dram
to a dram.
Class
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS. 335
Appendix- CLASS XIII. Order I. Polyandria MoNOGYNIA ed, and the fpirits are exhilarated. Pain is alleviated, Appendix.^
y—^ 160. Papaver Somniferum. Opium. and all care for the time forgotten. The effects of this v
fubitance on thofe who fwallow it as a fubftitute for
H4 As the account of this important remedy given in the wine, as is ufual in the eaft, are familiar to moft of our
article Botany may not be deemed fufficiently fatisfac- readers, and fufficiently prove its flimulating effeft.
tory by our medical readers, and as in the Materia Me- Similar proofs appear to have been exhibited during the
dica we were fo much confined that we could only refer prefent Avar, among Europeans. We are told that the
to the belt writers that have treated on opium, we (hall French foldiers are plied indifferently with opium or
here fupply that deficiency, by giving a comprehenfive brandy, in order to increafe their courage and ferocity;
view of the effe&s of opium j of the difcoveries that and avc have been credibly informed, that fome of the
have been made by late chemical analyfes refpefting the moft celebrated performers on the London ftage, parti-
nature of its narcotic principle; fhall point out the ge- cularly in tragic parts, Avhich require peculiar felf-com-
neral means by Avhich the ill effeifts Avhich fometimes mand, or energy of expreftion, are accuftomed to take
attend the exhibition of this medicine may be obviated, dofes of opium proportioned to the circumftances of the
and enumerate thofe articles of the Materia Medica charafter Avhich they are to perform,
which may be moft conveniently employed as fubftitutes The excretion of urine is fometimes increafed ; but as
for a dru>J uoav become fo fcarce and expenfive. an increafe of abforption is a ufual confequence of opium,
Perhaps no article of the Materia Medica ranks other excretions, except, as Ave have faid, the perfpi-
higherin point either of antiquity or efficacy than opium. ration, appear to be diminiftied. Opium alfo afts as a
Its peculiar properties and mode of operation have, how- poAverful ftimulus to the genital organs, and excites the
ever, been long a fubjeft of debate, both among theore- venereal appetite. It is faid that on examining the bo-
tical and pra&ical Avriters. The place afligned to it in dies of Turks {lain in battle, the penis has been often
fyftematic arrangement has been continually fludftuat- found in a ftate of ere&ion, even in old men *. * Murray
ing •, Cullen and his folloAvers confidering it as one of After thefe effects have continued for a time, appear- Apparat.
the moft powerful fedatives Avhich Ave poffefs, Avhile ances of a different nature prefent themfelves. At firft^^ft77"7-
BroAvn, Darwin, and the advocates for their dodlrines, a languor and laffitude not unpleafing come on, and are ^ P'
as ftrenuoufty contend that it ought to be ranked amongft foon followed by yaAvning and a ftrong propenfity to
the moft a£Hve and diffufible ftimuli. In faft, the par- fteep. If the quantity taken has been confiderable
ties engaged in this controverfy appear chiefly to differ (above tvvo gr.), the previous fymptoms of excitement
about Avords, and probably they are both partly right are more remarkable, but they generally continue for a
and partly Avrong. " fhorter time, and are folloAved by a proportional deprd-
They agree that the effe&s of opium are fimilar to fion. Confiderable naufea fupervenes, and fometimes a
thofe of wine and alcohol, liquors Avhich are generally, fevere vomiting is excited, by Avhich great part of the
though indeed not univerfally, accounted ftimulants. If opium is expelled from the ftomach.. But if this fliould
opium produces fimilar effefts with thefe, avc fee no good fail to take place, and often when it has to a partial
reafon why it ftiould not be arranged in the fame clafs. degree appeared, a heavy ftupor comes on, attended
AH thefe fubftances may indeed be confidered as both Avith giddinefs and headach 5 the breathing becomes
ftimulant and fedative, according as Ave advert to their difficult and laborious 5 the perfon falls into a profound
primary or fecondary effe&s. If by a ftimulant be meant fleep, from which he is roufed with great difficulty, and
iomething which incre'afes the force and frequency of into which, if left to hirofelf, he fpeedily iclapks , the
a£Hon in the mufcular fibres, and poffeffes the power of face becemes pale, tlie lips livid, the extremities rold,
fuftaining or increafing the A’ital powers, which is, Ave univerfal torpor ieizes the limbs, and is followed by
believe, the generally received definition, avc can furely con\rulfions and fatal apoplexy. . . ii(j
not refufe this cliaradler to alcohol, and its modifications. On examining the bodies of thofe animals a\ Inch have Appearan-
Who that has ever felt the cheering influence of Avine, fallen vidlims to opium, the ftomaeh is found diftended, ces on dif-
that has experienced the exhilaration, the flow of fpirits, and containing frothy mucus, its internal coat in a ftate ledion.
and the energy of a61ion, Avhich are the ufual effefts of of inflammation, and fometimes the pyloris contradled.
the bottle, can refufe to acknowledge the effeifis of the rI he veffels of the brain are exceedingly turgid, and
ftimulating powers of this too fafcinating beverage. commonly an effufion ol blood is found to have taken
Again, if by a fedative avc are to underftand fomething place.
Avhich diminifties the force and vigour of mufcular ac- When a perfon aAvakes after having taken opium, he
tion, and depreffes all the vital energies, every one who ufually finds himfelf heavy and giddy, and not unfre-
has felt the effe&s confequent to a too free libation at quently complains of headach and dimnefs of fight; his
the fhrine of Bacchus, will readily admit that wine and bowels are coftive, and his appetite defe&ive. Some
alcohol are, in an eminent degree, poffeffed of fedative people, fo far from being foothed and lulled to fleep by
poAvers. Noav, that opium refembles alcohol in both opium, are rendered exceedingly irritable and reftlels ;
1IC thefe circumftances, is generally admitted. others, if they are made to deep by the influence of
General ef- When a moderate quantity of opium (we mean not this medicine, are haraffed with frightful dreams, and
ketsofopi-more than two grains), is received into the ftomach, it awake unrefreflied.
lim- excites there a gentle warmth, which is gradually diffu- Effefts fimilar to what we have defenbed arife from
fed over the whole body, attended with an itching of opium when injefted into the reaum ; but they require
the fldn, and ufually followed by an increafe of perfpi- a larger dofe. When this fubftance is applied to the
ration. The pulfation of the heart and arteries is at firft eye, the urethra, or other fenfible parts, it excites pam
rendered fuller and more frequent,and there is commonly and rednefs *, Avhich, hoAvever, do not long continue. * Crumpe's
a heat and fluftiing of the face 5 the eyes appear enliven- When merely applied to the lur.ace of the body, while ^
.yju
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
117
111 effedls
of opium.
118
Analyfis of
opium.
Appendix, tlje cuticle is entire, it produces no change ; but when
v the tindure of opium, or opium in fine powder, mixed
with an oily fubltanee, is rubbed on the {kin, pain is al¬
leviated, deep induced, delirium affuaged, and other fe-
dative effects brought on ; but the ftimulating effe&s
of the medicine are, in this way, faid to be lefs ap¬
parent.
J he ill effe&s which fometimes attend the exhibition
of opium, may arife, either dire&ly from its ftimulating
power, or from eonfequent exhauftion.
I. The ill effeds which appear to be the immediate
confequence of the fiimulus are, excitement, increafed
abforption, and determination of the blood to the head.
rI hefe effeds render it an improper remedy in the early
ftages of inflammatory difeafes, particularly in phrenilis,
pneumonia, catarrh, and dyfentery. By increafing ex¬
citement and determining to the head, opium is impro¬
per in phrenitisj and it is hurtful in the other difeafes by
increafing abforption, and hence leffening expedoration,
and producing coftivenefs. In fome cafes of inflamma¬
tion, however, where increafed perfpiration is defirable,
as in rheumattfm, if the medicine be fo managed as to
produce full fweating in a fhort time after exhibition, it
may be employed with advantage.
II. The ill effeds which arife from the fecondary
eircumftances following the adminiftration of opium, are
chiefly headach, general debility, tremors, fpafms, pa-
ralyfis, and hypochondriafis. Of courfe, in cafes rvhere
thefe fymptoras and difeafes are to be apprehended, it
muft be employed with confiderable caution.
Opium has been analyfed by feveral chemifts, efpe-
cially by Gren, Bucboltz, Ioffe, Prouft, Dr Duncan ju¬
nior, and very lately by Derofne. “ By evaporating a
watery folution of opium to the confiftence of a fyrup,
Derofne obtained a precipitate, which was incrcafed by
diluting it with water. He diffolved this in hot alcohol,
from which it again feparated on cooling. When puri¬
fied by repeated folutions, it cryftallized in redangu-
lar prifms with rhomboidal bafes, bad no tafte or fmell,
was infoluble in cold water, and foluble in 400 parts
of boiling water, did not affed vegetable blues, xvas
foluble in 24 parts boiling alcohol and no cold; fo¬
luble in hot ether and volatile oils, and feparated from
them as they cooled ; very foluble in all acids, and
* Duncan's highly narcotic *.
A confiderable proportion of the fubftance of opium
is infoluble both in water and alcohol ; and it is re¬
markable that the infoluble part is very different in
Turkey opium from what it is in that which comes
from the Eaft Indies; being in the former a dudile,
plaftic, coherent mafs, in the latter an incoherent,
powdery matter, diffufible in water. According to Dr
Duncan, the adive conftituent of opium appears to be
of a volatile nature ; and as this muft be carried off by
boiling or diftillation, the ufual proceffes for purifying
opium, tend to diminifh its medical effeds.
The ill effeds of opium are to be obviated or coun-
teraded by regulating the dofe according to the effed
intended to be produced ; by the mode of adminiftra¬
tion, whether internally, or by fridion, or by combi¬
ning with it fome correding fubffance which has the
effed of counterading its unpleafant properties, fuch as
lemon-juice, ammonia, tartrate of antimony and potajh,
fubmuriate of mercury, or aromatics. The languor and
Difpenfat.
4th edit,
p. 32g.
119
Metris ef
obviating
the ill ef-
fedts of opf
am.
general debility felt after having taken opium, are beft Appendix,
relieved by wine and exercife.
When a perfon has fwallowed fuch a quantity of
opium as there is reafon to fear will prove fatal, if its
effeds are not prevented or counteracted, it is proper to
exhibit an emetic as foon as convenient, in order to eva¬
cuate from the ftomach as much of the opium as pofli-
ble. With this view, a fcruple or half a dram of ful-
phate of zinc diffolved in a little wTater, is to be given,
and the adion of vomiting promoted feveral times by
proper diluting liquors. We (hould then adminifter le¬
mon juice in confiderable quantities; and if the ftupor
be very great, all methods are to be employed for rou-
fing the patient, and obliging him to exert bimfelf in
moving about. If the more alarming fymptoms are
made to yield, we ftiould give wine, ether, or other fti-
mulants, in moderate dofes, ftill taking care to keep a-
live the attention of the patient. Strong coffee has
been highly recommended in thefe cafes. Jro
As opium is now become a very expenfive article, it Subftitutes
is of eonfequence to confider what other remedies thatf°r
are likely to produce the fame good effeds may be fub-
ftituted for it. Several of the narcotic vegetables have
been employed for this purpofe, efpecially lattuca mirofa,
conium maculatum or hemlock, datura flramonium or
thorn apple, atropa belladonna or deadly nightfhade,
humuluS lupulus or hop, and hyofeyamus niger or hen¬
bane. Ot thefe the two laft feem to be belt adapted to
this purpofe.
Preparation//. ExtRACTUM OPII AQUOSUM, Dub.
121
The Dublin College have made fome alteration in Watery ex-
their mode of preparing this extrad, though they pre- trad of
ferve the fame proportions. They dired the opium to0P'imK
be triturated with hot water for ten minutes, when the
water is to be poured off, a frefli quantity added, and the
trituration continued for the fame period. This tritura¬
tion to be repeated a third time. Then all the liquors
are to be mixed together, fuffered to ftand in an open
veffel for two days, {trained through linen, and then in-
fpiffated to the confiftence of an extrad.
Class XIV.
MIA.
Order 1. Didynamia Gymnosper-
168. Mentha Viridis,
Corn-
Preparation d. Infusum Comfositum, Dub.
pound infufion of mint.
. . . . . .122
This is prepared by firft digefting, for half an hour, in Compound
a clofe veffel, two drams of dried mint in as much boil-infufion of
ing water as, when {trained, may produce fix ounces,mmt'
and then mixing with the {trained liquor, two drams of
fine whjte fugar, and three drops of effential oil of mint,
previoufly dilfolved in half an ounce of compound tinc¬
ture of cardamom.
This forms a very grateful ftomachic.
174. TEUCRIUM CHAMiEDRYS, Dub.
mander. The herb.
Wall
123
ger-Wall ger¬
mander.
An indigenous tonic, employed in domeftic medicine
in cafes of chlorqfis, gout, and intermittent fever.
0rder
124
Tin ft ure of
digitalis.
126
Tincture of
galls.
Appendix.. Order 2. AngiOSPERMIa.
180. Digitalis purpurea.
Preparation b. Tinctura Digitalis purpureje.
This medicine is now introduced into the Dublin
Pharmacopoeia, and is prepared in the fame manner as
directed by the Edinburgh college.
Class XIX. Order 2.' Syngenesia Polygamia
SUPERFLUA.
216. Anthemis Nobilis.
Compound Preparation a *. DecoctUM ChamEMJELI COMPOSI-
decochon of tum, Dub. Compound decodlion of chamomile,
chamomile.
.Made by boiling for a little half an ounce of chamo¬
mile flowers and two drams of fweet fennel feeds in a
pint of water, and draining.
Ufed chiefly for clyfters.
Class XXL Order 8. Monoecia Polyandria.
226. Quercus Cerris. Galls.
Preparation a. Tinctura Gallarum, Dub. Tinc¬
ture of galls.
Prepared by digefting four ounces of powdered galls
in two pints of proof fpirit for feven days, and ftrain-
jng.
A ftrong folution of the aftringent principle of galls.
Order 10. Monadelphia.
228. PlNUS Abies. Burgundy pitch.
Preparation b. Emplastrum calefaciens, Dub’
Calefacient plafter.
A warm ftimulating plafter, made by melting toge¬
ther, with a moderate heat, feven parts of Burgundy pitch
and one part of ointment of cantharides.
Order 12. Syngenesia.
236. CUCUMIS CoLOCYNTHIS,
Preparationb. PlLUL2E Coloc YNTHIDIS COMPOSITE,
Dub. Compound pills of colocynth.
Thefe are prepared by beating together half an ounce
of the pith of colocynth, half an ounce of hepatic aloes,
and the fame quantity of fcammony, all in powder, with
two drams of Spanifti foap, a dram of'cloves, and a fuf-
ficient quantity of Ample fyrup, to form a mafs for pills.
This is a ftrong cathartic, and may be given in a dofe
of 10 or 15 grains.
244. Juniperus Sabina.
, . Preparation d. UngUENTUM Sabina, Dub. Savine
ointment.
Prepared by. boiling half a pound of frefti favine
leaves, bruifed, in two pounds of prepared hog’s lard till
they become crifp, then preffing out the lard and melt¬
ing in it half a pound of bees wax.
A ftimulating ointment, ufed in drefling iffues, for
which it is faid to be preferable to cantharides oint¬
ment.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
EXTEMPORANEOUS prescriptions.
127
Calefacient
plafter.
12S
, Compound
pills of co-
locynth.
129
Savine oint¬
ment.
Class XXIV. Order 2. Cryptogamia. Fuci.
255*. Fucusvesiculosus, QUERCUS MARINA,
3.37
Appendix.
Dub. Yellow bladder wrack.
Bladder
wrack.
A common indigenous fea-weed, the charcoal from
which is employed in the following preparation.
a. PuLVIS QUERCUS MARINE, Dub. Powder of fea-Powder of
wrack. . fea-wrack'
This is prepared by drying and cleaning any quantity
of yellow bladder wrack, gathered while in fruit 5 then
expofing it to the fire in an iron pot or crucible, covered
with a perforated lid, till the volatile matters have eva¬
porated, and the mals becomes of a dull red colour.
I his is to be reduced to a very fine powder, and kept
in clofe veflels.
The medical virtues of this preparation, if it have any,
are fimilar to thofe of burnt fponge, and it may be given
in the fame dofe.
Order 3. AlGjE.
256. Lichen Islandicus, Nc
799-
Preparation a. Decoctum Lichenis Islandici, rwivoL
Dub. Decoflion of Iceland liverwort. of Iceland
This is prepared by digefting half an ounce of Iceland 1*VerV'°rt
liverwort in a pint of hot water for two hours, in a clofe
veflel, then boiling for 15 minutes, and ftraining off the
liquor while hot.
Ch AP. III. Mineral Subfiances.
Sect. 2. Inflammable Subflances.
260. Sulphur sublimatum.
Preparation §•. Aqua Sulphureti Kali, Dub. Wa-vrr
ter of fiilphuret of potaih.
This is prepared by boiling together half an ounce 0fPota111-
fublimed fulphur with nine ounces by meafure of cauftic
ley for. 10 minutes, and ftraining through paper. The
liquor is to be kept in veflels well clofed.
The fpecific gravity of this liquid is afligned by the
Dublin college to be to that of diftilled water, as 1120
to 1000.
Preparation h. Aqua Sulphureti Ammonia, Dub. r I34
Water of fulphuret of ammonia. Water of
iulphuret of
This is prepared by flaking four ounces of frefh-ammonia.
burnt lime in an earthen veflel, which is to be kept co¬
vered till the lime has fallen into powder, and become'
cool ; when there are to be added four ounces of pow¬
dered muriate of ammonia, and two ounces of fublimed
fulphur mixed together, avoiding the vapours. The
whole is now to be put into a retort, and diftilled with
a hidden and pretty ftrong heat, and the liquor that
comes over is to be kept in a phial well clofed with a
glafs ftopper.
Sect. 4. Alkalies and Alkaline Salts.
265. NlTRAS PoTASSiE.
Preparation p-. Aither Nitrosus, Dub. Nitrous vr- 135
ether -Nitrous
rl ! , • ether*
Prepared by pouring gradually, and in different por¬
tions, upon a pound and a half of nitre, dried and coarfely
powdered, in a tubulated retort, placed in a bath of cold
U u water,
338
Appendix.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
273. Sulphas Magnesia;.
136
Oxymufi-
atic alka¬
line water.
137 .
Oxymuri-
atic water,
water, a pound of fulphuric acid previoufly mixed with
19 ounces by meafure of redtified fpirit of wine, the
mixture having been allowed to cool. With a very
flight degree of heat, fuch as that of tepid water, an
etherial liquor will pais over from the retort, and the
heat which foon fpontaneouily arifes in the retort muit
be moderated by cooling with cold water. The receiv¬
er ihould alfo be cooled with ice or fnow, and furniihed
with a proper apparatus, to carry off and eondenie the
fuperabundarvt vapours. The etherial liquor that fpon¬
taneouily comes over, is to be put into a phial with a
ground glafs ft op per, and as much dry fubcar donate of
potafh added as may be fufficient to faturate the fuper-
abundant acid, which is commonly done after the addi¬
tion of about a dram of the fait. 1 he ether which now
floats on the upper part of the phial, is to be feparated
by means of a funnel, and kept for ufe.
Nitrous ether is a powerful ftimulus, but is feldom
employed in medicine.
266. Murias Sodac.
Preparation d. Aqua Alkalina OxyMURIATICA,
Dub. Oxytnuriatic alkaline water.
This is prepared by putting into a matrafs two pounds
of dried muriate of foda, and a pound of powdered man-
ganefe mixed, then pouring on two pounds of water,
and gradually adding at different times two pounds of
fulphuric acid, adapting a proper apparatus of tubes and
recipients, that the gas which comes over may pafs
through a folution of four ounces of carbonate of potalh,
in 29 ounces by meafure of water.
This preparation is a folution of oxmuriate of potafh,
a fait which was lately in great efteem as a remedy in
feveral difeafes, efpecially ty/jf/KJ-, feurvy, and fphilts,
from an idea that it imparted to the fyftem the oxygen
defedtive in thefe difeafes. The remedy is already out
of faftiion in this country.
Preparation e. Aqua Oxymuriatica, Dub. Oxy-
inuriatic water.
Made bv pafling the gas extricated from the mixture
of muriate’of foda, manganefe, and fulphuric acid, in
the preceding preparation, through a pound of diftilled
water, by which this is impregnated with oxymuriatic
acid gas.
Forms a good bleaching liquor, but is fcarcely em¬
ployed in medicine.
Sect. 6. Earths and Earthy Salts.
Preparation d. Enema Catharticum, Dub. Pur-
ging elyfter.
Made by diffolving an ounce of manna in 10 ounces
by meafure of compound deco&ion of chamomile, (fee
N° 125.), and adding an ounce of olive oil, and halt an
ounce of fulphate of magnefia.
Appendix.
140
Purging
clyfter.
Sect. 7. Metals and Metallic Preparations.
275. Acidum Arseniosum.
Arsenias Kali, Dub
14r
Arfeniate Arfeniate
of potafli-
Preparation a.
of potalh.
The Dublin college direft this fait to be prepared by
mixing together an ounce of white oxide ot arlenic, and
the fame quantity of nitrate of potalh, feparately reduced
to powder, putting them into a glafs retort placed in a
fand bath, and applying a gradual heat, till the bottom
of the retort affumes an obicure red •, then diffolving the
refiduum in four pounds of boiling diftilled water, eva¬
porating, and fetting it afide to cryftallize..
The ufe of arfenic, in the cure of many difeafes of de¬
bility, has of late been much extended. It is now em¬
ployed, not only in intermittents, but in protracted rheu-
matifm, and many other cafes where the vital powers are
much diminilhed.
276. Sulphuretum Antimonii.
' 142
Preparation h. OxiDUM ANTIMONII NITRO-MURIA- Nitxo.mii-
TICUM, olfm CALX STIBII PRyECIPITA'I A,riatic oxide1
Dub. (See N° 879.). Nitro-muriatic oxide of anti-of anti-
^ mony.
mony.
This precipitate is now direCled to be prepared by
mixing together 11 ounces by meafure of muriatic acid,
and 1 ounce by meafure of nitrous acid, taking care to
avoid the fumes, and gradually adding to the mixture
2 ounces of prepared fulphuret of antimony •, then ai-
gefting with a gradually increafed heat, till the effervef-
eence ceafes, and boiling for an hour } filtering the li¬
quor when cold, fo that it may drop into a gallon of
water. The powder which falls to the bottom is to be
repeatedly walhed till the water poured from it is per-
feCtly free from acid, and is then to be dried on blotting
PaPer- 143
Preparation k. Tartras Antimonii et Potassje. ^ntimoni-
TART ARUM ANTIMONI ATUM,sive EME-ated tartar“
TICUM. Dub. Antimoniated or emetic tartar.
272. Carbonas Calcis.
Water of Preparation f SoLUTIO MuRIATICA Calcis, E.
muriate of Materta Medica, N° 876. AQUA MURIATIS
lime. CALCIS, Dub. Water of muriate of lime.
The Dublin college direft this to be prepared by dif¬
folving an ounce of chalk in coarfe pow'der in two ounces
of diluted muriatic acid, and ftraining.
Precipkat- Preparation g. CltETA PRiECIPITATA, Dub. Preei-
ed chalk, pitated chalk.
Prepared by precipitating the chalk from the above
folution, by adding carbonate of foda, filtering and waffl¬
ing the precipitate.
The carbonate of lime is thus procured very pure and
in a very fine powder. ,
In the Dublin pharmacopoeia we are diredted to pre¬
pare this medicine by boiling 18 ounces by meafure. of
diftilled water in a glafs veffel., and gradually throwing,
into it 2 ounces of nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony,
and 2-J ounces of powdered cryftals of tartar, previouf¬
ly mixed, continuing the boiling for half an hour, then
filtering the liquor, and cooling it gradually, that cryf¬
tals may be formed.
277. Hydrargyrum.
* ' * 144
Preparation a. HYDRARGYRUM CUM MAGNESIA,Quickfilv«
Dub. Mercury with magnefia. w'd' maS*
This is a new preparation, formed by firlt rubbing
together an ounce of quickfilver with the fame quantity
of manna, adding now and then a few drops of water,
fo
Appendix, fo as to reduce the mixture to the confidence of fyrup,
"v ~ ' till the whole of the mercury difappears j then dill con¬
tinuing the trituration, adding fird a dram of magnefia,
and when all are well mixed, a pint of hot water, and
diaking the mixture. When the fediment has complete¬
ly fubfided, the liquor is to be poured oft’, and the wafli-
ing twice repeated, fo as to difiolve the whole of the
manna. To the fediment, dill moid, are to be added
three drams more of magnefia, and the compound is to
be dried on blotting paper.
This preparation is fimilar in its medical effefls to
the lujdrargyrus cum cretu, defcribed in Materia Me¬
dic a, N° 914.
Ammoniat- Preparation /3. StiBMURlAS HydrargyrI AMMO-
ed fubmu- NlATUM. Dub. Ammoniated fubmuriate of mercury,
rititc of
mercury. Prepared by adding to the liquor from which preci¬
pitated fubmuriate of mercury has been obtained, a
quantity of caudic water of ammonia, wadiing the pre¬
cipitate with cold diddled water, and drying on blot¬
ting paper. The fame with the calx hydrargyn alba,
London.
278. ZlNCUM.
Preparation g. TinctuRA Acetatis ZiNCI. Dub.
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS. 339
Employed chiedy in preparing the oxymuriatic alka- Appendix.^
line water. " v
287. Sulphas FerrI nattvus.
Preparation e *. Acetas Ferri. Dub.
. 147
Ace tate of Acetate of
Made by digeding half an ounce of carbonate of
iron in 3 ounces by meafure of acetic acid, and fil¬
tering.
148
red oxide.
146
■findture of
acetate of Tin&ure of acetate of zinc.
Made by rubbing together an ounce of fulphate of
zinc, and the fame quantity of acetate of potadi, then
adding a pint of reftified fpirit of wine, macerating for
a wreek with frequent agitation, and filtering the tinc¬
ture.
Chiefly ufed as an external adringent.
280 *. Oxidum Manganesii Nigrum. Manga-
nedum, Dub. Black oxide of manganefe.
Preparation f. TlNCTURA MuRIATIS FERRI CUM Tindture of
oxido RUBRO, Dub. Tin&ure of muriate of iron with muriate of
red oxide. irdnwith
Prepared by digeding an ounce of red oxide of iron
with four ounces by meafure of muriatic acid for 24
hours, then boiling for half an hour, evaporating the
filtered liquor to the confidence of fyrup, and when
cold, adding re&ified fpirit of ivine, with frequent agi¬
tation, till the tinfture acquires the fpecific gravity of
io50.
A modification of the tin&ure of muriated iron de¬
fcribed under Materia Medica, N° 965, and is em¬
ployed in fimilar cafes.
The above appear to be the mod material changes
made in the new edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.
A few articles of lefs confequence are omitted, and
the tteiv names of others will be feen in the follow¬
ing Table. In this Table we have followed the alpha¬
betical order of the lad Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,
and in the third column we have caufed the London
names to be printed in Italics, leaving a fpace above
each for the infertion of fuch new names as may occur
the new edition of their Pharmacopoeia which the
London College is expefted foon to publidi.
Tabl£ of Synonymous Natnes of the Officinal Compounds.
Edinburgh Names.
Acetis hydrargyri.
Hydrargyrus acetatus.
Acetis plumbi.
Saccharum faturnu
Acetis potaflae.
Lixiva acetata.
Acidum acetofum dedillaturti.
Acetum vim dijhllatnm.
Acidum acetofum forte.
Dublin Names.
Acetas hydrargyri.
Hydrargyrum acetatunt.
Acetas plumbi.
Cerujfa acetata.
Acetas kali.
Alkali vegetable acetatum.
Acetum didillatum.
Acidum aceticum.
London Names in 1791.
Hydrargyrus acetatus.
Cerujfa acetata. ♦
Kali acetatum.
Acetum dijlillatum.
Acidum acetofum.
Acidum acetofum camphoratum.
Acidum benzoicum.
Flores ben%oini.
Acidum fulphuricum.
Acidum vitnoheum.
Aither fulphuricus.
/Ether vitriolicus.
Alcohol.
Spiritus vinofus reSlificatus.
Alcohol ammoniatum.
Spiritus ammonite.
Alcohol ammoniatum aromaticurn.
Spiritus ammonice aromaticus.
Alcohol ammoniatum foetidum.
Acidum aceticum camphoratum.
Acidum benzoicum.
Sal beuzoini.
Aciduni fulphuricum.
Acidum vitnolicum.
Ai,ther fulphuricus.
/Ether vitriolicus.
Alcohol.
Spiritus ammoniae.
Spiritus alkali volatihs.
Spiritus ammoniee aromaticus.
Spiritus alkali volatihs aromaticus.
Spiritus ammoniac feetidus.
U u 2
Flores benZoes.
Acidum vitriolicum.
/Ether vitriolicus.
AlcohoL
Spiritus ammonice.
Spiritus ammonue compojitus.
Spiritus ammonue feet idus.
Ammoniaretunt
340 EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Appendix, Edinburgh Names.
y ' Ammoniaretum cupri.
Cuprum ammoniacum.
Aqua acetitis ammoniae.
Aqua ammonite acetatce.
Aqua ammoniae.
Aqua ammonite caujlicce.
Aqua carbonatis ammonias.
Aqua ammonite.
Aqua potaflas.
Aqua lixivce caujiicae.
Carbonas ammoniae.
Sal a?ntfioniacm vo/ati/is.
Carbonas calcis praeparatus.
Creta alba.
Carbonas ferri prseparatus.
Rubigo ferri.
Carbonas ferri praecipitatus.
Carbonas magnefiae.
Magnejia alba.
Carbonas potailae.
Lixiva purificata.
Carbonas fodae.
Soda.
Deco&um anthemidis nobilis.
Decoclum commune.
Decodlum guaiaci compofitum.
Deco Slum lignorum.
Decodtum cinchonae officinali.
Eledtuarium aromaticum.
ConfeBio cardiaca.
Eledtuarium cafliae fennae.
Elefluarium lenitivum.
Eledluarium mimolae catechu.
ConfeBio Japonica.
Eledluarium opiatum.
EleBuarium thebaicum.
Emplaftrum gummofum.
Dublin Names.
Cuprum ammoniatum.
Aqua acetatis ammoniae.
Liquor alkali acetatis volatilis.
Aqua ammoniae caufticae.
Aqua alkali volatilis cauftici.
Aqua carbonatis ammoniae.
Liquor alkali volatilis mitis.
Aqua cupri ammoniati.
Liquor cupri ammoniati.
Aqua kali cauftici.
Lixivium cauficum.
Aqua fubcarbonatis kali.
Lixivium mite.
Carbonas ammoniac.
Alkali volatile mite.
Creta praeparata.
Carbonas ferri.
Magnefia.
Carbonas potaffae.
Alkali vegetabile mite.
Carbonas fodae.
Alkali foff le mite.
Decodlum chamaemeli.
Deeodlum farfaparillae compofttum.
Decodlum corticis cinchonae.
DecoBum corticis peruviani.
Eledluarium aromaticum.
Eledluarium fennae.
Eledluarium catechu compofitum.
Emplaftrum galbani.
London Names in 1791. Appendix.
Aqua ammonite acetate.
Aqua ammonite puree.
Aqua ammonite.
Aqua cupri ammoniati.
Aqua kali puri.
Aqua kali prteparati.
Ammonia prteparata.
Creta prteparata.
Rubigo ferri.
Magnefa alba.
Kali prteparatum.
Natron prteparatum.
DecoBum pro enemate.
DecoBum farfaparillce compofitum.,
DecoBum corticis peruviani.
ConfeBio aromatica.
EleBuarium e fenna.
ConfeBio opiata.
Emplajlrum lithargyri compofitum.
Emplaftrum meloes veficatorii.
Emplajlrum vefcatonum.
Emplaftrum oxidi plumbi femivitrei.
Emplajlrum commune.
Emplaftrum oxidi ferri rubri.
Emplajlrum roborans.
Emplaftrum refinofum.
Emplajlrum adhtefvum. -
Emplaftrum faponaceum.
EmulGo amygdali communis.
Emuljio communis.
Emulfto mimofae niloticae.
Emulfio Arabica.
Emulfio camphorata.
Extradlum anthemidis nobilis.
Extradlum cinchonae officinalis.
ExtraBum corticis peruviani.
Emplaftrum aromaticum.
Emplaftrum cantharidis.
Emplaftrum lithargyri.
Emplaftrum thuris.
Emplaftrum lithargyri cum refina.
Emplaftrum faponis.
Emplajlrum faponaceum.
Emulfto Arabica.
Miftura camphorata.
Extradlum florum chamaemeli.
Extradlum cinchonae rubrae refin.
ExtraBum corticis peruviani.
Emplajlrum ladani compoftum.
Emplajlrum cantharidis.
Emplajlrum lit liargyri.
Emplafrum thuris.
Emplqftrum lithargyri cum refna,
Emplafrum faponis.
Lac amygdalte.
Mifura camphorata.
ExtraBum chamtemeli.
ExtraBum corticis peruviani cum'
ref no.
. • Extradlum
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Appendix. EDINBURGH NAMES.
^ Extrafturn convolvuli jalapte.
E xtraSium jalapce.
Extraftum glycyrrhizae glabrae.
Extraft. haematoxyli campechiani.
ExtraSium ligni compechenjis.
Extraflum rutae graveolentis.
ExtraEhim foliorum rutce.
Infufum cinchonas officinalis.
Infulum rofae gallicse.
Infufutn rof arum.
Infulum tamarindi cum fenna.
Magnefia.
Magnefa ufa.
Mucilago allragali tragacantha.
Mucilago gummi tragacantluv.
Mucilago mimofae niloticas.
Mucilago gummi Arabici.
Murias ammonias et ferri.
Flores martiales.
Murias hydrargyri.
Mercurius fublimatus corrq/tvutn.
Murias antimonii.
Butijrum antimoniu
Nitras argenti.
Caujlicum lunare.
Oleum ammoniatum.
Linimentum volatile.
Dublin Names.
Extraftum jalapae.
Extradlum glycyrrhizae.
Extradlum Icobis haematoxyli.
Extra&um foliorum rutae.
Hydrargyrum cum creta.
Infufum cinchonae fine calore.
lufufum rofee.
Infufum fennae cum tamarindis.
Magnefia ulta.
Mucilago gummi tragacanthae.
Mucilago gummi Arabici.
Murias ammonias et ferri.
Murias hydiargyri corrofivum.
Hydrargyrum muriutum corrofvum.
Nitras argenti.
Argentum nitratum.
Linimentum ammoniae.
London Names in 1791.
Extra&um jalapii.
Extra&um glyciyrrlii%ce.
ExtraBum lignz- campcchcnfis.
ExtraBum rutce.
Hydrargyrus cum creta.
Infufum rofar.
Magnefa ufa.
Mucilago tragacanthce.
Mucilago Arabici gummi.
Ferrum ammoniacale.
Hydrargyrus muriatus.
Antimonium muriatum.
Argentum nitratum.
Linimentum ammonice.
341
Appendix.
N
Oleum volatile juniperi communis.
Oleum volatile lauri faffafras.
Oleum lavandulas fpicae.
Oleum juniperi fabinae.
Oleum volatile menthae piperitae.
Oleum volatile myrti pimentae.
Oleum volatile pimpinellae anifi.
Oleum cornu cervi redlificatum.
Oleum baccarum juniperi.
Oleum corticis et ligni faflafras.
Oleum florum lavandulae.
Oleum foliorum fabinae.
Oleum herbae florefeentis menthae
piperitidis.
Oleum baccarum pimento.
Oleum feminum anifi.
Oleum animale.
Oleum effentiale baccce juniperi.
Radids faffafras.
Oleum lavandulce.
Oleum menthce piperitidis.
Oleum effentiale anif.
Oleum volatile pini.
Oleum terebinthinae redlificatum.
Oleum volatile roris marini officinalis.
Oleum fulphuratum.
Bulfamum fulphuris.
Oxidum antimonii cum phofphate
calcis.
Antimonium calcareo-phofphoratum.
Oxidum antimoniicum fulph. perni-
trat. potaffae.
Crocus antimonii.
Oxidum antimonii cum fulphure vi-
trificatum.
Vitrum antimonii.
Oxidum ferri nigrum.
Fern fquamee.
Oxidum rubrum.
Ferrum vitnolatum ufum.
Oxid.hy drargyri per acidum n itricum
Mercurius preccipitatus ruber.
I
Oleum roris marini.
Pulvis antimonialis.
Oxydum ferri nigrum.
Oxydum ferri rubrum.
Oxydum hydrargyri.
Oxydum hydrargyri nitricum.
Hydrargyrum fubnitratum.
Oleum terebinthince reBifcatum.
Oleum roris marini.
Oleum fulphuratum.
Pulvis antimonialis.
Crocus antimonii.
Antimonium vitrificatum.
J
Hydrargyrus calcinatus.’
Hydrargyrus nitratus ruber.
OxiduiK
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
342
Appendix. EDINBURGH NAMES.
",n" ' Oxidum hydrargyri cinereum.
Pulvis mercurii cinereus.
Oxidum zinci.
Calx %inci.
Phofphas fodae.
Soda phofphorata.
Pilulae aloeticae.
Pilulae aloes cum colocynthide.
Pilulce ex colocynthide cum aloe.
Pilulas afaefcetidse compolitee.
PUnite gummofte.
Pilulae fcilliticae.
PotaiTa.
Caujlicum commune acerrimum.
Potaffa cum calce.
Caujlicum commune mitius.
Potio carbonatis calcis.
Potio cretacea.
Pulvis carbonatis calcis compofitus.
Pulvis cretaceus.
Pulvis ipecacuanha et opii.
Pulvis doveru
Solutio fulphatis cupri compofita.
Aqua Jlyptica.
Spiritus aetheris nitrofi.
Spiritus nitri dulcis.
Spiritus ammoniae aromaticus.
Spiritus volatilis aromaticus.
Spiritus lauri cinnamomi.
Aqua cinnamomifpirituofa.
Dublin Names.
Oxydum hydrargyri cinereum.
Oxydum zinci.
’Ziticum ujlum.
Phofphas fodae.
Pilulae aloes cum zingibere.
Pilulce aloeticce.
Pilulae eolocynthidis compofitae.
Pilulae myrrhae compofitae.
Pilulae fcillae cum zingibere.
Pilulce fcilliticce.
Kali caufticum.
Alkali vegetabile caujlicum.
Kali cum calce.
Caujlicum mitius.
Miftura cretae.
Mijlura cretacea.
Pulvis ipecacuanhae compofitus.
Spiritus sethereus nitrofus.
Liquor cethereus nitrojus.
Spiritus ammoniae aromaticus.
Spiritus alkali volatihs aromaticus.
Spiritus cinnamomi.
London Names in 1791. Appendix
7, in cum calcinatvm.
Pilulce aloes compojitce.
Pilulce e gutnmi.
t
Pilulce Jcillce.
Kali purum.
Calx cum kali puro.
Mijlura cretacea.
Pulvis cretce compojitus.
■Pulvis ipecacuanha compojitus.
Spiritus cetheris nitroji.
Spiritus ammonite compojitui.
Spiritus cinnamomi.
Spiritus myrifticae mofchatae.
Subacetis cupri praeparatus.
JErugo ceris.
Submurias hydrargyri.
Hydrargyrus muriatis mitis.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus.
Subfulphas hydrargyri flavus.
MercuriusJluvus, vel turpeth. min.
Succus fpiffatus conii maculati.
ExtraBum feminum cicutce.
Succus fpiffatus momordicae elaterii.
Elaterium.
Sulphas aluminae exficcatus.
Alumen ujlum.
Sulphas ferri.
Sal mortis.
Sulphas potaflae.
Lixiva vitnolata.
Sulphas potaifae cum fulphure.
Sal polychrejlus.
Sulphas fodae.
Soda vitriolata.
Sulphas zinci.
Vitnolurn album.
Sulphuretum antimonii praecipitatuni
Sulphur antimonii prcecipitatum.
Spiritus nucis mofchatae.
TErugo praeparata.
Submurias hydrargyri fublimatum.
Hydrargyrum munatum mite fub¬
limatum.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatum.
Hydrargyrum munatum mite prce¬
cipitatum.
Submurias hydrargyri atnmoniatum.
Oxydum hydrargyri fulphuricum.
Succus fpiffatus cicutae.
Elaterium.
Alumen uftum.
Sulphas ferri.
Eerrtim vitnolatum.
Sulphas kali.
Alkali vegetabile vttnolatum.
Sulphas fodae.
Alkali fojfile vitriolatum.
Sulphas zinci.
'Zmcum vitnolatum.
Sulphur antimonii iufcUlti.
Spiritus myrifticce.
AErugo prceparatu.
Calomelas.
Hydrargyrus muriatus mitis.
Calx hydrargyri alba.
Hydrargyrus vitnolatus.
Succus cicutce fpijfatus.
Elaterium.
Alumen ufum.
Ferrum vitriolatum..
Kali vitriolatum.
Natron vitriolatum.
Z in cum vitriol atom.
SulphuretUifl
2
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Appendix. EDINBURGH NAMES.
-v ' Sulpliuretum hydrargyri nigrum.
JEthiops mineralis.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum.
Cinnabaris faShtia.
Sulphuretum potaffge.
Hepar fulphuris.
Syrupus citri aurantii.
Syrupus e cortice auranhorum.
Syrupus citri medici.
Syrupus e fucco malorum limon.
Syrupus dianthi caryophylli.
Syrupus caryophyllorum.
Syrupus toluiferi balfami.
Syrupus half amicus.
Tartris antimonii.
Tartarus antimonialis Jive emet.
Tartris potaffae.
Ta rtarum folubile.
Tartris potaffae et fodse.
Sul rupellenjis.
Tindtura aloes et myrrh ae.
Tindlura ariftolochise ferpentariae.
Tindlura benzoin compolita.
Balfamum traumaticum.
Tindlura camphorae.
Spirilus vinofus camphoratus.
Tindtura convolvuli jalapae.
Tindlura ferulae afsefeetidae.
Tindlura lauri cinnamomi.
Tindhira meloes veficatorii.
Tinftura cantharidum.
Tindlura mimofse catechu.
Tin Slur a japonica.
Tindlura muriatis ferri.
Tindlura opii ammoniata.
Elixir paregoricum.
Dublin Names.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum.
Hydrargyrumfulphuratum nigrum.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum.
Hydrargyrum fulphuratum rubrum.
Sulphuretum kali.
Alkali vegetable fulphuratum.
Syrupus aurantii,
Syrupus limonis.
Syrupus caryophylli rubri.
Tartarum antimoniatum.
Tartarum Jlibiatum.
Tartaras kali.
Alkali vegetabile tartarifatum.
Tartaras fodae et kali.
Sal rupellenfs.
Tindlura aloes compofita.
Tindlura ferpentariae.
Spiritus camphoratus.
Tindlura jalapae.
Tindlura affaefoetidae.
Tindlura cinnamomi.
Tindlura cantharidis.
Tindlura catechu.
Tindlura muriatis ferri.
Tindlura opii camphorata.
London Names in 1791.
Hydrargyrus cum fulphure.
Hydrargyrus fulphuratus ruber.
Kalifulphuratum.
Syrupus corticis aurantii.
Syrupus limonis.
Syrupus caryophylli rubri.
Syrupus tolutanus.
Antimoniurn tartarifatum.
Kali tartarifatum.
Natron tartarifatum.
TinSlura aloes compofta.
Tinclura ferpentarice.
TinSlura ben%oes compojita.
Spiritus camphoratus.
TinSlura jalapcr.'
TinSlura ajfcfcetidce.
TinSlura cinnamomi.
TinSlura cantharidis.
TinSlura catechu.
TinSlura ferri muriati.
TinSlura opii camphorata.
343
Appendix.
Tindtura rhei palmati.
Tindlura faponis.
Linimentum faponaceum.
Tindlura faponis et opii.
Linimentum anodynum.
Tindlura toluiferi balfami.
TinSlura tolutana.
Unguentum acetitis plumbi.
Unguentum faturninum.
Unguentum album.
Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri.
Unguentum citrinum.
Unguentum oxidi plumbi albi.
Unguentum e ceruffd.
Unguentum meloes veficatorii.
Unguentum epifpajl. e pulv. canth.
Unguentum refinofum.
Unguentum bafilicum.
Unguentum fubacetitis cupri.
Vinum tartritis antimonii.
Vinum e tartaro antimoniali.
Tindlura rhei.
Linimentum faponis.
Tindlura balfami tolutani.
Unguentum acetatis plumbi.
Unguentum cerae.
Unguentum fupernitratis hydrargyri.
Unguentum hydrargyri nitrati.
Unguentum ceruffae.
Unguentum cantharidis.
Unguentum refini albi.
Unguentum aeruginis.
TinSlura rhabarbari.
Linimentum faponis compojitum.
Unguentum cerujfee acetatec.
Unguentum ceree.
Unguentum hydrargyri nitrati*
Unguentum cantharidis.
Unguentum refiniflavi.
i
Vinum antimonii tartarifati.
INDEX.
r 34+ i
INDEX.
A A#
Acetate of potafh, compofition of,
fubftances de-
compofing, 317
lead, compofition ef, 313
fubftances decom-
pofing, 317
mercury, fubftances decom-
pofirig, ib.
iron, fubftances decompofing, ib.
Dublin preparation of, N° 147
Acetic acid, preparation of, 96
camphorated, 97
Adjuvant of a formula, what, 4
rule for, 42
Agrimony, 112
Alchemijls, improvements in pharmacy,
introduced by, 73
Alcohol, Dublin preparation of, 95
Alibert's new effay on the art of pre-
fcribing noticed, 87
arrangement of compound
medicines, ib.
Antidotaria, account of, 77
Antidotes, frequency of, in the middle
ages, _ _ 69
Arrangement of formulae in a prefcrip-
tion, . 39
ingredients in a formula, 40
Arfeniate of potafh, 141
Aurelius, Marcus, ftupified himfelf by
the habitual ufe of theriaca, 7 i
Avens, 11 ^
B.
Bajis of a formula, what, 4
rules for, 41
C.
Carbonate of barytes, compofition of, p.312
fubftances decom-
pofing, 316
lime, compofition of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing, _ 316
magnefia, compofition of, 3x3
fubftances de¬
compofing, 316
potafh, compofition of, 3x3
fubftances decom-
pofing, 316
foda, compofition of, 313
fubftances decompo-
fing, . 3x6
ammonia, compofition of, 313
Dublin prepa¬
ration of, N° 89
fubftances de¬
compofing, p. 316
Carbonate of iron, compofition of, P* 313
fubftances decompo-
ring> . 3r7
zinc, compofition of, 313
fubftances decompo-
fing> 317
Chalk, precipitated, N° 139
Chemical affinity, attention to, in pre-
feription neceffary, 24
common errors from
ignorance of, 25
Chemijlry, knowledge of, neceffary to
a preferiber, 22 et feq.
Clyster, foetid, 105
purging, _ 130
Compqfttion of medicines, advantages of, 7
Compound medicines, when not officinal,
to be fpecifically deferibed, 61
Conjijlence of medicines, errors refpetl-
. ing> 34
Conjhtuent in a formula, what, 4
rules for, 34, 35, 48
CorreBor in a formula, what, 4
rules for, 43
D.
DecoBion of hartfhorn, 94
of elm bark, 104
compound, of chamomile, 125
' Iceland liverwort, 132
Difeafes, knowledge of, neceffary, 16
Difpenfatories, private foreign, enumer¬
ated, 80
Britifh, enumerated, 81
Dock, great water, 106
Dofes of medicines examined, 32
regulated by circumftances, 52
by the nature and inten¬
tion of the medicines, 53
by the age, &c. of the
patient, 54
by climate, 57
by idiofyncracy and ha¬
bit, 58
table of, for different ages, 55
explained, 56
algebraical formula for, p. 223. note(b)
Dover's powder examined, N° 32
Dropping of liquid medicines inaccurate,
p. 324. note (c)
Dropfy, complex remedy for, how fim-
plified, N° 63
Dublin Pharmacopoeia, account of, 79
new improvements in.
See Appendix.
E.
-Eberhard's work on extemporaneous
prefeription, account of, 88
Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, editions of, 79
-E/Z/er, nitrous, 135
P- 3°9
N° 121
ExpeBorants, table of,
ExtraB, watery, of opium,
F.
Eormulce, how differing from prefeription, r
parts of, 4
divifion of, 5
arrangement of, in a preferip¬
tion, - 39
complex, difadvantages of, 64
not always to be con¬
demned, 65
parts of, origin of the, 72
collection of, noticed 82
Fucus veficulofus, 130
G.
Galibins'1 s work on extemporaneous pre¬
feription, account of, 84
Germander, wall, 123
Geum urbanum, 113
Griffith''s myrrh mixture examined, 26
Amplified, ib.
Griiner's work on extemporaneous pre¬
feription noticed, 86
H.
Hints to a young practitioner, 37, 68
I.
Infujion of valerian, 101
cinchona, 103
compound, of mint, 122
L.
Lifbon diet-drink, complex formula for, 63
London Pharmacopoeia, editions of, 79
M.
Materia Medico, knowledge of, neceffa¬
ry to a preferiber, 17
tables of, utility of, 18, 20
exemplified, p. 309
explained, N° 19
Mefue, a pharmaceutical writer in the
middle ages,
Mithridate, account of, 7°
Muriate of barytes, compofition of, p. 312
fubftances decom-
pofing, 315
lime, compofiticn of, 312
fubftances decompo¬
fing, 3X5
foda, compofition of, 312
fubftances decompofing, 315
ammonia, compofition of, 312
fubftances decom-
_ poling, _
mercury, mild, compofition
of, 312
corrofive, compo-
. fition of, ib.
fubftances decom-
fing,
3l$
antimony, compofition of, 3^2
Index.
N.
flames of ingredients in a formula need
not be written at length, N° 49
Naufeous medicines, how corrected, 45
Neatnefs to be obferved in writing pre-
fcriptions, 67
Nicholaus, a pharmaceutical writer of
the middle ages, 77.
Nitrate of potafli, compofition of, p. 312
fubitances decompo-
fing>. 3I5
lilver, compolition of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing> 315
o.
Obfolete medicines to be avoided, N° 60
Odour of medicines, when unpleafant,
how correfted, 46
Ointment of black pepper, 100
of favine, 129
Opium, account of, 114
general effedts of,' 115
appearances on diffefling ani¬
mals killed by, ll6
ill effects of, 1x7
how obviated, 118
analyfis of, 119
fubflitutes for, 120
Oxide of antimony, nitro-muriatic, 142
P.
Pecuniary circumftances of the patient
to be regarded in prefcription, 66
Verfpicuity, a principal confideration
» in prefcription, 59
Pharmacopoeias, public foreign, enume¬
rated, 78
Britifh, enumerated, 75
Pharmacy, modern, origin of, 69
progrefs of, 75
hojphate of lime, compolition of, p. 313
foda, compolition of, ib.
fubftances decompo-
fing, 316
D///f, ftorax, N° 111
compound of colocynth, 128
Rafter, calefacient, 127
^owder of many virtues, formula for,
from De Gorter, p. 326
of lea wrack, N° 131
refcriptions, medical, nature of, 1
examples of, 2
parts of, 3
neceflity of ac¬
quiring a habit
of writing, 18
EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS.
Sulphate of zinc
Prefcriptions, medical, previous requifxtes
for, N° 15
art of writing, im¬
portance of, 8
general courfes of medicine
infufficient for, 9
neceflity of, 10
illuftrated, 11,38
not to be learned
by attending a
Ihop, 1 i
nor in an hofpital, 13
the linifhing part
of a phyfician’s
education, 14
works on, noticed, 82
Quantity of a remedy to be regulated
rather than its quality cor-
redled, 47
^uickjilver with magnelia, 144
R.
Recapitulation of the principal rules to
be obferved in prefcrip¬
tion, 68
Rumex aquaticus, 106
S.
Salts, fecondary, tables of, p. 312, 313.
explained, N° 29, 30
ufes of, 31
Simplicity to be ftudied in prefcription, 62
errors in point of, 63
Sponge, burnt, examined, 33
Subborate of foda, compofition of, P- 3I3
fubftances decompo-
fing, 317
Subcarbonate oi potalh, compofition of, 313
Submuriate of mercury, ammoniated, N°i45
Subfulphateoi mercury, compofition of, p.312
Sulphate of magnefia, compofition of, ib. .
fubftances decom-
potalh, compofition of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing; 3H
foda, compofition of, 312
fubftancesdecompofing,314
copper, compofition of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing, _ 3X4
green, of iron, compofition
of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing,. 314
zinc, compofition of, 312
345
fubftances decompo-
fing, _ p.314
Superfulphate of alumina and potalh,
compofition of, 312
fubftances decompo-
fing, . 3X4
Supertartrate of potalh, compofition of, 313
fubftances de-
compofing, 3x7
Symbolical charaflers to be avoided in
prefcriptions, N° 50
Syrup of fenna, 108
T.
Table of expedlorants, p. 309"
fecondary falls, 312
dofes, 323
Ffench weights and meafures, 332
fynonymous, of officinal com-
pounds, 339
Tartar, antimoniated,. N° 143
Tartrate of potalh, compofition of, p. 313
fubftances decompo-
fing> , 3X7
and foda, compofition of, 313
fubftances de-
compofing, 318
antimony and potalh, compo¬
fition of, 313
fubftances de-
compofing, 318
Teucrium chamsedrys, I\J° 123
Therapeutics, knowledge of, neceflary
to a prefcriber, 21
Theriaca, account of, 71
TinBure of anguftura, 99
henbane, Dublin, 102
quaffia, no
galls, . 126
acetate of zinc, 146
muriate of iron with red
oxide, 148
TinElures, abufes of, deprecated, 44
Uncommon remedies to be prefcribed
with caution, 60
w.
IVater, cautions refpedting the prefcrip¬
tion of, • 33
of fulphuret of potafh, 133
ammonia, 134
oxy muriatic, 137
alkaline, 136
of muriate of lime, 138
Wax, purified, 98
Wrack, bladder, 130
P R E
ftefent6' PRESENCE, a term of relation, ufed in oppofition
Tenfe, *° abfence, and fignifying the exiftence of a perfon in
— ■ a certain places.
PRESENT 2 enfe, in Grammar, the firft tenfe of a
verb, expreffing the prefent time, or that fomething is
Vol, XVIL Part I.
P H E
now performing; as fcribo, I write, or am writing. See Prefent
Grammar. Tenfe,
PRESENTATION, in ecclefiaftical law. See Pa- I>refentaa
TRONAGE. . , j
PRESENTATION of the Virgin, is a feaft of the Rom-
X x ifh
Prefers ta-
tion
Preferva-
tion Iflaiul,
P R E [ 346 ]
i(K church, celebrated on the 2lft of November, in me- blocks
xnory of the Holy Virgin's being prefented by her pa¬
rents in the temple, to be there educated. Emanuel
Comnenus, who began to reign in 1143, makes mention
' of this feaft in his Conftitutions. Some imagine it to have
been eftabliihed among the Greeks in the nth century j
and think they fee evident proofs of it in fome homilies
of George of Nicomedia, who lived in the time of Pho-
tius. Its inftitution in the Weft is afcribed to Gregory
XL in 1372. Some think it was inftituted in memory
of the ceremony praflifed among the Jews for their new¬
born females correfponding to the circumcifton on the
eighth day for males.
PRESENTATION of our Lady alfo gives the title to
three orders of nuns. Ehe firft, projected in 1618, by a
maid named Joan of Cambray. T-he habit of the nuns,
according to the vifion ftie pretended to have, was to be
a oray gown of natural wool, &c. but this projefl was
never accomplifhed. The fecond wras eftablifhed in
France, about the year 1627, by Nicholas Sanguin, bi-
fhop of Senlis •, it was approved by Urban VIII. I his
order never made any great progrefs. The third was
eftablifhed in 1664, when Frederic Borromeo, being
apoftolical vifitor in the Valteline, was intreated by fome
devout maids at Morbegno to allow them to live in
community in a retired place which he granted, and
creeled them into a congregation, under the title of con¬
gregation of our Lady. They live under the rule of St
Auguftine.
PRESENTMENT, in Law. See Prosecution.
Aprefentment, generally taken, is a very comprehen-
five term ; including not only prefentments properly fo
called, but alfo inquifitions of office, and indiftments by
a grand jury. A prefentment, properly fpeakmg, is the
notice taken by a grand jury of any offence from their
own knowledge or obfervation, without any bill of 111-
diftment laid before them at the fuit of the king : As
the prefentment of a nuifance, a libel, and the like j upon
which the officer of the court muft afterwards frame an
indi&ment, before the party prefented can be put to an-
fwer it. An inquifition of office is the aft of a jury,
fummoned by the proper officer to inquire of matters re¬
lating to the crown, upon evidence laid before them.
Some of thefe are in themfelves conviftions, and cannot
afterwards be traverfed or denied 5 and therefore the in-
queft, or jury, ought to hear all that can be alleged on
both fides. Of this nature are all inquifitions oi felo de
fe; of flight in perfons accufed of felony ; of deodands,
‘and the like ; and prefentments of petty offences m the
fheriff’s tourn or court-leet, whereupon the prefiding of¬
ficer ipay fet a fine. Other inquifitions may be after¬
wards traverfed and examined 5 as particularly the co¬
roner’s inquifition of the death of a man, when it finds
any one guilty of homicide ; for in fuch cafes the offend¬
er fo prefented muft be arraigned upon this inquisition,
and may difpute the truth of it 5 which brings it to a
kind of indiftment, the moft ufual and effeftual means
of profecution. See Indictment.
PRESERVATION island, a fmall ifland on the
fouthern coaft of New Holland, and one of the groupe
called Furneaux ifands, derives its name from the
eircumftanee of the crew of a {hip.which was wreck¬
ed on the coaft, having faved their lives,, and refid-
ed for fome time upon it. This ifland is in moft
places extremely barren, and is remarkable fov large
P R E
of granite fcattered on its furface in many Preferva-
places. But one of the moft Angular phenomena in^
the hiftory of this ifland was, the difeovery of a petri- > 1—L.
fied wood in the midft oi a patch of naked land ; and at
leaft 100 feet above the level of the fea. Some of
the flumps of the trees rofe a foot and a half above the
furface ; fome were furniftied with branches, and even
it is faid a green leaf was feen on one of them when they
were firft difeovered. The petrifaftions were found to
be of a calcareous nature. We think it probable that
the trees here faid to be petrified may be of the nature
of corals, may have been formed as ufual at the bottom
of the fea, and elevated to their prefent fituation by
fome convulfion.
In fome parts of the ifland a little vegetation was
obferved, with fome brufli wood and ftunted trees. Small
kangaroos were found in abundance, with different kinds
of birds and fome noxious fnakes. Collins's Account of
New South Wales, II.
PRESERVING Lives of Shipwrecked Perfons. In
our account of life-boats, we laid before our readers
every thing that feemed ufeful on fo important a fubjeft
which was then known to us. Since that time we have
met with the following defeription of a fimilar inven¬
tion by a Mr Lukin of London, fuggefted during his
cafual refidence at Loweftoff in Suffolk.
A boat conftrufted on this principle cannot be over-
fet or funk by any power of wind and water \ in proof
of which the following particulars and defeription of
the conftruftion are made public, with the hope of ren¬
dering more generally known the eafy means of having
many valuable lives } which might certainly be done,
if one or two of thefe boats were built at each of our
ports, and every fhip furnifhed with one (at leaft) in
proportion to her fize.
Defeription and Dimenfions of the Lowefoff Life-Boat.
Inches.
Feet.
Length aloft
•   keel
Breadth amidfhips
Depth - - ■*
a moveable wrafti ftrake of
40
37
10
3
o
6 exclufive of
8
The form the fame as the yawns of that coaft j the
ftern poll nearly upright.
External gunwales hollow, forming an oblique lec¬
tion of a parabola with the fide of the boat, and pro-
jefting nine inches from it on each fide : thefe gunwales
are reduced a little in their projeftion towards their ends,
and are firft formed by brackets and thin boards, cover¬
ed at top and bottom with one thicknefs of good found
cork, and the extremity or apex of the projeftion having
two thickneffes of cork, the better to defend it from any
violent blows it may meet with in hard fervice. Ihe
depth of thefe gunwales from top to bottom was 15
inches, and the whole covered with very llrong canvas,
laid on with ftrong cement to refill the water, and that
will not flick to any thing laid upon it.
A falfe keel of wrought iron three inches deep, made
of three bars rivetted together, and bolted under th
common keel, which it greatly {Lengthens, and makes
a very effential part of her ballaft •, being fixed fo much
below the floor, it has nearly double the power the lame
weight would have if laid on the floor, and
P R' E [3
Prefrrving much preferable to any other ballad that can be ufed
n II , for failing boats.
1^re ‘dia ' . Thwarts and gang-board as ufual 5 three rnafts and
lug fails, and 12 fhort oars.
In this date, this boat is much fafer than any common
boat of the fame dimenfions, will carry more fail, and
bear more weather $ but to make it completely unim-
mergible, empty calks of about 22 inches diameter were
ranged along withinfide the gunwales, ladled firmly to
the boat, lying even with the tops of the gunwales, and
reding upon brackets fadened to the timbers for that
purpofe: alfo two fuch calks in the head, and two in
the dern, and all removable in a Ihort time, if delired j
there were alfo fome empty calks placed under the gang-^
board j thefe would be an addition to the buoyancy it
empty, and an increafe to her ballad if full.
Thus equipped, this boat was launched on the 19th
of November, in a very fqually day. _ About 20 men
were launched in her, moll of them pilots or feamen.
They ran her immediately from the beach acrofs the
Corton fand, in the midd of the breakers, which would
have been almod certain dedruftion to any common fail-
ino- boat, as that would have been filled and funk imme¬
diately. They then turned to the fouthward along the
top of the fand to its end 5 when they tacked and dood
to the northward, pulled up the plugs in her bottom,
and let in as much water as would come that way *, the
water rofe very little above the thwarts. With all this
water in it, the boat failed better than without it.. The
plugs were now put in again, and water poured^ in by
buckets, until it ran over both gunwales-, and in this
date it was the opinion of thofe on board that die would
have carried 60 men without linking, and to upfet it is
not poflible. But it is Mr Lukin’s opinion that more
than men diould not be taken in when the boat is
full of water, and all her calks empty.
It is particularly advifable that all life-boats Ihould be
built of the form mod approved by the pilots or feamen
on the coad where they are to be ufed j as no one form
will fuit all Ihores -, and thefe principles offafety areap-
plicable to every form.
To this defcription we have only to add, that Mr
Lukin is faid to be the inventor of the fird life-boat ever
built in England, and to have obtained a patent for it
in the year lyStj* It would appear, too, that he pub-
lifhed a pamphlet on the fubjea, but this pamphlet we
have had no opportunity of feeing.
PRESIDENT, Pr/ESES, is an officer, created or
eleaed to prefide over a company or affembly 5 fo called
in contradidinaion to the other members, who are term¬
ed rejidcnts.
Lord PRESIDENT of the Council, is a great officer of
the crown, who has precedence next after the lord chan¬
cellor and lord treafurer j as ancient as the time of King
John, when he wasdyled conjiliarius capitahs. Hisoffipe
is to attend on the king, to propofe bufinefs at the coun¬
cil-table, and to report to the king the feveral tranfac-
tions there. See PRIVT-Council.
PRESIDIAL, was a tribunal, or bench of judges,
edablidied (before the Revolution) in the feveral confi-
derable cities of France, to judge ultimately, or in the
lad refort, of the feveral caufes brought before them by
way of appeal from the fubaltern judges, "1 he prefidials
made one company with the officers of the bailliages and
- fenefchaulfees, where they were edablidied.
7 ] P R E
PRESS (Prelum), in the mechanic arts, a machine , ,
made of iron or wood, ferving to fqueeze or comprefs
any body very clofe.
The ordinary prefles confid of fix members, or
piecesj viz. two flat fmooth planksj between which
the things to be preffed are laid; two fcrews, or
worms, fadened to the lower plank, and paffing through
two holes in the upper j and two nuts, in form of an
S, ferving to drive the upper plank, which is move-
able, againd the low'er, which is dable, and without
motion.
Presses ufed for cxpreffing Liquors, are of various
kinds j fome, in mod refpedls, the fame with the com¬
mon preffes, excepting that the under plank is per¬
forated with a great number of holes to let the juice
expreffed run through into a tub, or receiver, under¬
neath.
A very ufeful machine for a prefs, in the procefs of
cyder-making, has been condrufted by Mr Andice*
who, with his well-known zeal for the improvement
of mechanics, permits us to lay before our readers the
following defcription of it.
A A fig. 1. twm pieces of timber, 21 feet long, 12 by plate
6 inches, laid fide by fide at the didance of 12 inches, ccccxxxix.
and fecured in that fituation by blocks placed between fiS- I-
and bolts paffing through them-, this frame forms the
bed of the machine. BB, two uprights, 12 feet long,
6 by 8 inches, morticed upon them, and fecured in their
pofition by pins and iron fquares. CC, two uprights,
five feet long, fix by ten inches, morticed near the end
of the under frame, and fecured as before. D, a lever,
17 feet long, 12 by 13 inches, turning on a large bolt
which paffes through the fliort uprights, alfo through
iron draps, which fecure them to the bed infide, and a
dirrup of iron which palfes over the end of the lever,
and which makes the turning point in the line of its
lower fide, and not through its middle. E, a lever 20
feet long, fix by eight inches at its larged part and ta¬
pering towards the other end: this lever turns on a bolt
in the uprights BB. F, 1, 2, 3, 4. four pieces of oak
(which he calls needles, xo feet long), four by two and
a half inches, morticed loofely into the upper lever, and
hung thereto by bolts, fo as to fwing perpendicularly
and play in a long mortice or channel cut through th6
large lever to receive them. Thefe needles have inch-
holes pretty clofely bored through them (in a direc¬
tion eroding the machine), from the lower ends as far
upwards as the great lever will reach, when it is as high
as it can go. G, a bed to receive what is to be preff-
ed. H, a frame to fupport a winch worked by a
handle at I. At the end of the fmall lever two blocks
or pulleys are fixed, one above, and the other below it}
a rope of about half an inch diameter is then fadened to
the cieling (or continuation of the uprights of the
winch frame if neceffary) at K} then paffed through the
upper block on the lever, from thence paffed through
a block at L, and then goes with four turns round the
winch, from whence it is carried through the block un¬
der the lever, and fadens to the machine at M; by this
means, if the winch be turned one way, it raifes the
end of the fmall lever if the other depreffes it.
To work the machine. If we fuppofe the great
lever bearing on the matter to be preffed, an iron pin
mud be put into one of the holes in the needles above
the great lever .} and when the fmall lever is worked as
S X x 2 far
P R E [ 348 ] P . R E
Prefs. far as it will go, either up or down, another bolt is to
1 v ]-,£ pUt inf0 the hole, which comes neared above the
great lever on the other fide of the uprights BB, and
the winch then turned the contrary way, by which
means the preding goes on whether the fmall lever rifes
or falls. Before the refillance is very great, the needles
farthed from the fulcrum of the fmall lever are ufed j
after that the neared are employed, which doubles the
power of the machine. In raifing the great lever, or
lowering it to its bearing, the needles mod didant from
the fulcrum of the fmall lever, are ufed under indead
of over it. As the rope is liable to dretch and get
dack, he paffes it, after taking two turns on the
winch, through a pulley, to which is fufpended a weight
of half a hundred, and then takes two turns more be¬
fore it is carried through the other block, by which
means the flack is condantly gathered in, and the weight
holds on without increafing the fridtion, as by hanging
under the winch it counterafts the preflure upwards om
its axis.
The power of this machine is very great, being as one
to 1136 nearly, and capable by a trifling addition of
any other proportion. It is applicable to many pur-
pofes befide cyder prefling, and is more Ample, and lefs
liable to injury, than any other which has fallen under
our obfervation. Perhaps, however, it would be an im¬
provement to ufe, indead of the ropes and pulleys, by
which the lever E is moved, a fmall wheel or pinion of
Fi<r, 2, 10 or 12 teeth, on the axis of the winch W (fig. 2.),
and a AifF beam e n down from the lever, having on its
lower end an iron rack, of which the teeth take into
thofe of the pinion. The adlion of thefe teeth would,
in our opinion, be lefs diminifhed by fridtion and obli¬
quity, than the pulleys are by fridlion and the diffnefs
of the rope ; and the machine would retain all its other
advantages.
PRESS ufed by Joiners, to keep clofe the pieces they
have glued, efpecially panels, &c. of wainfcot, is very
Ample, confiding of four members •, viz. two fcrews,
and two pieces of wood, four or five inches fquare, and
two or three feet long ; whereof the holes at the two
ends ferveflbr nuts to the fcrews.
PRESS ufed by Inlayers, refembles the joiner’s prefs,
except that the pieces of wood are thicker, and that
only one of them is moveable } the other, which is in
form of a treffel, being fudained by two legs or pillars,
jointed into it at each end. This prefs ferves them for
flawing and cleaving the pieces of wood required in mar¬
quetry or inlaid work.
Founder's PRESS, is a flrong fquare frame, confiding
of four pieces of wood, firmly joined together with te¬
nons, &c. This prefs is of various fizes, according to
the fizes of the moulds 5 two of them are required to
each mould, at the two extremities of which they are
placed ; fo as that, by driving wooden wedges between
the mould and the fides of the prefies, the two parts of
the mould wherein the metal is to be run may be preffed
clofe together.
Printing-PRESS. See PRINTING-Prefs.
Ro/Zing-PRESS, is a machine ufed for taking off
prints from copper-plates. It is much lefs complex than
that of the letter-printers. See its defcription and ufe
under the article Rol/ing-prefs PRINTING.
PRESS, in Coining, is one of the machines ufed in
finking of money j differing from the balance, in that
it lias only one iron bar to give it motion, and prefs the Prefs,
moulds or coins ; is not charged with lead at its ex- ^effing,
treme, nor drawn by cordage. See Coining. u—
Binder's Cutting-PnESS, is a machine ufed equally by
book-binders, ftationers, and padeboard-makers 5 con¬
fiding of two large pieces of wood, in form of cheeks,
connefted by two drong wooden fcrews 5 which, being
turned by an iron bar, draw together, or fet afunder,
the cheeks, as much as is neceffary for the putting in
the books or paper to be cut. The cheeks are placed
lengthwife on a wooden fland, in the form of a chefl^
into which the cuttings fall. Afide of the cheeks are
two pieces of wood, of the fame length with the fcrews,
ferving to diredl the cheeks, and prevent their opening
unequally. Upon the cheeks the plough moves, to
which the cutting-knife is fadened by a icrew 5 which,
has its key to difmount it, on occafion, to be Iharp-
ened.
The plough confids of feverai parts ; among the red
a wooden fcrew or worm, which, catching within the
nuts of the two feet that fuflain it on the cheeks, brings
the knife to the book or paper which is fadened in the
prefs between two boards. This fcrew, which is pret¬
ty long, has two diredories, which refemble thofe of the
fcrews of the prefs. To make the plough Aide fquare
and even on the cheeks, fo that the knife may make an
equal paring, the foot of the plough where the knife is
not fixed, Hides in a kind of groove, faflened along one
of the cheeks. Ladly, the knife is a piece of deel, fix
or feven inches long, flat, thin, and (harp, terminating
at one end in a point, like that of a fword, and at the
other in a fquare form, which ferves to faden it to the
plough. See BOOK-Bin ding.
As the long knives ufed by us in the cutting of books-
or papers, are apt to jump in the cutting of thick books,
the Dutch are faid to ufe circular knives, with an edge
all round ; which not only cut more fleadily, but lad
longer without grinding.
Press, in the woollen manufadory, is a large wooden,
machine, ferving to prefs cloths, ferges, rateens, &c.
thereby to render them fmooth and even, and to give
them a glofs.
This machine confids of feverai members ; the prin¬
cipal whereof are the cheeks, the nut, and the worm
or fcrew, accompanied with its bar, which ferves to
turn it round, and make it defcend perpendicularly on
the middle of a thick wooden plank, under which the;
fluffs to be preffed are placed. The calender is alfo
a kind of prefs, ferving to prefs or calender linens, filks,,
&e.
Liberty of the PRESS, See LIBERTY of the Prefs.
PRESSING", in the manufadures, is the violently
fqueezing a cloth, fluff, &c. to render it fmooth and
gloffy.
There are two methods of prefling, viz. cold and
hot.
As to the former, or cold prefling : After the fluff,
has been fcoured, fulled, and (horn, it is folded fquare
in equal plaits, and a Ikin of vellum or pafleboard put
between each plait. Over the wflmle is laid a fquare
wooden plank, and fo put into the prefs, which is fcrew-
ed down tight by means of a lever. After it has lain
a fufficient time in the prefs, they take it out, removing
the pafleboards, and lay it up to keep. Some only lay
the fluff on a firm table after plaiting and pafleboarding,
cover
Potash .
Kiln for preparing*.
P/sATA’ cprrxxxix.
Press Cyder.
Fig. 2.
P R E [ 349 ] P R E
Preffing cover the whole -with a wooden plank, and load it with
I!. a proper weight.
Preftugn., metj-1£Kj Q£ pre{^ng h0t is this : When the fluff
has received the above preparations, it is fprinkled a
little with water, fometimes gum-water •, then plaited
equally, and between each two plaits are put leaves of
pafteboard j and between every fixth and feventh plait,
as well as over the whole, an iron or brafs plate well
heated in a kind of furnace. This done, it is laid upon
the prefs, and forcibly fcrewed down. Under this prefs
are laid five, fix, &c. pieces at the fame time, all fur-
nifhed with their pafteboards and iron plates. When
the plates are well cooled, the fluffs are taken out and
Hitched a little together to keep them in the plaits.
This manner of prefling was only invented to cover the
defeats of the fluffs j and, accordingly, it has been fre¬
quently prohibited.
Pressing, or Impreffing. See Impressing.
PRESS ION, or Pressure, in the Cartefian philofo-
phy, is a fuppofed impulfive kind of motion, or rather
an endeavour to move, impreffed on a fluid medium, and
propagated through it.
PRESSURE of air. See Pneumatics.
Pressure of Fluids. See Hydrodynamics and
Pneumatics.
PREST, is ufed for a duty in money, to be paid
by the ffieriff on his account, in the exchequer, or for
money left or remaining in his hands : 2 & 3 Edw. VI.
c. 4.
pREST-Money, is fo called from the French word
preft, that is, promptus, expeditus ; for that it binds thofe
who receive it, to be ready at all times appointed, be¬
ing commonly meant of foldiers.
PRESTATION-money, is a fum of money paid
yearly by archdeacons and other dignitaries to their
bifliop, pro exteriori jurifdi&ione.
Prestation ( prcejlatio'), was anciently ufed for other
payments : Et quieti fint de prafatione muragii. Chart.
Hen. VII. Sometimes alfo for pourveyance.
PRESTEIGN is a town in Radnorffure, diftant
149 miles weft-north-weft from London, in the direft
road to Aberyft with, and throughout South Wales, in
N. Lat. 520 12', bounded to the north and north-eaft
by Herefordfhire. It is a neat well built town, with
clean and regular ftreets, and is the refidence of many
genteel families. The neighbourhood abounds with all
the comforts and coEveniencies of life. It is feated on
a gravelly foil on the banks of the river Lug, and at the
head of a very fertile vale : the mountains to the weft
and north-weft of the town forming, as it were, an
amphitheatre round it. The name of it in Welfh, is
Slan-Andras, which is fuppofed to be derived from the
church, which is dedicated to Saint Andrew. The
town is divided into four wards, which have each a fe-
parate jurifdidfion, feparate officers, levies, &c. The
curfew-bell of William the Conqueror ftill remains in
this place, and is rung every night. It is a borough by
prefcription, and is governed by a bailiff annually elec¬
ted, and fworn in by a fteward appointed by the crown.
The living is a reflory and vicarage united, and report¬
ed to be worth from 500I. to 600I. per annum j the
parifti lying in two counties. Here is an excellent free
fchool well endowed. The county hall, the county gaol,
the county bridewell, and houfe of correction, are kept
in this place. The markets are held ijn Saturdays; and
there are two fairs in the year. About a century and Prefleigr*
a half ago Prefteign was confiderably larger 5 had a II
good. woollen manufactory, of which the very large , Preftor-
buildings now (landing (formerly belonging to clothi¬
ers) bear ample teftimony ; but a fire, fuccecded by the
plague, in the town, about the year 1636, reduced the
fame, and with it its confequence as a manufacturing
town. The parifti embraces a circle of at leaft 19 miles y
and is reckoned very healthy.
PRESTER John, or Jean, an appellation former¬
ly given to an emperor of the Tartars, who was over¬
come and killed by Jenghiz Khan. Since that time it
has been given to the emperor of Abyflinia or Ethio¬
pia j however, in Ethiopia itfelf this name is utterly
unknown, the emperor being there called the grand nc^
gus.
Prester, a meteor, confifting of an exhalation
thrown from the clouds downwards with fuch violence,
as that by the collifion it is fet on fire. The word L
Greek, the name of a kind of ferpent, called
alfo dipfas, to which this meteor is fuppofed to bear a
refemblance. The prefter differs from the thunderbolt
in the manner of its inflammation ; and in its burning
and breaking every thing it touches with greater vio¬
lence.
Prester, a word ufed by fome to exprefs the ex¬
ternal part of the neck, ivhich is ufually inflated in an-
Ser- .
PRESITMONY, in Canon Law. is derived d prcs-
fatione quotidiana ; and is, by fome, defined to be a kind
of benefice, ferved by a Angle prieft. Others fay, it is
the incumbency of a chapel, without any title or colla¬
tion j fuch as are moft of thofe in caftles, where prayers
or mafs are faid ; and which are mere unendowed
oratories. Whence the term is alfo applied, in the Ro-
mifli church, to certain perpetual offices beitowed on
canons, religious, or others, for the faying of maffes, by
way of augmentation of their livings. Others think it
is a leafe, or concefllon of any ecclefiaftical fund or re¬
venue, belonging to a monaftery, to be enjoyed during
life. Du Moulin calls it a profane benefice, which,
however, has a perpetual title, and an ecclefiaftical of¬
fice, with certain revenues attached to it} which the
incumbent is allowed to fell, and which may be pof-
fefled without tonfure j fuch as the lay church-wardens
of Notre-dame. Pie adds, that, in propriety, the ca-
nonries of chapels are benefices of this nature. The
moft probable opinion feems to be, that'preftimony is a
fund, or revenue, appropriated by the founder for the
fubfiftence of a prieft, without being erefled into any
title of benefice, chapel, prebend, or priory : and which
is not fubje£l either to the pope or to the ordinary, but/
whereof the patron, and thofe who have a right from
him, are the collators, and nominate and confer plena
jure.
PRESTO, in the Italian mufic, intimates to perform
quick ; as prefiifjimo does extremely quick.
PRESTON, a town of Lancafliire in England, feat¬
ed on the river Ribble, over which there is a handfome
ftone bridge. Here is held a court of chancery, and
other offices of juftice for the county palatine of Lanca-
fter. It is noted for the defeat of the rebels here in
1715, when they were all made prifoners, and fent up
to London. It contains about 11,887 inhabitants. W»
Long. 2. 26. N. Lat. 53. 45.
PRESTRE,
P R E
Preftie
PRESTRE. See Vauban.
PRETENSED or Pretended right, in Law, is
where one is in poileilion o£ Iciocis and tenements, evhich
another, ivho is out, claims and fues for. Here the
pretenfed right is in him who fo claims or fues.
PRETERITE, in Grammar, a tenfe which expref-
fes the time pad, or an aftion completely finilhed j as,
fcripfi, “ I have written.” See Perfect and Gram¬
mar.
PRETERITION, or Pretermission, in Rhetoric,
a figure whereby, in pretending to pafs over a thing un¬
touched, ive make a fummary mention thereof. I will
not fay he is valiant, he is learned, he is juft, &c. The
mod artful praifes are thofe given by way of preterition.
See Oratory.
PRETEXT, a colour or motive, Avhether real or
feigned, for doing fomething.
Toga PRETEXT A, among the ancient Romans,
a long white gown, with a border of purple round the
edges, and Avorn by children of quality till the age of
puberty, viz. by the boys till 17, when they chan¬
ged it for the toga virilis ; and by the girls till mar-
PRETIUM sepulchri, in old Ibav books, &c. thofe
goods accruing to the church Avherein a corpfe is buri¬
ed. In the Iridi canons, lib. xix. cap.. 6. it is ordered,
that along with every body that is buried,, there go his
cow, horfe, apparel, and the furniture of his bed none
of Avhich may be difpofed of otherwife than for the. pay¬
ment of debts, &c. as being familiars and domedics of
the deceafed. .
PRETOR, a magidrate among the ancient Romans,
not unlike our lord chief judices, or lord chancellor, or
both in one ; as being veded with the poAver of didri-
buting judice among the citizens. At fird there ay as
only one pretor ; but afterAvards, another being created,
the fird or chief one had the title of prtetor urbanus,
or the “ city pretor the other Avas called peregnnus,
as being judge in all matters relating to foreigners. But,
befides thefe’ there were aftenvards created many pro¬
vincial pretors} avIio were not only judges, but alfo ai-
fided the confuls in the government of the provinces,
and even were inveded Avith the government of pro¬
vinces themfelves,
PRETORIAN guards, in Roman antiquity, were
[ 35° 1 P R I
PRIAM, king of Troy, Avas the fon of Laomedon.
He Avas carried into Greece after the.taking of that city
by Hercules •, but Avas aftenvards ranfomed, on Avhicli 
he obtained the name of Priam, a Greek Avord fignify-
ing “ ranfomed.” At his return he rebuilt Ilium, and
extended the bounds of the kingdom of Troy, which
became very flouridling under his reign. He married
Hecuba, the daughter of Cifleus king of Thrace, by
Avhom he had 19 children j and among the red Paris,
Avho carried off Helen, and occafioned the ruin of Troy,
which is fuppofed to have been facked by the Greeks
about 1184 B. C. Avhen Priam Avas killed by Pyr¬
rhus the fon of Achilles at the foot of an altar Avhere
he had taken refuge, after a reign of 52 years. See
Trot.
PRIAPISMUS, or Priapism, is an ere&ion of
the penis Avithout any concomitant pain, or the con-
fent of other parts. It is thus called, becaufe the per-
fon in this date refembles the leAvd god Priapus. Coe-
lius Aurelianus fays it is a palfy of the feminal veffels,
and other nerves didributed to the parts about the pe¬
nis, by the didenfion of which this diforder is produced.
It is of the fame nature as the fatyriafis. See MEDI¬
CINE, N° 372.
PRIAPUS, in Pagan Avordiip, the fon of Bacchus
and Venus, Avho prefided over gardens and the mod in¬
decent afti'ons. He Avas particularly adored at Lampfa-
CUs, a city at the mouth of the Hellefpont, faid to be
the place of his birth *, and his image was placed in
gardens to defend them from thieves and birds dedruc-
tive to fruit. He Avas ufually reprefented naked, Avitli
a dern countenance, matted hair, and holding either a
Avooden fword or fickle in his hand, and Avith a mon-
drous privity 5 from Avhence doAvmvard his body ended
in a diapelefs trunk. The facrifice offered to this ob-
fcene deity Avas the afs ; either on account of the natu¬
ral uncomelinefs of this animal, and its propenfity to
venery, or from the difappointment which Priapus met
Avith on his attempting the chadity of Veda., while that
o-oddefs Avas afieep, when die efcaped the injury defign- ,
ed her by her being awaked by the braying of old Sile-
nus’s afs. ^ ^ r ™ e
PRICE, Rev. Richard, D. D. L. L. D. felloAv of
the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy of
Sciences, New England, was born at Tynton in Gla-
Priam
Price.
«(hire,.Feb^^ .,,3;n Hk -a
10,000 : they had this denomination, according to fome, diffentmg minider at g placed under
from their being Rationed at a place called Prxtorium: died in 1739- At el§bt yearS>. ^ be WaS P1^
their commander Avas dyled prcefeElus prcetoru.
PRETORIUM, or Pr^etorium, among the Romans,
denoted the hall or court wherein the pretor lived, and
Avherein he adminidered judice.
It likewife denoted the tent of the Roman general,
wherein councils of war, &c. Avere held : alfo a place
in Rome where the Pretorian guards Avere lodged.
PREVARICATION, in the civil law, is where the
informer colludes with the defendants, and fo makes on¬
ly a diam profecution. ^
Prevarication, in our laws, is when a man lallely
feems to undertake a thing, Avith intention that he may
dedroy it -, where a laAvyer pleads booty, or aflsby col-
lufion, &c. It fignifies alfo the falfe and contradictory
tedimony of a witnefs •, anddenot.es fometimes thefe-
cret abufe committed in the exercife of a public office,
or of a commiffion given by a private perfon.
a Mr Simmons of Neath ; and in four years removed
to PentAvyn in Caermarthendnre under the Rev. Samuel
Jones, whom he reprefented as a man of a very enlar¬
ged mind, and who fird infpired him with liberal lenti-
ments of religion. Having lived as long with him as
with Mr Simmons, he avhs fent to Mr Griffith s acade¬
my at Talgarth in Brecondnre. In 1740 he lod his
mother •, and on this he quitted the academy and came
to London. Here he was fettled at that academy, of
which Mr Eames was the principal tutor, under the
patronage of his uncle the Rev. S. Price, who Avas co-
pador with Dr Watts upwards of 40 years. At the
end of four years he left this academy,.and refidedwith
Mr Streatfield of Stoke Newington in the quality ot
domedic chaplain, while at the fame time he regular y
affided Dr Chandler at the Old JeAvry, and occafionally
affided ethers. Having lived with Mr Streatfield near
# 13
PHI [ 351 ] P R I
Price. 1 3 years, on his death and his uncle’s he was induced
to change his lituation, and in 1757 married Mifs S.
Blundell of Leicefterthire. He then fettled at Hack¬
ney, but being fhortly after chofen minifter at Newing¬
ton Green, he lived there until the death of his wife,
which was in 17S6, when he returned to Hackney.
He was next chofen afternoon preacher at the meeting-
houfe in Poor Jewry-ftreet, but this he refigned on be¬
ing eledted pallor of the Gravel-pit meeting Hackney,
and afternoon-preacher at Newington Green. Thefe
he refigned with a farewel-fermon in February 1791.
Shortly after he was attacked with a nervous fever,
which difappearing, was fucceeded by a diforder in his
bladder, which reduced him to fuch a degree that,
wTorn out with agony and difeafe, he died without a groan
on the 19th April 1791. He left his property to a
fifter and two nephews.
Dr Kippis, fpeaking of his learning and purfuits,
* AUrefs obferves *, that “ his chief aim was to lay a foundation
at hit for folid knowledge, by an application to fciences of the
funeral, nobleil kind. It was on the great and fundamental
Sv0' principles and obligations of morality, on the higher
fpecies of mathematics, on the fublimer parts of natu¬
ral philofophy, on the true bafis of government, and on
the queftions which relate to the effential welfare and
dignity of man, that his ftudies were employed ; and in
the profecution of thefe ftudies he not only enriched
his own mind, but was enabled to become of eminent
fervice to his country and to the world. In his moral
Avritings he has laboured with diftingiftihed ability to
build the fcience of ethics on an immutable bafis •, and
what he has advanced will always ftand high in eftima-
tion as one of the ftrongeft efforts of human reafon in
favour of the fyftem he has adopted. For myfelf (adds
Dr Kippis), I fcruple not to fay, that I regard the
treatife referred to as a rich treafure of valuable infor¬
mation, and as deferving to be ranked among the firft
produ&ions of its kind. With refpeff to his other
ethical works, every one muft admire the zeal, earneft-
nefs, and ftrength, with which he endeavours to lead
men into pious views of God, of providence and prayer ;
and to promote the exercife of devout and amiable
difpofitions. In confequence of his profound know¬
ledge in mathematical calculations, he wras qualified at
a particular crifis for being of Angular utility to his
fellow-citizens. A number of fchemes for infurance
for lives, and the benefit of furvivorfhip, promifing
mighty advantages, were rifing up in the metropolis.
Thefe ruinous fchemes would have been carried to great
excefs, had not Dr Price ftepped forward and difpelled
the delufion. Gratitude will not allow us to forget the
ability and fpirit with which he awakened the attention
of his countrymen to the reduction of the national debt.
With him it was that the fcheme of the prefent minifter
for that purpofe is underftood to have originated. What
crowned the whole of his character was, its being an
afiemblage of the moft amiable and excellent private vir¬
tues. His piety was fincere, humble, and fervent j his
foul pure and elevated j in his views difinterefted and
noble ; and in his manners mild and gentle : the ap-
plaufe of his talents and virtues will be tranfmitted to
future ages, and he will be united in the catalogue with
the moll eminent benefa6tors of mankind.”
This is the panegyric of a friend; but with fewr abate¬
ments it will be admitted by every candid reader. In
3
morals Dr Price’s principles were thofe of Cudworth Price,
and Clarke 5 and by many who have themfelves adopted "■" "'v—**
a very different theory, he is allowed to have defended
thofe principles with greater ability than any other
writer in the Englifh language (fee MORAL Phiiojophy,
N° 14-). In metaphyfics he was perhaps too great an
admirer of Plato, from whom he has borrorved a doc¬
trine concerning ideas which we confefs ourfelves unable
to comprehend. He w'as a firm believer in the imma¬
teriality of the foul •, but, with Dr Law, the late learn¬
ed biihop of Carlifle, he thought, that from death to
the refurreftion of the body it remains in a dormant or
quiefeent ftate. He contended for its indivifibility, but
maintained at the fame time its extenfion : which fur-
niftred Dr Prieftley with fome advantages in their ce¬
lebrated controverfy, which his own acutenefs rvould
never have obtained. In propagating his political prin¬
ciples, which were republican, he fometimes expreffed
himfelf with undue vehemence 5 and he was a zealous
enemy to all religious eftablilhments, which, in his opi¬
nion, encroach upon that liberty wherewith Chrift has
made us free. Plis faith refpedling the Son of God
was what has been called fometimes /ow Arianifm and
fometimes Semi-arianifm. From a very early age he
claimed the privilege of thinking for himfelf on every
fubjefl. His father was a rigid Calvinift, and fpared
no pains to inftil his own theological dogmas into the
tender mind of his fon ; but young Richard would
often ftart his doubts and difficulties, and fometimes
incur the old man’s difpleafure by arguing againft his
favourite fyftem with an ingenuity that perplexed, and
a folidity that could not be eafily overturned. He had
once the misfortune to be caught reading a volume of
Clarke’s fermons, which his father in great wrath {hatch¬
ed from him and threw into the fire. Perhaps he could
not have taken a more effeflual method to make the.
book a favourite, or to excite the young man’s curiofity
after the other works of the fame author $ and it is by
no means improbable that this orthodox bigotry con¬
tributed more than any other circumftance to lay the
foundation of his fon’s Arianifm.
But whatever may be thought of Dr Price’s fpecu-
lative opinions, whether political or religious, his vir¬
tues in private life have never been called in queftion.
Of his praftical religion it is impoffible to fpeak in
terms too high. There was a fervour even in his
public prayers which indicated the ftrongeft fenfibili-
ty as wTell as fincerity jn himfelf, and communicated
its Avarmth to thofe who joined wTith him. But in his
family devotions he gave ftill fuller fcope to the pipus
emotions of his foul, and proved to thofe friends who
Avere occafionally prefent at them Iioav deeply he felt
religious impreilions, and how happily he blended in
this as Avell as in other things the cool decifions of the
underftanding Avith the amiable and exalted fenfibilities
of the heart. >
But it is not in devotion only that tlrefe fenfibilities
were difplayed. He was as exemplary in affe&ion
to his relatives as in love to his Maker. Of this he
gave a ftriking though private inftance before he firfl:
quitted his native place to try his fortune in London..
His father had left to an elder brother by a former
marriage a very confiderable fortune.,} to Richard he
left a mere trifle } and to each of tAVo fillers ftill lefs.
Our author divided his (hare between his fifters, refer-
P R I t 35
Ving to himfelf only a few pounds to defray the ex-
pences of his journey, and trufting for his future fupport
to the blefling of God upon his talents and his induftry.
As in early life he was an affe&ionate and generous
brother, in old age he was a loving and attentive huf-
band. His wife, who for a confiderable time before
her death was almoft wholly helplefs, found during the
laft years of her life hardly any enjoyment except in a
game at whift •, and though our Dodtor difliked cards
as a wafte of time, and never touched them on any
other occafion, to amufe her he would fit down every
evening to the card-table, and play till it was late, with
a cheerfulnefs and good humour which charmed every
perfon who had the happinefs of vrew'ing him in that
endearing fituation.
Yet, though thus attentive to the obligations of do-
meftic life, he did not fuffer his private affedlions to en¬
croach upon his focial duties. His talents and his la¬
bours were ever ready at the call of friendlhip *, nay
fo much did his nature abound with the milk of human
kindnefs, that he could not refill; without extreme reluc¬
tance even troublefome and unreafonable felicitations.
His hours of ftudy and retirement were frequently bro¬
ken in upon by applications for affiftance and advice,
efpecially in matters relating to annuities and life-infu-
rancesj and in this way he facrificed much of his per-
fonal convenience to individuals of whom he knew but
little, and from whom he would accept of no pecuniary
recompenfe. His good nature in this refpedl amounted
almoft to a foible ; and fubjefted him to importunities
and lofs of time, of which he would fometimes complain
as interfering materially with more important and more
generally ufeful ftudies.
Whilft he thus obliged the rich by his mental talents,
he fuccoured the poor with his earthly fubftance. A
fifth part of his annual income was regularly devoted
to charitable purpofes j and he was laudably anxious to
diftribute it in fuch a way as might produce the great-
eft good. In the praflice of this, and indeed of all his
virtues, he was utterly devoid of oftentation. Simpli¬
city and humility were among the ftrong features of
his ehara&er. No man was ever lefs fenfible of his own
excellence, or lefs elated by his own celebrity; and in
no man was the dignity of artlefs manners and unaffeft-
ed modefty more happily difplayed.
His face was the true index of his mind. It beam¬
ed with philanthropy; and when lighted up in conver-
fation with his friends, affumed an afpeft peculiarly
pleafing. His perfon was flender, and rather below
the. common fize, but pofieffed of great mufcular ftrength
and remarkable aftivity. A habit of deep thought had
given a ftoop to his figure, and he generally walked a
brilk pace with his eyes on the ground, his coat button¬
ed, one hand in his pocket, and the other Twinging by
his fide. , -
It is natural to fuppofe that fuch a man as Dr Price,
fome of whofe writings were tranflated into foreign
languages, would be very generally refpefted in the re¬
public of letters, and have many correfpondents. The
fuppofition is well founded. In 1763 or 17^4 was
ehofen a fellow of the Royal Society, and contributed
largely to the tranfaflions of that learned body; in
1769 he received from Aberdeen a diploma creating
him DD. ; and in 1783 the degree of LL.D. was con¬
ferred upon him by the college of Yale in Conne6licut.
2 J P R I
As in 1770 he had refufed an American degree which Pri
had been conveyed to him by Dr Franklin, his accep- "w
lance of oneJ3 years afterwards can be attributed only
to his extravagant attachment to a republican form of
government ; which was the greateft defedl in his cha¬
racter, and ftiows what prejudices the moft vigorous
mind will imbibe by thinking always on the fame fub-
je£Is, and in the fame track. Among his correfpon¬
dents, the moft eminent in his own country were the
late Lord Chatham, Lord Stanhope, Lord Lanfdowne,
the late bilhops of Carlifle and St Afaph, and the pre-
fent biftiop of Landaff; Mr Hume, Mr Harris of Sa-
lifbury, Dr Gregory of Edinburgh, and the celebrated
Mr Howard, who lived with him on terms of the great-
eft intimacy ; in America he correfponded with Dr
Franklin, Dr Ghauncey, Mr Adams, and others ; and
in France with the celebrated Turgot, the Duke de
Rochefoucault, and feveral of the firft national aflembly.
One of his female correfpondents Iketched his charafter
with great juftnefs many years ago under the fi&itious
but well applied name of Simplicius ,• and with this cha-
radter w^e ftiall clofe thefe fhort memoirs.
“ While the vain man is painfully driving to out-
ftiine the company and to attraft their admiration by
falfe wit, forced compliments, and ftudied graces, he
muft furely be mortified to obferve bow conftantly Sim¬
plicius engages their attention, refpeift, and complacen¬
cy, without having once thought of himfelf as a perfon
of any confequence ameng them. Simplicius imparts
his fuperior knowledge, when called upon, as eafily and
naturally as he would tell you what it is o’clock ; and
with the fame readinefs and good will informs the moft
ignorant or confers with the moft learned. He is as
willing to receive information as to give it, and to join
the company, as far as he is able, in the moft trifling
converfation into which they may happen to fall, as in
the moft ferious and fublime. If he difputes, it is with
as much candour on the moft important and interefting
as on the moft infignificant fubje&s; and he is not lefs pa¬
tient in hearing than in anfwering his antagonift. If you
talk to him of himfelf or his works, he accepts praife or '
acknowledges defers with equal meeknefs, and it is im-
poffible to fufpeft him of affe&ation in either. We are
more obliged by the plain unexaggerated expreffions of
his regard, than by the compliments and attentions of
the moft aecompliftied pattern of high breeding ; be-
caufe his benevolence and fincerity are fo ftrongly mark¬
ed in every look, word, and a£Hon, that we are convin¬
ced his civilities are offered for our fakes, not for his
own, and are the natural effe£ts of real kindnefs, not
the ftudied ornaments of behaviour. Every one is de-
firous to fhow him kindnefs in return, which we know
will be accepted juft as it is meant. All are ready to
pay him that deference which he does not defire, and
to give him credit for more than he affumes, or even
more than he poffeffes. With a perfon ungraceful, and
with manners unpoliftied by the world, his behaviour is
always proper, eafy, and refpe&able; as free from con-
ftraint and fervility in the higheft company, as from
haughtinefs and infolence in the loweft. His dignity
arifes from his humility; and the fweetnefs, gentlenefs,
and franknefs of his manners, from the real, goodnefs
and re&itude of his heart, which lies open to infpe£lion
in all the fearleffnefs of truth, without any need of dif-
guife or ornament.”
Price,
Pride-
R I [ 353 ] . . ,F K -1 . '
Of his public principles men ence, as to infult his inferiors, and fometimes his equals,
Such was Dr Price
•will think differently *, of his private worth there can
' be but one opinion. He will live in the memory of his
friends till memory has loft her power. To pofterity
his works will be his monument. They are: A Re¬
view of the principal Oueftionsand Difficulties in Mo¬
rals, 8vo, 1758; Difiertations on Providence, &c. 8vo.
j 767 •, Obfervations on Reverfionary Payments, &c.
8vo. 1771; ikppeal on the National Debt, &c. 8vo.
1773^ Obfervations on the Nature of Civil Liberty,
1776: on Materialifm and Neceffity, in a correfpon-
dence between. Dr Price and Dr Prieftley, 1779? 011
Annuities, Affurances, Population, &c. 8vo. 1^79*, on
the Population of England, 1780; on the Public Debts,
Finances, Loans, &c. 8vo. 1783; on Reverfionary Pay¬
ments, 2 vols, 1783-, on the importance of the Ame¬
rican Revolution, 1784: befidesSermons, and a variety
of papers in the Philofophical Tranfaftions on aftrono-
roical and other philofophical fubje&s.
PRIDE, inordinate and unreafonable felf-efteem, at¬
tended with infolence and rude treatment of others.—
It is frequently confounded with vanity, and fometimes
with dignity } but to the former paffion it has no re-
femblance, and in many circumftances it differs from the
latter. Vanity is the parent of loquacious boafting 5
and the perfon fub]e£l to it, if his pretences be admit¬
ted, has no inclination to infult the company. The
proud man, on the other hand, is naturally {Rent, and,
wrapt up in his own.importance, he feldom fpeaks but
to make his audience feel their inferiority. It is this
circumftance which diftinguifties pride from dignity,
and conftitutes its finfulneis. Every man poffeffed of
great powers of mind is confcious of them, and feels
that he holds a higher rank in the feale of exiftence than
he whofe powers are lefs. If he recolleft, at the fame
time, that he has nothing which he did not receive, and
that his fuperiority is owing to the good pleafure of
Him who forms his creatures differently, as the potter
forms his clay 5 he will be fo far from inlulting his in¬
feriors, that when neceffarily in company with them
he will bear with their foibles, and, as far as is proper,
make them lofe fight of the diftance which the laws of
God and man have for ever placed between them and
him. This condefcenfion, however, if he be a man of
dignity, will never lead him to join with them in any
mean or dirty aftion. He will even excufe in them'
many things which he would condemn in himfelf, and
give them his good wiffies, after they have forfeited his
efteero. Such a character is amiable and refpeftable,
arid what every man ffiould labour to obtain. From the
weaknefs of human nature, however, it is too apt to de¬
generate into pride.
To a man of great intelleflual powers and vanous
erudition, the converfation of ordinary perfons affords
neither inftruftion nor amufement-, and fuch converfa¬
tion, when often repeated, muft, from the nature^ of
things, become tedious and irkfome. But it requires
great command of temper and of manners, to prevent
uneafinefs long felt from fometimes betraying itfelf by
external fymptoms, fuch as peevilh expreflions, a for¬
bidding look, or abfence of mind-, and thefe are the in¬
fallible indications of contempt for the company, the
very word ingredient in the paffion of pride. If this
contempt be often excited, it will be formed into a ha¬
bit-, and the proud man will be fo much under its influ-
Vol. XVII. Part L
without forming the refolution to infult either the one
or the other. Such a character is hateful to every
company, and is fo far from indicating true dignity
of mind in him to whom it belongs, that it is obvioully
affociated with meannefs, and indicates a confcioufnefs
of fome radical defedt. He who poffeffes real and con-
fpicuous merit has no occafion to dcprefs others for the
purpofe of railing himfelf5 his fuperiority will be cheer¬
fully acknowledged: but when a man of undoubted
eminence in one refpedt, is fo fwollen with pride as to
make him wifti to appear great in all refpe£ts, he has
no other means of enforcing his ill-founded claim, than
difplaying his acknowledged fuperiority, with fuch in¬
folence as may drive at a diftance from him every per¬
fon by whom he is confcious that in many initances he
might be more than rivalled. Whoever is proud of
knowledge, would do well to confider how much know¬
ledge he wants.
The fame obfervations which we have made on pride
of parts will apply to every other fpecies of pride, iuch
as pride of birth, office, or riches, &c. I he peace and
order of fociety require difference of rank, accompanied
with different degrees of authority j and he who inhe¬
rits a title or office from his anceftors, may without
pride be confcious of his fuperiority, provided he forget
not that fuch fuperiority is conferred on families and
individuals, not for their own fakes, but for the good
of the community. The peer who keeps this cireum-
ftance in mind, may maintain his ftation, and reprefs
the forward petulance of the plebeian, without giving
offence to any thinking man-, but if he dwell upon his
rank with .too much complacency, he will in procefs of
time be apt to confider himfelf and his family as fupe-
rior by nature to thofe upon whom no title has been
conferred, and then his pride will become intolerable.
If we could trace our defcents, fays Seneca, we fhould
find all flaves to come from princes, and all princes from
(laves. To be proud of knowledge, is to be blind in
the light; to be proud of virtue, is to poifon ourfelves
with the antidote j to be proud of authority, is to make
our rife our downfal. The heft way to humble a proud
man is to negleft him.
PRIDEAUX, Humphry, a learned clergyman of
the church of England, was born at Padflow in Corn¬
wall in 1648. He ftudied three years at Weftminfter
under Dr Bufby j and then was removed to Chriit-
church, Oxford] Here he publiftied, in 1676, his
Marmora Oxonienfia ex Arundehimis, Seldeiuanis, ahif-
quc conjlata, cum perpetuo Commentario. This introdu¬
ced him to the lord chancellor Finch, afterward earl
of Nottingham, who in 1679 prefented him to the rec¬
tory of St Clements near Oxford, and in 1681 beftowTed
on him a prebend of Norwich. Some years after he was
engaged m a controverfy with the Papifts at Noiwicn,
concerning the validity of the orders of the church of
England, which produced his book upon that fubjeft.
In 1688 he was inftalled in the archdeaconry of Suf¬
folk j to which he was collated by Dr Lloyd, then bi-
fliop of Norwich. In 1691, upon the death of Dr
Edward Pococke, the Hebrew profefforftnp at Oxford
being vacant, "was offered to Dr Prideaux, but he re-
fufecfit. In 1697, he publiftied his Life of Mahomet,
and in 1702 wras inftalled dean of Norwich. In 171c
hs was cut for the (tone, which interrupted his ftudies
Vy ^
Pride,
Pride:uix.
P R I [ 354 ] P R I
Prickaux for more than a year. Some time after his return to
London, he proceeded with his Connexion of the Hi-
. ftory of the Old and New Teftament 5 which he had
begun when he laid afide the defign of writing the Hi-
tlory of Appropriations. He died in 17 24.
Chandler s PRI ENE, an ancient town of Alia Minor. It is
Travels in now called Samfun, and Sanifun-kateji, which do not
Afia Mi- however appear to be very recent. It was taken in
nor' 1391 by Bajazet, who fubdued Ionia. It had former¬
ly, without including the citadel, three gateways *, one
of which was towards Kelibelh, an adjoining village ;
and without it are vaults of fepulchres. The entrance
was not wide. A part of the arch, confiding of a
{ingle row of mafiive Hones, Hill remains: but thofe on
which it reds are fo corroded by age, broken, or di-
d or ted, as to feem every moment ready to yield and let
down their load. A rugged way leads to a fecond
opening in the wall oppofite to this, and about a mile
from it 5 beyond which are likewife vaults of fepulchres.
Between thefe was a gate facing to the plain 5 and on
the left hand going out of it is a hole, refembling the
mouth of an oven, in the fide of a fquare tower and
over it an infcription in fmall charafters, exceedingly
difficult to be read. It fignifies, that a certain Cyprian
in his deep had beheld Ceres and Proferpine arrayed in
white •, and that in three vifions they had enjoined the
wordiip of a hero, the guardian of the city, and pointed
out the place where, in obedience to them, he had erect¬
ed the god. This was probably fome local hero, whofe
little image was fet in the wall, and whofe name and
memory have periffied.
PRIEST, a perfon fet apart for the performance of
facrifice, and other offices and ceremonies of religion.
Before the promulgation of the law of Mofes, the fird-
born of every family, the fathers, the princes, and the
kings, were prieds. Thus Cain and Abel, Noah, A-
braham, Melchizedec, Job, Ifaac, and Jacob, offered
themfelves their own facrifices. Among the Ifraelites,
after their exod from Egypt, the priedhood was con¬
fined to one tribe, and it confided of three orders, the
/z/f//-pried, priejls, and Levites. The priedhood was
made hereditary in the family of Aaron, and the firlt-
born of the olded branch of that family, if he had no
legal blemiffi, was always the high-pried. This divine
appointment was obferved with confiderable accuracy
till the Jews fell under the dominion of the Romans,
and had their faith corrupted by a falfe philofophy.-—
Then, indeed, the high-priedhood was fometimes fet
up to fale, and indead of continuing for life, as it ought
to have done, it feems, from fome paffages in the New
Tedament, to have been nothing more than an annual
office. There is fufficient reafon, however, to believe,
that it was never difpofed of but to fome defcendant
of Aaron, capable of filling it, had the older branches
been extinft. (For the confecration and offices of the
Jewiffi priedhood, we refer our readers to the books of
Mofes). In the time of David, the inferior prieds
were divided into 24 companies, who were to ferve in
rotation, each company by itfelf, for a week. The
order in which the feveral courfes were to ferve was de¬
termined by lot; and each courfe was in all fucceeding
ages called by the name of its original chief.—All na¬
tions have had their priejls. The pagans had priejls of
Jupiter, Mars, Bacchus, Hercules, Ofiris, and Ifis, &c.;
and fome deities hadpriejlejfes. The Mahometans have
prieds of different orders, called fchiek, and mufti; and PtieP,
the Indians and Chinefe have their brafjiins and bonnes. Prieftley.
It has been much difputed, whether, in the Chii-
dian church, there be any fuch officer as a.priejl, in the
proper fenfe of the word. The church of Rome, which
holds the propitiatory facrifice of the mafs, has of courfe
her proper priejlhood. In the church of England, the
word priejl is retained to denote the fecond order in her
hierarchy, but we believe with very different fignifica-
tions, according to the different opinions entertained of
the Lord’s dapper. Some few of her divines, of great
learning, and of undoubted Protedantifrn, maintain that
the Lord’s fupper is a commemorative and eucharijlical
facrijice. Thofe confider all who are authorifed to ad-
minitler that facrament as in the drifted fenfe priejls.
Others hold the Lord’s fupper to be a feajl upon the
one facrifice, once offered on the crofs; and thefe too
mud confider themfelves as clothed with fome kind of
priedhood. Great numbers, however, of the Engliffi
clergy, perhaps the majority, agree with the church of
Scotland, in maintaining that the Lord’s fupper is a
rite of no other moral import, than the mere comme¬
moration of the death of Chrid. Thefe cannot confi¬
der themfelves as priejls in the rigid fenfe of the word,
but onlv as prejbipers, of which the word priejl is a eon-
traftion of the fame import with elder. See SUPPER of
the Lord.
PRIESTLEY, Joseph, LL. D. F. R. S. and mem¬
ber of many foreign literary focieties, was born on the
24th of March 1733, at Field-head, in the parifh of
Birdall, in the weft riding of Yorkffiire. His father
was a cloth-manufafturer, and both his parents were
refpeftable among Calviniftic diffenters. A ftrong de¬
fire for reading was one of the firft paffions which this
philofopber exhibited, and which probably induced his
parents and friends to change their mind refpefting his
deftination, and inftcad of a tradefman, to fit him for
fome learned profeffion. He acquired a knowledge of
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in the fchool of an eminent
teacher at Bartley, and at the age of 19 became a
theological ftudent in the academy of Daventry. When
about the age of twenty-two he was made choice of to
be affiftant minifter to the Independent congregation of
Needham-market, in Suffolk. Having Raid at Need¬
ham for about three years, he received an invitation to
be paftor of a fmall dock at Namptwitch, in Chediire,
of which he accepted. Here he opened a day-fehool,
in the management of which he difplayed that turn for
refearch, and that fpirit of improvement, which were
afterwards deftined to be fuch prominent features of his
charafter. His reputation as a man of extraordinary
talents and diligent enquiry foon fpread among his pro-
feffional brethren, and when Dr Aikin was chofen to
fucceed the reverend Dr Taylor as tutor in divinity at
Warrington, the vacant department of belles lettres
was affigned to Mr Prieftley.
His literary career may probably be faid to have com¬
menced at Warrington ; and the extent, as well as the
originality of his purfuits, were foon announced to the
world by a variety of valuable publications. Much of
his attention about this period was taken up V'ith gene¬
ral politics, on which he delivered a number of leftures.
Although it was reafonable to think that his time would
be fufficiently occupied by his academical and literary
employments, yet his unwearied aftivity and induftry
found
P R I [ 355 ] P R I
PrieRley. found means to accomplifh the firft great work in plii-
lofophy which laid a folid foundation for his future
fame.
Having long amufed himfelf with an ele&rical ma¬
chine, and felt himfelf interefted in the progrefs of dif-
covery in that branch of phyfics, he undertook a hiftory
of eleftricity, with an account of its prefent date. This
work made its firft appearance at Warrington in the
year 1767, which was fo -well received by the learned
world, that it went through a fifth edition in 410 in the
year 1794. It is juftly deemed a valuable performance,
and its original experiments are allowed to be very in¬
genious.
About the year 1768, he was chofen paftor of a
large and refpeftable congregation of Proteftant diflent-
ers at Leeds, which made him turn a very large (hare
of his attention to theological fubjefts. His mind is
fakl to have been ftrongiy impreffed with fentiments of
piety and devotion from a child; and though he
changed moft of thofe religious fentiments in which he
had been inftrufted, for fuch as he regarded to be more
rational and confiftent with truth, his piety and devotion
never deferted him.
He was at the head of the modern Unitarians, wbofe
leading tenet is the proper humanity of Chrift, confining
every fpecies of religious worfhip and adoration to the
ene fupreme. Some, we believe, have charged him
with a defign to fubvert the Chriftian religion ; but
fuch an infinuation argues a total want of candour, as
zeal for Chriftianity, as a divine difpenfation, and the
moft valuable of all gifts bellowed upon the human race,
was his ruling paflion.
His Hiftory and Prefent ftate of Difcoveries relating
to Vifion, Light, and Colours, appeared in 1772, in
two vols. 410. This is allowed to be a performance of
great merit, having a lucid arrangement; but it did
not bring him fuch a large ftiare of popularity as his
Hiftory of Eleflricity, as it is probable that he was
Icarcely qualified to explain the abftrufer parts of the
fcience. In the year 1770, he quitted Leeds for a fitu-
ation entirely different. His philofophical writings,
and the recommendation of Dr Price had made him fo
favourably known to the earl of Shelburne, that this
nobleman made him fuch advantageous propofals for
refiding with him, that a regard for his family would
not permit them to be rejected. The domeftic tuition
of Lord Shelburne’s fons having been previoufly com¬
mitted to a man of merit, they received no inftru£lions
from Dr Prieftley farther than fome courfes of experi¬
mental pbilofophy. He alfo attended his lordfhip in a
vifit to Paris, where he had an opportunity of feeing
fome of the moft celebrated men of fcience in that
country, whom he aftonifhed by afferting a firm belief
in revealed religion, which had been prefented to their
minds in fuch colours, that they thought no man of
fenfe could hefitate in reje&ing it as an idle fable.
In 1775, he publifhed his examination of Dr Reid
on the Human Mind ; Dr Beattie on the Nature and
Immutability of Truth ; and Dr Ofwald’s Appeal to
Common Senfe. The defign of this volume was to
refute the new doftrine of common fenfe, employed as
the teft of truth by the metaphyficians of Scotland.
He never intentionally mifreprefented either the argu¬
ments or purpofes of an opponent ; but he meafured the
refpeft with which he treated him by that which he
felt for him in his own mind. In the year 1777, he
publiftied his difquifitions relating to Matter and Spirit,
in which he gave a hiftory of the philofophical doctrine
refpefting the foul, and openly fupported the material
fyftem, which makes it homogeneous with the body.
*1 his fubjecfted him to more odium than any of his other
opinions. As he materialized fpirit, fo he in fome mea-
fure fpiritualized matter, by affigning to it penetrability
and fome other fubtle qualities. About the fame pe¬
riod he became the champion of philofophical neceffityj
a doctrine not lefs obnoxious to many, on account of its
fuppofed effefts on morality, than the former. So afto-
niihing was the verfatility of his mind, that he at the
fame time carried on that courfe of difcovcry concern¬
ing aeriform bodies which has rendered his name fo
illuttrious among philofophical chemifts. A fecond
volume was publiihed in 1775, and a third in 1777.
Some of his moft memorable difcoveries were thofe of
nitrous and dephlogifticated or pure air ; of the reftora-
tion of vitiated air by vegetation ; of the infiuence of
light on vegetables, and of the effects of refpiration on
the blood.
The name of Prieflley was by thefe means fpread
through the countries of Europe, and honours were
heaped upon him from fcientific bodies in various parts.
The term of. his engagement with Lord Shelburne
having expired, Dr Prieftley was at liberty to cboofe a
new fituation for himfelf, retiring with a penfion for
life of 150I. a-year. He chofe the vicinity of the po¬
pulous town of Birmingham, as it was the refidence of
feveral men of fcience, fuch as Watt, Withering, Bol¬
ton, and Keir, whofe names are w'ell known to the pub¬
lic. Here he was invited to become paftor of a diffent-
ing congregation, of which he accepted about the latter
end of the year 1780. Soon after this appeared his
Letters to Bifhop Newcome, on the Duration of Chrift’s
Miniftry, and his Hiftory of the Corruptions of Chrifti¬
anity, which were afterwards followed by his Hiftory
of Early Opinions.
He difplayed his attachment to freedom by his Effay
on the Firft Principles of Government 5 and by an an¬
onymous pamphlet on the State of Public Liberty in
this country ; and had ftiown a warm intereft in the
caufe of America at the time of its unfortunate quarrel ,
with the mother country.
The celebration of the anniverfary of the deftrudtion
of the Baftile, by a public dinner, on July 14th 1791,
at. which Dr Prieftley was not prefent, gave the fignal
of thofe riots which have thrown lafting infamy on the
town of Birmingham, and in fome degree on the na¬
tional charafler. Amidft burning houies of worthip and
private dwellings, Dr Prieftley was the great objedl of
popular rage ; his houfe, library, manufcripts, and ap¬
paratus, were made a prey to the flames; he was hunted
like a criminal, and experienced not only the furious
outrages of a mob, but the moft unhandfome treatment
from fome who ought to have fuftained the parts of gen¬
tlemen, and the friends of good order. He now lay
under a load of public odium and fulpicion, and he was
conftantly haraffed by the petty malignity of bigotry.
It was of confequence not to be wondered at, that
he looked for an afvlum in a country to which he had
al'vavs {hewn a friendly attachment, and which he fup¬
pofed was in poffeffion of all the bleflings of civil and
religious liberty. In the year 1794, he took leave of
Y y 2 his
Prieftley..
P E I
Pricftley. native country, and embarked for North America.
"■'v  He took up his residence in Northumberland, a town in
the interior of the ftate of Pennfylvania, which he fe-
lefted on account of the purchafe of landed property in
its neighbourhood *, otherwife its remotenefs from the
fea-ports, its want of many of the comforts of life, and
of all the helps to fcientific purfuit, rendered it a pecu¬
liarly undefirable abode for one of Dr Prieftley’s habits
and employments. The lofs of his amiable wife, and of
a moil promifing fon, as well as repealed attacks of dif-
eafe, feverely tried the fortitude and refignation of this
great and good man.
In America he was received with general refpeft,
and the angry contefts of party were not able wholly to
deprive him of the efteem due to his charafter. He
was heard as a preacher by fome of the moll diftinguilh-
ed members of congrefs j and he was offered, but de¬
clined, the place of chemical profeffor of Philadelphia.
It became his great obje6l to enable himfelf in his re¬
tirement at Northumberland to renew that courfe of
philofophical experiment, and efpecially that train of
theological writing, which had occupied fo many of the
beft years of his life. By numerous experiments on the
conftitution of airs, he became more and more fixed in
his belief of the phlogiftic theory, and in his oppofition
to the new French chemical fyflem, of which he lived
to be the only opponent of any celebrity. By the libe¬
ral contributions of his friends in England, he was en¬
abled to commence the printing of two extenlive works,
on which he was zealoiifly bent, a Church Hiftory,and
an Expofition of the Scriptures; and through the pro-
grefs of his final decline he unremittingly urged their
completion.
An article in the Philadelphia Gazette fpeaks of him
in the following honourable terms :
“ Since his illnefs at Philadelphia, in the year 1801,
he never regained his former good ftate of health. His
complaint was conftant indigeftion, and a difficulty of
fwallowing food of any kind. But during this period
of general debility, he was bufily employed in printing
his Church Hiftory, and in the firft volume of his notes
on the Scriptures, and in making new and original ex¬
periments. During this period, likewife, he wrote his
pamphlet of Jefus and Socrates compared, .and reprinted
his Effay on Phlogifton.
“ From about the beginning of November, 1803, to
the middle of January, 1804, his complaint grew more
ferious •, yet, by judicious medical treatment, and ftridl
attention to diet, he, after fome time, feemed, if not gain¬
ing ftrength, at leaft not getting worfe; and his friends
fondly hoped that his health would continue to improve
as the feafon advanced. He, however confidered his life
as very precarious. Even at this time, befides his mif-
cellaneous reading, which was at all times very exten-
five, he read through all the works quoted in his Com-
parifon of the different Syftemsof Grecian Philofophers
with Chriftianity *, compofed that work, and tranferibed
the whole of it in lefs than three months *, fo that he has
.left it ready for the prefs.
“ In the laft fortnight of January, his fits of indigef¬
tion became more alarming, his legs fwelled, and his
weaknefs increafed. Within two days of his death he
became fo weak, that he could walk but a little way,
and that with great difficulty. He was fufty fenfible
that he had not long to live, yet talked with cheerful-
V R I
nefs to all who called on him. He dwelt upon the pe- Prieltley
culiarly happy fituation in which it had pleafed the di-
vine Being to place him in life, and the great advantage
he had enjoyed in the acquaintance and friendlhip of
fome of the beft and wifeft men of the age in which he
lived, and the fatisfa£lion he derived from having led an
ufeful as well as happy life. On the 9th of February
1804, he breathed his laft, fo eafily, that thole who were
fitting clofe to him did not immediately perceive it. He
had put his hand to his face, which prevented them from
obferving it.”
In the conftitution of Dr Prieftley’s mind ardour and
vivacity of intelleft were united with a mild and placid
temper. With a zeal for the propagation of truth which
nothing could fubdue, he joined a calm patience, an un¬
ruffled ferenity, which rendered him proof againft dif-
appointments. The rights of private judgment were
rendered facred to him by every principle of his under-
ftanding, and his heart would not have fuffered him to
injure his bittereft enemy. He was naturally difpofed
to be cheerful, and when his mind was not occupied
with ferious thoughts, could unbend with playful eafe
and negligence, in the private circle of friends. He
commonly fpoke little in large and mixed companies,
and in the domeftic relations of life was uniformly
kind and affe&ionate. His parental feelings were thofe
of the tendereft and beft of fathers. Not even malice
itfelf could ever fix a ftain on his private conduft, or
impeach his integrity.
PRIMiE VliE, among phyficians, denote the whole
alimentary du£t; including the oefophagus, ftomach, and
inteftines, with their appendages.
PRIMAGE, in Commerce, a fmall duty at the wa-|
ter-lide, ufually about I2d. per ton, or 6d.per bale, due4
to the mafter and mariners of a fliip.
PRIMARY, firft in dignity, chief, or principal.
Primary Qualities of Bodies. See Metaphysics,
N° 152.
PRIMATE, in church-polity, an archbifhop, who is
invefted with a jurifdiftion over other biftiops.
PRIME, Primus, an appellation given to whatever
is firft in order, degree, or dignity, among feveral things
of the fame or like kind $ thus we fay, the prime mi-
nifter, prime coft, &c.
Prime is fometimes ufed to denote the fame with de¬
cimal, or the tenth part of an unit.
PRIME Figure, in Geometry, one which cannot be
divided into any other figures more fimple than ilfelf,
as a triangle among planes, and the pyramid among fo-
lids.
For prime numbers, in arithmetic, fee the article
Number.
PRIME of the Moon, is the new moon when fire firft
appears, which is about three days after the change.
PRIME. Vertical, is that vertical circle which paffes
through the poles of the meridian, or the eaft and weft
points of the horizon ; whence dials projecled on the
plane of this circle are called prime vertical, or north-
and-fouth dials.
Prime, in the Romifti church, is the firft of the ca¬
nonical hours, fucceeding to lauds.
Prime, in Fencing, is the firft of the chief guards.
See Guard.
PRIMER seasin, in Feodal Law, was a feodal bur¬
den, only incident to the king’s tenants in cagnte, and
not
[ 356 1
Primer
Se.tfia
ture.
PHI [ 35
not to tliofe who held of inferior or me-fhe lords. It
was a right which the king had, when any of his ten¬
ants in capite died feized of a knight’s fee, to receive of
Prinwgem-^ ^eir (provided he were of full age) one whole year’s
j profits of the lands if they were in immediate poffeffion,
and half a year’s profits if the lands were in reverfion
expedant on an eftate for life. This feems to be little
move than an additional relief (fee Relief) ; but
grounded upon this feudal reafon, That by the ancient
faw of feods, immediately upon the death of a vaffal the
fuperior was entitled to enter and take feifin or poffeffion
of the land, by way of protedion againft intruders, till
the heir appeared to claim it, and receive inveffiture ;
and for the time the lord fo held it, he was entitled to
take the profits ; and unlefs the heir claimed within a
year and day, it was by the ftrid law a forfeiture. This
pradiee, however, feems not to have long obtained in
England, if ever, with regard to tenures under inferior
lords-, but, as to the king’s tenures in capite, thisprima
feifina wasexprefsly declared, under Henry III. and Ed-
'ward II. to belong to the king by prerogative, in con-
tradiftindion to other lords. And the king was en¬
titled to enter and receive the whole profits of the land,
till livery was fued which fuit being commonly within
a year and day next after the death of the tenant, there¬
fore the king ufed to take at an average the jirjl-fruits,
that is to fay, one year’s profits of the land. And this
afterwards gave a handle to the popes, who claimed to
be feodal lords of the church, to claim in like manner
from every clergyman in England the firft year’s pro¬
fits of his benefice, by way at primitive, or firft-fruits.—
All the charges arifing by primer feifrn were taken a-
way by 12 Car. II. c, 24.
* PRIMING, in Gunnery, the train of powder that is
laid, from the opening of the vent, along the gutter or
channel on the upper part of the breech of the gun :
which, when fired, conveys the flame to the vent, by
which it is further communicated to the charge, in order
to fire the piece. This operation is only ufed on ffiip-
board at the proof, and fometimes in garrifon for, on
all other occafions, tubes are ufed for that purpofe.
PRIMING-lVire, in Gunnery, a fort of iron needle
employed to penetrate the vent or touch-hole of a piece
of ordnance, when it is loaded 1 in order to difcover
whether the powder contained therein is thoroughly dry
and fit for immediate fervice j as likewife to fearch the
vent and penetrate the cartridge, when the guns are not
loaded with the loofe powder.
Priming, among painters, fignifies the laying on of
the firft: colour.
PRIMIPILUS, inantiquity, the centurion of the firft
cohort of a legion, who had the charge of the Roman
eagle.
PRIMITIVE., the firft-fruits gathered off the earth,
whereof the ancients made prefents to the gods.
PRIMITIVE, in Grammar, is a root or original
word in a language, in contradiftin6Iion to derivative
thus, God is a primitive *, godly, a derivative j and god¬
like, a compound.
PRIMOGENITURE, the right of the firft-born,
has among moft nations been very confiderable. . The
firft-born fon in the patriarchal ages had a fuperioiity
over his brethren, and, in the abfence of his father, was
prieft to the family. Among the Jews, he was confe-
7 ] P R I
crated to the Lord, had a double portion of the inheri- Fnmogem-
tance, and fucceeded in the government of the lamily ^
or kingdom. It is, however, remarkable, and unquef- primuia.
tionably {hows the connexion between this inftitution u—-y—«
and the birth and office of our Saviour, that if a wo¬
man’s firft: child were a girl, neither ffie, nor the chil¬
dren that came after her, were confecrated.
In every nation of Europe, the right of primogeni¬
ture prevails in fome degree at prefent, but it did not
prevail always. The law which calls the elder-born to
the crown, preferably to the others, was not introduced
into France till very late $ it was unknown to the firft
race of kings, and even to the fecond. Rhe four fons
of Clovis (hared the kingdom equally among themfelves j
and Louis le Debonnaire did the fame: it was not till
the race of Hugh Capet, that the prerogative of fucceL
lion to She crown was appropriated to the firft-born.
By the ancient cuftom of Gavel-kind, ftill preferved
in fome parts of our ifland, primogeniture is of no ac¬
count-, the paternal eftate being equally ffiared by all
the fons. And it has been a matter of violent and
learned difpute, whether at the death of Alexander III.
Baliol or Bruce was, by the law as it then ftood, heir to
the crown of Scotland. The former had undoubtedly
the right of primogeniture, but the latter ftood in one
degree of nearer relation to the deceafed fovereign-, and
the Scottiffi barons, not being able to determine whole
claim was beft founded, referred the queftion to Ed¬
ward I. of England, and thereby involved their coun¬
try in a long and ruinous war. See Scotland.
PRIMORIE, is a name given by the Slavi to that
tract of fea coaft which lies between the two rivers Cet-
tina and Narenta, the firft of which is the Neftus and
Tiluras, and the fecond the Narus, of the ancients
comprifing what was properly called Dalmatia two ages^
before our era, and which was known to the Greeks of
the low times under the name of Paratalaffia. Appian
informs us that the Ardei or Vardei poffeffed many ci¬
ties there, part of which they feized before the invafion
of the Romans, and part they built themfelves. We
learn alfo from the Tabula Peutingeriana, that after the
conqueft many of thofe cities remained, and were inha¬
bited by the conquerors, who alfo founded new fettle-
ments. And indeed were thefe proofs wanting, the nu¬
merous infcriptions found near the fea, and fometimes
among the hills, would render it at leaft probable. The
coaft is extremely pleafant, the foil fertile, and the fitu-
ation moft convenient for commerce with the inland
provinces. By bad management, however, much ground
has been loft near the fea, by its being covered with
gravel j and by imprudent cultivation of the hills, the
impetuous fury of the mountain torrents has rendered
a part of it uninhabitable. Macarfka is now the only
town in the territory, and it appears to have rifen out
of the ruins of the ancient RaTANEUM of Pliny. It
formed a part of the Narentan ftate for feveral ages, and
afterwards, together with the reft of Primorie, paffed
under the obedience of various Chriftian princes. It af¬
terwards became fubjeft to the Ottoman Porte, and at
laft voluntarily fubje&ed itfelf to the Venetian republic.
See Dalmatia and Macarska. See alfo Fortis’s
Travels into Dalmatia, p. 265.—-'3*^'
PRIMULA, the Primrose j a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafsj and in the natural me¬
thod
I
P R 1 [ 3j8 ] P R I
Primula thod ranking under the 21 ft order, Trecice. See Bo-
Prince TAJsY Index* This genus includes the primrofe, the
1 cowftip, the polyanthus, and the auricula ; feme of the
earlieft and raoft beautiful ornaments of the flower-gar¬
den. For the mode of culture, fee Gardening.
PRIMUM mobile, in the Ptolemaic aftronomy, the
ninth or higheft fphere of the heavens, whofe centre is
that of the world, and in comparifon of which the earth
is but a point. This is fuppofed to contain within it all
other fpheres, and to give them motion, turning them
quite round, as wrell as revolving itfelf, in 24 hours.
PRINCE, Princeps, in polity, a perfon invefted
with the fupreme command of a ftate, independent of
any fuperior.
Prince alfo denotes a perfon who is a fovereign in
Ins own territories, yet holds of fome other as his fupe¬
rior ; fuch are the princes of Germany, who, though ab-
folute in their refpedtive principalities, are bound to the
emperor in certain fervices.
Prince alfo denotes the iffue of princes, or thofe of
the royal family. In France, before the revolution, they
were called princes of the blood, and during the ftiort
continuance of the conftitution of 1791, Trench princes.
In England the king’s children are called fons and
daughters of England; the eldeft fon is created prince
of Wales ; the cadets are created dukes or earls as the
king pleafes ; and the title of all the children is royal
highnefs : all fubjefts are to kneel when admitted to kifs
their hand, and at table out of the king’s prefence they
are ferved on the knee. See Roi'AL Family.
PRINCE of the Senate, in old Rome, the perfon who
was called over firft in the roll of fenators, whenever it
was renewed by the cenfors : he was always of confular
and cenforian dignity. See the article Senate.
PRINCE's Metal, or Pinchbeck, an alloy of copper
and zinc, which has a refemblance to gold. See Che¬
mistry, N° 2014.
Princetown. See New JETtSET.
PRINCE of Wales's If and, or Pu/o Penang, is fituat-
ed in the entrance of the ftraits of Malacca, in ioo°
of eaft longitude, and in 50 of north latitude. It is
about feven leagues in length and three in breadth, and
is fuppofed to contain about 160 fquare miles. Its
northern extremity runs nearly parallel with the main
Edin. Phil, land at a diftance of about two miles, by which a fine
Tranf.v. iii. channel is formed, where the greateft fleets might ride
p. 13. &.c. jn perfeft fafety, the height of the furrounding moun¬
tains afting as a barrier againft the force of the prevail¬
ing winds.
The purchafe of this ifland from the king of £)ued-
dah, on the oppofite Malay coaft, was made on behalf
of the Eaft India Company by Mr Light, who took
pofleffion of it on the 12th of Auguft 1786. The fet-
tlement continued to enjoy peace and fecurity till the
year 1791, when a jealoufy, on the part of the king of
Queddah, probably arifing from a collifion of interefts,
threatened it with the calamities of war. Mr Light,
hoAvever, anticipated the attack of the enemy, and car¬
ried the feene of a£Hon to his own ftiores. A fort con-
ftnnfted by the Malays at the town of Prya on the op¬
pofite fhore, and only two miles diftant from George
Town in Prince of Wales’s ifland, was taken by aflault $
and almoft the whole of the prows collefled in the river
for the conveyance of troops to attack the Britifh fettle-
ment, were deftroyed. A new treaty was entered into, Prince,
by which it was ftipulated, that the Malay king fhould
receive an annual payment of 6000 dollars. In 18co,
a tradt of land on the oppofite Ihore, of 18 miles in
length and three in breadth, was ceded to the company
by the king of Queddah, on condition of receiving an¬
nually an additional fum of 4000 dollars. The number
of inhabitants in 1797 was computed at about 12,000
perfons ol all deferiptions.
The climate, confidering its vicinity to the equator,
is remarkably mild. The thermometer on the high
grounds never rifes above 78°, feldorn more than 740 •,
and falls as low as 66° ; while on the plain it ranges
from 76° to 90®. Its healthfulnefs is certainly not fur-
pafled by that of any European fettlement on the coaft.
Out of a garrifoo of 300 troops (natives of Hindoftan),
not one died for the fpace of 14 months $ a Angular fadf
to be experienced by a new fettlement in an uncleared
country. This great falubrity is perhaps the tffedl of a
conftant ventilation, fupported by almoft continued but
gentle breezes, added to the drynefs of the foil, the uni¬
form but gradual elevation from the fea to the foot of
the hills preventing thofe ftagnations of water which, in
tropical latitudes, are fo highly prejudicial to the health
of man.
A ridge of beautiful mountains, deeply indented udth
valleys, and covered with evergreens, divides the ifland
longitudinally. Flagftaff hill, nearly the higheft on the
ifland, is eftimated at 2500 feet above the level of the
fea. Innumerable rivulets receive their origin from thefe
mountains, and are remarkable for the tranfparency and
coolnefs of their w'aters. The foil, which is light and
fandy near the fea, gradually changes to a rich clay as
it approaches to the high lands. There the fugar-cane
grows with the utmoft luxuriance, and the moft plenti¬
ful crops of rice are everywhere produced. The gar¬
dens have already furnifhed the inhabitants with cabba¬
ges and potatoes ; and when induftry fhall have reached
the tops of the mountains, it will be no furprife to fee
in the plantations moft of the produdlions of Europe in
their utmoft perfeftion. Here are alfo produced pep¬
per, cocoa-nuts, coffee, cotton, ginger, yams, fweet po¬
tatoes, a great variety of vegetables, and many different
forts of fruits. Among the exotics are the clove, nut¬
meg, cinnamon, pimento, hyapootee, colalava, and a
number of other plants from the Moluccas and Eaftern
ifles, introduced only a few years ago. In decorating
the landfcapes of this little ifland, nature has been pecu¬
liarly lavifh. An affemblage of flowering trees and
fhrubs in perpetual bloffom, and endlefs in the variety
of their fpecies, form the firft (hade. Thefe are over¬
topped by foreft trees of an immenfe height, which
fpread their vaft branches on every fide, and are cover¬
ed with the richeft foliage. Here ftrangers feel with
rapture the effeft of the breezes, which, from whatfa-
ever quarter they blow, are ftrongly impregnated with
the fragrance of the groves.
The original animal produdlions of this ifland are
very limited. Of quadrupeds, the wild hog, deer, and
fquirrel, nearly comprehend the whole j but the abfence
of the tiger and leopard, whofe numbers and ferocity al¬
moft render the oppofite Ihores uninhabitable, amply
compenfates for this deficiency. The flying fox and
fquirrel are natives of this ifland 3 the former a non-
defeript,
S
P R I
Prince, defcript, and a great natural curiofity.
are affo but few, and only one which is remarkable for
the melody of its notes. The crow and foarrow, the
never-failing attendants on population, have but lately
made their appearance. They are now, however, ra¬
pidly increaling and multiplying. All the domeftxc ani¬
mals arrive here at great perfection.
The fea which furrounds the ifland, affords a vaft va¬
riety of filh of the moft delicious flavour, and its fhores
abundance of the finefl: turtle and oyfters. In no litua-
tion indeed ai-e the conveniencies and luxuries of life
enjoyed in greater profuflon. The advantages of the
ifland in a political and commercial view are very confi-
derable. There were nothing but wooden bridges on
this ifland in the year 1800, which were perpetually
liable to be injured, which the rapid fwell of the rivers
frequently carried away ; but four fubftantial bridges of
brick and mortar were foon after that period completed,
their foundations being of ftone.
The markets are well fupplied with different kinds of
flfli, poultry of all forts, pork, grain, and great variety
of the finefl: fruits and vegetables. The quality of the
beef and veal is none of the belt, and they import fheep
frorta Bengal. Milk, butter, and bread, bear a high
price, the two former of which are not very abund¬
ant.
Prince of Wales Ifland produces a great variety of
timber, fit for every purpofe of fhip-building, and can
furnifli mails of any dimenfions. Ships of 74 guns were
provided with lower mails of one piece in the courfe of
the late war.
There are few, if any places, more abundantly fup¬
plied with water, than this ifland, numerous ftreams of
water flowing from the hills in every diredlion. Three
or four of thefe ftreams unite, and form the Penang ri¬
ver, after traverfing a confiderable fpace ; and it dif-
charges itfelf into the fea, about a mile to the fouthward
of the town.
This ifland contains mines of tin ; but it is faid they
have never been worked.
Perfons convicted of felonies, &c. in any of the Bri-
tifh fettlements in the Eaft Indies are frequently ba-
nifhed to Prince of Wales Ifland, fo that it may be
confidered as the Botany Bay of the Eaft.
The following table exhibits the revenue and dif-
burfements of the ifland, at feveral different periods,
irom 1789 to 1804.
Revenue.
Dollars.
1789 2500
1790 4100
“,235
1795 19,612
1796 28,000
l8°0 53^55
1802 ^4,280
1803 75,000 eftimated.
Z) ijburfements.
Dollars,
78,884
96,274
108,290
115,3 79
192,598
184,469
176,000
180,000 eftimated.
The imports of this ifland confift of the various natu¬
ral productions of the eaft, as well as of a great variety
of the manufactures of the induftrious inhabitants of
thofe regions.
In 1799, 95 Englilh (hips, 37 American, Portuguefe,
359 1 P R I
Of birds there and Danifh, and 36 Afiatic, arrived in this ifland. The
total number of arrivals, in 1800, amounted to 193 j
and in 1802, to 241, equal nearly to 57,000 tons.
PRINCE IVilhani's Sound, fituated on the north-weft
coaft of America, and fo named by Captain Cook in
1778- The men, women, and children of this found
are all clothed in the lame manner. Their ordinary
drefs is a fort of clofe frock, or rather robe, which
fometimes reaches only to the knees, but generally
down to the ancles. 1 hefe frocks are compofed of the
Ikins of various animals, and are commonly worn with
the hairy fide outwards. The men often paint their
faces of a black colour, and of a bright red, and fome¬
times of a bluifti or leaden hue ; but not in any regular
figure. The women punClure or ftain the chin with
black, that comes to a point in each of their cheeks.
Their canoes are of two forts 5 the one large and open,
the other fmall and covered. The framing confifts of
flender pieces of wood, and the outfide is compofed or
the Ikins of feals, or other fea animals, ftretched over
the wood. Their weapons, and implements for hunting
and filhing, are the fame as thofe ufed by the Green ■
landers and Efquimaux. Many of their fpears are head¬
ed with iron, and their arrows are generally pointed
with bone. The food they were feen to eat was the
flefli of fome animal, either roafted or broiled, and
dried fifti. Some of the former that was purehafed had
the appearance of bear’s flefli. They alfo eat a larger
fort of fern-root, either baked or dreffed in fome other
method. Their drink, in all probability, is water; for,
in their canoes, they brought fnow in wooden veffels,
which they fwallowed by mouthfuls. Our knowledge
of the animals of this part of the American con¬
tinent is entirely derived from the Ikins that were
brought by the natives for fale. Thefe were principal¬
ly of bears, common and pine martens, fea otters, feals,
racoons, fmall ermines, foxes, and the whitifli cat or
lynx. The birds found here were the halcyon, or great
king’s-fiflier, which had fine bright colours; the white-
headed eagle, and the humming-bird. The filh that
were principally brought to market for fale were torfk
and holibut. The rocks were almoft deftitute of ftiell-
fifli ; and the only other animal of this tribe that was
obferved was a reddifti crab, covered with very large
fpines. Few vegetables of any kind were obferved ;
and the trees that chiefly grew about this found were
the Canadian fpruce pine, fome of which were of a con¬
fiderable fize. E. Long. X15. 21. N. Lat. 59. 33.
PRINCIPAL, the chief and moft neceffary part of
a thing. The principal of a college or hall is the matter
thereof.
In commerce, principal is the capital of a fum due
or lent 5 fo called in oppofition to intereft. See Inte¬
rest.
It alfo denotes the firft fund put by partners into a
common flock, by which it is diftinguifhed from the
calls or acceflions afterwards required.
Principal, in Mujic. See Fundamental, in Mu¬
sic, and Generator, in Music.
Principal, in Law, is either the after or abfolute
perpetrator of the crime, who is called a principal, in
the firft degree ; or he who is prefent, aiding and abet¬
ting the faft to be done, who is denominated a principal
in the fecond degree. The prefence of a principal need
not
Prince.
Principal.
Principal
II
Principle.
B!ackjl.
Comment.
b. iv. C. 3.
P R I [ 3'5°
not alwavs be an aftual immediate ftanding by, within
fight or hearing of the fad •, but there may be alio a
, conftru&ive prefence, as when one commits a robbery
or murder, and another keeps watch or guard at tome
convenient diftance. And this rule has alfo other ex¬
ceptions j for, in cafe of murder by poifomng, a man
may be a principal felon by preparing and laying the
poifon, or giving it to another (who is ignorant of its
poifonous quality) for that purpofe j and yet not ac^ml"
nifter it himfelf, nor be prefent when the very deed ot
poifoning is committed. And the fame reafoiling will
hold, with regard to other murders committed in the
abfence of the murderer, by means which he had pre¬
pared before-hand, and which probably could not fail ot
their rnifchievous effeft. As by laying a trap or pit-tall
for another, whereby he is killed; letting out a wild
bead, with an intent to do mifchief; or exciting a mad¬
man to commit murder, fo that death thereupon enfues :
in every one of thefe cafes the party offending is guilty
of murder as a principal, in the firft degree. For he
cannot be called an acceffory, that neceffanly preiuppo-
fing a principal; and the poifon, the pit-fall, the bealt,
or the madman, cannot be held principals, being only
the inflruments of death. As therefore he mull be cer¬
tainly guilty, either as principal or acceffory, and can¬
not be fo as acceffory, it follows that he muft be guilty
as principal; and if principal, then in the firft degree ;
for there is no other criminal, much lefs a fupenor in
the guilt, whom he could aid, abet, or affift.
Principal Point, in PerfpeBive, is a point in the
perfpeftive plane, upon which a line drawn from the
eye perpendicular to the plane falls.
* This point is in the interfeftion of the horizontal and
vertical plane ; and is alfo called the point of fight, and
•point of the ei/e. See Perspective. „
Principal Ray, in PerfpeElive, is that which pafles
perpendicularly from the fpeftator’s eye to the perfpec-
tive plane, or pi&ure.
Whence the point where this ray falls on the plane,
is by fome alfo called the principal point, which other
writers call the centre of the picture, and the point of con-
PRINCIPATO, the name of a province of Italy, m
the kingdom of Naples, which is divided into two parts,
called bv the Italians the Pnncipato Ultra and the Prm-
cipato Citra, that is, the Hither and Farther Principato.
The Hither Principato is bounded on the north by the
Farther Principato and part of the Terra-di-Lavoro, on
the weft and fouth by the Tufcan fea, and on the eaft
by the Bafilicata. It is about 60 miles m length, and
o0 in breadth ; the foil is fertile in wine, corn, on, and
faffron ; and they have a great deal of filk, befides fe-
veral mineral fprings. The capital town is Salerno.
The Farther Principato is bounded on the north by the
county of Molefe and the Terra-di-Lavoro, on the weft
by the Tufcan fea, on the fouth by the Hither Prim
cipato, and on the eaft by the Cap.tanata. It is about
,7 miles in length, and 30 in breadth The Apenmne
mountains render the air cold ; and the foil is not very
fertile either in corn or wine, but it produces chefnuts,
and paftures in great plenty. Benevento is the capital
1 'principle, PrinciPIUM, in general, is ufed for
the caufe, fource, or origin of any thing.
Principle, in human nature. See Disposition.
] P R I
Principle, in fcience, is a truth, admitted without Principle,
proof, from which other truths are inferred by a chain of , ringle-j
reafoning. Principles are of two Winte, primary ^ge¬
neral; and to the laft the name of axioms is ufually given
on account of their importance and dignity.. An axiom
or general principle, when the terms in which it is ex-
preffed are underftood, muft be a felf-evident truth ; but
from its very nature it cannot be 's.firjl truth. Our fiift
truths are all particular. A child knows tnat two par¬
ticular lines, each an inch long, are equal to one an¬
other, before he has formed any general notions of
length and equality. “ Things equal to. one and the
fame thing are equal to one another,” is the firft of
Euclid’s axioms ; and an axiom it undoubtedly is, but
to no man has it been zfrfl truth. It is, if we may u e
the expreflion, a genus or clafs of truths, comprehending
under it numberlefs individuals. Were a full-grown
man introduced into the world, without a fingle idea in
his mind, as we may fuppofe Adam to have been, he
would inftantly perceive, upon laying together three
pieces of wood each a foot long, that they were all equal
in length ; and if he were to cut another to the fame
length with any one of them, he would find upon trial
that it was of the fame length with them all. After a
few fimple experiments of this kind,.he would, by a law
of human thought, infer, that all things equal in .length
or in any other dimenfion, to any one thing, are in that
dimenfion equal to one another.
It was not therefore with fuch weaknefs as lome
have imagined, that Hobbes affirmed thofe propofitions
commonly called axioms, not to be primary but iecon-
dary principles. A primary principle deferves not the
name of an axiom, as it is only a particular truth in¬
cluding in it no other truth. There is not one ot Eu¬
clid’s axioms which has not been the refultof indudhon,
though we remember not the time at which the induc¬
tion was made. That the whole is greater than any
of its parts is a general truth which no man of com¬
mon fenfe can controvert ; but every one difcovered
that truth by obferving that his body was larger th«m
his head, his foot, or his hand.; that a mountain is
larger than a mole-hill in the middle of it; and that a
piece of timber meafuring Avhat is called a yard is. longer
than any one of the divifions marked upon it, and
termed inches. The particular obfervations are made
through the fenfes and treafured up in the memory ;
and the intelleft, by its conftitution, compares them
together, marks in what they agree and. difagree, and
thence draws its axioms or general principles. He,
therefore, who ffiould admit the truth of an axiom, and
deny the evidence of fenfe and perception, would aft as
abfurdly as he who accepts payment in a bank-bill, and
refufes it in the individual pieces of gold or filver which
that bill reprefents. General axioms are ot infinite
ufe in the purfuits of fcience ; but it is not becauie
they create new truths ; they only ffiorten the procels
in the difcovery of fuch as might be found, with labour,
through the medium of particular propofitions. bee
Campbell's Philofophj of Rhetoric and 7 atham s Char
and Scale of Truth. c ^ a -LU
Principles, in Physics, are often confounded with
elements, or the firft and timpleft parts whereof natural
bodies are compounded, and into which they are again
refolvable by the force of fire.
PRINGLE, Sir John, an eminent phyfician ana
philoiopner.
Pringle.
PHI [ 36i ] P
plnlofoplrer, was a younger fon pf Sir John Pringle of Diffolutlon of the Bones ’
Stitchel, in the (hire of Roxburgh, Baronet; took the " ' “
degree of M. D. at Leyden, 1730 5 and publifhed there
'Dijfertatio Inauguralis de Marcore Seni/i, 410. After
having been fome years profeffor of moral pliilofopliy
at Edinburgh, he was in June 1745 appointed phyfi-
cian to the duke of Cumberland, and phyfician-general
to the hofpital of the forces in Flanders, where the
earl of Stair appears to have been his patron. In Fe¬
bruary 1746, Dr Pringle, Dr Armflrong, and Dr Bar-
k«r, were nominated phyficians to the hofpital of
lame, maimed, and fick foldiers, behind Buckingham-
houfe ; and in April 1749, Dr Pringle was appointed
phyfician in ordinary to the king. In 1750 he pub¬
lifhed “ Obfervations on the Nature and Cure of Plof-
pital and Gaol Fevers, in a Letter to Dr Mead,” 8vo
(reprinted in 1755) j and in 1752 he favoured the
public with the refult of his long experience in an ad¬
mirable treatife under the title of “ Obfervations on
the Diforders of the Army in Camp and Garrifon,”
8vo. On the 14th of April 1752, he married Char¬
lotte, fecond daughter of Dr Oliver, an eminent phyfi¬
cian at Bath. In IJ56 he was appointed jointly with
Dr Wintringham (now Sir Clifton Wintringham, Bart.)
phyfician to the hofpital for the fervice of the forces of
Great Britain. After the acceffion of his prefent ma-
jefty, I>r Pringle was appointed phyfician to the queen’s
houfehold, 1761 5 phyfician in ordinary to the queen in
1763, in which year he was admitted of the college of
phyficians in London ; and on the 5th of June 1766,
he was advanced to the dignity of a baronet of Great
Britain. In 1772 he was eleaed prefident of the
Royal Society, where his fpeeches for five fucceflive
years, on delivering the prize-medal of Sir Godfrey
Copley, gave the greatefi fatisfaaion. Sir John Pringle
in 1777 was appointed phyfician extraordinary to the
king. He was alfo a fellow of the College of Phyfi¬
cians at Edinburgh, and of the Royal Medical Society
at Paris; member of the Royal Academies at Paris,
Stockholm, Gottingen, and of the Philofoplucal So¬
cieties at Edinburgh and Haerlem 5 and continued pre¬
fident of the Royal Society till November 1778 5 after
which period he gradually withdrew from the world,
and in 1781 quitted his elegant houfe in Pall Mall
(where he had long diftinguilhed himfelf as the warm
friend and patron of literary men of every nation and
profeflion), and made an excurfion to his native coun¬
try. He returned to London in the latter end of the
year ; died greatly beloved and refpefted January 18.
1782 ; and having no children, was fucceeded in efiate,
and. alfo (agreeably to the limitation of the patent)
in title, by his nephew, Sir James Pringle, Bart. A-
mong the worthy phyfician’s communications to the
Royal Society, the following are the principal : 1.
“ Some Experiments on Subftances refiftiag Putre-
fadtion,” Phil. Tranf. N° 495. p. 580 j and N° 496,
P- 525> 55° ? reprinted, with additions, in Martin's
Abridgement, vol. xi. p. 1365. 2. “ Account of fome
Perfons feized with the Gaol Fever by working in
Newgate, and of the manner by which the Infedtion
was communicated to one entire Family,” vol. 'xlviii.
p. 42. At the requeft of Dr Hales, a copy of this
ufeful paper was inferted in the Gentleman’s Magazine,
I753> P- 7L before its appearance in the Tranfadtions.
3. “ A remarkable Cafe of Fragility, Flexibilitv, and
Vol. XVII. Part I,
R I
7 ib. p. 297. 4. “ Account
of the Earthquake felt at Bruflels,” vol. xlix. p. 546.
S' “ Account of the finking of a River near Pontypool,
in Monmouthfhire,” ib. p. 547. 6. “ Account of an
Earthquake felt Feb. 18. I75^> along the coaft of
England, between Margate and Dover,” ib. p. 579.
j- Account ot the Earthquake felt at Glafgow and
Dumbarton 5 alfo of a Shower of Dull falling on a
Ship between Shetland and Iceland,” ib. p. 509. 8„
Several Accounts of the Fiery Meteor which appeared
on Sunday, November 26. 1758, between eight and nine
at night, vol. 1. p. 218. 9. “ Account of the Vir¬
tues of Soap in diffolving the Stone, in the Cafe of the
Reverend Mr Matthew Simfon,” ib. p. 221. ic. “Ac¬
count of the effedts of Eledlricity in Paralytic Cafes,”
ib. 481. And fee a letter to him on that ihbjedt from
Proleffor Winthorp. “ Some Account of the Succefs
ot the Vitrum Ceratum Antimonii” was printed in the
Edinburgh Medical Eflays, vol. v.
PRINOS, in Botany, a genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the. hexandria clafs of plants j and in
the natural^ method ranking under the 43d order, Du-
moftf, 1 he calyx is fexfid ; the corolla monopetalous,
and rotaceous 5 the belly hexafpermous.
PRINTER, a perfon who compofes and takes im-
preflions from moveable charadters ranged in order by
means of ink and a prefs.
PRINTING, the art of taking impreflions from
charadters or figures, moveable and immoveable, on pa¬
per, linen, filk, &c. There are three kinds of print¬
ing : the one from moveable letters, for books ; ano¬
ther from copper-plates, for piaures ; and the 3aft from
blocks, in which the reprefentation of birds, it ewers,
Sec. are cut, for printing calicoes, linen, &c. The firft
is called common or letter-prefs printing j the fecond,
rolling prefs printings and the latl, calico, &c. printing!
"The principal difference between the three confifts in
this, that the firft is caff in relievo, in diftina pieces 5
the fecond engraven in creux ; and the third cut in re¬
lievo, and generally (lamped, by placing the block up¬
on the materials to be printed, and linking upon the
back of it.
Of the above branches, Letter-Press PRINT-LettJr-
^XG is the moft curious, and deferves the mod par- prefs print-
ticular notice : for to it are owing chiefly our deliver-Us¬
ance from ignorance and error, the progrefs of learn-
ing, the revival of the fciences, and numberlefs improve¬
ments m arts, which, without this noble 'invention,
would have been either loft to mankind, or eonfined*
to the knowledge of a few. . “ To the art of printing, Utility of
(fays an elegant eliayift *), it is acknowledged we owe this art.
the reformation. It has been juftly remarked, that firKnix?.
the books of Luther had been multiplied only by the
flow proce.fs of the hand-writing, they muft have been
few, and would have been eafily fuppreffed by the
combination of wealth and power 3 but, poured forth
in abundance from the prefs, they fpread over the land
with the rapidity of an inundation, which acquires ad¬
ditional force from the efforts ufed to obftruft its pro¬
grefs. He ivho undertook to prevent the difperfion
of the books once iffued from the prefs, attempted a
talk no lefs arduous than the deftruetion of the hydra.
Refiftance was vain, and religion was reformed : and
we who are chiefly interefted in this happy revolution
muft remember, amidft the praifes bellowed on Luther,
Z z that
P R I
Frii.ting. that his endeavours liad been ineffedlual, unafhlled by
V' v the invention of Fauftus.
^ ,3 , “ How ereatly the caufe of religion has been promo-
evil rel'uit- ted by the-art, mull appear, when it is conbdered, that
ingfrorait.it has placed thofe facred books in the hand of every
individual, which, befides that they were once locked
up in a dead language, could not be procured without
great difficulty. The numerous comments on them of
every kind, which tend to promote piety, and to form
the Chriitian philofopher, would probably never have
been compofed, and certainly would not have extend¬
ed their beneficial influence, if typography had flill been
unknown. By that art, the light, which is to illumi¬
nate a dark world, has been placed in a fituation more
advantageous to the emifiion of its rays : but if it has
been the means of illuftrating the do&rines, and en¬
forcing the practice of religion, it has alfo, particularly
in the prefent age, {truck at the root of piety and mo¬
ral virtue, by propagating opinions favourable to the
fceptic and the voluptuary. It has enabled modern au¬
thors wantonly to gratify their avarice, their vanity, and
their mifanthropy, in diffeminating novel fyftems fub-
verfive of the dignity and happiriefs of human nature :
but though the perverfion of the art is lamentably re¬
markable in thofe volumes which iffue, with ofifenfive
profufion, from the vain, the wicked, and the hungry •,
yet this good refults from the evil, that as truth is
great and will prevail, fhe muft derive frefh luftre, by
difplaying the fuperiority of her ftrength in the conflift
with fophiftry. . „
“ Thus the art of printing, in whatever light it is
viewed, has deferved refpett and attention. From the
ingenuity of the contrivance, it has ever exerted me¬
chanical curiofity 5 from its intimate connexion with
learning, it has juftly claimed hiftorical notice ; and
from its extenfive influence on morality, politics, and
religion, it is now become a fubjeft of very important
fpeculation. . # .
“ But however we may felicitate mankind on the in¬
vention, there are perhaps thofe who wifh, that, toge¬
ther with its compatriot art of manufadturing gunpow¬
der, it had not yet been brought to light. Of its effefts
on literature, they aflert, that it has increafed the num¬
ber of books, till they diflraft rather than improve the
mind ; and of its malignant influence on morals, they
complain, that it has often introduced a falfe refinement,
incompatible with the fimplicity of primitive piety and
oenuine virtue. With refpeft to its literary ill confe-
quences, it may be faid, that though it produces to the
world an infinite number of worthlefs publications, yet
true wit and fine eompofition will flill retain their value,
and it will be an eafy talk for critical difeernment to fe-
left thefe from the furrounding mafs of abfurdity : and
though, with refpedl to its moral effedls, a regard to truth
extorts the confeffion, that it has diffufed immorality
and irreligion, divulged with crubl impertinence the fe-
t 362 ] P R I _
crets of private life, and fpread the tale of fcandal Printing.
4
Its good
effects
overba¬
lance the
bad.
through an empire ; yet thefe are evils which will either
{brink away unobferved in the triumphs of time and
truth over falfehood, or which may, at any time, be fup-
preffed by the legiflative interpofition.” 5
Some writers have aferibed the origin of this art to Hiftory of
the Eafl, and affixed a very early period, to its invert-
tion ; particularly P. Jovius, {Hijl. lib.xiv. p. 226. ed.
Florent. 1 $ i;o), from whom Oforius and many others
have embraced the fame opinion. But thefe have evi¬
dently confounded the European mode of printing with
the engraved tablets which to this day are ufed in Chi¬
na. The invention of thefe tablets has been aferibed oy
many writers even to an earlier period than the com¬
mencement of the Chriftian era 5 but is with more pro¬
bability afligned, by the very accurate Phil. Couplet,
the year 930. The Hijloria Sinenjis oi Abdalla, writ¬
ten in Perfic in 1317, fpeaks of it as an art in very com¬
mon ufe. MeermaN, vol. i. p. 16. 218, 219, vob ii.
p. 186. N. Trigault afferts that the Chinefe pradlifed
the art of printing five centuries before. Count fierre
Rezzonico found at Lyons plates with words and names
engraven by a Nuremberger 1380.
The honour of having given rife to the European me¬
thod has been claimed by the cities of Haerlem, Merit*,
and Strajburg. And to each of thefe it may be aferibed
in a qualified fenfe, as they made improvements upon
one another. _ 6
I. The firfl teftimony of the inventor is that recorded Claim of
by Hadrian Junius, in his Batavia, p. 253, ed. Lugd. Haerlem.
Bat. 1588 } which, though it hath been rejedled by ma¬
ny, is of undoubted authority. Junius had the relation
from two reputable men; Nicholaus Galius (a), who was
the fchoolmafler $ and Quirinius lalefius, his intimate
and correfpondent. He aferibes it to Laurentius, the
fon of John (^Edituus, or Cuftos, of the cathedral of
HAERLEM, at that time a refpe&able office), upon the
teftimony of Cornelius, fome time a fervant to Lauren-
tius, and afterwards bookbinder to the cathedral, an of¬
fice which had before been performed by Francifcan
friars. His narrative was thus : “ That, walking in a
wood near the city (as the citizens of opulence ufe^ to
do), he began at firft to cut fome letters upon the rind
of a beech tree } which, for fancy’s fake being impreffed
on paper, he printed one or two lines, as a fpecimen foi
his grand-children (the fons of his daughter) to follow.
This having happily fucceeded, he meditated greater
things (as he was a man of ingenuity and judgment) j
and firft of all, with his fon-in-law Thomas Peter (who,
by the way, left three fons, who all attained the confu-
lar dignity), invented a more glutinous writing-ink, be-
caufe he. found the common ink funk and fpread •, and
then formed whole pages of wood, with letters cut^upon
them ; of which fort I have feen fome effays, in an anony¬
mous work, printed only on one fide, entitled Speculum
no/lrce falutis : in which it is remarkable, that in the in¬
fancy
(a) Galius feems to be the fame who is called Claes Lottijnfa. G«e/,Scabinus Harlemq as it is in the Fafti of
that citv in the years 1,31, 1533, and 1 935. Quirinus in the fame Fafti is called Mr %uiryn Dirkfaoon. He
■was many years amanuenfis to the great Erafinus, as appears from his epiftle, 23d July 1529. tom. m. ^ ‘
; ,227 He was afterwards Scabinus in 1537 et feq. and Conful m 1552 et feq. But in
land he was cruelly killed by the Spaniffi foldiers, May 23. 1563. There are fome letters of Hadrian Junius
this Talefius, in the Epijlolce Juniame, p. 198.
P R I [ .36.3 ] P R I
Printing.
Sower and
Nichols’’s
Origin oj
Printing.
fancy of printing (as nothing is complete at its firft in¬
vention) the back Tides of the pages were patted toge¬
ther, that they might not by their nakednefs betray their
deformity. Thefe beechen letters he afterwards changed
for leaden ones, and thefe again for a mixture of tin and
lead [slannece] as alefs flexible and more folid and dur¬
able fubltance. Of the remains of which types, when
they were turned to wad*-' metal, thofe old wine-pots
were call, that are ftill preferved in the family-houfe,
which looks into the market-place, inhabited afterwards
’by his great-grandfon Gerard Thomas, a gentleman of
reputation ; whom I mention for the honour of the
family, and who died old a few years lince. A new
invention never fails to engage curiofity. And when a
commodity never before feen excited purchafers, to the
advantage of the inventor, the admiration of the art in-
creafed, dependents were enlarged, and w’orkmen mul¬
tiplied •, the firft calamitous incident! Among thefe was
one John, whether, as w?e fafpeci, he had ominoufly the
name of Faujhis (b), unfaithful and unlucky to his
matter, or whether it was really a perfon of that name,
I fhall not much inquire ; being unwilling to molett the
filent ttiades, -who fuffer from a confcioufnefs of their
part a&ions in this life. This man, bound by oath to
keep the fecret of printing, when he thought he had
learned the art of joining the letters, the method of
calling the types, and other things of that nature,
taking the mod convenient time that Avas pottible, on
Chriftmas eve, when every one was cuftomarily employ¬
ed in luftral facrifices, feizes the colledlion of types, and
all the implements his matter had got together, and,
with one accomplice, marches off to Amfterdam, thence
to Cologne, and at laft fettled at Mentz, as at an afylum
of fecurity, where he might go to work with the tools
he had ftolen. It is certain, that in a year’s time, viz.
in 1442, the Do&rinale of Alexander Galius, which rvas
a grammar much ufed at that time, together w’ith the
TraBs of Peter of Spain, came forth there, from the
fame types as Laurentius had made ufe of at Haerlem.”
Thus far the narrative of Junius, which he had fre¬
quently heard from Nicolaus Galius; to whom it was
related by Cornelius himfelf, who lived to a great age,
and ufed to burft into tears upon reflefting on the lofs
his matter had fuftained, not only in his fubttance, but in
his honour, by the roguery of his fervant, his former
affociate and bedfellow. Cornelius, as appears by the
regifters of Haerlem cathedral, died either in 151 or
the beginning of the following year •, fo that he might
very well give this information to Nicolaus Galius, who
was fchoolmafter to Hadrian Junius.
Though this circumftance is probable as to the main
fa&, yet we mutt fet afide the evidence of it in fome
particulars. 1. The firft obvious difficulty is noticed
by Scriverius •, “ that the types are faid to be made of
the rind of beach, which could not be ftrong enough to
bear the impreflion of the prefs:” though this is re¬
moved, if, inftead of the barh, we fubftitute a bough of
the beech. The idea of the barh, when Junius wrote
this, was perhaps ftrong in his mind, from what Virgil
tells us (Eel. v. 13.) of its being ufual to cut words on
the bark of a beech j and thence he was eafily led to
make'a wrong application of it here.
2. The letters were at firft wooden, and are faid to be
afterwards exchanged for metal types 5 from which the
wine-pOts were formed, remaining in the time of Junius^
According to tradition, printing was carried on in the
fame houfe long after the time of Laurentius : thefe
pots might therefore be formed from the watte metal of
the printing-houfe, after the ufe oj fujile ti/pes became
univerfal.—But Laurentius feems to have carried the
art no farther than feparote wooden types. What is a
remarkable confirmation of this, Henry Spiechel, who
wrote, in the 16th century, a Dutch poem intitled
Hertfpiegel, expreffes himfelf thus: “ Thou firft, Lau¬
rentius, to fupply the defect of wooden tablets, adaptedfl:
wooden types, and afterwards didft conneft them with a
thread, to imitate writing. A treacherous fervant fur-
reptitio'ufly obtained the honour of the difcovery. But
truth itfelf, though deftituteof common and wide-fpread
fame ; truth, I fay, ftill remains.” No mention in the
poem of metal types; a circumftance which, had he been
robbed of fuch, as well as of wooden ones, would fcarcely
have been paffed over in filence.
When Laurentius firft devifed his rough fpecimen of
the art, can only be gueffed at. He died in 1440, af¬
ter having publiftied the Speculum Belgia/m, and two
editions of Donatus, all with different wooden types;
which it is probable (confidering the difficulties he had
to encounter, and the many artifts whom he muft necef-
farily have had oceafion to confult) coft him fome years
to execute ; fo that the firft effay might be about 1430,
which nearly agrees with Petrus Scriverius, who fays
the invention was about 10 or 12 years before 1440.
See Laurentius.
3. What was the fpecimen he firft diverted himfelf
with in cutting, at the diftance of three centuries, one
would think impoflible to be difcovered. And yet
Jfcih. Enfchedius, a printer, thinks he was fo happy as
to find it, being an old parchment Horarium, printed
on both fides, in eight pages, containing the Letters of
the Alphabet, the Lord’s Prayer, the Apoftles Creed
and three {hurt prayers. And Mr Meerman having
ftiown this to proper artifts who were judges of thefe
matters, they gave it as their opinion that it agreed
exactly with the defcription of Junius. It is conforma¬
ble to the firft editions of the Dutch Speculum Salvationis,
and the fragments of both Donatus''s of Holland, both
which are the works of the fame Laurentius, and were
preceded by this. In thefe types, which are certainly
moveable, cut, and uneven, there is a rudenefs which
Mr Meerman has not obferved in any other inftances.
There are no numbers to the pages, no fignatures, no
direBion-words, no divifions at the end of the lines ; on
the contrary, a fyllable divided in the middle is feen,
thus, Sp iritu, in p. 8. 1. 2, 3. There are neither dif-
tin&ions nor points, which are feen in the other works
of Laurentius*, and the letter / is not marked with an
accent, but with a dot at the top. The lines through-
Z z 2 out
(b) John Faujl, or Fuji, is bv many fuppofed to have derived his name from favjhis, “ happy *,” and Dr Fauftus
feems to carry an air of grandeur in the appellation : but very erreneoufly. John Faujl, or Fuji, is no more than
John Hand, whence our name Fiji.
Print in?.
PHI [ 364 ] P R I
out are uneven. The fhape of the pages not always
the fame; not (as they fhould he) re&angular, but fome-
times rhomb-like, fometimes an ifojccle trapezium : and
the performance feems to be left as a fpecimen both of
his piety, and of his ingenuity in this eflay of a new in¬
vented art. Mr Meerman has given an exaft engraving
xȣ this Angular curiofity.
But, whatever elfe may appear doubtful in the nar¬
rative of Junius, it is very clear, that the firit tffays
of the art are to be attributed to Laurentius, who ufed
only feparate wooden types. See the article Lauren-
TICJS.
II. Some of Laurentius’s types urere flolen from him
by one of his fervants (c) John GEINSFLE1CH fenior}
who fled therewith to MEN 1 Z. Having introduced
the art from Haerlem into this his native city, he fet
with all diligence to carry it on; and publilhed, in 1442,
Alex AND RI GaLLI Doftrinale, and PETRI H ISP AN I
TraBatus', two works, which, being fmall, belt fuited
his circumftances ; and for which, being much ufed in
the fchools, he might reafonabiy expeft a profitable fale.
They were executed with wooden types, cut after the
model of thofe he had ftolen.
In 1443 he hired the houfe Sum Jlunsen; and was
aflifted
Priiitinn.
Claim of
Mentz.
(c) Authors differ as to the perfon who committed this robbery. It is clear from all accounts that his name
was John; but what his furname was is the difputed point. Junius, after fome hefitation, aferibes it to John Full;
but with injuftice : for he was a wealthy man, who aflifted the firft printers at Mentz with money; and though he
afterwards was proprietor of a printing-office, yet he never, as far as appears, performed any part of the bufinefs
with his own hands, and confequently he could never have been a fervant to Laurentius. Nor is the conjedure of
Scriverius better founded, which fixes it upon John Gutenberg, who (as appears by authentic teftlrnonies) refided
at Strafburg from 1436 to 1444, and during all that period employed much fruitlefs labour and expence in endea¬
vouring to attain this art. Mr Meerman once thought, “ it might be either John Meidenbachius, (who, we are
told by Seb. Munfter and the author of Chronographia Moguntinenjis, was an afliftant to the firft Mentz printers);
or John Peterftieimius (who was fome time a fervant to Fult and Schoeffer, and fet up a printing-houfe at Francfort
in I459): or, laftly, fome other perfon, who, being unable through poverty to carry on the bufinefs, difeoveredit
to Geinsjleich at Mentz.” But more authentic intelligence afterwards convinced him there were two perfons of
this name ; and that John Geinsfleich fenior * was the difhoneft fervant, who was born at Mentz, and who in the
papers publiflied by Kohlerus, we find there in the year 1441, and not before : for though he was of a good family,
yet he was poor, and feems to have been obliged, as well as his brother, to feek his livelihood in a foreign coun¬
try ; and perhaps wras content to be under Laurentius, that, when he had learned the art, he might follow it in
his own. But, to leave conjecture, we may produce fome certain teftimonies.
r. It is what Junius himfelf fays, that the perfon who ftole the types did it with a view to fet up elfewhere ;
nor is it likely that he would either make no ufe of an art he had feen fo profitable to Laurentius, or that he would
teach it to another and fubmit to be again a fervant.
The Lambeth Record (which is printed below, from Mr Atkyns) tells us, that “ Mentz gained the art by
the brother of one of the workmen of Haerlem, who learned it at home of his brother, who after fet up for himfelf
at Mentz.”—By the ftri&eft examination of the beft authorities, it is plain, that by thefe two brothers the two
Geinsfleiches muff: be meant. But as the younger {Gutenberg') was never a fervant to Laurentius, it muft be the
fenior who carried off" the types, and inftrucled his brother in the art ; who firft applied himfelf to the bufinefs at
SStrafburg, and afterwards joined his elder brother, who had in the mean time fettled at Mentz.
What is ftill ftronger, two chronologers of Strafburg, the one named Dan Speklinus, the other anonymous (in
Meerman’s Documenta, N° l.xxxv. lxxxvi.), tell us exprefsly, that John Geinsfleich (viz. the fenior, whom
they diftinguifhed from Gutenberg), having learned the art by being fervant to its jirjl inventor, carried it by theft
into Mentz his native country. They are right in the fad, though miftaken in the application of it; for they
make Strafburg the place of the invention, and Mentelius the inventor, from whom the types were ftolen. But
this is plainly an error : for Geinsfleich lived at Mentz in 1441, as appears from undoubted teftimonies ; and could
not be a fervant to Mentelius, to whom the before-mentioned writers aferibe the invention in 1440, though more
ancient ones do not attempt to prove that he began to print before 1444 or 1448. Nor will the narrative agree
better with Gutenberg, who was an earlier printer than Mentelius ; fince, among the evidences produced by him
in his law-fuit, 1439, no Geinsfleich fenior appears, nor any other fervant but Laurentius Beildek. The narra¬
tion therefore of the theft of Geinsfleich, being fpread by various reports through the world, and fubfifting in the
time of thefe chronologers, was applied by them (to ferve the caufe they wrote for) to Strafburg ; but ferves to
confirm the truth, fince no writer derives the printing fpoils from any other country than Holland or Alfatia.
The chronologers have likewife, inftead of Full, called Gutenberg the wealthy man ; who, from all circumftances,
appears to have been poor. They alfo call Schoeffer the fon-in-law of Mentelius; when it is clear that he married
the daughter of Full.
* He was called Ceinsfleich xar ; d!e other was diftinguiflied by the name of Gutenberg. They were both poor ; though
of a family diftinguifhed by knightheod. They were both married men ; and were moft probably brothers, as it was not uncommon
in that age for two brothers to have the fame Chriftian name. Thefe both appear in a difreputable light. The eldeft robbed his
matter, with many aggravating circumftances. The yourgeft was remarkably contentious; and, after entering into a contract of
marriage with Anna, a noble girl of The Iron Gate, refufed to marry her till compelled by a judicial decree ; and afterwards cared
not what became of the lady, but left her behind at Stralburg when he removed to Mentz. He had not only frequent quarrels with
his wife ; but with Andrew Dri%eken, Andrew Heilrnann, and John Riff, all of whom were aflbeiated with him at Strafburg in his
different employments of making of looking-glaffes, polilhing of precious (tones, and endeavouring to attain the art of printing ; and
with thefe he involved hinrfelf in three kw-fuits. See Meerman, vol. i. p. 163, Stc. N.
P R I [ 3% ] P R I
Fritting. alTifttd with money by Fust, a wealthy perfon, who in
“"'Y—return had a ihare of the bufinefs : and about the fame
time John Meidenbachius was admitted a partner, as were
fome others vvhofe names are not tranfmitted to our
times •, and in 1444 they were joined by Gutenberg,
who for that purpofe quitted Strafburg. Wooden types
being found not fufficiently durable, and not anfwering
expeflation in other refpedls, the two brothers firft in¬
vented cut metal types. But while thefe were preparing,
which mull have been a work of time, feveral works
were printed, both on wooden feparate types and on
wooden blocks ; which were Avell adapted to fmall books
of frequent ufe, fuch as the Tabula Alphabetical the Ca-
tholicon, Donati Grammatical and the ConfeJJionalia.
From the above-mentioned printers in conjunction, af¬
ter many fmaller effays, the Bible was publiihed in 1450,
with large cut metal types (d). And it is no wonder,
confidering the immenfe labour this work colt, that it
fliould be feven or eight years in completing. In this
fame year the partnerfhip was difiblved, and a hew one
entered into, in Auguft, between Fuji and Gutenberg ;
the former fupplying the money, the latter fkill, for
their common benefit. Various difficulties arifing,
occafioned a law-fuit for the money which Fuft had ad¬
vanced j which was determined againft Gutenberg. A
diffolution of this partnerffiip enfued in 1455 j and in
1457 a magnificent edition of the Pfalter was publiffied
by Fuji and Schaeffer, with a remarkable commendation,
in which they affumed to themfelves the merit of a new
invention (viz. of metal types'), ad inventionem artifici-
ofam imprimendi ac charadlervzandi. This book was
uncommonly elegant, and in fome meafure the work of
Gutenberg j as it was four years in the prefs, and came
out but 18 months after the partnerffiip was diffolved
between him and Fuft.
The latter continued in poffeffion of the printing-
office : and Gutenberg, by the pecuniary affiftance of
Conrad Humery fyndic of Mentz (e), and others,
opened another office in the fame city ; whence appear¬
ed, in 1460, without the printer’s name, the Catholicon
Jo. de Janua, with a pompous colophon in praife of its
beauty, and aferibing the honour of the invention to the Printing,
city of Mentz. It was a very handfome book, though '■““■'Y'*-"”
inferior to the Pfalter which had been publiffied in 1457
by Fuft and Schoeffer. Both the Pfalter and Catholicon
were printed on cut metal types (f). It may not be im¬
proper to obferve here, that as the Pfalter is the earlieft
book which is known to have a genuine date, it became
a common praClice, after that publication, for printers
to claim their own performances, by adding their names
to them.
III. The progrefs of the art has been thus traced
through its fecond period, the invention of cut metal types.
But the honour of completing the difeovery is due to
Peter Schoeffer (g) de Gernffieim.
A very clear account of this final completion of the ^
types is preferved by Trithemius (h). Fojft hcec invent is invent;orr,
fucceffcrantfubtiliora, inveneruntque modum fundendi for- 0f cafting
mas omnium Latini alphabeti literarum, quas ipfi matri- types,
ces nominabant: ex quibus rurfum a ticos Jive Jlanneos
characleres fundebant, ad omnem preffuram fuffeientes,
quos prius manibus fculpebant. Et revera Jicuti ante
xxx ferme annos ex ore Petri Opilionis de Gernjbeim,
civis Moguntini, qui gener erat primi artis invent oris,
audivi, magnam a primo inventionis fuse hcec ars impref-
J'oria h abuit difficult at em.—Petrus autemmemoratus Opilio,
tunc famulus pofea gener, Jicut diximus, inventoris primi
Johannis Fuji, homo ingeniofus et prudens, faciliorem mo-
dutn fundendicharadleres excogitavit,et artem,ut nunc ejl,
complevit.
Another ample teftimony in favour of Schoeffer is
given by Jo. Frid. Fauftus of Afchaffenburg, from pa¬
pers preferved in his family : “ Peter Schoeffer of Gernf-
heim, perceiving his mafter Full’s defign, and being him-
felf ardently defirous to improve the art, found out (by
the good providence of God) the method of cutting
(^incidendi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters
might eafily be fingly cajl inftead of being cut. He pri¬
vately cut matrices for the whole alphabet; and when he
ffiowed his mafter the letters call from thefe matrices,
Fuft was fo pleafed with the contrivance, that he promif-
ed Peter to give him his only daughter, Chriftina,in mar-
riage ;
(d) Many writers have fuppofed that this was the edition of which fome copies were fold in France, by Fuft, as
manuferipts, for the great price of 500 or 600 crowns, which he afterwards lowered to 60, and at laft to lefs than
40. But it was the fecond and more expenfive edition of 1462, that was thus dilpofed of, when Fuft went to Paris
in 1466, and which had coft 4000 florins before the third quaternion (or quire of four ffieets) was printed. Meer-
man, vol. i. p. 6. 151, 152.
(e) At the death of Gutenberg, Conrad Humery took poffeffion of all his printing materials ; and engaged to
the archbiffiop Adolphus, that he never would fell them to any one but a citizen of Mentz. Ihey vere, how¬
ever, foon difpofed of to Nicholas Bechtermuntze of Altavilla, who, in 1469, publiffied Vocabularium Latino-Teu~
tonicum, which was printed with the fame types which had been ufed in the Catholicon. T. his very curious and
fcarce Vocabulary was ffiown to Mr Meerman, by Mr Bryant, in the duke of Marlborough’s valuable library at
Blenheim. It is in quarto, 35 lines long, contains many extra&s from the Catholicon, and is called Ex quo, from
the preface beginning with thole words. Meerman, vol. ii. p. 96* .
Gutenberg never ufed any other than either wooden or cut metal types till the year 1462. In 1465 he was
admitted inter Aulicos by the eleClor Adolphus, with an annual penfion ; and died in February 1468. His elder"
brother Geinsfleich died in 1462. Their epitaphs are printed by Mr Meerman, vol. ii. p. 1 2?)y.
(G) In German, ©cfcoeffer ; In Latin, Opilio ; in Engliffi, Shepherd. He is fuppofed by Mr Meerman to
have been the firft engraver on copperplates. ...
(h) Annales Hirfaugienfes, tom. ii. ad ann. 1450.——As this book was finiflied in 15 r4* and Inthemius tells us
he had the narrative from Schoeffer himfelf about 30 years before; this will bring us back to 1484, wnen Schoeffer^
mull have been advanced in years, and Trithemius about 22 years old, who died in lyio. See V<ff. Hift. Lat. 1»
J. c. 10. Fabr. Med. & Infim. iEt. 1. 9.
3
PHI [ 366 ] PHI
Printing.
. 9
Claim of
Strafburg.
* Epitome
Ret umGer-
tnanicnrum
ed. \rgent.
i5°i.
Meerman,
vol. i.
p. 202.
vo) ii.
nagc ; a promife which he foon after performed. But
there were as many difficulties at firft with thefe letters,
as there had been before with wooden ones 5 the metal
being too foft to fupport the force of the impreffion : but
this defeft was foon remedied, by mixing the metal with
a fubftance whieh fufficiently hardened it (1).”
Full and Schoeffer concealed this new improvement,
by adminiftering an oath of fecrecy to all whom they
intrufled, till the year 1462 $ when, by the difperfion of
their fervants into different countries, at the facking of
Mentz by the archbiffiop Adolphus, the invention was
publicly divulged.
The firft book printed with thefe improved types was
Durandi Rationale, in 14^9; at which time, however,
they feem to have had only one Ji%e of ew/? letters, all the
larger charafters which occur being cut types, as appears
plainly by an infpe&ion of the book. From this time to
1466, Full and Schoeffer continued to print a confider-
able number of books; particularly two famous editions
of Tally's Offices. In their earlieft books, they printed
more copies on vellum than on paper, which was the cafe
both of their Bibles and Tally's Offices. This, however,
was foon inverted ; and paper introduced for the greateft
part of their impreffions; a few only being printed on
vellum for curiofities, and for the purpofe of being Mu*
minated. How long Full lived, is uncertaip ; but in
1471 wTe find Schoeffer was in partnerfhip with Conrad
Hcnlif and a kinfman of his mailer Full. He publilhed
many books after the death of his father-in-law ; the laft
of which that can be difcovered is a third edition of the
Tfalter in 1490, in which the old cut types of the firft
edition were ufed.
IV. With regard to the claim of STHASBURG :
It h as been already mentioned, that Gutenberg was en¬
gaged in that city in different employments; and, among
others, in endeavouring to attain the art of printing.
That thefe endeavours were unfuccefsful, is plain from
an authentic judicial decree of the fenate of Strafburg
in 1439, after the death of Andrew Drizehen (k).
But there are manv other proofs that Gutenberg and
his partners were never able to bring the art to perfec¬
tion.
1. Wimphelingius *, the oldefl writer in favour of
Strafburg, tells us, that Gutenberg was the inventor of
“ a new art of writing,” ars impreffioria, which might
alfo be called a divine benefit, and which he happily
completed at Mentz ; but does not mention one book
of his printing : though he adds, that Mentelius print¬
ed many volumes corre&ly and beautifully, and acquired
P- 139-
great wealth ; whence we may conclude that he per- Pntitltig,
fe6fed what Gutenberg had in vain effayed. ^
2. Wimphelingius, in another bookf, tells us, the f Gated.
art of printing was found out by Gutenberg incomplete ffiP’fi- A'‘-
which implies, not that he pra£lifed the art in an im-^^1^08*
perfedt manner (as Laurentius had done at Haerlem), ut
but rather that he had not been able to accompliffi what
he aimed at.
3. Gutenberg, when he left Strafburg in 1444 or
the following year, and entered into partnerfhip with
Geinsfleich fenior and others, had occafion for his bro¬
ther’s affiflance to enable him to complete the art;
which (hows that his former attempts at Strafburg had
been unfuccefsful J. I Meermaw
4. Thefe particulars are remarkably confirmed by^J^™’
Trithemius, who tells us, in two different places §, that Hirjag.'
Gutenberg fpent all his fubflance in quell of this art ; ut fupra, el
and met with fuch infuperable difficulties, that, in de-^row
fpair, he had nearly given up all hopes of attaining it, Sp*nheim.
till he was affilted by the liberality of Fhfl, and by bis^J^*^*
brother’s fkill, in the city of Mentz. ii. p.’io3.
5. Ulric Zell fays || the art was completed at Mentz ; 127.
but that forpe books had been publiffied in Holland ear- Ch’oniam
lier than in that city. Is it likely that Zell, who was
German, would have omitted to mention Strafburg, if
it had preceded Mentz in printing ?
There is little doubt, therefore, that all Gutenberg’s
labours at Strafburg amounted to no more than a fruit-
lefs attempt, which he was at laft under the neceffity of
relinquifhing : and there is no certain proof of a fingle
book having been printed in that city till after the dif¬
perfion of the printers in 1462, when Mentelius and JEg-
geftenius fuccefsfully purfued the bufinefs.
In fine,, the pretenfions of Strafburg fall evidently to
be fet afide. And as to the other two cities, Haerlem
and Mentx, the difputes between them feem eafily clear¬
ed up, from the twofold invention of printing above
mentioned : the firft with feparate WOODEN types at
Haerlem, by Laurentius, about 1430, and after conti¬
nued by his family ; the other with METAL types, firft:
cut, and afterwards which were invented at Mentz,
but not ufed in Holland till brought thither by Theodo-
ric Martens at Aloft about 1472.
From this period printing made a rapid progrefs in
moft of the principal towns of Europe. In 1490, it
reached Conftantinople ; and, according to Mr Palmer,
p. 281, &c. it was extended, by the middle of the next
century, to Africa and America. It was introduced
into Ruffia about 1360 : but, from motives either of
policy
(1) See Meerman, vol. i. p. 183. who copied this teftimony from Wolfius, Monument. Typograph. vol. i. p. 468.
et feq.
(k) Their firft attempts were made about 1436 with wooden types. Mr Meerman is of opinion that Geinsfieich
junior (who was of an enterprifing genius, and had already engaged in a variety of projects) gained fome little in¬
fight into the bufinefs by vifiting his brother who was employed by Laurentius at Haerlem, but not fufficient to
enable him to pra£!ife it. It is certain that, at the time of the law-fuit in 1439, much money had been expended,
without any profit having arifen ; and the unfortunate Drizehen, in 1438, on his death-bed, lamented to his con-
feffor, that he had been at great expence, without having been reimburfed a fingle obolus. Nor did Gutenberg
(who perfifted in his fruitlefs endeavours) reap any advantage from them ; for, when he quitted Strafburg, he was
overwhelmed in debt, and under a neceffity of felling every thing he was in poffeffion of. [Meerman, vol. i.
p. 198—202.]. AH the depofitions in the law-fuit above mentioned (with the judicial decree) are printed by Mr
Meerman, vol. ii. p. 58—-88. N.
P R I
[ 367 1
P R I
Printing.
10
Introduc¬
tion of the
art into
Britain.
n
The firft
printing-
prefs fee up
in England,
was at Ox¬
ford.
policy or duperftition, it was fpeedily fuppreffed by the
ruling powers ; and, even under the prefent enlightened
emprefs, has fearcely emerged from its obfeurity.—That
it was early praclifed in the inhofpitable regions of Ice¬
land, we have the refpedlable authority of Mr Bryant:
“ Arngrim Jonas was born amidft the fnows of Ice¬
land } yet as much prejudiced in favour of his country
as thofe who are natives of ^a happier climate. This
is vifible in his Cnjtnogcea, but more particularly in his
Anatome Blefkiniana. I have in my poffeflion this cu¬
rious little treatife, written in Latin by him in his own
country, and printed Typis Holenfibus in IJlamlia Borea-
li anno 1612. Rola is placed in fome maps within the
Ar&ic circle, and is certainly not far removed from it.
I believe it is the fartheft north of any place where arts
and fciences have ever redded.” Obfervations and In¬
quiries relating to various parts of Ancient HiJlonj, 1767,
p. 277.
It was a conftant opinion, delivered down by our his¬
torians, as hath been obferved by Dr Middleton, that
the Art of Printing v/as introduced and firft praftifed in
England by William Cax ton, a mercer and citizen of
London \ who, by his travels abroad, and a refidence of
many years in Holland, Flanders, and Germany, in tlm
affairs of trade, had an opportunity of informing himfelf
of the whole method and procefs of the art $ and by the
encouragement of the great, and particularly of the ab¬
bot of Weftminfter, firft fet up a prefs in that abbey,
and began to print books foon after the year 1471.
This was the tradition of our writers •, till a book,
which had fcarce been obferved before the Reftoration,
was then taken notice of by the curious, with a date of
its impreffion from Oxford, anno 1468, and was confi-
dered immediately as a clear proof and monument of
the exercife of printing in that univerfity feveral years
before Caxton began to deal in it.
This book, which is in the public library at Cam¬
bridge, is a fmall volume of 41 leaves in 4to, with this
title : Expofitio San&i Jeronimi in Simbolum Apoftolorwn
ad Papam Laurentium: and at the end, Explicit expofitio,
is'e. Impreffa Oxomeetfimta Anno Domini m.cccc.lxviii.
xvii. die Decembris.
The appearance of this book has robbed Caxton of
a glory that he had long polfeffed, of being the author
of printing in this kingdom \ and Oxford has ever fince
carried the honour of the firft prefs. The only difficulty
was, to account for the filence of hiftory in an event fo
memorable, and the want of any memorial in the univer¬
fity itfelf concerning the eftabliftiment of a new art
amongft them of fuch ufe and benefit to learning. But
this likewife has been cleared up by the difeovery of a
record, which had lain obfeure and unknown at Lam-
beth-palace, in the Regifter of the See of Canterbury,
and gives a narrative of the whole tranfa£lion, drawn up
at the very time.
An account of this record was firft publiftied in a thin
quarto volume, in Englifti; with this title: “ Ihe
Original and Growth of Printing, colie6led out of
Hiftory, and the Records of this Kingdome : wherein
is alfo demoftrated, that Printing appertaineth to the
Prerogative Royal, and is a Flower of the Crown of
England. By Richard Atkyns, efq.—Whitehall, April
the 25. 1664. By order and appointment of the right
honourable Mr Secretary Morrice, let this be printed.
4
Tho. Rycaut, London : Printed by John Streater, ror
the Author, 1664.'” 4to.
It fets forth in ftiort, “ That as foon as the art of
printing made fome nolle in Europe, 1 homas Bour-
chier, archbiftiop of Canterbury, moved the then king
(Henry VI.) to ufe all poffible means for procuring a
printing mould (for fo it was then called) to be brought
into this kingdom. The king (a good man, and much
given to works of this nature) readily hearkened to the
motion ; and taking private advice how to effett his
defign, concluded it could not be brought about with¬
out great fecrecy, and a confiderable fum of money gi¬
ven to fuch perfon or perfons as would draw off lome
of the workmen of Haerlem in Holland, where John
Gutenberg had-newly invented it, and was himfelf per-
fonally at work. It was refolved, that lefs than 1000
merks would not produce the defired effeft j towards
which fum the faid archbilhop prefented the king 300
merks. The money being now prepared, the manage¬
ment of the defign was committed to Mr Robert iur-
nour, who then was mafter of the robes to the king, and
a perfon moft in favour with him of any of his condition.
Mr Tumour took to his affiftance Mr Caxton, a citizen
of good abilities, who traded much into Holland j which
was a creditable pretence, as well for his going, as flay
in the Low Countries. Mr Tumour was in difguife
(his beard and hair lhaven quite oft ) } but Mr Caxton
appeared known and public. They, having received
the faid fum of 1000 merks, went firft to Amfterdam,
then to Leyden, not daring to enter Haerlem itfelf j for
the town was very jealous, having imprifoned and ap¬
prehended divers perfons who came from othei* parts for
the fame purpofe. They ftaid till they had Ipent the
whole thoufand merks in gifts and expences: fo as the
king was fain to fend 500 merks more, Mr lurnour
having written to the king that he had almoft done his
work ; a bargain, as he faid, being ftruck betwixt him
and two Hollanders, for bringing off one of the under¬
workmen, whofe name was Frederick Corfells (or rather
Corfellis), who late one night ftole from his fellows in
difguife into a veffel prepared before for that purpofe $
and fo, the wind favouring the defign, brought him fafe
to London. It was not thought fo prudent to fet him
on work at London: but, by the archbiffiop’s means
(who had been vice-chancellor and afterwardschanccdlor
of the univerfity of Oxon), Corfellis was carried with a
guard to Oxon j which guard conftantly watched, to
prevent Corfellis from any poffible efcape, till he had
made good his promife in teaching them how to print.
So that at Oxford, printing was firft let up in England,
which was before there was any printing-prefs or print¬
er in France, Spain, Italy, or Germany (except the
city of Mentz), which claims feniority, as to printing,
even of Haerlem itfelf, calling her city. Urban Mogun-
tinam artis typographic^ inventricem primam ; though it
is known to be otherwife, that city gaining the art by
the brother of one of the workmen of Haerlem, who
had learnt it at home of his brother, and after fet up for
himfelf at Mentz. This prefs at Oxon was at leaft ten
years before there was any printing in Europe, except
at Haerlem and Mentz, where it was but new-born. This-
prefs at Oxford was afterwards found inconvenient to
be the foie printing-place of England •, as being too far
from London and the fea. Wherefore the king let up a
prefs
P II 1 [ 368 ] PR!
■'Pruning- pfefs at St Alban’s, and another in the city of Weft mi n-
' * ^ fter, where they printed feveral books of divinity and phy-
Jic : for the king (for reafons belt known to himfelf and
council) permitted then no law-books to be printed; nor
did any printer exercife that art, but only fuch as Avere
the king’s fvvorn fervants j the king himfelf having the
price and emolument for printing books.—By this means
the art greAv fo famous, that anno primo Richard III.
c. 9. Avhen an a£t of parliament was made for reftraint
of aliens for ufing any handicrafts here (except as fer¬
vants to natives), a fpecial provifo Avas infer ted, that
ftrangers might bring in printed or Avritten books to fell
at their pleafure, and exercife the art of printing here,
notAvithftanding that aft : fo that in the fpace of 40 or
50 years, by the indulgence of Edward IV, Edward V.
Richard III. Henry VII. and Henry VIII. the Eng-
lifh proved fo good proficients in printing, and grew fo
numerous, as to furnifh the kingdom AA'ith books $ and
fo fkilful, as to print them as well as any beyond the
feas; as appears by the aft 25 Hen. VIII. c. 15. Avhich
abrogates the faid provifo for that reafon. And it
was further enafted in the faid flatute, that if any per-
fon bought foreign books bound, he fhould pay 6s. 8d.
per book. And it Avas further provided and enafted,
that in cafe the faid printers or fellers of books Avere
unreafonable in their prices, they fhould be moderated
by the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, the Iavo lords
chief juftices, or any Iavo of them, Avho alfo had poAVer
to fine them 3s. 4d. for every book Avhofe price fhould
be enhanced.—But Avhen they Avere by charter corpora-
ted Avith bookbinders, bookfellers, and founders of letters,
3 and 4 Philip and Mary, and called The Company of
Stationers, they kick’d againft the posver that gave them
^ life, &c.—Queen Elizabeth, the firft year of her reign,
grants by patent the privilege of foie printing all books
that touch or concern the common laws of England, to
Tottel a fervant to her majefty, Avho kept it entire to
his death ; after him, to one Yefi: Weirt, another fer¬
vant to her majefty •, after him, to Weight and Norton ;
and after them, King James grants the fame privilege
to More, one of the fignet; which grant continues to
ja this day, &c.”
Whether From the authority of this record, all our later Avri-
Caxton or ters declare Corfellis to be the firft printer in England j
w-ufthe Anthony Wood, the learned Mr Maittaire, Palmer,
fiift printer. and one John Bagford, an induftrious man, avIio had
publifhed propofals for An Hiftory of Printing, (Phil.
Tranf. for April 1707). But Dr Middleton has called
in queftion the authenticity of this account, and has ur¬
ged feveral objeftions to it, Avith the view of fupporting
Caxton’s title to the precedency Avith refpeft to the
introduftion of the art into this country 5 of which Ave
fhall quote one or Iavo, with the anfvvers that have been
made to them.
Objeftion 1.—“ The filence of Caxton concerning a
faft in which he is faid to be a principal aftor, is a fuf-
ficient confutation of it: for it was a conftant cuftom
Avith him, in the prefaces or conclufions of his Avorks,
to give an hiftorical account of all his labours and tranf-
aftions, as far as they concerned the publiftiing and
printing of books. And, what is ftill ftronger, in the
continuation of the Polychronicon, compiled by himfelf,
and carried down to the end of Henry the Sixth’s reign,
he makes no mention of the expedition in queft of a
printer : which he could not have omitted had it been
true ; Avhilft in the fame book he takes notice of the Printing,
invention and beginning of printing in the city of '“‘‘“V*—'
Mentz.”
AnfAver.—As Caxton makes no mention in his Poly¬
chronicon of his expedition in quejl of a printer ; fo nei¬
ther floes he of his bringing the art into England, Avhich
it is as much a wonder he ftiould omit as the other.
And as to his faying that the invention of printing was
at Mentsr,, he means, of printing on fufle feparate types.
In this he copies, as many others have, from the Faf-
ciculus Temporum; a Avork Avritten in 1470, by Wer-
nerus Rolevinch de Laer, a Carthufian monk, a MS.
copy of Avhich Aras in the library of Gerard Jo. Voflius
(fee lib. iii. de Hi/lor. Latin, c. 6.) $ and afterwards
continued to the year 1474, Avhen it Avas firft printed at
Cologne typis Arnoldi ter Huernen. It was republifhed
in 1481 by Heinricus Wirczburgh de Vach, a Cluniac
monk, Avithout mentioning the name either of the prin¬
ter or of the place of publication. It is plain that Cax¬
ton had one at leaft, or more probably both, of thefe
editions before him, Avhen he Avrote his continuation of
Polychronicon, as he mentions this Avork in his preface,
and adopts the fentiments of its editor. (See Meer-
MAN, vol. ii. p. 37. and his Documenta, N° vii. xxiv.
and xxv.).
Obj. 2.—“ There is a farther circumftance in Cax¬
ton’s hiftory, that it feems inconfiftent with the record j
for Ave find him ftill beyond fea, about 12 years after
the fuppofed tranfaftions, “ learning Avith great charge
and trouble the art of printing” (Recu/e of the Hi/Iorief
of Troye, in the end of the 2d and 3d books) 5 Avhich
he might have done with eafe at home, if he had got
Corfellis into his hands, as the record imports, fo many
years before : but he probably learnt it at Cologne,
where he refided in J471, (Recule, &c. ibid.), and
whence books had been firft printed Avith date the year
before.”
Anf.—Caxton tells us, in the preface to The Hi/lory
of Troye, that he began that tranfiation March 1. 1468,
at Bruges •, that he proceeded on with it at Ghent ;
that he finifhed it at Cologne in 1471 •, and printed it,
probably, in that city Avith his own types. He Avas 30
years abroad, chiefly in Holland; and lived in the court
of Margaret duchefs of Burgundy, After of EdAvard
IV. It Avas therefore much eafier to print his book at
Cologne, than to crofs the fea to learn the art at Oxford.
But further, there Avas a fpecial occafion for his print¬
ing it abroad. Corfellis had brought over fo far the
art of printing as he had learned it at Haerlem, which
Avas the method of printing on wooden feparate types,
having the face of the letter cut upon them. But the
art of cafing metal types being divulged in 1462 by the
W'orkmen of Mentz, Caxton thought proper to learn
that advantageous branch before he returned to Eng¬
land. This method of carting the types Avas fuch an im¬
provement, that they looked on it as the original of
printing ; and Caxton, as moft others do, aferibes that
to Mentz.—Caxton Avas an afliftant with Tumour in
getting off Corfellis ; but it is noAvhere fuppofed that he
came Avith him into England. (See Meerman, vol. ii.
p. 34. B.).
Obj. 3.—“ As the Lambeth record Avas never heard
of before the publication of Atkyri's book, fo it has never
fince been feen or produced by any man ; though the
regifters of Canterbury have on many occafions been di¬
ligently
P R I [ 369 ] P R I
frmting, Hgently and particularly fearched for it. They were
“'‘'"V—"'1 examined, without doubt, very carefully by Archbifhop
Parker, for the compiling his Antiquities of the Britijh
Church ; where, in the life of Thomas Bourchier, though
he congratulates that age on the noble and ufeful in¬
vention of printing, yet he is filent as to the introduc¬
tion of it into England by the endeavours of that arch-
biflaop : nay, his giving the honour of the invention to
Strafburg clearly fhews that he knew nothing of the
ftory of Corfellis conveyed from Haerlem, and that the
record was not in being in his time. Palmer himfelf
owns, “ That it is not to be found there now } for that
the late.earl of Pembroke aflured him, that he had em¬
ployed a nerfon for fome time to fearch for it, but in
vain {Hijl- of Printing, p. 314.). On thefe grounds
we may pronounce the record to be a forgery ; though
all the writers above mentioned take pains to fupport its
credit, and call it an authentic piece.
Atkyns, who by his manner of writing feems to have
been a bold and vain man, might poflibly be the inven¬
tor ; for he had an intereft in impofingit upon the world,
in order to confirm the argument of his book, that
printing was of the prerogative royal; in oppofition to
the company of fationers, with whom he was engaged
in an expenfive fuit of law, in defence of the king's pa¬
tents, under which he claimed fome exclufive powers of
printing. For he tells us, p. 3. ‘ That, upon confider-
ing the thing, he could not but think that-a~public
perfon, more eminent than a mercer, and a public purfe,
mull needs be concerned in fo public a good : and the
more he confidered, the more inquifitive he was to find
out the truth. So that he had formed his hypothefis be¬
fore he had found his record ; which he publilhed, he
fays, as a friend to truth ; not to fuffer one man to be
intitled to the worthy achievements of another 5 and as
a friend to himfelf, not to lofe one of his beft arguments
of intitling the king to this art.’ But, if Atkyns was
not himfelf the contriver, he was impofed upon at leaft
by fome more crafty man j who imagined that his in¬
tereft in the caufe, and the warmth that he ftiewed in
profecuting it, would induce him to fwallow for genuine
whatever was offered of the kind.”
Anf.—On the other hand, is it likely that Mr At¬
kyns would dare to forge a record, to be laid before the
king and council, and which his adverfaries, with whom
he was at law, could difprove (2.) He fays he recei¬
ved this hiftory from a perfon of honour, who was fome
time keeper of the Lambeth library. It was eafy to
have confuted this evidence, if it was falfe, when he pu-
blifhed it, April 25. 1664.—(3.) John Bagford (who
was born in England 1651, and might know Mr At¬
kyns, who died in 1677), in his Hiftory of Printing at
Oxford, blames thofe who doubted of the authenticity of
the Lambeth MS.; and tells us that he knew Sir John
Birkenhead had an authentic copy of it, when in 1665
f which Bagford by fome miftake calls 1664, and is fol¬
lowed in it by Meerman] he was appointed by the houfe
of commons to draw up a bill relating to the exercife
of that art. This is confirmed by the Journals of that
houfe, Friday 061. 27. 1665, vol. viii. p. 622, where
it is ordered, that this Sir John Birkenhead ftiould carry
the bill on that head to the houfe of lords for their con¬
tent.—The a£l was agreed to in the upper houfe on
Puefday Oft. 31. and received the royal affent on the
fame day •, immediately after which the parliament was
Vol. XVII. Part I.
prorogued. See Journals of the Houfe of Lords, vol. Print
xi. p. 700.—It is probable, then, that after Mr At- “’“"v
kyns had publifhed his book in April 1664, the par¬
liament thought proper, the next year, to inquire into
the right of the king's prerogative ; and*that Sir John
Birkenhead took care to infpeft the original, then in
the cuftody of Archbithop Sheldon : and, finding it not
fufficient to prove what Mr Atkyns had cited it for,
made no report of the MS. to the houfe ) but only rmn
ved that the former law Ihould be renewed. The MS.
was probably never returned to the proper keeper of it •,
but was afterwards burnt in the fire of London, Sept.
13. 1666.—(4.) That printing was praftifed at Ox¬
ford, was a prevailing opinion long before Atkyns. Bry¬
an Twyne, in his Apologia pro Antiquitate Academic Ox-
onienfs, publiftied 1608, tells us, it is fo delivered down
in ancient writings ; having heard, probably, of this
Lambeth MS. And King Charles I. in his letters pa¬
tent to the Univeriity of Oxford, March 5. in the ele¬
venth of his reign, 1635, mentions printing as brought
to Oxford from abroad. As to what is objefted, “ that
it is not likely that the prefs fliould undergo a ten or
eleven years deep, viz. from 1468 to 1479,” it is pro¬
bably urged without foundation. Corfellis might print
feveral books without date or name of the place, as Ul-
ric Zell did at Cologne, from 1467 to 1473, and from
that time to 1494. Corfellis’s name, it may be faid,
appears not in any of his publications ; but neither does
that of Joannes Peterlheimius. [See Meerman, vol. i.
p. 34. 5 vol. ii. p. 21—27, &c.]
Further, the famous Shakefpeare, who was born in
1564, and died 1616, in the Second Part of Henry VI.
aft iv. fc. 7. introduces the rebel John Cade, thus up¬
braiding Lord Treafurer Say : “ Thou haft moft traite-
roufly corrupted the youth of the realm, in creating :i
grammar-fchool: and whereas, before, our forefathers
had no other book but the fcore and the tally, thou haft
caufed Printing to be ufed j and, contrary to the king,
his crown, and dignity, thou has built a paper-mill.”—
Whence now had Shakefpeare this accufation againft
Lord Say ? We are told in the Poetical Regifter, vol. ii.
p. 231. ed. Lond. 1724, that it was from Fabian, Pol.
Vergel, Hall, Hollingfhed, Grafton, Stow, Speed, &c.
But not one of thefe afcribes printing to the reign of
Henry VI. On the contrary, Stow, in his Annals,
printed at London, 1560, p. 686, gives it exprefsly to
William Caxton, 1471. “ The noble fcience of print¬
ing was about this time found out in Germany at Ma-
gunce, by one John Guthumburgus a knight. One
Conradus an Almaine brought it into Rome : William
Caxton of London, mercer, brought it into England
about the year 1471, and firft praftifed the fame in the
abbie of St Peter at Weftminfter j after which time it
was likewife praftifed in the abbies of St Auguftine at
Canterburie, Saint Albons, and other monafteries of
England.” What then {hall we fay, that the above is
an anachronifm arbitrarily put into the mouth of an ig¬
norant fellow out of Shakefpeare’s head ? We might be¬
lieve fo, but that we have the record of Mr Atkyns con¬
firming the fame in King Charles II.’s time. Shall we
fay, that Mr Atkyns borrowed the ftory from Shake¬
fpeare, and publiftied it with fome improvements of
money laid out by Henry VI. from whence it might be
received by Charles II. as a prerogative of the crown ?
But this is improbable, finee Bliakefpeare makes Lord
3 A Treafarer
sstr r\
3/°
P R I [
Printing. Treafurcr Say the xnftrument of importing it, of whom
Mr Atkyns mentions not a word. Another difference
there will Hill be between Shakefpeare and the l.ambeth
MS. ; the poet placing it before 1449, in which year
Lord Say was beheaded ; the MS. between 1454 and
1459, when Bourchier was archbiihop. We muff fay,
then, that Lord Say firft laid the fcheme, and fent fome
one to Haerlem, though without fuccefs j but after fome
years it was attempted happily by Bourchier. And we
mull conclude, that as the generality of writers have
overlooked the invention of printing at Haerlem with
wooden types', and have aferibed it to Mentz where me¬
tal types were firft made ufe of j fo in England they
have paffed by Corfellis (or the firft Oxford Printer,
whoever he was, who printed with wooden types at Ox¬
ford), and only mentioned Caxton as the original artift
who printed with metal types at Weftminfter. [See
Meerman, vol. ii. 7, 8.]. It is ft range,, that the
learned commentators on our great dramatic poet, who
are fo minutely particular upon lefs important occafions,
fhould every one of them, Dr Johnfon excepted, pafs by
this curious paffage, leaving it entirely unnoticed. And
how has Dr Johnfon trifled, by flightly remarking,
“ that Shakefpeare is a little too early with this accuia-
tion !”—-The great critic had undertaken to decipher
obfolete words, and inveftigate unintelligible phrafes *,
but never, perhaps, bellowed a thought on Caxton or
CorfeHis, on Mr Atkyns or the authenticity of the
Lambeth Record.
But, independent of the record altogether, the book
Hands firm as a monument of the exercifc of printing in
Oxford fix years older than any book of Caxton’s with
a date. In order to get clear of this ftrong faft Dr Mid¬
dleton, /
l. Suppofes the date in queftion to have been falfified
originally by the printer, either by defign or miftake ;
and an X to have been adopted or omitted in the age of
its impreffion. Examples of this kind, he fays, are
common in the hiftory of printing. And, “ whilft I
am now writing, an unexpected inftance is fallen into
my hands, to the fupport of my opinion j an Inaugura¬
tion Speech of the Woodwanlian Profejfor, Mr Mafon,
juft frefh from the prefs, with its date given 10 years
earlier than it fhould have been, by the omiflion of an x,
viz. mdccxxiv j and the very blunder exemplified in
the laft piece printed at Cambridge, which I fuppofe to
have happened in the firft from Oxford.”. To this it
has been very properly anfwered, That we fhould not
pretend to fet afide the authority of a plain date, with¬
out very ftrong and cogent reafons ; and what the Doc¬
tor has in this cafe advanced will not appear, on exami¬
nation, to carry that weight with it that he feems to
imagine. There may be, and have been, miftakes and
] P R I
forgeries in the date both of books and of records too j Printing.
but this is never allowed as a reafon for fufpe&ing fuch  7 
as bear no mark of either. We cannot from a blunder
in the laft; book printed at Cambridge, infer a like blun¬
der in the firft book printed at Oxford. Befides, the
type ufed in this our Oxford edition feems to be no fmall
proof of its antiquity, it is the German letter, and
very nearly the fame with that ufed by. Full [who has
been fuppofed to be] the firft; printer •, whereas Caxton
and Rood ufe a quite different letter, fomething between
his German and our old Englifh letter, which was foon
after introduced by De Worde and Pynfon.
2. “ For the probability of his opinion (he fays),
the book itfelf affords fuffieient proof ; for, not to infill
on what is lefs material, the neatnefs of the letter, and
regularity of the page, &c. above thole of Caxton, it has
one mark, that feems to have carried the matter beyond
probable, and to make it even certain, viz. the ufe of
fignatures, or letters of the alphabet placed at the bot¬
tom of the page, to (how the fequel ot the pages and
leaves of each book •, an improvement contrived for the
dire&ion of the bookbinders •, which yet was not prac-
tifed or invented at the time when this book is fuppofed
to be printed j for we find no fignatures in the books of
Fauft or Schoeffer at Mentz, nor in the improved or
beautiful irnpreffions of John de Spira and Jenfon at Ve¬
nice till feveral years later. We have a book in our
library, that feems to fix the very time of their inven¬
tion, at leaf! in Venice ; the place where the art itfelf
received the greateft improvements : BaldiItciura fuper
Codic. is’e. printed by Jo Jen de Colonia and Jo. Manthem
de Gherret'zem, anno mcccclxxiiii. It is a large and
fair volume in folio, xvithout fgnatures, till about the.
middle of the book, in which they are firft introduced,
and fo continued forward : which makes it probable,
that the firft thought of them was fuggefted during the
impredion4 for we have likewife LeBura Bartholifuper
Codic. &c. in two noble and beautiful volumes in folio,.
printed the year before at the fame place, by Vindelin
de Spira, without them : yet from this time forward
they are generally found in all the works of the Vene¬
tian printers, and from them propagated to the other
printers of Europe. They were ufed at (l) Cologne,
in 1475 i at Paris* I476-? by Caxton, not before 1480:
but if the difeovery had been brought into England, and
pradHfed at Oxford 12 years before, it is not probable
that he would have printed fo long at V eftminfter with¬
out them. Mr Palmer indeed tells us, p. 54, 180, that
Anihony Zarot was efteemed the inventor of fignatures}
and that they are found in a Terence printed by him at
Milan in the year 1470, in which he firft printed, I
have not feen that Terence } and can only fay that I
have obferved the want of them in fome later works of
this
(l) Dr Middleton is miftaken in the time and place of the invention of fignatures. They are to be found even
in very ancient MSS. which the earlieft printers very ftudioufly imitated } and they were even ufed in fome editions
from the office of Lawrence Cofter (whence Corfellis came), which confifted of wooden cuts, as in Figures typiceu
et antiliipicce Novi Tefamenti; and in fome editions with metal types, as in Gafp. Pergamenfis epifolce, publilhed
* SeeMait- at Paris, without a date, but printed A. D. 1470, (Maittaire*, Annal. vol. i. p. 25.) } and in MammetreBus,
mire. printed by Helias de Llouffen, at Bern in Switzerland, 1470; and in De Totnleh vifione, at Antwerp, 1472.
Venice, therefore, was not the place where they were firft introduced.—They began to be ufed in Baldus, it
feems, when the book was half finiihed. The printer of that book might not know, or did not think, ol the ufe
of them before. See Meertnan, vol. ii. p. 18 } and Phil, iranf. vol. xxiii. N 2c8. p. IJG9*
P R I [ 371 ] PHI
Printing, this as tvcll as of other excellent printers of the fame
place. But, allowing them to be in the Terence, and
Zarot the inventor, it confutes the date of our Oxford
book aS effectually as if they were of later origin at Ve¬
nice ; as I had reafon to imagine, from the teftimony of
all the books that I have hitherto met with.” —As
to thefe proofs, firft, the neatnefs of the letter, and the
regularity of the page, prove, if any thing, the very re-
verfe of what the Doftor alferts. The art of printing
was almoft in its infancy brought to perfeftion 5 but af¬
terwards dobafed by later printers, who confulted rather
the cheapnefs than the neatnefs of their work. Our
learned differtator cannot be unacquainted with the la¬
bours of Fuft and Jenfon. He muff know, that though
other printers may have printed more correftly, yet
fearce any excel them, either in the neatnefs of the
letter, or the regularity of the page. The fame may be
obferved in our Englifh printers. Caxton and Rood
were indifferently good printers; De Worde and Pyn-
fon were worfe; and tbofe that follow them mod abo¬
minable. This our anonymous Oxfoj'd printer excels
them all; and for this very reafon we fhould judge him
to be the moft ancient of all. Our differtator lays great
ftrefs on the ufe of fignatures. But no certain conclu-
fion can be drawn either from the ufe or non-ufe of
thefe leffer improvements of printing. They have in
different places come in ufe at different times, and have
not been continued regularly even at the fame places.
If Anthony Zarot ufed them at Milan in 1470, it is
certain later printers there did not follow his example;
and the like might happen alfo in England. But, what
is more full to our purpofe, we have in the Bodleian li¬
brary an AEfop’s Fables printed by Caxton. This is, it
is believed, the firft book which has the leaves number¬
ed. But yet this improvement, though more ufeful than
that of the fignatures, was difufed both by Caxton him-
felf and other later printers in England. It is therefore
not at all furprifing (if true) that the fignatures, though
invented by our Oxford printer, might not immediately
come into general ufe. And confequently, this particu¬
lar carries with it no fuch certain or effectual confuta¬
tion as our diflertator boafts of.
3. What the DoCfor thinks farther confirms his opi¬
nion is, “ That, from the time of the pretended date of
this book; anno 1468, we have no other fruit or produc¬
tion from the prefs at Oxford for 11 years next follow¬
ing; and it cannot be imagined that a prefs, eftablifhed
with fo much pains and expence, could be fuffered to be
fo long idle and ufelefs.”—To this it may be anfwered,
in the words of Oxonides, ill, That his books may
have been loft. Our firft printers, in thofe days of ig¬
norance, met with but fmall encouragement; they print¬
ed but few books, and but few copies of thofe books.
In after-times, when the fame books were reprinted
more correftly, thofe firft editions, which were not as
yet become curiofities, were put to common ufes. This
is the reafon that we have fo few remains of our firft
printers. We have only four books of Theodoric Rood,
who feems by his own verfes to have been a very cele¬
brated printer. Of John Lettou-William de Machlinia,
and the fchoolmaftcr of St Alban’s, wTe have fcarce any
remains. If this be confidered, it will not appear im-
pqffible, that our printer ftiould have followed hisbufinefs
from 1468 to 1479, and yet time have deftroyed his
intermediate works. But, 2dly, We may account ftill
another way for this diftance of time, without altering Printing,
the date. The Civil Wars broke out in 1469: this "" v *
might probably oblige our Oxford printer tolhutuphis
prefs; and both himfelf and his readers be otlierwile en¬
gaged. If this were the cafe, he might not return to
his w’ork again till 1479 J and the next year, not meet¬
ing with that encouragement he deferved, he might
remove to fome other country with his types.
Dr Middleton concludes with apologizing for his
“ fpending fo much pains on an argument fo inconfider-
able, to which he was lead by his zeal to do a piece of
juftice to the memory of our worthy countryman Wil¬
liam Caxton; nor fuffer him to be robbed of the glory,
fo clearly due to him, of having JirJl imported into this
kingdom an art of great ufe and benefit to mankind : a
kind of merit that, in the fenfe of all nations, gives the
beft title to true praife, and the beft claim to be com¬
memorated with honour to pofterity;” 13
The faff, however, againft which he contends, but The real
which it feems impoflible to overturn, does by no means ^a,™s 01 ^
derogate from the honour of Caxton, who, as has been corfellis re-
ftiown, was the firft perfon in England that praiftifed the fpedtively.
art of printing with fujile types, and confequently the
firft who brought it to perfeftion; whereas Corfellis
printed with feparate cut types in wood, being the only
method which he had learned at Haerlem. Into this
detail, therefore, we have been led, not fo much by the
importance of the queftion, as on account of feveral
anecdotes conne&ed with it, which feenred equally cal¬
culated to fatisfy curiofity and afford entertainment.
Caxton had been bred very reputably in the way of
trade, and ferved an apprenticeftiip to one Robert Large
a mercer; who, after having been ftieriff and lord mayor
of London* died in the year 1441, and left by will, as
may be feen in the prerogative office, xxini merks to
his apprentice William Caxton : a confiderable legacy
in thofe days, and an early teftimonial of his good cha-
rafler and integrity.
From the time of his mafter’s death, he fpent the
following thirty years beyond fea in the bufinefs of mer-
chandife: where, in the year 1464, we find him em¬
ployed by Edward IV. in a public and honourable ne-
gociation, jointly with one Richard Whitehill, Efq. to
tranfadl and conclude a treaty of commerce between the
king and his brother-in-law the duke of Burgundy, to
whom Flanders belonged. The commiflion ftyles them,
amhajjidtores, procuratores, nuncios, et deputatos fpeci-
ales ; and gives to both or either of them full powers
to treat, &c.
Whoever turns over his printed works, muft contradl
a refpeft for him, and be convinced that he preferved
the fame character through life, of an honeft, modeft,
man ; greatly induftrious to do good to his country, to
the beft of his abilities, by fpreading among the people
fuch books as he thought ufeful to religion and good
manners, which were chiefly tranflated from the French.
The novelty and ufefulnpfs of his art recommended him
to the fpecial notice and favour of the great; under
whofe protetHon, and at whofe expence, the greateft
part of his works were publfthed. Some of them are
addreffed to King Edward IV. his brother the duke of
Clarence, and their fitter the duchefs of Burgundy ; in
whofe fervice and pay he lived many years before he
began to print, as he often acknowledges with great
gratitude. He printed likewife for the ufe, and by
3 A 2 ' tke
PHI
[ 372 ]
PHI
printing. tl»e cxprefs order, of Henry VII. his fon Prince Ar-
  thur, and many of the principal nobility and gentry of
that age.
It has been generally afferted and believed, that all
his books were printed in the abbey of Weftminfter •,
yet we have no aflurance of it from himfelf, nor any
mention of the place before the year 1477 : fo that
he had been printing feveral years without telling us
where.
There is no clear account left of Caxton’s age : but
he was certainly very old, and probably above fourfcore,
at the time of his death. In the year 1471 he com¬
plained of the infirmibies of age creeping upon him, and
feebling his body : yet he lived 23 years after, and pur-
fued his bufinefs, with extraordinary diligence, in the
abbey of Weftminfter, till the year 1494, in which he
died ; not in the year following, as all who write of him
affirm. This appears from fome verfes at the end of
a book, called “ Hilton’s Scale of Perfe&ion,” printed
in the fame year :
Infynite laude with thankynges many folde
I yield to God me focouryng with his grace
This boke to finylhe which that ye beholde
Scale of Perfeftion calde in every place
Whereof th’ au&or Walter Hilton was
And Wynkyn de Worde this hath fett in print
In William Caxftons hows fo fyll the cafe,
God reft bis foule. In joy ther mot it ftynt.
Impreffus anno falutis MCCCCLXXXxiiii.
Though he had printed for the ufe of Edward IV.
and Henry VII. yet there appears no ground for the
notion which Palmer takes up, that the firft printers,
and particularly Caxton, were fworn fervants and prin¬
ters to the crown •, for Caxton, as far as can be obfer-
ved, gives not the leaft hint of any fuch chara&er or
title ; though it feems to have been inftituted not long
after his death ; for of his two principal workmen,
Richard Pynfon and Wynkyn de Worde, the one was
made printer to the king, the other to the king’s mo¬
ther the lady Margaret. Pynfon gives himfelf the firft
title, in The Imitation of the Life of Chrift j printed by
him at the commandment of the lady Margaret, who
had tranflated the fourth book of it from the French,
in the year 1504 : and Wynkyn de Worde affumes the
fecond, in The Seven Penitential Pfalms, expounded by
Rilhop Fiftier, and printed in the year 1509. But there
is the title of a book given by Palmer, that feems to
eontradift what is here faid of Pynfon ; viz. Pfalterium
ex mandato vi&oriojtjjimi Anglia; Regis Henrici Septimi,
per Gulieltnum Famjue, imprejjbrem regium, anno MDlUI;
-which being the only wnrk that has ever been found of
this printer, makes it probable that he died in the very
year of its impreffion, and was fucceeded immediately by
Richard Pynfon. No book hath yet been difcovered
printed in Scotland in this period, though the Englifti
printers were able to export fome of their works to other
countries. See Henry’s Hiftory of Great Britain, vol. v.
p. 471.
Before 1465, the uniform charafter was the old Go¬
thic or German ; whence our Black was afterwards form¬
ed. But in that year an edition of Laftantius was
printed in a kind of Semi-Gothic, of great elegance,
and approaching nearly to the prefent Roman type ;
I
14
different
char alters
when firft
tifed in
printing.
which laft was firft ufed at Rome in 1467, and foon af- Printing,
ter brought to great perfeftion in Italy, particularly by
Jenfon.
Towards the end of the 5th century, Aldus invented
the Italic chara&er which is now in ufe, called, from his
name, Aldine or curjivus. This fort of letter he con¬
trived, to prevent the great number of abbreviations
that were then in ufe.
The firft effays in Greek that can be difcovered are a of the fiift
few fentences which occur in the edition of Tully’s Of- Greek
fees, 1465, at Mentz 5 but thefe were miferably incor-Pr‘nftnS’
reft and barbarous, if we may judge from the fpeei-
mens Mr Maittaire has given us, of which the following
is one:
OrfCaraa^agT^taxara kcii rZruruK^.
In the fame year, 1465, was publifhed an edition of
Laftantius’s Infitutes, printed in monaferio Sublacenf,
in the kingdom of Naples, in which the quotations from
the Greek authors are printed in a very neat Greek let¬
ter. They feem to have had but a very /mail quantity
of Greek types in the monaftery $ for, in the firft part
of the work, whenever a long fentence occurred, a blank
was left, that it might be written in with a pen : after
the middle of the work, however, all the Greek that
occurs is printed.
The firft printers who fettled at Rome were Conrad
Sweynheim and Arnold Pannartz, who introduced the
prefent Roman type, in 1466, in Cicero’s Epifolee Fa¬
miliar es : in 1469 they printed a beautiful edition of
Aulus Gellius, with the Greek quotations in a fair cha-
rafter, without accents or fpirits, and with very few ab¬
breviations.
The firft whole book that is yet known is the Greek
Grammar of Conftantine Lafcaris, in quarto, revifed by
Demetrius Cretenfis, and printed by Dionyfius Palavi-
finus, at Milan, 1476. In 1481, the Greek Pfalter \
was printed here, with a Latin tranflation, in folio j as
was iEfop’s Fables in quarto.
Venice foon followed the example of Milan j and in
i486 were publiftied in that city the Greek Pfalter and
the B atrachomyomachia, the former by Alexander, and
the latter by Laonicus, both natives of Crete. They
were printed in a very uncommon charafter ; the latter
of them with accents and fpirits, and alfo with fchoha.
In 1488, however, all former publications in this
language were eclipfed by a fine edition of Homer's
Works at Florence, in folio, printed by Demetrius, a
native of Crete. Thus printing, fays Mr Maittaire,
(p. 185.) feems to have attained its xKpv of perfeftion,
after having exhibited moft beautiful fpecimens of La¬
tin, Greek, and Hebrew.
In 1493, a fine edition of Ifocrates wras printed at
Milan, in folio, by Henry German and Sebaftian ex
Pantremulo.
All the above works are prior in time to thofe of Al¬
dus, who has been erroneoufty fuppofed to be the frf
Greek printer : the beauty, however, correftnefs, and
number of his editions, place him in a much higher rank
than his predecefibrs ; and his charafters in general were
more elegant than any before ufed. He was born in
1445, and died in 1515.
Though the noble Greek books of Aldus had raxfed
an univerfal defire of reviving that tongue, the French
were backward in introducing it. The only pieces print-
cd.
t6
Of the firlt
Hebrew
printing.
P R I [ 373
Frhiting. ed by them were fome quotations, fo wretchedly per-
formed, that they were rather to be gueffed at than read j
in a charafter very rude and uncouth, and without ac¬
cents. But Francis Tiflard introduced the ftudy of this
language at Paris, by his y ytafcecyvgucn, in
and that branch of printing was afterwards fuccefstully
praftifed by Henry, Robert, and Henry Stephens. See
the article Stephens.
The earlieft edition of the whole Bible was, ftri&ly
fpeaking, the Complutenfian Polyglott of Cardinal
Ximenes j but as that edition, though finilhedin 1517,
was not publilhed till 1522, the Venetian Septuagint
of 1518 may properly be called the firft edition of the
whole Greek Bible; Erafmus having publilhed the New
Teftament only at Bafil in 1516.
A very fatisfaftory account of Hebrew printing is
thus given by Dr Kennicott in his Annual Accounts of
the Collation of Hebrew MSS. p. 112. “ The method
which feems to have been originally obferved in print¬
ing the Hebrew Bible was juft what might have been
expefted : 1. The Pentateuch in 1482. 2. The Prior
Prophets, in 1484. 3. The Pofterior Prophets, in i486.
4. The Hagiographa, in 1487. And, after the four
great parts had been thus printed feparately (each with
a comment), the whole text (without a comment) was
printed in one volume in 1488 j and the text continued
to be printed, as in thefe firft editions, fo in feveral
others for 20 or 30 years, without marginal Keri or
Mafora, and with greater arguments to the more an¬
cient MSS. till about the year 1520 fome of the Jews
adopted later MSS. and the Mafora; which abfurd pre¬
ference has obtained ever fince.”
Thus much for the ancient editions given by Jews.
In 1642 a Hebrew Bible was printed at Mantua un¬
der the care of the moft learned Jews in Italy. This
Bible had not been heard of among the Chriftians in
this country, nor perhaps in any other *, though the
nature of it is very extraordinary. The text indeed is
nearly the fame with that in other modern editions j but
at the bottom of each page are various readings, amount¬
ing in the whole to above 2000, and many of them of
great confequenee, colledled from manufcripts, printed
editions, copies of the Talmud, and the works of the
xnoft renowned Rabbies. And in one of the notes is
this remark :—“ That in feveral paffages of the He¬
brew Bible the differences are fo many and fo great, that
they know not which to fix upon as the true read-
»7
Anecdotes
«f early
printing.
] P R I
When the art of printing wTas firft eftablifhed, it was Printing,
the glory of the learned to be correctors of the prefs to v
the eminent printers. Phyficians, lawyers, and bilhops
themfelves, occupied this department. The printers
then added frequently to their names thofe of the cor¬
rectors of the prefs ; and editions were then valued ac¬
cording to the abilities of the corrector.
In the productions of early printing may be diftin-
guiftied the various fplendid editions they made of Pri¬
mers or Prayer-books. They were embellifhed with cuts
finiihed in a moft elegant tafte: many of them were lu¬
dicrous, and feveral were obfcene. In one of them an
angel is reprefented crowning the Virgin Mary, and
God the Father himfelf aflifting at the ceremony. We
have feen in a book of natural hiftory the Supreme Be¬
ing reprefented as reading on the feventh day, when he
refted from all his works. Sometimes St Michael is
feen overcoming Satan ; and fometimes St Anthony ap¬
pears attacked by various devils of moft hideous forms.
The Prymer of Salijbury, 1533, is full of cuts : at the
bottom of the title page there is the following remark¬
able prayer:
God be in my Bede,
And in my Underftandynge.
God be in my Eyen,
And in my Lookynge.
God be in my Mouthe,
And in my Spekynge.
God be in my Herte,
And in my thinkinge.
God be at myn ende,
And at my departynge.
mgs.”
We cannot quit this fubjeCt without obferving, on
Dr Kennicott’s authority, that as the firft printed Bibles
are more correCl than the latter ones; fo the variations
between the firft edition, printed in 1488, and the edi¬
tion of Vander Hooght, in 1705, at Amfterdam, in 2
vols. 8vo, amount, upon the whole, to above 1200.
See further Bowyer and Nichols, p. 112—117.
When the art of printing was firft difcovered, they
only made ufe of one fide of a page : they had not yet
found out the expedient of imprefling the other. When
their editions were intended to be curious, they omit¬
ted to print the firft letter of a chapter, for which they
left a blank fpace, that it might be painted or illumina¬
ted at the option of the purchafer. Several ancient vo¬
lumes of thefe early times have been found, where thefe
letters are wanting, as they negleCled to have them
painted.
rS
Stereotype Printing. Different perfons in different Hiftory.
countries have claimed the merit of this invention j but
from Mr Nicholls’s Biographical memoirs of William
Ged, it appears undeniable that he was the firft by
whom it was invented. Mr Tilloch, the editor of the
Philofophical Magazine informs us, that he had turned Vol. x.
his attention to the fubjeCl for a number of years, and
having hit at laft upon the difcovery, he flattered him¬
felf that it was purely original, even feeling vexed when
given to underhand that he had been anticipated by
Mr Ged of Edinburgh, who had printed books from
plates about 50 years before.
So far back as the year 1725, we find that Mr Ged
had begun to profecute plate-making. In 1727, he
entered into a contraCl with a perfon who had a fjuall
capital, but who was fo intimidated by the infinuations
of fome printer, that he expended no more than 22l. in
the courfe of two years. In this manner he had printed
both bibles and common prayer-books, but the compo-
fitors when they correCled one fault, purpofely made
half a dozen more ; and the preffmen when the mailers
were abfent, battered the letter to fecond the compofi-
tors. In eonfequence of thefe abominable proceedings,
the books were fuppreffed by authority, and the plates
fent to the King’s printing-houfe, and from thence to
the foundery.
In confequence of Mr Tilloch’s invention and im¬
provement, Stereotype printing was afterwards praCliled
by him in conjunaion with Mr Foulis, printer to the
univerfity of Glafgow, who'obtained patents both for
England and Scotland, as Mr Ged’s invention had died
P R I [ 374 ] P R I
Printing, -vvitli Iiis fon. This art, therefore, may be faid to have
^ 1 been twice invented in Britain 3 after which Didot, a
French printer, publiihed feveral Latin claffics in the
! fame manner, and to whom fome of his countrymen
•wifhed to afcribe the merit of the invention, which muft
be a miftake. We admit it poffible that he might have
difcovered the fecret of the art for himfelf; but it is not
fuppofeable that he could be ignorant of Ged’s progrefs
and that of Mr Foulis, efpecially fince, when patents
are obtained, a fpecification of the procefs muft be put
upon record, of which any one may obtain an office co¬
py at a fmall expence.
Neither is it at all probable that ftereotype printing
Was the invention of a Dutchman, who is faid to have
pradHfed the art even before Ged ; fince we are aflured
that Ged himfelf had offers from Holland repeatedly,
either to go over there, or fell his invention, which could
not poflibly have been the cafe, had it been in pofleffion
of their own countrymen.
Founding of pages, on the firft view of it, promifes
many advantages of an economical nature, and to fci-
ence it holds out what can never be obtained in any
other way } we mean editions of books without a fingle
error. From books caft into folid pages, no more co¬
pies would be printed than might be wanted for imme¬
diate fale •, the money th'^s faved from being funk jn pa¬
per, to be piled up in warehoufes for years, as is the
cafe at prefent, would ferve as furplus capital to print
other wmrks; thus the printer, his workmen, and the
bookfellers, would all be benefited.
Some are of opinion, that the expence of ftereotype
precludes the ufe of it, except in the cafe of ftandard au¬
thors, whofe works are fure of an extenfive fale *, but the
very reverfe of this is the truth. If there would be an ad¬
vantage in applying the ftereotype art to books of rapid
fale, there would be a ftill greater one in the cafe of
fuch wrhofe fale would not be fo certain, as at the Worft
there could only be the lofs of the plates, inftead of that
of the paper and prefs-work of a whole edition, which
in almoft every inftance would amount to a much larger
fum. To the. advantages already mentioned we may
add a few others, as ftated by Mr Wilfon, Stereotype
office Duke ftreet, Lincoln’s Inn Fields. The expence
of Stereotype plates is not 20 per cent, of that of move-
able type pages. A room that is fire-proof will hold
Stereotype plates of works, of which the dead flock in
printed paper would require a Avarehoufe twenty times
the fize 5 and thus warehoufe rent and infurance are
faved •, with the additional advantage, in cafe.of acci¬
dent by fire, that the ftereotype plates may be inftantly
put to prefs, inftead of going through the tedious opera¬
tions of moveable type printing 5 and thus no lofs will
be fuftained from the works being out of print. In fte-
reotvpe, every page of the moft extenfive work has a
feparate plate *, of confequence all the pages of the faid
work muft be equally new and beautiful. The types of
each (beet are diftributed by the old method, by which
the fubfequent fheets are compofed •, fo that, although
the firft few fheets of a volume may be well compofed,
the laft part of the volume will appear to be executed
in a very inferior manner. Stereotype plates admit of
alteration } and it will be found that they will yield at
leaft twice the number of impreffions that^ moveable
types are capable of producing. It feems evident upon
the whole, fays Mr Wilfon, that a faving of from 25 to Printing.
40I. per cent, will accrue to the public in the prices of ' "1 1 *
all books of ftandard reputation and fale, which, he be¬
lieves, are pretty accurately afcertained to comprehend
three-fourths of all the book printing of England, Scot¬
land, and Ireland. It is fair to conclude, therefore,
that both foreign and domeftic fales will be much in-
creafed, and that the duties on paper will be propor¬
tionally productive fo that the public will reap advan¬
tage in a twofold way by the general adoption and en¬
couragement of the ftereotype art.
The advantages of this mode of printing now men¬
tioned, are fuch as have been fuggefted by men who
were competent judges j but we leave it to our readers
to determine for themfelves, whether the adoption of the
ftereotype art of printing would be more beneficial to
fociety at large, than the publilhing of books by means
of moveable types. ^
The workman employed in the art of printing are of ivTethod of
two kinds : compofitors, who range and difpofe the let- printing,
ters into words, lines, pages, &c. according to the copy
delivered them by the author 5 and preffmen, who apply
ink upon the fame, and take off the impreffion. The
types being caft, the compofitor diftributes each kind
by itfelf among the divifions of two wooden frames, an
upper and an under one, called cafes ; each of which is
divided into little cells or boxes. Thofe of the upper
cafe are in Humber 98 : thefe are all of the fame fize }
and in them are difpofed the capitals, fmall capitals,
accented letters, figures, &c. the capitals being placed
in alphabetical order. In the cells of the lower cafe,
which are 54, are placed the fmall letters, with the
points, fpaces, &x. The boxes are here of different
fizes, the largeft being for the letters moft ufed j and
thefe boxes are not in alphabetical order, but the cells
which contain the letter ofteneft wanted are neareft
the compofitor’s hand. Each cafe is placed a little
aflope, that the compofitor may the more eafily reach pjate
the upper boxes. The inftrument in which the letters cccCXL
are fet is called a compofing-Jlick (fig. 1.), which confifts fig. 1.
of a long and narrow plate of brafs or iron, Sec. on the
right fide of which arifes a ledge, which runs the whole
length of the plate, and ferves to fuftain the letters, the
fides of which are to reft againft it; along this ledge is
a row of holes, which ferve for introducing the ferew <?,
in order to lengthen or ftiorten the extent of the line,
by moving the Aiders b c farther from or nearer to the
(horter ledge at the end d. Where marginal notes are
required in a work, the two Hiding-pieces be are open¬
ed to a proper jliftance from each other in fuch a man¬
ner, as that while the diftance between dc forms the
length of the line in the text, the diftance between the
two Hiding-pieces forms the length of the lines for the
notes on the fide of the page. Before the compofitor
proceeds to compofe, he puts a rule or thin Hip of brafs-
plate, cut to the length of the line, and of the fame
height as the letter, in the compofing-ftick, againft the
ledge, for the letter to bear againft. Things thus pre¬
pared, the compofitor having the copy lying before him,
and his ftick in his left-hand, his thumb being over the
Aider c ; with the right he takes up the letters, fpaces,
&c. one by one, and places them againft the rule, while
he fupports them with his left thumb by preffing them
to the end of the Aider <r, the other hand being eon-
ftantly
PEI [ 375 ] PEI
printing-, ftantly employed in felting in other letters : the whole
y—' being performed with a degree of expedition and addrefs
not eafy to be imagined.
A line being thus compofed, if it end with a word
or fyllable, and exaftly fill the meafure, there needs no
further care j other wife more fpaces are to be put in,
or elfe the diftances leffened, between the feveral words,
in order to make the meafure quite full; fo that every
line may end even. The fpaces here ufed are pieces of
metal exactly lhaped like the (hanks of the letters: they
are of various thickneffes, and ferve to fupport the let¬
ters, and to preferve a proper diftance between the
words -y but not reaching fo high as the letters, they
make no impreflion when the work is printed. The
firft line being thus finilhed, tlje compofitor proceeds
to the next j in order to which he removes the brafs
rule from behind the former, and places it before it,
and thus compofes another line againlt it after the fame
manner as before j going on thus till his flick is full,
when he empties all the lines contained in it into the
gaily.
The compofitor then fills and empties his compofing-
ftick as before, till a complete page be formed j when
he ties it up with a cord or pack-thread } and letting
it by, proceeds to the next, till the number of pages to
be contained in a flreet is completed •, which done, he
carries them to the impofing-ftone, there to be ranged
in order, and faftened together in a frame called a chefs ;
and this is termed impojing. The chels is a re&anguiar
iron frame, of different dimenfions according to the fize
of the paper to be printed, having two crofs-pieces of
the fame metal, called a /ong and Jhort crqfs, mortifed at
each end fo as to bo taken out occalionally. By the
different fituations of thefe crofles the chefs is fitted for
different volumes : for quartos and oflavos, one traverfes
the middle lengthwife, the other broadwife, fo as to in-
terfeft each other in the centre: for twelves and tw'en-
ty-fours, the fliort crofs is Ihifted nearer to one end of
the chefs ; for folios, the long crofs is left entirely out,
and the Ihort one left in the middle ; and for broad-
fides, both crofles are fet afide. To drefs the chefs, or
range and fix the pages therein, the compofitor makes
ufe of a fet of furniture, confifting of flips of wood of
different dimenfions, and about half an inch high, that
they may be lower than the let.ers : fome of thefe are
placed at the top of the pages, and called head-Jlichs ;
others between them, to form the inner margin ; others
on the fides of the croffes, to form the outer margin,
where the paper is to be doubled ; and others in the
form of wedges to the fides and bottoms of the pages.
Thus all the pages being placed at their proper diftan¬
ces, and fecured from being injured' by the chefs and
furniture placed about them, they are all untied, and
faftened together by driving fmall pieces of wood called
quoins, cut in the wedge-form, up between the flanting
fide of the foot and the fide-fticks and the chefs, by
means of a piece of hard wood and a mallet 5 and all
being thus bound fall together, fo that none of the let¬
ters will fall out, it is ready to be committed to the
preffmen. In this condition the work is called a form;
and as there are two of thefe forms required for every
fheet, when both fides are to be printed, it is neceffary
the diftancts between the pages in each form fhould be
placed with fuch exaflnefs, that the imprefiioH of the
2
pages in one form lhall fall exaflly on the back of the Printing,
pages of the other, which is called regifer. v
As it is impoflible but that there mull be fome mif-
takes in the work, either through the overfight of the
compofitor, or by the cafual tranfpofition of letters in
the cafes; a Iheet is printed of, which is called ^ proof
and,given to the corre&or ; who reading it over, and
reftifying it by the copy, making the alterations in the
margin, it is delivered back to the compofitor to be cor-
re£ted.
The compofitor then unlocking the form upon the
corre&ing-ftone, by loofening the quoins or wedges
which bound the letters together, redlifies the miftakes
by picking out the faulty or wrong letters with a {len¬
der lharp-pointed fteel-bodkin, and putting others inlo
their places. After this another proof is made, fent to
the author, and corre&ed as before ; and laftly, there is
another proof called a revife, which is made in order ,
to fee whether all the miftakes marked in the laft proof
ate corrected.
The pieffraan’s bufinefs is to work off the forms thus
prepared and corrected by the compofitor ; in doing
which there are four things required, paper, ink, balls,
and a prefs. To prepare the paper for ufe, it is to be
firft wetted by dipping feveral Iheets together in water:
thefe are afterwards laid in a heap over each other ; and
to make them take the water equally, they are all pref-
fed elofe down with a weight at the top. The ink is
made of oil and lamp-black ; for the manner of prepa¬
ring which, fee Printing-lNK. The balls, by which the
ink is applied on the forms, are a kind of wooden fun¬
nels with handles, the cavities of which are filled with
wool or hair, as is alfo a piece of alum leather or pelt
nailed over the cavity, and made extremely foft by lock¬
ing in urine and by being well rubbed. One of thefe
the prefiman takes in each hand j and applying one of
them to the ink-block, daubs and works them together
to diftribute the ink equally j and then blackens the
form which is placed on the prefs, by beating with the
balls upon the lace of the letter.
The printing-prefs, reprefented fig. 2. is a very cu-Fig. 2.
rious though complex machine. The body confifts of
two ftrong cheeks a, a, placed perpendicularly, and join¬
ed together by four crofs-pieces, the cap the head
c, which is-moveable, being partly fuftained by two iron
pins or long bolts, that pais the cap 5 the till or ftielf
dd, by which the fpindle and its apparatus are kept in
their proper pofition •, and the winter e, which bears
the carriage, and fuftains the effort of the prefs beneath.
The fpindleyis an upright piece of iron pointed with
fteel, having a male {crew which goes into the female
one in the head about four inches. Through the eye^
of this fpindle is faftened the bar £, by which the prefl-
man makes the impreflion. The fpindle pafies through
a hole in the middle of the till) and its point works in¬
to a brafs pan or nut, iupplied with oil, which is fixed
to an iron plate let into the top of the platten. The
body of the fpindle is fuftained in the centre of an open
frame of polilhed iron, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, fixed to it in
fuch a manner a?, without obftrudling its free play, to
keep it in a Heady dire&ion 5 and at the fame time to
ferve for fufpending. the platten. This frame confifts
of two parts-, the upper called the garter, I, I 5 the
under, called the crane, 2, 2. Thefe are conne&td to¬
gether.
V R 1
gether by two (hort legs or bolts, 3, 3-j
fixed below in the two ends of the crane, pafs upward,
through two holes in the till, and are received at top
into two eyes at the ends of the garter, where they are
fecured by fcrews. The carriage //is placed a foot
below the platten, having its fore-part fupported by a
prop called the fore-Jiuij^ while the other refts on the
winter. On this carriage, which futlains the plank,
are nailed two long iron bars or ribs', and on the plank,
are nailed ihort pieces of iron or fteel called cratnp irons,
equally tempered with the ribs, and ^hich Aide upon
them when the plank is turned in or out. Under the
carriage is fixed a long piece of iron called the^z/, with
a double wheel in the middle, round which leather-girts
are faftened, nailed to each end of the plank: and to
the outfide of the fpit is fixed a rounce m, or handle to
turn round the wheel. Upon the plank is a fquare frame
or coffin, in which is inclofed a polifhed ftone on which
the form n is laid j at the end of the coffin are three
frames, viz. the twodympans and frifket: the tympSns
0 are fquare, and made of three flips of very thin wood,
and at the top a piece of iron Hill thinner j that called
the outer tympan is faftened with hinges to the coffin:
they are both covered with parchment; and between
the two are placed blankets, which are neceflary to take
off the imprefliou of the letters upon the paper. The
frifket /) is a fquare frame of thin iron, faftened with
hinges to the tympan: it is covered with paper cut in
the neceffary places, that the fheet, which is put be¬
tween the frifket and the great or outward tympan,
may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the
margins. To regulate the margins, a fheet of paper
is faftened upon this tympan, which is called the tympan
fleet; and on each fide is fixed an iron point, which
makes two holes in the fheet, which is to be placed on
the fame points when the impreffion is to be made on
the other fide. In preparing the prefs for working,
the parchment which covers the outer tympan is wetted
till it is very foft, in order to render the impreflion
more equable; the blankets are then put in, and fecured
from flipping by the inner tympan: then while one
prefsman is beating the letter with the balls q, covered
with ink taken from the ink-block, the other perfon
places a fheet of white paper on the tympan-fheet;
turns down the frifket upon it, to keep the paper clean
and prevent its flipping; then bringing the tympans
upon the form, and turning the rounce, he brings the
form with the ftone, &c. weighing about 300 lbs.
weight, under the platten; pulls with the bar, by
which means the platten preffes the blankets and paper
clofe upon the letter, whereby half the form is printed;
then eafing the bar, he draws the form ftill forward ;
gives a fecond puli; and letting go the bar, turns back
the form, takes up the tympans and frifket, takes out
the printed fheet, and lays on a frefh one; and this is
repeated till he has taken off the impreflion upon the
full number of ftieets the edition is to'confift of. One
fide of the fheet being thus printed, the fom for the
other is laid upon the prefs, and worked oft in the fame
manner.
To the above defcription of the printing prefs, we
ftiall add that of one invented by Mr Nicholfon, and for
which a patent was granted in 1790. J his machine is
Trecommended by the inventor as being fuperior to other
printing preffes in ch'eapnefs, accuracy, and neatnefs, and
[ 376 ] P R .
which being is adapted with fome flight variations in its conftruclion Pi
for printing on paper, linen, cotton, and woollen. T hree
particulars are to be attended to in the invention.
\Jl, The manner of preparing and placing the types,
engravings, or carvings, from which the impreffion is to
be madej idly. In applying the ink or colouring matter
to types or engravings; and, $dly, In taking oft the im¬
preffion.
1ft, The moulds, punches, and matrices, for cafting
letters, are made in the fame manner, and with the fame
materials, as other letter-founders do, excepting that,in-
ftead of leaving a fpace in the mould for the item of one
letter only, he leaves fpaces for two, three, or more let¬
ters, to be caft at one pouring of the metal; and at the
lower extremity of each of thofe fpaces (which commu¬
nicate by a common groove at top) he places a matrix, or
piece of copper, with the letter punched upon its face in
the ufual way. And moreover, he brings the item of his
letters to a due form and finitb, not only by rubbing it
upon a ftone, and fcraping it when arranged in the finilh-
ing-ftick, but likewife by fcraping it, on one or more
fides, in a finiftiing-ftick whofe hollowed part is lefs deep
at the inner than the outer fide. He calls that fide of
the groove which is neareft the face of the difpofed let¬
ter, the outer fide; and the purpofe accompliftied by
this method of fcraping is, that of rendering the tail of
the letter gradually fmaller the more remote it is, or
farther from the face. Such letters may be firmly im-
pofed upon a cylindrical furface, in the fame manner as
common letters are impofed upon a flat ftone.
idly. The ink or colouring matter is applied to the
types, forms, or plates, by caufing the furface of a cy¬
linder, fmeared or wetted with the colouring matter, to
roll over the furfaces of the faid forms or plates, or by
caufing the forms or plates apply themfelves fucceflively
to the furface of the cylinder. The furfaee of this co¬
louring cylinder is covered with leather, or with wool¬
len, linen, or cotton-cloth. When the colour to be
ufed is thin, as in calico-printing, and in almoft every
cafe, the covering is fupported by a firm elaftic fluffing,
confifting of hair, or wool, or woollen cloth wrapped
one or more folds round the cylinder. When the co¬
vering confifts of woollen cloth, the fluffing muft be de¬
fended by leather, or oillkin, to prevent its imbibing
too much colour, and by that means lofing its elafticity.
It is abfolutely neceffary that the colouring matter be
■evenly diftributed over the furface of the cylinder; and
for this purpofe, when the colour is thick and ftiff, as .
in letter-prefs printing, he applies two, three, or more
fmall cylinders, called diftributing-rollers, longitudinally
againft the colouring cylinders, fo that they may be turn¬
ed by the motion of the latter; and the effect of this ap¬
plication is, that every lump or mafs of colour which may
be redundant, or irregularly placed upon the face of the
colouring cylinder, will be preffed, fpread, and partly
taken up, and carried by the fmall rollers to the other
parts of the colouring cylinder; fo that this laft will
very fpeedily acquire and preferve an even face of co¬
lour. But if the colouring matter be thinner, he does
not apply more than one or two of thefe diftributing-
rollers; and, if it be very thin, he applies an even
blunt edge of metal, or wood, or a ftraight brufh, or
both of thefe laft, againft the colouring cylinder, for
the purpofe of rendering its colour uniform. W hen he
applies colour to an engraved plate, or cylinder, or
through
Press printing.
Plate ccccxl
■ifiin niitii.
P R I [3
Printing, through the inter ft ices of a perforated pattern, as in the
^ ' manufacturing of fome kinds of paper-hangings, he ufes
a cylinder entirely covered with hair or briftles in the
manner of a brufh.
'idly. The impreflions, even in letter-prefs printing,
are performed by the aCtion of a cylinder or cylindrical
furface. The following is the conftruCtion of this ma-
[•3- chine. Fig. 3. reprefents a printing-prefs, more efpe-
cially applicable to the printing of books. A and E are
two cylinders, running or turning in a ftrong frame of
wood, or metal, or both. The cylinder A is faced with
woollen cloth, and is capable of being prefled with more
or lefs force upon FI I, by means of the lever M. HI is
a long table, which is capable of moving endwife, back¬
wards and forwards, upon the rollers E and K. The
roller A aCts upon this table by means of a cog wheel,
or by (traps, fo as to draw it backwards and forwards
by the motion of its handle L. The table is kept in
the fame line by grooves on its fides, which contain the
cylinder A. D is a chefs, containing letter fet up and
impofed. B is a box, containing a colouring-roller, with
its diftributing-rollers CC ; it is fupported by the arm
N. O is a cylinder faced with leather, and lying acrofs
an ink-block ; this cylinder is fixed by the middle to a
bended lever moveable on the joint (£.
Hie a El ion. When H, or the letter, is drawn beneath
the cylinder B, it receives ink ; and when it has pafl'ed
into the pofition R, a workman places or turns down a
tympan with paper upon it (this tympan differs in no
refpeft from the ufual one, except that its hinge opens
fide wife) it then proceeds to pafs under the cylinder
A, which preffes it fueceflively through its whole fur-
face. On the other fide, at S, the workman takes off
the paper, and leaves the tympan up. This motion
caufes the cylinder B to revolve continually, and confe-
quently renders its inked furface very uniform, by the
aefion of its diftributing-rollers CC’; and, when the
table has paffed to its extreme diftance in the direftion
now fpoken of, the arm G- touches the lever P, and
•raifes the cylinder O off the ink-block, by which means
it dabs againft one of lire diftributing-rollers, and gives
it a fmall quantity of ink. The returning motion of
the. table carries the letter again under the roller B,
which again inks it, and the procefs of printing another
ftiec t goes on as before.
4. , ^ig. 4. is another printing-prefi. In this, B is the
inking-roller •, A is a cylinder, having the, letter impo¬
fed upon its furface $ and E is a cylinder, having its
uniform furface covered with woollen cloth : thefe three
cylinders are connected, either by cogs or ftraps at the
-edges of each. 1 he machine is uniformly turned in
one direction by the handle L. The workman applies a
ftieet of paper to the furface of E, where it is retained,
either by points in the ufual manner, or by the appara¬
tus to be deferibed in treating of fig. 4. The paper paf-
fe^ between E and A, and receives an impreffion ; after
which the workman takes it off, and applies another
ilveet ; and in the mean time the letter on the furface of
A pafles round again ft the furface of B, and receives ink
during the rotation of B. The diftributing-rollers CC
do their office as in the machine fig. 1.; and once in
every revolution the tail F, affixed to B, raifes the ink-
ing-piece G, fo as to caufe it to touch one of the diftri¬
buting-rollers, and fupply it with ink. In this way there¬
fore the repeated printing of fheet after ftieet goes on.
Vol. XVII. Part I.
77 ] P R I
Fig* 5* is a printing-prefs, more particularly adapted Printing,
to print cottons, filks, paper-hangings, or other articles ,u“ v “
which run of a confiderable length. A is a cylinder ^
covered with woollen cloth, or other loft fubftance. The
■web or piece of cotton, or other goods, is pafled round
this cylinder, from the carrying-roller I1 to the receiving-
rollers GH } which are connected by a piece of linen,
woollen, or hair-ploth, in the manner of a jack-towel,
fewed lound tiiem , the rotation of this towel carries
away the printed fluff or goods, and depofits them at 1.
KL is a moveable box, containing three rollers, which
move againft each other in rotation. The loweft roller
C revolves in a mafs of colour, contained in a trough or
veffel in the bottom part of the box KL ; the furface of
this colour is reprefented by the line MN. The next
roller B is fluffed and covered as deferibed in fed ion 2.
1 he preffure of B againll C prevents the cylinder B from
receiving too much colour. JD is a cut or carved cylin¬
der, which receives colour, during the rotation, from the
roller B, and imprefles it upon the web as it paffes round
the cylinder A; in this way the conllant and effedual
ad ion of the machine is fufficiently obvious. It muft be
obferved, that the cylinders ADB and G are conneded
together by cog-wheels, ftraps, or other well-known equi¬
valent contrivances ; fo that the handle P drives the*'
whole, without their neceflarily depending on any adhe-
flon or fridion at their furfaces. The preffure of B a-
gainfl D is governed by an adjuftment of the axis of D,
whofe fockets are capable of a fmall motion ; and the
preffure of 13 agaiuft A is governed by the pofition of
the whole box KL. When it is required to print more
than one colour upon the fame piece, it muft pafs two or
more times through the machine; or, in thofe cafes where
the materials are liable to change their dimenfions, it is
necefiary to apply, at one and the fame time, two or
more fuch boxes as KL, with their refpedive cylinders,
fo that the pattern cylinder of each may make its im¬
preffion upon the web or material to be printed on.
Fig. 6. is a printing-prefs, chiefly of ufe for books and Fig* <'•
papers. 1, 2, 3, 4, reprefent a long table, with ledges
on each fide ; fo that the two cylinders A and B can run
backwards and forwards without any fide fhake. In one
of thefe ledges is placed a ftrip or plate of metal cut into
teeth, which lock into correfpondent teeth in each cylin¬
der; by which means the two cylinders roll along, with¬
out, the poflibility of changing the relative pofitions of
their furfaces at any determinate part of the table. This
may alfo be effeded by flraps, and may indeed be accom-
plifiled, with tolerable accuracy, by the mere rolling of
the cylinders on the fmooth or flat ledges without any
provifion. A is the printing-cylinder, covered with wool¬
len cloth, and B is the inking-cylinder, with its dillri-
buting-rollers. The table may be divided into four com¬
partments, marked with a thicker bounding line than the
reft, and numbered 1, 2, 3, 4. At 1 is placed a fheet
of paper ; at 2 is the form or chefs, containing letter fet
and impofed ; *at 3 is an apparatus for receiving the
printed fheet ; ami 4 is employed in no other ufe' than
as a place of Handing for the carriage E, after it has paf¬
fed through one operation, and when it takes ink at F.
Its a cl Ion is as follows c the carriage is thruft forward
by the workman, and as the roller A paffes over the
fpace numbered 1,. it takes up the fheet of paper pro-’
vioufly laid there, while the roller B runs over the form
and inks the letter. The fhvet of paper, being wrapped
-v , 3 ^ round
PHI [ 378 ] PHI
Printing, round the cylinder A, is prefled againft the form as that
*“ v 1 cylinder proceeds, and eonfequently it receives an impref-
fion. When A arrives at the fpaee numbered 3, it lets
go the (beet of paper, while the prominent part of the
qarriage G ftrik.es the lever P, and raifes the inking-
piece, which applies itfelf againft one of the diftributing-
rollers. In this manner therefore the cylinder A re¬
turns empty, and the cylinder B inked, and in the
mean time the workman places another ftieet of paper
ready in the fpace numbered 1. Ihus it is that the
operation proceeds in the printing of one fhcet after
another.
The preceding defeription is not encumbered with
an account of the apparatus by which the paper is
taken up and laid down. This may be done in ieveral
Fig. 11, 12. ways : Fig. 11. and 12. reprefent one of the methods.
DE is a lever, moving on the centre pin C, and having
its end D prefled upwards by the action of the fpring
G. The {boulder which contains the pin C is fixed
in another piece F, which is inferted in a groove in the
furface of the cylinder A (fig. 6.), fo that it is capable
of moving in and out, in a direction parallel to the
axis of that cylinder. As that cylinder proceeds, it
meets a pin in the table 5 which (letter P, fig. 11.) a&-
inor on the inclined plane at the other end of the lever,
throws the whole inwards, in the pofition reprefented in
fig. 12. *, in which cafe the extremity D {hoots inwards,
and applies itfelf againft the fide of the cylinder.
Fig. 13. In fig. 1 3. is a reprdentation of part of the table •> the
dotted fquare represents a flieet of paper, and the four
fmall Shaded fquares denote holes in the board, with pins
Handing befide them. When the lever DE (fig. 12.)
{hoots forward, it is fituated in one of thefe holes, and
advances under the edge of the paper, which con-
fequenlly it prefles and retains againft tlm cylinder
with its extremity D. Nothing more remains to be
faid refpedting the taking up, but that the cylinder
is provided with two pair of thefe clafps or levers,
which are fo fixed as to correfpond with four holes
reprefented in fig. 13. It will be eafy to underhand
how the paper is depofited in the compartment N° 3.
(fig. 6.). A pin P (fig. 12.) riling out of the plat¬
form or table, afts againft a pin E, projefting fidewife
out of the leffer, and muft of courfe draw the Aider
and its lever to the original pofition •, the paper con-
fequently will be let go, and its disengagement is
rendered certain by an apparatus fixed in the compart¬
ment numbered 3 (^S* exa<SBy the fame kind as
that upon the cylinder, and which, by the a£Hon Ox a
pin duly placed in the furface of the cylinder A, takes
the paper from the cylinder in precifely the fame man¬
ner as that cylinder originally took it up in the com¬
partment numbered 1 (fig. 6.).
Fig- 7> 8,5). Fig. 7, 8, and 9, reprefent a fimpler apparatus for ac-
compliftftng the fame purpofe. If A c B ^ (fig. 9.) be
fuppofed to reprefent a thick plate of metal of a ciicular
form, with two pins, A and B, proceeding ftdewife or
perpendicularly out of its plane, and diametrically oppo-
ftte to each other, and G another pin proceeding in the
direaion of that, plane, then it is obvious that any force
applied to the pin A, fo as to prefs it into the pofition a
(by turning the plate on its axis or centre X), will at
the fame time caufe the pin G to acquire the pofition g;
and, on the other hand, when B is at Z», or the dotted re¬
presentation of the fide-pin, if any preffure be applied to
reftore its original pofition at B, the pm g will return Printing,
back to G. Now the figures 7 and 8 exhibit an appa-
ratus of this kind, applied to the cylinder A ; and that
cylinder, by rolling over the pins P and />, properly fixed
in the table to re-a£t upon the apparatus, will caufe
its prominent part G either to apply to the cylinder
and clafp the paper, or to rife up and let it go. The
compartment numbered 3 (fig. 6.) muft of courfe have
an apparatus of the fame kind to be acted upon by pins
from A, in order that it may take the paper from that
cylinder.
There is one other circumftance belonging to this
machine which remains to be explained. When the
carriage E (fig. 6.) goes out in the direction of the
numbers I, 2, 3, 4, both rollers, A and B, prefs the
form of letter in their pafiage ; but in their return
back again the roller A, having no paper upon it,
would itfelf become foiled, by taking a faint impreffion
from the letter, if it were not prevented from touching
it: the manner of effecting this may be underftood from
fig. 14. The apparatus there reprefented is fixed upon Fig. 14%.
the outfide of the carriage E, near the lower corner, in
the vicinity of the roller A *, the whole of this projects
fidewife beyond the ledge 6f the table, except the 1'mall
truck or wheel B. The irregularly-triangular piece,
which is {haded by the ftroke of the pen, carries this
wheel, and alfo a catch moveable on the axis or pin E.
The whole piece is moveable on the pin A, which con¬
nects it to the carriage. CD, or the part which is
{haded by dotting, is a detent, which ferves to hold the
piece down in a certain pofition. It may be oblerved,
that both the detent and the triangular piece are fur-
nithed each with a claw, which holds in one direction,
but trips or yields in the other, like the jacks of a harp-
fichord, or refembling certain pieces ufed in clock and
watch making, as is clearly reprefented in the figure.
Thefe claws overhang the fide of the table, and their
effeCt is as follows: There is a pin C (fig. 6.) between
the compartments of the table numbered 2 and 3, But
which is marked F in fig. 14. where GIT reprefents
the table. In the outward run of the carriage thefe
claws ftrike that pin, but with no other effeCt than that
they yield for an inftant, and as inftantly refume their
original pofition by the aCtion of their refpeCtive {lender
back-fprings. When the carriage returns, the claw of .
the detent indeed ftrikes the pin, but with as little effeCt
as before, becaufe its derangement is inftantly removed
by the aCtion of the back fpring of the detent itfelf y
but, when the claw of the triangular piece takes the
pin, the whole piece is made to revolve on its axis or
pin A, the wheel B is forced down, fo as to lift that
end of the carriage, and the detent, catching on the
piece at C, prevents the former pofition from being re¬
covered. The confequence of this is, that the carriage
runs upon the truck B (and its correfponding truck on
the oppofite fide) inftead of the cylinder A, which is
too much raifed to take the letter, and foil itfelf; but
as foon as the end of the carriage has paffed clear of
the letter, another pin R (fig. 6.) takes the claw of the
detent, and draws it off the triangular piece $ at which
inftant the cylinder A fublides to its ufual place, and
performs its funCUons as before. This laft pin R does
not affeCt the claw of the triangular piece, becaufe it is
placed too low ; and the elaw of the detent is made the
longeft, on purpofe that it may ftrike this pin.
P R I [ 379 ] P R 1
Fig. 10.'reprefents an inftrument for printing floor¬
cloths, paper-hangings, and the like, with Aiff paint and
a brufh. D is a copper or metallic cylinder fixed in a
frame A, like a garden-roller j its carved part is thin,
and is cut through in various places, according to the
defired pattern. A Arong axis pafies through the cy¬
linder, and its extremities are firmly attached to the
frame A. To this axis is fixed a veflel or box of the
fame kind, and anfwering the fame purpofe as the box
KL in fig. 5. It carries a cylinder P, which revolves
in the colour •, another cylinder E, which revolves in
contaft with P ; and a third cylinder B, whole exterior
furface is covered with hair, after the manner of a
brufli, and revolves in contaft with E. This cylinder
B is adjuAed by its axis, in inch a manner that its
brulh-part fweeps in the perforated parts of the metallic
cylinder D. The circle C reprefents a cog-wheel fixed
concentric to the cylinder D, and revolving with it; this
wheel takes another wheel concentric to, and fixed to,
B *, hence the action is as follows : When the metallic
cylinder is wheeled or rolled along any furface, its cog¬
wheel C drives the brufli B in the contrary direflion j
and this bruflr cylinder, being connefted by cogs or
otherwife with E and P, caufes thofe alfo to revolve and
fupply it with colour. As the fucceffive openings of the
cylinder D, therefore, come in contaft with the ground,
the feveral parts of the brufh will traverfe the uncovered
part of that ground, and paint the pattern upon it. The
wheel G, being kept lightly on the ground, ferves to
determine the line of contact, that it fhall be the part
oppofite to B, and no other.
Chinefe PfilNTING, is performed from wooden planks
or blocks, cut like thofe ufed in printing of caliico, pa¬
per, cards, &c.
Ro/lirrg-prefs PRINTING, is employed in taking off
prints or impreflions from copperplates engraven, etched,
or fcraped, as in mezzotintos. See ENGRAVING.
This art is faid to have been as ancient as the year
1540, and to owe its origin to Finiguerra, a Florentine
goldfmith, who, pouring fome melted brimflone on an
engraven plate, found the exaft impreflion of the engra¬
ving left in the. cold brimAone, marked with black ta¬
ken out of the Arokes by the liquid fulphur : upon this
he attempted to do the fame on filver plates with wet
paper, by rolling it fmoothly with a roller *, and this
fucceeded •, but this art was not ufed in England till the
reign of King .Tames I. when it was brought from Ant¬
werp by Speed. The form of the rolling-prefs, the
compofition of the ink ufed therein, and the manner of
applying both in taking off prints, are as follows :
The rolling-prefs AL, fig. 15. maybe divided into
two parts, the body and carriage : the body confifts of
two wooden cheeks PP, placed perpendicularly on a
Aand or foot LM, which fuflains the whole prefs.
From the foot likewife are four other perpendicular
pieces, c, c, c, c, joined by other crofs or horizontal
ones, d, d, d, which ferve to fuAain a fmooth even plank
or table HIK, about four feet and a half long, two feet
and a half broad, and an inch and a half thick. Into the
cheeks go two wooden cylinders or rollers, DE, FG,
about fix inches in diameter, borne up at each end by
the cheeks, whofe ends, which are leffened to about
two inches diameter, and called trunnions, turn in the
cheeks about two pieces of wood in form of half¬
moons, lined with polilhed iron to facilitate the mo¬
tion. Laflly, To one of the trunnions of the upper rol¬
ler is fafiened a crofs, confiding ol two levers AB, or (
pieces of wood, traverfing each other, the arms of
which crofs ferve inAead of the bar or handle of the
letter-prefs, by turning the upper roller, and when the
plank is between the two rollers, giving the fame mo¬
tion to the under one, by drawing the plank forward
and backward.
The ink ufed for copperplates, is a compofition made
of the Aones of peaches and apricots, the bones of Aieep
and ivory, all well burnt, and called Frankfort black,
mixed with nut-oil that has been well boiled, and ground
together on a marble, after the fame manner as painters
do their colours.
The method of printing from copperplates is as fol¬
lows : They take a fmall quantity of this ink on a rub¬
ber made of linen-rags, Arongly bound about each
other, and therewith fmear the whole face of the plate
as it lies on a grate over a charcoal fire. The plate be¬
ing fufficiently inked, they firA wipe it over with a
foul rag, then with the palm of their left hand, and
then with that of the right ; and to dry the hand and
forward the wiping, they rub it from time to time in
whiting. In wiping the plate perfectly clean, yet
without taking the ink out of the engraving, the ad-
drefs of the workman confifls. The plate thus prepa¬
red, is laid on the plank of the prefs •, over the plate
is laid the paper, firfl well moiAened, to receive the
impreflion ; and over the paper two or three fold's of
flannel. Things thus difpofed, the arms of the crofs
are pulled, and by that means the plate with its furni¬
ture paffed through between the rollers, which pinching
very Arongly, yet equally, prefs the moiAened paper
into the Arokes of the engraving, whence it licks out
Printirr,
Prints.
the ink.
Prints, the impreflion taken from a copperplate. See
the lafl article, and ENGRAVING.
From the facility of being multiplied, prints have de- Strutt's
rived an advantage over paintings by no means inconfi-
durable. They are found to be more durable; which ‘‘1
may, however, in fome degree be attributed to the dif¬
ferent methods in which they are preferved. Many of
the bed paintings of the early maAers have generally
had the misfortune to be either painted on walls, or de-
pofited in large and unfrequented, and confequently
damp and deAru&ive buildings; whilA a print, pafling,
at diAant intervals, from the ports fettille of one collector
to that of another, is preferved without any great exer¬
tion of its owner : And hence it happens, that whilA
the pictures of Raphael have mouldered irom their walls
or deferted their canvas, the prints of his friend and co¬
temporary Mark Antonio Raimondi continue in full
perfection to this day, and give us a lively idea, of the
beauties of tbefe paintings, which, without their afliA-
ance, had been lofl to us for ever ; or at leaA,.could
have been only known to us, like thofe of Zeuxis and
Apelles, by the deferiptions which former writers on
thefe fubjedts have left us.
Independent of the advantages which prints afford us,
when eonfidered as accurate reprefentations of paint¬
ings, and imitations of fuperior productions, they are
no lefs valuable for their pofitive merit, as immediate
reprefentations of nature. For it muff be rccolledted,
that the art of engraving has not always been confined
to the copying of other produdtions, but has frequent-
3 B 2 ly
PEI [ 3 Bo ] P R I
Plints' ly iUelf aipired to originality, and has, in this light,
produced more inftances of its excellence than in the
other. Albert Durer, Goltzius, and Rembrandt,
amongft the IDutch and Germans ^ Parmigiano and
Della Bella amongfl the Italians, and Callot amongft
the French, have publifhed many prints, the fubjefts of
which, there is great reafon to fuppofe, were never
painted. ihefe prints may therefore be confidered as
original pidlures of thofe mafters, deficient only in thofe
particulars in which a print muft neceffarily be inferior
to a painting.
I he preceding diftindlion may perhaps throw ibme
light on the proper method of arranging and clafting a
colle&ion of prints, which has been a matter of no fmall
difficulty. As an art imitating another, the princi-
pal fhould take the lead, and the defign, compolltion,
and drawing, in a print, being previous requifites, to the
manner of execution and finiffiing ■, prints engraved af¬
ter paintings ftiould be arranged under the name of the
painter *, and every perfon who looks upon engraving
only as auxiliary to painting, will confequently adopt
this mode of arrangement. But when engraving is
confidered as an original art, as imitating nature with¬
out the intervention of other methods, then it will cer-
iainly be proper to regulate the arrangement according
to the names of the engravers.
PHINTS, method of cleaning. The following method
of cleaning prints, is recommended as fafe and effica¬
cious.
“ Provide a certain quantity of the common muria¬
tic acid, for example three ounces, in a glafs bottle,
with a ground ftopper, of fuch a capacity that it may
be only half full. Half an ounce of minium muft then
be added •, immediately after which the ftopper is to
be put in, and the bottle fet in a cold and dark place.
The heat, which foon becomes perceptible, ffiews the
beginning of the new combination. The minium aban¬
dons the greateft part of its oxygen with which the
fluid remains impregnated, at the fame time that it ac¬
quires a fine golden yellow, and emits the deteftable
fmell of oxygenated muriatic acid. It contains a finall
portion of muriat of lead ; but this is not at all noxious
irr the fubfequent procefs. It is alfo necefiary to be ob-
ferved, that the bottle muft be ftrong, and the ftopper
not too firmly fixed, otherwife the adlive elaftic vapour
might burft it. The method of ufingthis prepared acid
is as follows :
“ Provide a fufficiently large plate of glafs, upon
which one or more prints may be feparately fpread out.
Near the edges let there be raifed a border of foft white
wax half an inch high, adhering well to the glafs and
fiat at top. In this kind of trough the print is to be
placed in a bath of freffi urine, or water containing a
fmall quantity of ox-gall, and kept in this fituation for
three or four hours. The fluid is then to be decanted
off, and pure warm water poured on, which muft be
changed every three or four hours until it paffes limpid
and clear. The impurities are fometimes of a refinous
nature, and refill the adfion of pure water. When this
is the cafe, the wafhed print muft be left to dry, and
alcohol is then to be poured on and left for a time.
After the print is thus cleaned, and all the moifture
drained off, the muriatic acid prepared with minium is
to be poured on in fufficient quantity to cover the
print 3 immediately after which another plate of glafs is
4
to be laid in contadl with the rim of wax, in order to Prints,
prevent the inconvenient exhalation of the oxygenated Prior-
acid. In this fituation the yelloweft print will be feen ' ^
to recover its original whitenefs in a very Ihort time.
One or two hours are fufficient to produce the defired
effedt 3 but the print will receive no injury if it be left
in the acid for a whole night. Nothing more is necef-
fary to complete the work, than to decant off the re¬
maining acid, and walli away every trace of acidity, by
repeated affufions of pure water. The print being then
left to dry (in the fun if poffible) will be found white,
clear, firm, and in no refpedl damaged, either in the
texture of the paper, or the tone and appearance of the
impreffion.”
It is farther recommended to thofe who Ihall adopt
the whole procefs for clearing prints, to make the firft
trial with a print of little value, and in this way he will
difcoyer what portion of water ffiould be employed in
diluting the acid to prevent the corrofive aclion of the
latter on the paper. Nichol. Journ. ii. 265. 4to.
PRIOR, in general, fomething before or nearer the
beginning than another, to which it is compared.
Prior, more particularly denotes the fuperior of a
convent of monks, or the next under the abbot. See
Abbot.
Priors are either claujlral or conventual. Conventual
are the fame as abbots. Claujlral prior, is he who go¬
verns the religious of an abbey or priory in common dam,
having his jurifdidlion wholly from the abbot.
Grand PRIOR, is the fuperior of a large abbey, where
feveral fuperiors are required.
Prior, Matthew, an eminent Engliffi poet, was
born at London in 1664. His father dying while he
was very young, an uncle, a vintner, having given him
fome education at Weftminfter fchool, took him home
in order to breed him up to his trade. However, at
his leifure hours he profecuted his ftudy of the daf¬
fies, and particularly of his favourite Horace. This in¬
troduced him to fome polite company who frequented
his uncle’s houfe ; among whom the earl of Dorfet took
particular notice of him, and procured him to be fent to
St John’s college in Cambridge, where, in 1686, he
took the degree of A, B. and afterwards became fel¬
low of that college. Upon the revolution, Mr Prior
ivas brought to court by the earl of Dorfet 3 and in 1690
he was made fecretary to the earl of Berkeley, plenipo¬
tentiary at the Hague 5 as he was afterward to the am-
baffador and plenipotentiaries at the treaty of Ryfwick in
1697 3 and the year following to the earl of Portland,
ambaffador to the court of France. He was in 1697
made fecretary of flate for Ireland; and in 1700 was
appointed one of the lords commiffioners of trade and
plantations. In 1710, he was fuppofed to have had a
ihare in writing The Examiner. In 1711, he was made
one of the commiffioners of the cuftoms ; and was fent
minifter plenipotentiary to France, for the hegotiatinp- a
peace with that kingdom. Soon after the acceffion of
George I. to the throne in 1714, he prefented a memo¬
rial to the court of France, requiring the demoliftiing of
the canal and new works at Mardyke; The year fol¬
lowing he was recalled 3 and upon his arrival was taken
up by a warrant from the houfe of commons, and ftriflly
examined by a committee of the privy-council. Robert
Walpole, Efq, moved the houfe ol commons for an
impeachment againft him 3 and Mr Prior was ordered
into-
Priories
PHI [ 381 ] P R I
Priories, into clofe cuftody. In he was excepted out of
v 1 the aft of grace ; however, at the cloie of that year,
he was fet at liberty. The remainder of his days he
fpent in tranquillity and retirement, and died in 1721.
His poems are well known, and juftly admired. He
is faid to have written the following epitaph for him-
’ felf:
“ Nobles and heralds, by your leave,
Here lie the bones of Matthew Prior,
The fon of Adam and of Eve :
Let Bourbon or Nafi'au go higher.”
Alien PRIORIES, were cells of the religious houfes in
England which belonged to foreign monafteries : for
when manors or tithes were given to foreign convents,
the monks, either to increafe their own rule, or rather
to have faithful ftewards of their revenues, built a fmall
convent here for the reception of fuch a number as they
thought proper, and eonftituted priors over them.—
Within thefe cells there was the fame diftinftion as in
thofe priories which were cells fubordinate to fome
great abbey •, fome of thefe were conventual, and, ha¬
ving priors of their own choofing, thereby became entire
focieties within themfelves, and received the revenues
belonging to their feveral houfes for their own ufe and
benefit, paying only the ancient apport (a), acknow¬
ledgement, or obvention, at firft the furplufage, to the
foreign houfe) but others depended entirely on the fo¬
reign houfes, who appointed and removed their priors
at pleafure. Thefe tranfmitted all their revenues to
the foreign head houfes-, for which reafon their eflates
were generally feized to carry on the wars between
England and France, and reftored to them again on re¬
turn of peace. Thefe alien priories were mod of them
founded by fuch as had foreign abbeys founded by them¬
felves or by fome of their family.
The whole number is not exadlly afcertained the
Monaflicon hath given a lid of 100 : Weever, p. 338.
fays 110.
Some of thefe cells were made indigenous or deni-
zon, or endenized. The alien priories were fird feized
by Edward I. 1285, on the breaking out of the war
between France and England and it appears from a
roll, that Edward II. alfo feized them, though this is
not mentioned by our hidorians ; and to thefe the aft
of reditution, 1 Edw. III. feems to refer.
In 1237, Edward III. confifcated their edates, and
let out the priories themfelves with all their lands and
tenements, at his pleafure, for 23 years at the end of
which term, peace being concluded between the two
nations, he redored their edates 1361, as appears by
his letters patent to that of Montacute, county of So-
merfet, printed at large in Rymer, vol. vi. p. 311. and
trandated in Weever’s Funeral MonutJients, p. 339. At
other times he granted their lands, or lay penfions out
of them, to divers noblemen. They were alfo feque-
dered during Richard II.’s reign, and the head mona-
deries abroad had the king’s licence to fell their lands
to other religious houfes here, or to any particular per-
fons who wanted to endow others.
Henry IV. began his reign with Qiowing fome fa¬
vour to the alien priories, reltoring all the conventual
ones, only referving to himfelf in time of war what they
paid in time of peace to the foreign abbeys.
They were all difiolved by aft of parliament 2
Henry V. and all their edates veded in the crown,
except iome lands granted to the college of Fother-
inghay. The aft of diflblution is not printed in the
datute book, but it is to be found entire in Rymer’s
Fcedera, ix. 283. and in the Parliament Rolls, vol.
iv. p. 22. In general, thele lands were appropriated
to religious ufes. Henry VI. endowed his foundations
at Eton and Cambridge with the lands of the alien
priories in purfuance of his father’s defign to appro¬
priate them all to a noble college at Oxford. Others
were granted in fee to the prelates, nobility, or private
perfons. Such as remained in the crown were granted
by Henry VI. 1440, to Archbidiop Chichley, See.
and they became part of his and the royal foundations.
See Some Account of Alien-Priories, &c. in two vo¬
lumes oftavo.
PRIORITY, the relation of fomething confidergd
as prior to another.
Priority, in Law, denotes an antiquity of tenure,
in comparifon of another lefs ancient.
PRISCIANUS, an eminent grammarian, born at
Ciefarea, taught at Condantinople with great reputa¬
tion about the year 525. Laurentius Valla calls Prif-
cian, Donatus, and Servius, triumviri in regrammatica;
and thinks none of the ancients who wrote after them
fit to be mentioned with them. He compofed a work
De arte grammatica, which was fird printed by Aldus
at Venice in 1476 -, and another, De naturalibus quef-
tionibus, which he dedicated to Chofroes king of Per-
fia: befide which, he trandated Dionyfius’s deferip-
tion of the world into Latin verfe. A perfon who
writes falfe Latin, is proverbially faid “ to break Prif-
cian’s head.”
PRISCILLIANXSTS, in church hidory, Chridian
heretics, fo called from their leader Prifcillian, a Spa¬
niard by birth, and bidiop of Avila. He is faid to have
praftifed magic, and to have maintained the principal
errors of the Manichees 5 but his peculiar tenet was,
That it is lawful to make falfe oaths in order to fupport
one’s caufe and intereils.
PRISM, in Geometry, is a folk! body, whofe two
ends are any plane figures which are parallel, equal,
and fimilarj and its fides, connefting thofe ends, are pa¬
rallelograms.
PRISMOID, is a folid body, fomewhat refembling^
a prifm, but its ends are any didimilar parallel plane
figures of the fame number of fides, the upright fides
being trapezoids. If the ends of the prifmoid be bound*,
ed by difiirnilar curves, it is fometimes called a cyliii'
droid.
PRISON, a gaol, or place of confinement.
Lord Coke obferves, that a prifon is only a place of
fafe cuftbdy, falva cujlodia, not a place of punilhment..
If this be the cafe, prifons ought not to be, what they
have been in moft, and Hill are in fome places of'Eu¬
rope,.
(a) Apport us or apportagium (from portarf, pn acknowledgement, oblation, or obventien, to the mother houfe
or church. Du Cange.
phi [ 382 ] p r 1
Pfifon. rope, loatlifome dungeons. Any place where a perfon
is confined may be (aid to be a prifon ; and when a pro-
cefs is ififued againib one, he muft, when arrefted there¬
on, either be committed to prifon, or be bound in a re¬
cognizance with fureties, or elfe give bail, according to
the nature of the cafe, to appear at a certain day in
court, there to make anfwer to what is alleged againft
him. Where a perfon is taken and fent to prifon, in a
civil cafe, he may be releafed by the plaintift' in the
fuit j but if it be for treafon or felony, he may not re¬
gularly be difcharged, until he is indidled of the fa&
and acquitted. See Indictment.
But a prifon is not only to be confidered as a place of
fafe cuftody, according to its original defign, but alfo
as a place of temporary punilhment for certain crimes,
and perhaps this punilhment might be fubftituted more
frequently than it is, for tranfportation and death.
Probably this is done in no country to better purpofe
than in Pennfylvania ; and no where has imprifonment
been more abufed than in Venice under the old govern¬
ment.
By the laws of Pennfylvania, imprifonment is im-
pofed, not merely as an expiation for pall offences, but
alfo for the reformation of the criminal’s morals. 1 he
regulations of the gaol are calculated to produce this
effeft in the fpeedidt manner poflible, fo that fuch a
building may rather be denominated a penitentiary houfe
than a ^aol. When a criminal is committed to prifon,
he is made to wafh ; his hair is (horn, and he is furni(li¬
ed with clean apparel, if he has no decent clothes of his
own. He is then put into a folitary cell, where he is
excluded from the fight of every living being except
the gaoler, whofe duty is to attend to his mere necefli-
ties," but not to converfe with him upon any account.
If committed for an atrocious crime, he is even debar¬
red from the light of heaven. The treatment of each
prifoner varies in proportion to the nature of his crime,
and his fymptoms of repentance. I he longed period of
confinement is for a rape,, which is not to be lefs than
ten years, nor to exceed 21 ; and for high treafon it is
not to be under 6, nor above 12.
The prifoners mud bathe twice in the week, having
proper conveniences within the prifon, and they are re¬
gularly fupplied with a change of linen. Prifoners in
folitary confinement (ubfid upon bread and water $ and
fuch as labour are allowed broth, puddings, &.c. They
are allowed meat in fmall quantities twice a week, and
no beverage except water is brought into the prilon.
One room is fet apart for dioe-makers,_ another for tay-
lors, and fo of every other trade. There are done-cut¬
ters, fmiths, nailers, &c. in the yards. Such a prifon
has all the advantages of the rafping houfe of Amder-
dam, without any of its enormous defers.
The following account of the common prifon at Ve¬
nice, is given by Dr Mofely who vifited this horrible
place in September 1787.
“ I was conducted (fays he) through the prifon by one
of its inferior dependants. We had a torch with us.
We crept along narrow paflages as dark as pitch. In
fome of them t wo people could fcarcely pafs each other.
The cells are made of mady marble \ the architecture
of the celebrated Sanfovini.
“ The cells are not only dark, and black as ink, but
being furrounded and confined with huge walls, the
fmailed breath of air can fcarcely find circulation in
5
them. They are about nine feet fquare on the floor, Pnfon.
arched at the top, and between fix and feven feet high ■"V—
in the higheft part. There is to each cell a round
hole of eight inches diameter, through which the pri-
foner’s daily allowance of twelve ounces of bread and a
pot of water is delivered. There is a fmall iron door
to the cell. The furniture of the cell is a little firaw
and a fmall tub *, nothing elfe. The draw is renewed
and the tub emptied through the iron door occafion-
ally.
“ The diet is ingenioudy contrived for the perdura-
tion of punilhment. Animal food, or a cordial nutri¬
tious regimen, in fuch a fituation, would bring on dif-
eafe, and defeat the end of this Venetian judice. Nei¬
ther can the foul, if fo inclined, deal away, wrapt up
in dumbering deludon, or fink to reft ; from the ad¬
monition of her fad exidence, by the gaoler’s daily re¬
turn.
“ I faw one man who had been in a cell thirty
years*, two who had been twelve years 5 and feveral
Avho had been eight and nine years in their refpeClive
cells.
“ By my taper’s light I could difeover the prifoners
horrid countenances. They were all naked. The man
who had been there thirty years, in face and body was
covered with long hair. He had lod the arrangement
of words and order of language. When I fpoke to him,
he made an unintelligible noife, and expreded fear and
furprife *, and, like fome wild animals in deferts, which
have fuffered by the treachery of the human race, or
have an indindlive abhorrence of it, he would have dtd
like lightning from me if he could.
“ One whofe faculties were not fo obliterated *, who
dill recollected the difference between day and night ^
whofe eyes and ears, though long clofed with a filent
blank, dill languidred to perform their natural func¬
tions—implored, in the mod piercing manner, that I
would prevail on the gaoler to murder him, or to give
him fome indrument to dedroy himlelf. I told him I
had no power to ferve him in this requed. He then
entreated I would ufe my endeavours with the ir.quifi-
tors to get him hanged, or drowned in the Canal’ Or-
fano. But even in this I could not ferve him : death
was a favour I bad not intered enough to procure for
him.
“ This kindnefs of death, however, was, during
my day in Venice, granted to one man, who had
been ‘ from the cheerful ways of man cut off’ thirteen
years.
“ Before he left his dungeon I had fome converfa-
tion with him ; this was fix days previous to his execu¬
tion. His tranfport at the profpedl of death was fur-
priling. He longed for the happy moment. No faint
ever exhibited more fervour in anticipating the joys ot
a future date, than this man did at the thoughts of be¬
ing releafed from life, during the four days mockery of
his trial.
“ It is the Canal’ Orfano where veffels from Turkey
and the Levant perform quarantine. This place is the
watery grave of many who have committed political or
perfonal offences againd the date or fenate, and of ma¬
ny who have committed no offences at all. Ihey are
carried out of the city in the middle of the night, tied
up in a faek with a large done fadened to it, and thrown
into the water. Fifhermen are prohibited, on forfeiture^
P R I [ 383 ] P R I
Prifon of their lives, againlt fiiliing in this diftrift. The pre-
I! tence is the plague. This is the fecret hiftory of people
Privateers. j3ejrig Jn Venice.
L * “ The government, with age, grew feeble ; tvas afraid
of the difcuflion of legal procefs and of public execu¬
tions j and navigated this rotten Bucentaur of the A-
driatic by fpies, prifons, aflaffination, and the Canal’
Orfano.”
, PRISONER, a perfon retrained or kept in prifon
upon an a6lion civil or criminal, or upon commend-
ment: and one may be a prifoner on matter of record
or matter of faft. A prifoner upon matter of record,
is he who, being prefent in court, is by the court com¬
mitted to prifon ; and the other is one Carried to prifon
upon an arreft, whether it be by the fheriff, eonftable,
or other officer.
PRISTIS, the Sawfish, is generally confidered as
a fpecies of the. fqua/us or Jhark genus, comprehending
under it feveral varieties. See Squalus, Ichthyology
Index. But Mr Latham is of opinion that it ought to
be confidered as a diftinft genus, and that the charac-
teriflics of the feveral varieties are fufficient to confti-
tute diftinft fpecies.
PRIVATEERS, are a kind of private men of war,
the perfons concerned wherein adminifter at their own
cofts a part of a war, by fitting out thefe fliips of
force, and providing them with all military ftores ;
and they have, inflead of pay, leave to keep what
they take from the enemy, allowing the admiral his
{hare, &c.
Privateers may not attempt any thing againft the
laws of nations •, as to affault an enemy in a port or
haven, under the proteftion of any prince or republic,
whether he be friend, ally, or neuter } for the peace
of fuch places muft be inviolably kept •, therefore, by
a treaty made by King William and the States of Hol¬
land, before a commiffion ffiall be granted to any pri¬
vateer, the commander is to give fecurity, if the {hip
be not above 150 tons, in 1500I. and if the fhip ex¬
ceeds that burden, in 3C00I. that they will make fa-
tisfa&ion for all damages which they {hall commit in
their courfes at fea, contrary to the treaties with that
Rate, on pain of forfeiting their commiffions ; and the
{hip is made liable.
'l'vjL'EI Befides thefe private commiffions, there are fpecial
commiffions for privateers, granted to commanders of
{hips, &c. who take pay j who are under a marine
difcipline ; and if they do not obey their orders, may
be puniffied with death : and the wars in later ages
have given occafion to princes to iffue thefc commif-
lions, to annoy the enemies in their commerce, and
hinder fuch fupplies as might {Lengthen them or
lengthen out the war j and likewife to prevent the fe-
paration of {hips of greater force from their fleets or
fquadrons. ,
Ships taken by privateers were to be divided into five
parts } four parts whereof to go to the perfons intereft-
ed in the privateer, and the fifth to his majefly : and
as a farther encouragement, privateers, &c. deftroying
any French man of war or privateer, fhall receive, for
every piece of ordnance in the {hip fo taken, 10I. re¬
ward, &c.
By a particular fiatute lately made, the lord admiral,
or commiffioners of the admiralty, may grant commif¬
fions to commanders of privateers, for taking {hips, &c.
which being adjudged prize, and the tenth part paid to Privateers,
the admiral, See. wholly belong to the owners of the U
privateers and the captors, in proportions agreed on be- ccimril.
tween themfelves. v ..i .J
PRIVATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the ab-
fence or want of fomething 5 in which fenfe darknefs is
only the privation of light.
PRIVATIVE, in Grammary a particle, which, pre¬
fixed to a word, changes it into a contrary fenfe. Thusr
among the Greeks, the a is ufed as a privative *, as in
a-Qios, atheijl, acephalus, &c. The Latins have their
privative in; as, incorrig ibilis, in dec lin a b ills, &.c.——
The Engliffi, French, &c. on occafion borrow both the
Latin and Greek privatives.
PRIVERNUM, (Livy, Virgil) ; a town of the
Volfci, in Latium, to the eaft of Setia. PrivernateSy
the people. Whofe ambaffadors being aiked, What
punifhment they deferved for their revolt ? anfwered,
What thofe deferve who deem themfelves worthy of
liberty. And again, being afkcd by the Roman con-
ful, fhould the puniffiment be remitted, What peace
Avas to be expe&ed with them ? If you grant a good
peace, you may hope to have it fincere and lafling j but
if a bad one, you may well expedt it of ffiort continu¬
ance. At which anfwer, the Romans were fo far from
being difpleafed, that by a vote of the people they had
the freedom of the city granted them. PnvernaSy -atiSy
the epithet. The town is now called Piperno VecchiOy
fituated in the Campania of Rome. E. Long. 10. o.
N. Lat. 41. 30.
PRIVET. See Ligustrum, Botany Index.
PRIVILEGE, in Law, fome peculiar benefit grant¬
ed to certain perfons or places, contrary to the ufual
courfe of the law.
Privileges are faid to be perfonal or real.
Pcrfonal privileges are fuch as are extended to peers,
ambaffadors, members of parliament, and of the convo¬
cation, &c. See Lords, Ambassador, Parliament,.
Arrest, &c.
A real privilege is that granted to fome particular
place •, as the king’s palace, the courts at Weilminller,
the univerfities, &c.
Privileges of the Clergy. See Clergy.
PRIVY, in Law, is a partaker, or perfon having
an intereft, in any adlion or thing. In this fenfe they
fay, privies in blood : every heir in tail is privy to re¬
cover the land intailed. In old law-books, merchants
privy are oppofed to merchants If rangers. Coke men¬
tions four kinds of privies. Privies in blood, as the
heir to his father 5 privies in reprefentalion, as execu¬
tors and adminiffrators to the deceafed j privies in eftate,
as he in reverfion and he in remainder, donor and do¬
nee, leffor and leffee : lafily, privy in tenure, as the
lord by efeheat; i. e. when land efeheats- to the lord for
want of heirs.
PhiVT-Council. See Council. The king’s will is
the foie conlfituent of a privy-counfellor ; and it alfo
regulates their number, which in ancient times was
about twelve. Afterwards it increafed to fo large a
number, that it was found inconvenient for fecrecy
and difpatch , and therefore Charles II. in 1679, li¬
mited it to 30 •, whereof 15 were principal officers of
Rate, and to be counfellors ex officio ; aftd the other 1.5
were compofed of 10 lords and five commoners of the
king’s choofing. Since that time however the number
P ft I [ 3S4 j PRO
Privy. ]7as been much augmented, and now continues indcfi-
* n>te* the fame time alfo, the ancient office of lord
prefident of the council was revived, in the perfon of
Anthony earl of Shaftefbury. Privy-counfellors are
made by the king’s nomination, without either patent
or grant; and, on taking the neceffary oaths, they be¬
come immediately privy-counfellors during the life of
the king that choofes them, but fubjeft to removal at
his diferetion.
Any natural born fubje£! of England is capable of
being a member of the privy-council; taking the pro¬
per oaths for fecurity of the government, and the tefl:
for fecurity of the church. By the aft of fetllement,
1 2 and 13 W. 111. cap. 2. it is enafted, that no perfon
born out of the dominions of the crown of England,
imlefs born of Engliffi parents, evbn though natura¬
lized by parliament, fhall be capable of being of the
privy-council. The duly of a privy-counfellor appears
from the oath of office, which confifts of feven articles.
I. To advife the king according to the beft of his cun¬
ning and diferetion. 2. To advife for the king’s
honour and good of the public, without partiality,
through affeflion, love, meed, doubt, or dread. 3.
To keep the king’s counfel fecret. 4. To avoid cor¬
ruption. 5. To help and ftrengthen the execution of
what (hall be there refolved. 6. To withlland all per-
fons who would attempt the contrary^ And, lallly,
in general, 7. To obferve, keep, and do all that a
good and true counfellor ought to do to his fovereign
lord.
The privy-council is the primuvi mobile of the Hate,
and that which gives the motion and direflion to all
the inferior parts. It is likewife a court of juftice of
great antiquity ; the primitive and ordinary way of go¬
vernment in England being by the king and privy-
council. It has been frequently ufed by all our king’s
for determining controverfies of great importance:
the ordinary judges have fometimes declined giving
judgment till they had conlulted the king and privy-
council ; and the parliament have frequently referred
matters of high moment to the fame, as being by long
experience better able to judge of, and, by their fe-
crecy and expedition, to tranfaft fome Hate affairs, than
the lords and ■ commons. At prefent, the privy-coun¬
cil takes cognizance of few or no matters except fuch
as cannot well be determined by the known laws and
ordinary courts; fuch as matters of complaint and fud-
den emergencies : their conftant bufinefs being to con-
iult for the public good in affairs of ftate. This power
of the privy-council is to inquire into all offences againft
the government, and to commit the offenders to fafe
cuftody, .in order to take their trial in fome of the
courts of law. But their jurifdidlion herein is only to
inquire, and not to puniffi; and the perfons committed
by them are intitled to their habeas corpus by ftatute r6
Car. I. cap. 10. as much as if committed by an ordinary
iuftice of the peace. .
In plantation or admiralty caufes, which arife out of
the jurifdiclion of this kingdom, and in matters of lu¬
nacy and idiocy, the privy-council has cognizance, even
in quellions of extenfive property, being the court of
appeal in fuch caufes; or, rather, the appeal lies to the
Hing’s majelly himfelf in council. From all the domi¬
nions of the crown, excepting Great Britain and Ire¬
land, an appellate jurifdiilion (in the laft refort) is
veiled in this tribunal* ■which ufually exercifes its judi- Privy-
cial authority in a committee of the whole privy-council, (ountii
who hear the allegations and proofs, and make their re- D ^
port to his majeily in council, by whom the judgment . ' ^ ~
is finally given.
Anciently, to ftrike in the houfe of a privy.counfel¬
lor, or elfewhere in his prefence, was grievoufly puniih-
ed by 3 Hen. VII. cap. 14. if any of the king’s fer-
vants ot his hcufebold confpire or imagine to take
away the life of a privy-counfellor, it is felony, though
nothing (hall be done upon it; and by 9 Ann. cap, 16,
it is ena£kd, that any perfons who {hall unlawfully at¬
tempt to kill, or ffiall unlawfully affault, and ftrike, or
wound, any privy-counfellor in the execution of his of¬
fice, {hall be felons, and fuffer death as fuch. With
advice of this council, the king ifffies proclamations
that bind the fubject, provided they be not contrary to
law. In debates, the lowed; delivers his opinion fird,
the king lad ; and thereby determines the matter. A
council is never held without the prefence of afecrelary
of date.
The diffolution of the privy-council depends upon
the king’s pleafure ; and he may, whenever he thinks
proper, difeharge any particular member, or the whole
of it, and appoint another. By the common law alfo
it was diffolved ipfo futto by the king’s demife, as deri¬
ving all its authority from him. But now, to prevent
the inconveniences of having no council in being at the
acceffion of a new prince, it is enaded, by 6 Ann.
cap. 7. that the privy-council diall contine for fix
months after the demife of the crown, unlefs fooner de¬
termined by the fucceffor. Blacbjl. Com. book i. p. 229,
&c.
The officers of the privy-council are four clerks of
the council in ordinary, three clerks extraordinary, a
keeper of the records, and two keepers of the council-
chamber. See President.
PbIVT Seal, a feal which the king ufes previoudy
to fuch grants, &.c. as are afterwards to pafs the great
feal.
The privy feal is alfo fometimes ufed in matters of
lefs confequence, which do not require the great feal.
Lord PmVT Seal. See KEEPER of the Privy Seal.
Clerks of the PR1VT Seal. . See Clerk.
Privt Chamber. See Chamber.
PRIZE, or Prise, in maritime affairs, a veffel taken
at fea from the enemies of a date, or from pirates ; and
that either by a man of w ar, a privateer, &c. having a
commidion for that purpofe.
Veffels are looked on as prize, if they fight under
any other ftandard than that of the date from which
they have their commidion ; if they have no charter-
party, invoice, or bill of lading abroad ; if loaded with
effeds belonging to the king’s enemies, or with con¬
traband goods.
In diips of w’ar, the prizes are to be divided among
the officers, fcamen, &c. as his majedy diall appoint
by proclamation ; but among privateers, the divifion is
according to the agreement between the owners.
By Hat. 13 Geo. II. c. 4. judges and officers, failing
of their duty in refped to the condemnation of prizes,
forfeit 500!. with full cods of fuit ; one moiety to the
king, and the other to the informer.
PROA, Flying, in navigation, is a name given to
a veffel ufed in the South feas, becaufe with a bride
trade-wind
PRO [ 385 ] PRO
Proa, trade-wind it fails near 20 miles an liour. In the con-
Probability. ftrU(ction of the proa, the head and ftern are exa&ly
U ’ alike, but the Tides are very different 5 the fide intend¬
ed to be always the lee-fide being flat j and the wind¬
ward fide made rounding, in the manner of other veffels;
and, to prevent her over-fetting, which, from her fmall
breadth, and the ftraight run of her leeward fide,
would, without this precaution, infallibly happen, there
is a frame laid out from her to windward, to the end
of which is fattened a log, fafliioned into the (hape of
a fmall boat, and made hollow. The weight of the
frame is intended to balance the proa, and the fmall
boat is by its buoyancy (as it is always in the water)
to prevent her overfetting to windward ; and this frame
is ufually called an outrigger. The body of the vef-
fel is made of two pieces joined end wife, and fewed to¬
gether with bark, for there is no iron ufed about her
the is about two inches thick at the bottom, which, at
the gunwale,'is reduced to lefs than one. The fail
is made of matting, and the matt, yard, boom, and out¬
riggers, are all made of bamboo. See Anfon's Voyage,
quarto, p. 341.
PROBABILITY is a word of nearly the fame
import with likelihood. It denotes the appearance of
truth, or that evidence arifing from the preponderation
of argument which produces opinion. (See Opinion).
Locke claffes all arguments under the heads of demon-
flrative and probable : Hume with greater accuracy di¬
vides them into demonjlrations, proofs, and probabilities.
Demonftration produces fcience ; proof, belief; and pro¬
bability, opinion.
Hardly any thing is fufceptible of ftrift demonftration
befides the mathematical fciences, and a few propofitiens
in metaphyfical'theology. Phyfics reft upon principles,
capable, fome of them, of complete proof by experience,
and others of nothing more than probability by analogical
reafoning. What has uniformly happened, we expedt
with the fulleft confidence to happen again in fimilar
circumftances ; what has frequently happened, we like-
wife expeft to happen again j but our expectation is not
confident. Uniform exjierience is proof j frequent expe¬
rience is probability. The ftrongeft man has always been
able to lift the greateft weight j and, therefore, knowing
that one man is ftronger than another, we expedt, with
confidence, that the former will lift more than the lat¬
ter. The belt difciplined army has generally proved
victorious, when all other circumftances were equal. We
therefore expedt that an army of veterans will, upon fair
ground, defeat an equal number of new levied troops:
but as hidden panics have fometimes feized the oldeft
foldiers, this expectation is accompanied with doubt,
and the utmoft that we can fay of the expedted event is,
that it is probable ; whereas in the competition between
the two men, we look upon it as morally certain. (See
Metaphysics, Part I. chap. vH. fee. 3.) When two
or three perfons of known veracity atteft the fame thing
as confiftent with their knowledge,’ their teftirpony
amounts to proof, if not contradidted by the teftimony
of others ; if contradicted, it can, at the utmoft, amount
only to probability. In common language we talk of
cirCumflantial proofs and prefumptive proofs ; but the
exprefiions are improper, for fuch evidence amounts to
nothing more than probability. Of probability there
are indeed various degrees, from the confines of certain¬
ty down to the confines of impoffibility j and a variety
Vqi>. XVII. Part I.
Probity.
of circumftances tending to the fame point, though they Probability-
amount not to what, in ftriClnefs of language, ftiould be
called proof, afford to the mind a very high degree of (
evidence, upon which, with the addition of one diredt
teftimony, the laws of many countries take away the life
of a man.
V ROB ABILITY of an Event, in the Doclrine of Chan¬
ces, is greater or lefs according to the number of chances
by which it may happen or fail. (See Expectation).
The probability of life is liable to rules of computation.
In the Encyclopedia Methodique, we find a table of the
probabilities of the duration of life, conftrudted from
that which is to be found in the feventh volume of the
Supplemens a VHifloire de M. de Buffon; of which the
following is an abridgement.
Of 23994 children born at the fame time, there will
probably die
y f In one year - - 799^
yiL Remaining \ or 15996
In eight years - - 1A99‘J
Remaining 4 or 11997
•yY In thirty-eight years - 1599^
Remaining ^ or 7998
In fifty years - - I7994
Remaining ^ or 5998
iy In fixty-one years - I999?
11 Remaining ^ or 3999
r% \ In feventy years - - 21595
To 1 Remaining Vo or 2^99
||ty In eighty years - - 22395
Vo 1 Remaining V? or 599
4^^ In ninety years - - 23914
Remaining -j— or 80
* Tn a hundred years - 23992
Remaining t^oo or 2. See Bills of MORTA¬
LITY.
PROBATE of a will or teftament, in Law, is the
exhibiting and proving of laft wills and teftaments be¬
fore the ecclefiaftical judge delegated by the bilhop,
who is ordinary of the place where the party died.
PROBATION, in the univerfities, is the examina¬
tion and trial of a ftudent who is about to take his de¬
grees.
Probation, in a monaftic fenfe, fignifies the year
of a novitiate, which a religious muft pafs in a convent,
to prove his virtue and vocation, and whether he can
bear the feverities of the rule.
Probation, in Scots Law. See Law Index.
PROBATIONER, in the church of Scotland, a
ftudent in divinity, who bringing a certificate from a
profeffor in an univerfity of his good morals, and his
having performed his exercifes to approbation, is ad¬
mitted to undergo feveral trials ; and, upon his ac¬
quitting himfelf properly in thefe, receives a licence to
preach.
PROBATUM EST (It is proved), a term frequent¬
ly fubjoined to a receipt for the cure of fome difeafe.
PROBE, a furgeon’s inftrument for examining the
circumftances of wounds, ulcers, and other cavities,
fearching for ftones in the bladder, &c.
PROBITY means honefty, fincerity, or veracity 5
and confifts in the habit of aft ions ufeful to fociety, and
in the conftant obfervance of the laws which juftice
3 C and
Procefs.
PRO C 3
Probity and confidence itnpofe on us. The man v, ho obeys all
the laws of fociety with an exac! pumfluality is not
, therefore a man of probity ; laws can only refpefl the
external and definite parts of human condiud, but pro¬
bity refpedls our more private aftions, and fuch as it is
impoffibie in all cafes to define •, and it appears to be in
morals what charity is in religion. Probity teaches us
to perform in fociety thole actions which no external
power can oblige us to perform, and is that quality in
the human mind from which we claim the performance
of the rights commonly called imperfect. See Moral
Philosophy.
PROBLEM, in Logic, is a propofition that neither
appears abfolutely true nor falfe ; and, confequently,
may be afierted either in the affirmative or negative..
Problem, in Geometry, is a propofition, wherein
fome operation or conltruftion is required ; as to divide
a line or angle, ereft or let fall perpendiculars, &c.
See Geometry.
PROBOSCIS, in Natural Hifiory, is the trunk or
fnout of an elephant, and fome other animals and in¬
fers.
Flies, gnats, &c. are furnifiied with a probofcis or
trunk } by means of which they fuck the blood of ani¬
mals, the iuice of vegetables, &c. for their food.
PRO BUS, Marcus Aurelius, was the fon of a
gardener, and became, by his great valour as a foldier,
and his eminent virtues, emperor of Rome, to which
dignity he was raifed by the army. Having fubdued
the barbarous nations who made incurfions into different
parts of the empire, where they committed horrid cruel¬
ties, he managed the affairs of government with great
wifdom and clemency. He ivas malfacred in the year
282, and the 7th of his reign, by fome foldiers who
were weary of the public works at which he made them
labour.
PROCATARCTIC cause, in Medicine, the pre-
exifting, or predifpofing caufe or occafion of a difeafe.
PROCELEUSMATICUS, in the ancient poetry,
a foot confifting of four fhort fyllables, or two pyrrhy-
ehiiTes •, as hominibus.
PROCELL ARIxA, a genus of birds, belonging to
the order of anferes. See Ornithology Index. Clu-
fius makes the procellaria pelagica or ftormy petrel the
Camilla of the fea.
Vel mare per medium fuctu fufpenfa tumenti
Ferret iter, celeres nec lingeret cequore plant as. VlRG.
She fwept the feas ; and, as (he fkimm’d along,
Her flying feet unbatlPd on billows hung. DrydEN.
Thefe birds are the cypfe/li of Pliny, which he places
among the apodes of Ariflotle ; not becaufe they want¬
ed feet, but were KctKonolici, or had bad or ufelefs ones j
an attribute he gives to thefe fpecies, on a fuppofition
that they were almofi: always on the wing.
PROCESS, in Law, denotes the proceedings in any
caufe, real or perfonal, civil or criminal, from the origi¬
nal writ to the end thereof.
In a more limited fenfe, procefs denotes that by
which a man is called firfi: into any temporal court.
It is the next flep for carrying on the fuit, after filing
out the original writ. See Suit and Writ.
It is the method taken by the law to compel a com¬
pliance with the original writ, of which the primary
Procefs.
86 j PRO
flep is by giving the party notice to obey it. This no¬
tice is given upon all real preecipes ; and alfb upon all v~""*
perfonal writs for injuries not againft the peace, by
fummons ; which is a warning to appear in court at the
return of the original writ, given to the defendant by Blackjt.
two of the fherifFs meflengers called fwnmoners, either Conanent.
in perfon, or left at his houfe or land : in like manner
as in the civil law the firft procefs is by perfonal cita-
tion, in jus vocando. This warning on the land is given,
in real adlions, by ere&inga white flick or wand on the
defendant’s grounds (which flick or wand among the
northern nations is called the baculus nunciatorius'), and
by ftatute 31 Eliz. c. 3. the notice mufi alfo be pro¬
claimed on fome Sunday before the door of the parifli-
church.
If the defendant difobeys this verbal monition, the
next procefs is by writ ox attachment, or pone ; fo called
from the words of the writ, pone per vadium et fa hoc
plegios, “ put by gage and fafe pledges A. B. the de¬
fendant,” &c. This is a writ not ifluing out of chan¬
cery, but out of the court of common-pleas, being
grounded on the non-appearance of the defendant at
the retflrn of the original writ j and thereby the fheriff
is commanded to attach him, by taking gage, that is,
certain of his goods, which he {hall forfeit if he doth
not appear *, or by making him find fafe pledges or
fureties, which ihall be-amerced in cafe of his non-ap¬
pearance. This is alfo the firit and immediate procefs,
without any previous fummons, upon adlions of trefpais
vi et armis, or for other injuries, which, though not for¬
cible, are yet trefpafles againft. the peace, as deceit and
confpiracy ; where the violence of the wrong requires a
more fpeedy remedy, and therefore the original writ
commands the defendant to be at once attached, with¬
out any precedent warning.
If, after attachment, the defendant negledls to appear,
he not only forfeits this fecurity, but is moreover to be
farther compelled by writ of difringas, or diftrefs infi-
finite : which is a fubfequent procefs ifluing from the
court of common-pleas, commanding the Iheriff to di-
ftrain the defendant from time to time, and continually
afterwards, by taking his goods and the profits of his
lands, which are called iffues, and which he forfeits to
the king if he doth not appear. But the iflues may be
fold, if" the court fhall fo direft, in order to defray the
reafonable cofts of the plaintiff. In like manner, by the
civil law, if the defendant abfeonds, fo that the citation
is of no effect, mittitur adverfarius in poffejfonem bono-
rum ejus.
And here, by the common as well as the civil law,
the procefs ended in cafe of injuries without force : the
* defendant if he had any fubftance, being gradually ftrip-
ped of it all by repeated diftrefles, till he rendered obe¬
dience to the king’s writ; and, if he had no fubftance,
the law held him incapable of making fatisfaflion, aud
therefore looked upon all farther procefs as nugatory-
And befides, upon feodal principles, the perfon of a
feudatory was not liable to be attached for injuries
merely civil, left thereby his lord fhould be deprived of
his perfonal fervices. But, in cafes of injury accompa¬
nied with force, the law, to punilh the breach of the
peace and prevent its difturbance for the future, provided
alfo a procefs againft the defendant’s perfon, in cafe he
negledled to appear upon the former procefs of attach¬
ment, or had no fubftance whereby to be attached; fob-
PRO [3
Procefs. jeering his body to imprifonment by the writ of capias
-"'Y—ad refpovdendum. But this immunity of the defendant’s
perfon, in cafe of peaceable though fraudulent injuries,
producing great contempt of the law in indigent wrong¬
doers, a capias was alfo allowed, to arreft the perfon in
actions of account, though no breach of the peace be
fuggefted, by the flatutes of Marlbridge, 52 Hen. III.
c. 23. and Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 11. in adlions of
debt and detinue, by ilatute 25 Edw. III. c. 17. and
in all aftions on the cafe, by ilatute 19 Hen. VII c. 9.
Before which lad datute a practice had been introduced
of commencing the fuit by bringing an original writ of
trefpafs quare claufum fregit, by breaking the plaintiff’s
clofe, vi et armis ; which by the old common law fub-
jefted the defendant’s perfon to be arreded by writ of
capias : and then afterwards, by connivance of the court,
the plaintiff might proceed to profecute for any other
lefs forcible injury. This praftice (through cudom ra¬
ther than neceflity, and for faving fome trouble and ex¬
pence, in fuing out a fpecial original adapted to the par¬
ticular injury) dill continues in almod all cafes, except
in actions of debt; though now, by virtue of the da-
tutes above cited and others, a capias might be had upon
almod every fpecies of complaint.
If therefore the defendant, being fummoned or at¬
tached, makes default, and neglefls to appear j or if
the Iheriff returns a nihil, or that the defendant hath
nothing whereby he may be fummoned, attached, or
didrained, the capias now ufually iffues : being a writ
commanding the Iheriff to take the body of the defen¬
dant, if he may be found in his bailiwick or county, and
him fafely to keep, fo that he may have him in court
on the day of the return, to anfwer to the plaintiff of
a plea of debt, or trefpafs, &c. as the cafe may be.
This writ, and all others fubfequent to the original
writ, not iffuing out of chancery, but from the court
into which the original was returnable, and being ground¬
ed on what has paffed in that court in confequence of
the fheriff’s return, are called judicial, not original, writs j
they iffue under the private feal of that court, and not
under the great feal of England ; and are tejled, not in
the king’s name, but in that of the chief judice only.
And thefe feveral writs being grounded on the fheriff’s
return, mud refpedlively bear date the fame day on
which the writ immediately preceding was returnable.
This is the regular and orderly method of procefs.
But it is now ufual in pra&ice to fue out the capias in
the fird indance, upon a fuppofed return of the fheriff;
efpecially if it be fufpe£ted that the defendant, upon
notice of the action, will abfeond 5 and afterwards a fic¬
titious original is drawn up, with a proper return there¬
upon, in order to give the proceedings a colour of re¬
gularity. _ When this capias is delivered to the fheriff,
he by his under-fheriff grants a warrant to his inferior
officers or bailiffs to execute it on the defendant. And,
if the fheriff of Oxfordfhire ( in which county the injury
is fuppofed to be committed and the action is laid) can¬
not find the defendant in his jurifdiftion, he returns
that he is not found, non ejl inventus, in his bailiwick :
whereupon another writ iffues, called a tejlatum capias,
directed to the fheriff of the county where the defendant
is fuppofed to refide, as of Berkfhire, reciting the form¬
er writ, and that it is teflified, tejlatum ejl, that the de¬
fendant lurks or wanders in his bailiwick, where he is
ommanded to take him, as in the former capias. But
87 ] p R o
here alfo, when the action is brought in one county Procefs.
and the defendant lives in another, it is ufual, for faving   v—”
trouble, time, and expence, to make out a tejlatum ca¬
pias at the firfl ; fuppofing not only an original, but alfo
a former capias, to have been granted $ which in fadt
never was. And this fiftion, being beneficial to all
parties, is readily acquiefced in, and is now become the
fettled pradtice j being one among many inftances to il-
luftrate that maxim of law, that in fichonc juris con/i/lit
eequitas.
But where a defendant abfeonds, and the plaintiff
would proceed to an outlawry againft him, an original
writ muff then be fued out regularly, and after that a
capias. And if the fheriff cannot find the defendant
upon the firfl: writ of capias, and returns a nor, ejl inven¬
tus, there iffues out an alias writ, and after that a plu-
ries, to the fame effedl as the former : only after thefe
words “ we command you,” this claufe is inferted, “ as
we have formerly,” or, “ as we have often commanded
you ;”—u ficut alias,” or, “yfevtf pluries pracepimus."
And if a non ejl inventus is returned upon all of them,
then a writ of exigent or exigifacias may be fued out,
which requires the flieriff to caufe the defendant to be
proclaimed, required or exadled, in five county-courts
fucceflively, to render himfelf j and if he does, then to
take him, as in a capias : but if he does not appear, and
is returned quinto exadlus, he {hall then be outlawed by
the coroners of the county. Alfobyftatute 6 Hen. VIII.
c. 4. and 31 Eliz. c. 3. whether the defendant dwells
within the fame or another county than that wherein the
exigent is fued out, a writ of proclamation fhall iflue out
at the fame time with the exigent, commanding the
fheriff of the county, wherein the defendant dwells, to
make three proclamations thereof in places the moft no¬
torious, and moft likely to come to his knowledge, a
month before the outlawry fhall take place. Such out¬
lawry is putting a man out of the prote&ion of the law,
fo that he is incapable to bring an a&ion for redrefs of
injuries; and it is alfo attended with a forfeiture of all
one’s goods and chattels to the king. And therefore^
till fome time after the conqueft, no man could be out¬
lawed but for felony : but in Bration’s time, and fome-
what earlier, procefs of outlawry Avas ordained to lie in
all atlions for trefpaffes vi et armis. A nd fince, by a
variety of flatutes (the fame which allow the writ of
capias before mentioned) procefs of outlawry doth lie in
divers atlions that are merely civil; providing they be
commenced by original and not by bill. If after out¬
lawry the defendant appears publicly, he may be arreft-
ed by a writ of capias utlagatum, and committed till the
outlawry be reverfed. Which reverfal may be, had by
the defendant’s appearing perfonally in court (and in
the king’s bench without any perfonal appearance, fo
that he appears by attorney, according to ftatute 4 & 5
W. & M. c. 18.) *, and any plaufible caufe, however
flight, will in general be fufficient to reverfe it, it being
confidered only as a procefs to compel an appearance.
But then the defendant muft pay full cofts, and put the
plaintiff in the fame condition as if he had appeared be¬
fore the writ of exigi facias was awarded. . ..
Such is the firft procefs in thexourt of common pleas.
In the king’s bench they may alfo (and frequently do)
proceed in certain caufes, particularly in a£lions of eject¬
ment and trefpafs, by original writ, with attachment and
capias thereon j returnable, not at Weft minder, where
3 C 2 the
P R O [ 388 ] PRO
Procefs. the common pleas are now fixed in confequence of mag-
—y ' na charta, but ubicunque fuei'imus in Anglia, wherefoever
the king (hall then be in England j the king’s bench
being removeable into any part of England at the plea-
fure and difcretion of the crown. But the more ufual
method of proceeding therein is without any original,
but by a peculiar fpeeies of procefs entitled a bill of
Middlefex ; and therefore fo entitled, becaufe the court
now fits in that county j for if it fat in Kent, it would
then be a bill of Kent. For though, as the Juftices of
this court have, by its fundamental conftitution, poiver
to determine all offences and trefpafTes, by the common
law and cuttom of the realm, it needed no original
writ from the crown to give it cognizance of any mif-
demefnor in the county wherein it refides 3 yet as, by
this court’s coming into any county, it immediately fu-
perfeded the ordinary adminiflration of juftice by the
general commifiions of eyre and of oyer and terminer, a
procefs of its own became neceffary, within the county
where it fat, to bring in fuch perfons as were accufed of
committing any forcible injury. Ihe bill of Middlefex
(which was formerly always founded on a plaint of
trefpafs quare claufum fregit, entered on the records of
the court) is a kind of capias, directed to the fheriff of
that county, and commanding him to take the defendant,
and have him before our lord the king at \v eftminfter on
a day prefixed, to anfwer to the plaintiff of a plea of
trefpafs. For this accufation of trefpafs it is that gives
the court of king’s bench jurifdidfion in other civil caufes,
fince, when once the defendant is taken into cuffody of
the mar dial, or prifon-keeper of this court, for the fuppo-
fed trefpafs, he, being then a prifoner of this coiut, may
here be profecuted for any other fpecies of injury. Yet,
in order to found thisjurifdiftion, it is not neceffary that
the defendant be affually the marfhal’s prifoner ; for,
as foon as he appears, or puts in bail, to the procefs,
he is deemed by fo doing to be in fuch cuftody of the
marfhal as will give the court, a jurifdidfion to proceed.
And, upon thefe accounts, in the bill or procefs, a
complaint of trefpafs is always fuggefted, whatever elfe
may be the real caufe of aftion. "1 his bill of Middle¬
fex muft be ferved on the defendant by the flieriff, if
he finds him in that county : but if. he returns, non ejl
inventus, then there iffues out a writ of latitat, to the
fheriff of another county, as Berks : which is fimilar
to the tejbatum capias in the common pleas, and recites
the bill of Middlefex and the proceedings thereon, and
that it is teftified that the defendant latitat et difcurnt,
lurks and wanders about in Berks j and therefore com¬
mands the fheriff to take him, and have his body in
court on the day of the return. But as in the common
pleas the tejlalum capias may be fued out upon only, a
fuppofed, and not an a&ual preceding, capias; fo in
the king’s bench a latitat is ufually fued out upon
only a fuppofed, and not an aflual, bill of Middlefex.
So that, in faft, a latitat may be called the firft procefs
in the court of king’s bench, as the tejlatum capias, is in
the common pleas. Yet, as in the common pieas,.if the
defendant lives in the county wherein the adlion is laid,
a common capias fuffices •, fo in the king s bench .like-
wife, if he lives in Middlefex, the procefs muft ftill be
by bill of Middlefex only.
In the exchequer the firft procefs is. by writ of quo
minus, in order to give the court a jurifdiciion over
pleas between party and party. In which writ the
' . 3
plaintiff is alleged to be the king’s farmer or debtor, Proeefs.
and that the defendant hath done him the injury com- ‘'•““■•y—-
plained oi,quo minus fufficiens exijlil, by which he is the
lefs able to pay the king his rent or debt. And upon
this the defendant may be arrefted as upon a capias from
the common pleas.
Thus differently do the three courts fet out at firft,
in the commencement of a fuit, in order to intitle the
two courts of king’s bench and exchequer to hold plea
in fubje&s caufes, which by the original conftitution of
Weftminfter-hall they were not empowered to do. Af¬
terwards, when the caufe is once drawn into therefpec-
tive courts, the method of purfuing it is pretty much the
fame in all of them.
If the (heriff had found the defendant upon any of
the former writs, the capias latitat, &c. he was ancient¬
ly obliged to take him into cuftody, in order to produce
him in court upon the return, however fmall and minute
the caufe of aflion might be. For, not having obeyed the
original fummons, he had ftiown a contempt of the court,
and was no longer to be trufted at large. But when
the fummons fell into difufe, and the capias became in
fa£t the firft procefs, it was thought hard to imprifon a
man for a contempt which was only fuppofed: and there¬
fore, in common cafes, by the gradual indulgence of the
courts (at length authorifed by ftatute 12 Geo. I. c. 29.
which was amended by ftatute 5 Geo. II. c. 27. and
made perpetual by ftatute 21 Geo. II. c. 3O the fherift
or his officer can now only perfonally ferve the defend¬
ant with the copy of the writ or procefs, and with no¬
tice in writing to appear by his attorney in court to de¬
fend this aftion; which in effefl reduces it to a mere
fummons. And if the defendant think proper to ap¬
pear upon this notice, his appearance is recorded, and
he puts in fureties for his future attendance and obe¬
dience; which fureties are called common bail, being
the fame two imaginary perfons that were.pledges for
the plaintiff’s profecution, John Doe and Richard Roe.
Or, if the defendant does not appear upon the return of
the writ, or within four (or in fome cafes eight), days
after, the plaintiff may enter an appearance for him, as
if he had really appeared ; and may file common bail
in the defendant’s name, and proceed thereupon as if the
defendant had done it himfelf.
But if the plaintiff will make affidavit, or affert up¬
on oath, that the caufe of a&ion amounts to ten pounds
or upwards, then in order to arreft the defendant, and
make him put in fubftantial fureties for his appearance,
called fpecialbail, it is required by ftatute 13 Car. II.
flat. 2. c. 2. that the true caufe of aftion ffiould be ex-
preffed in the body of the writ or procefs; elfe no fecu-
rity can be taken in a greater fum than 40I. I. his
ftatute (without any fuch intention in the makers) had
like to have oufted the king’s bench of all its jurifdic-
tion over civil injuries without force; for as the bill
of Middlefex was framed only for aflions of trefpafs, a
defendant could not be arrefted and held to bail there¬
upon for breaches of civil contracts. But to remedy
this inconvenience, the officers of the king’s bench de-
vifed a method of adding what is called a claufe of ac
etiarn to the ufual complaint of trefpafs; the bill of
Middlefex commanding the defendant to be brought in
to anfwer the plaintiff of a plea of trefpafs, and a fo to a
bill of debt: the complaint or trefpafs giving cogniz¬
ance to the court, and that of debt authorifing the at>
PRO [ 389 ] PRO
Procefi'. reft. In imilation of which, lord chief juftice North,
V”’; a few years afterwards, in order to fave the fuitors of
his court the trouble and expence of fuing out fpecial
originals, direfted, that in the common pleas, befides
the ufual complaint of breaking the plaintiff’s clofe, a
claufe of ac etiam might be alfo added to the writ of
capias, containing the true caufe of aftion ; as, “ that
the faid Charles the defendant may anfwer to the plain¬
tiff of a plea of trefpafs in breaking his clofe : and alfo,
ac etiam may anfwer him, according to the cuftom of
the court, in a certain plea of trefpafs upon the cafe, up¬
on promifes, to the value of 20I. Sic.” The fum fvvorn
to by the plaintiff’ is marked upon the back of the writ j
and the ftieriff, or his officer the bailiff, is then obliged
aftually to arreft or take into cuftody the body of the
defendant, and, having fo done, to return the writ Avith
a cepi corpus indorfed thereon. See Arrest.
When the defendant is regularly arrefted, he muff
either go to prifon, for fafe cuftody j or put in fpecial
bail to the ffieriff. For, the intent of the arreft being
only to compel an appearance in court at the return of
the writ, that purpofe is equally anfwered, rvhether the
ffieriff detains his perfon, or takes fufficient fecurity for
his appearance, called bail (from the French Avord bail¬
er, “ to deliver),” becaufe the defendant is bailed, or
delivered, to his fureties, upon their giving fecurity for
his appearance ; and is fuppofed to continue in their
friendly cuftody inftead of going to gaol. See Bail.
The method of putting in bail to the ffieriff is, by en¬
tering into a bond or obligation, Avith one or more fu¬
reties, (not fidtitious perfons, as in the former cafe of
common bail, but real, fubftantial, refponfible bondf-
xnen), to infure the defendant’s appearance at the return
of the writ ; which obligation is called the bail-bond.
The ffieriff, if he pleafes, may let the defendant go Avith-
out any fureties $ but that is at his own peril: for, after
once taking him, the ffieriff is bound to keep him fafe-
ly, fo as to be forthcoming in court *, otherwife an ac¬
tion lies againft him for an efcape. But, on the other
hand, he is obliged, by ftatute 23 Hen. VI. c. 10. to
take (if it be tendered) a fufficient bail-bond ; and, by
ftatute 1 2 Geo. I. c. 29. the ftieriff ftiall take bail for no
other fum than fuch as is fworn to by the plaintiff, and
indorfed on the back of the Avrit.
Upon the return of the Avrit, or Avithin four days af¬
ter, the defendant muff; appear according to the exi¬
gency of the Avrit. This appearance is effected by put¬
ting in and juftifying bail to the aElion ; Avhieh is com¬
monly called putting in bail above. If this be not done,
and the bail that Avere taken by the ffieriff below are
refponfible perfons, the plaintiff may take an affignment
from the ffieriff of the bail-bond (under the ftatute 4 and
5 Ann. c. 16.) and bring an adtion thereupon againft
the ffieriff’s bail. But if the bail fo accepted by the
ftieriff be infolvent perfons, the plaintiff may proceed
againft the ffierift’himfelf, by calling upon him, firft to
return the Avrit (if not already done), and aftenvards to
bring in the body of the defendant. And if the ffieriff
does not then caufe fufficient bail to be put in above, he
Avill himfelf be refponfible to the plaintiff.
The bail above, or bail to the a&ion, muft be put in
either in open court, or before one of the judges there¬
of; or elfe, in the country, before a commiffioner ap¬
pointed for that purpofe by virtue of the ftatute 4 W.
and M. c. 4. which muft be tranfmitted to the court.
Thefe bail, who muft at leaft be tAVo in number, muft Procefs.
enter into a recognizance in court, or before the judge
or commiffioner, whereby they do jointly and feverally
undertake, that if the defendant be condemned in the
aftion, he ftiall pay the cofts and condemnation, or ren¬
der himfelf a prifoner, or that they Avill pay it for him :
which recognizance is tranfmitted to the court in a flip
of parchment, intitled a bail-piece. And, if required
the bail muft juf ify themfelves in court, or before the
commiffioner in the country, by fAvearing themfelves
houfekeepers, and each of them to be worth double the
fum for Avhich they are bail, after payment of all their
debts. This anfivers in fome meafure to the fipulatio
orfatifdatio of the Roman laAVs, Avhich is mutually given
by each litigant party to the other : by the plaintiff that
he Avill profecute his fuit, and pay the cofts if he lofes
his caufe ; in like manner as our laAV ftill requires no¬
minal pledges of profecution from the plaintiff: by the
defendant, that he ffiall continue in court, and abide the
fentence of the judge, much like our fpecial bail; but
Avith this difference, that the fidejujfores Avere there ab-
folutely bound judicatum folvere, to fee the cofts and
condemnation paid at all events : Avhereas our fpecial
bail may be difeharged, by furrendering the defendant
into cuftody Avithin the time alloAved by law j for Avhich
purpofe they are at all times entitled to a Avarrant to ap¬
prehend him.
Special bail is required (as of courfe) only upon ac¬
tions of debt, or adtions on the cafe in trover, or for mo¬
ney due, Avhere the plaintiff can fwear that the caufe of
adtion amounts to ten pounds: but in adlions where the
damages are precarious, being to be affeffed ad libitum
by a jury, as in adtions for Avords, ejedlment, or trefpafs,
it is very feldom poffible for a plaintiff to fivear to the
amount of his caufe of adlion ; and therefore no fpecial
bail is taken thereon, unlefs by a judge’s order, or the
particular diredlions of the court, in fome particular fpe-
cies of injuries, as in cafes of mayhem or atrocious bat¬
tery j or upon fuch fpecial circumftances as make it ab-
folutely neceffary that the defendant ffiould be kept
Avithin the reach of juftice. Alfo in adtions againft
heirs, executors, and adminiftrators, for debts of the de-
ceafed, fpecial bail is not demandable j for the adtion
is not fo properly againft them in perfon, as againft the
effedts of the deceafed in their poffeffion. But fpecial
bail is required even of them, in adtions for a devajlavil,
or Avafting the goods of the deceafed $ that wrong being
of their own committing.
Thus much for procefs; Avhich is only meant to
bring the defendant into court, in order to conteft the
fuit, and abide the determination of the law. When
he appears either in perfon as a prifoner, or out upon
bail, then folloAV the pleadings betAveen the parties. See
Pleadings.
Process upon an IndiBment. See Prosecution.
The proper procefs on an indidlment for any petty
mifdemefnor, or on a penal ftatute, is a writ of venire
fafeias, which is in the nature of a fummons to caufe tho
party to appear. And if by the return to fuch venire
it appears that the party hath lands in the county Avhere-
by he may be diftrained, then a difrefs infinite ftiall be-
iffued from time to time till he appears. • But if the
ffieriff returns, that he hath no lands in his bailiwick,
then (upon his non-appearance) a writ of capias ffiall
iffue, Avhich commands the ffieriff to take his body, and'
have
PRO
have him at the next affixes5 and if he cannot be taken
upon the firft capias, a fecond and a third ffiall iffue,
called, an alias and a planes capias. But, on indict¬
ments for treafon or felony, a capias is the firil proeefs:
and, for treafon or homicide, only one ffiall be allowed
to iifue, or two in the cale of other felonies, by ftatute
25 Edw. III. c. 14. though the ufage is to iflue only
one in any felony 5 the provifions of this ftatute being
in molt cafes found impracticable. And fo in the cafe
of mifdemefnors, it is now the ufual praCtice for any
judge of the court of king’s bench, upon certificate of
an indictment found, to award a writ of capias immedi¬
ately, in order to bring in the defendant. But if he ab-
fconds, and it is thought proper to purfue him to an
outlawry, then a greater exaCtnefs is neceffary. For, in
fuch cafe, after the feveral writs have iffued in a regular
number, according to the nature of therefpeCtive crimes,
without any effeCt, the offender fhall be put in the exi¬
gent in order to his outlawry: that is, he ffiall be ex¬
acted, proclaimed, or required, to furrender at five coun¬
ty-courts j and if he be returned quinto exaBus, and does
not appear at the fifth exaCtion or requifition, then he is
adjudged to be outlawed, or put out of the protection of
the law; fo that he is incapable of taking the benefit of
it in any refpeCt, either by bringing aCtions or otherwife.
The puniftuiient for outlawries upon indictments for
mifdemefnors, is the fame as for outlawries upon civil
aCtions; viz. forfeiture of goods arid chattels. But an
outlawry in treafon or felony amounts to a conviction
and attainder of the offence charged in the indictment,
as much as if the offender had been found guilty by his
country. His life is, how’ever, ftill under the protection
of the law, as hath elfewhere been obferved; (fee Ho¬
micide) : that though anciently an outlawed felon was
faid to have caput lupinum, and might be knocked on
the head like a wolf, by any one that fnould meet him;
becaufe, having renounced all law, he was to be dealt
with as in a ftate of nature^ when every one that ffiould
find him might flay him : yet now, to avoid fuch inhu¬
manity, it is holden that no man is intitled to kill him
wantonly or wilfully; but in fo doing is guilty of mur¬
der, unlefs it happens in the endeavour to apprehend
him. For any perfon may arreft an outlaw on a crimi¬
nal profecution, either of his own head, or by writ or
warrant of capias utlagatum, in order to bring him to
execution. But fuch outlawry may be frequently re-
verfed by writ of error, the proceedings therein being
(as it is fit they (houldbe) exceedingly nice andcircum-
ftancial; and if any fingle minute point be omitted or
mifconduCted, the whole outlawry is illegal, and may be
reverfed; upon which reverfal the party accufed is ad¬
mitted to plead to, and defend himfelf againft, the in¬
dictment.
Thus much for procefs to bring in the offender after
indictment found; during which ftage of the profecu¬
tion it is that writs of certiorari facias are ufually had,
though they may be had at any time before trial, to cer¬
tify and remove the indictment, with all the proceedings
thereon, from any inferior court of criminal jurifdiCtion
into the court of king’s bench; which is the fovereign
ordinary court of juftice in caufes criminal. And this
is frequently done for one of thefe four purpofes; either,
1. To confider and determine the validity of appeals or
indictments and the proceedings thereon; and to quaffi
or confirm them as there is caufe; or, 2. Where it is
1 390 1
PRO
furmifed that a partial or infufficient trial will probably Procd's
be had in the court below, the indictment is removed, ) II
in order to have the priloner or defendant tried at the * r°ci»ma.
bar of the court of king’s bench, or before the juftices < , ‘ u
of nifi prim : or, 3. It is fo removed, in order to plead
the king’s pardon there : or, 4. To iffue procefs of out¬
lawry againft the offender, in thofe counties or places
where the procefs of the inferior judges will not reach
him. Such writ of certiorari, when iffued and deliver¬
ed to the inferior court for removing any record or other
proceeding, as well upon indictment as otherwife, fuper-
fedes the jurifdiClion of fuch inferior court, and makes
all fubfequent proceedings therein entirely erroneous and
illegal; unlefs the court of king’s bench remands the re¬
cord to the court below, to be there tried and determined.
A certiorari may be granted at the inftance of either the
profecutor or the defendant: the former as a matter of
right, the latter as a matter of diferetion; and therefore
it is feldom granted to remove indictments from the juf¬
tices of gaol-delivery, or after iffue joined, or confeffion
of the faCt in any of the courts below.
At this ftage of profecution alfo it is, that indictments
found by the grand jury againft a peer, muft, in confe-
quence of a writ of certiorari, be certified and ti anfmit-
ted into the court of parliament, or into that of the lord
high fteward of Great Britain; and that, in places of
exclufive jurifdiCtion, as the twouniverfities, indictments
muft be delivered (upon challenge and claim of cog¬
nizance) to the courts therein eftablifhed by charter,
and confirmed by aCt of parliament, to be there refpec-
tively tried and determined. See Plea.
Process, in Chemijlry, the whole courfe of an experi¬
ment or feries of operations, tending to produce fome-
thing new.
Process, in Anatomy, denotes any protuberance or
eminence in a bone.
PROCESSION, a ceremony in the Romiffi church,
confifting of a formal march of the clergy and people*
putting up prayers, &c. and in this manner vifiting fome
church, &c. They have alfo proceffions of the holt or
facrament, &c. See Host.
PROCHEIN AMY, in Law, the perfon next a-kin
to a child in non-age, and who, in that refpeCt, is allow¬
ed to aCt for him, and be his guardian, &c. if he hold
land in foccage.
To fue, an infant is not allowed to make an attorney ;
but the court will admit his next friend as plaintiff, or
his guardian as defendant.
PROCKIA, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany In¬
dex*
PROCLAMATION, a public notice given of any
thing of which the king thinks proper to advertife his
fubje&s.
Proclamations are a branch of the king’s preroga¬
tive*; and have then a binding force, when (as Sir # See Prfi
Edward Coke obferves) they are grounded upon and
enforce the latvs of the realm. For though the ma¬
king of laivs is entirely the work of a diftimft: part, the
legiflative branch of the fovereign power, yet the man¬
ner, time, arid circumftances of putting thofe laws in
execution, muft frequently be left to the diferetion of
the executive magiftrate. And therefore his conftitu-
tions or edifls, concerning thofe points which we call
Proclamations^
PRO [ 391 ] PRO
proclama- 'Proclamations, are binding upon the fubjeft, where they
tion do not either contradift the old laws, or tend to efta-
II . blilh new ones j but only enforce the execution of fuch
Procopms. jaW3 ag are a]ready in being, in fuch manner as the
king lhall judge neceffary. Thus the eftablilhed law
is, that the king may prohibit any of his fubje&s from
leaving the realm : a proclamation therefore forbidding
this in general for three weeks, by laying an embargo
upon all {hipping in time of war, will be equally bind¬
ing as an a6t of parliament, becaufe founded upon a pri¬
or law. But a proclamation to lay an embargo in time
of peace upon all veflels laden with wheat, (though in
the time of a public fcarcity), being contrary to law,
and particularly to ftatute 22 Car. II. c. 13. the ad-
vifers of fuch a proclamation, and all perfons afting
under it, found it neceffary to be indemnified by a fpe-
cial aft of parliament, 7 Geo. III. c. 7. A proclama¬
tion for difarming Papifts is alfo binding, being only
in execution of what the legiflature has firlt ordained :
but a proclamation for allowing arms to Papifts, or for
difarming any Proteftant fubjefts, will not bind ; be¬
caufe the firft would be to aflume a difpenfing porver,
the latter a legiflative one ; to the veiling of either of
which in any fingle perfon the laws of England are ab-
folutely ftrangers. Indeed, by the flat. 31 Hen. VIII.
c. 8. it was enafted, that the king’s proclamations
Ihould have the force of afts of parliament : a ftatute,
which was calculated to introduce the moft defpotie ty¬
ranny *, and which mull have proved fatal to the liber¬
ties of this kingdom, had it not been luckily repealed
in the minority of his fucceftbr, about five years after.
By a late aft of parliament the king is empowered to
raife regiments of Roman Catholics to ferve in the pre-
fent war.
PROCLUS, furnamed Diadocus, a Greek philo-
fbpher and mathematician, was born in Lycia, and lived
about the year 300. He was the difciple of Syrianus,
and had a great fhare in the fnendftiip of the emneror
Anaftafius. It is faid, that w'hen Vitalian laid fiege to
Conftantinople, Proclus burnt his (hips with large bra¬
zen fpeculums. This philofopher was a Pagan, and
wrote againft the Chriftian religion. There are ftill ex¬
tant his Commentaries on fome of Plato’s books, and
other of his works written in Greek.
PROCONSUL, a Roman magiftrate, fent to govern
a province with confular authority.
The proconfuls were appointed out of the body of
the fenate; and ufually as the year of any one’s con-
fulate expired, he was fent proconful into fome pro¬
vince,
ft he proconfuls decided cafes of equity and juftice,
either privately in their pretorium or palace, where they
received petitions, heard complaints, granted writs un¬
der their feal, and the like; or elfe publicly, in the com¬
mon hall, with theufual formalities obferved in the court
of judicature at Rome. They had befides, by virtue of
their edifts, the power of ordering all things relating
to the tributes, taxes, contributions, and provifions of
corn and money, &c. Their office lafted only a year.
See Consul.
PROCOPIUS, a famous Greek hiftorian, born in
Caefaria, acquired great reputation by his works in the
retqn of Juftinian, and was fecretary to Belifarius du¬
ring all the wars carried on by that general in Perfia,
Africa, and Italy. He at length became fenator, ob¬
tained the title of ilhijlrious, and was made pretor of Procopius
Conftantinople. t!
PROCREA IT ON, the begetting and bringing forth ,
young. See Generation and Semen. ^
PROCTOR, a perfon commiflioned to manage an¬
other perfon’s caufe in any court of the civil or eccle-
fiaftical law7.
Proctor, in the Englifh univerfities. See Univer¬
sity.
PROCURATION, an aft or inftrument by which a
perfon is empowered to treat, tranfaft, receive, &c. in
another perfon’s name.
PROCURATOR. See Proctor.
PROCYON, in AJirononnj, a fixed ftar of the fecond
magnitude, fituated in canis minor, or the little dog.
PRODIGALITY, means extravagance, profufion,
wafte, or exceflive liberality, and is the oppofite ex¬
treme to the vice of parfimony. By the Roman law, if
a man by notorious prodigality was in danger of wafting
his eftate, he was looked upon as non compos, and com¬
mitted to the care of curators, or tutors, by the prsetor.
And by the laws of Solon, fuch prodigals were branded
with perpetual infamy.
_ PRODUCT, in Arithmetic and Geometry, the faftum
of two or more numbers, or lines, &c. into one another :
thus 5x4=20 the produft required.
PROEDRI, among the Athenians, were magiftrates,
who had the firft feats in the public aflemblies, and whofe
office it was to propofe at each affembly the things to be
deliberated upon and determined. Their office always
ended with the meeting. Their number was nine, fo
long as the tribes were ten in number.
PROFANATION, the afting dif’refpe ft fully to fa-
cred things.
PROFANE, a term ufed in oppofition to holy; and :
in general is applied to all perfons who have not’the fa-
cred charafter, and to things which do not belong to the
fervice of religion-.
PROFESSION means a calling, vocation, or known
employment. In Knox’s Ejfays, vol. i. page 234, we
find an excellent paper on the choice of a profeffion,
which that elegant writer coneludes thus : “ All the
occupations of life (fays he) are found to have their ad¬
vantages and difadvantages admirably adapted to preferve
the juft equilibrium of happinefs. This we may confi¬
dently aflert, that, whatever are the inconveniences of
any of them, they are all preferable to a life of inac¬
tion ; to that wretched liftleffhefs, which is conftrained
to purfue pleafure as a bufinefs, and by rendering it the
object of fevers and unvaried attention, deftroys its very
efience.”
Among the Romanifts profeffion denotes the entering
into a religious order, whereby a perfon offers himfelf
to God by a vow of inviolably obferving obedience, cha-
ftity, and poverty.
PROFESSOR, in the univerfities, a perfon who
teaches or reads public leftures in fome art or fcience
from a chair for that purpofe.
PROFILE, in Architecture, the draught of a build¬
ing, fortification, &c. wherein are exprefled the feveral
heights, widths, and thieknefies, fuch as they would ap¬
pear were the building cut down perpendicularly from
the roof to the foundation. Whence the profile is alfo
called the JeElion, fometimes orthographicalfettion, and
by Vitruvius alfo fciagraphy.
Profile,
PRO
[ 392 1
PRO
'Profile ‘Profile, in this fenfe, amounts to the fame with eleva-
II tion; and ftands oppofed to plan or ichnography^
Prognoflic.^ pR0FI£E [s alf0 ufed for the contour or outline of a
figure, building, member of archite&ure, or the like 5
as a bafe, a cornice, &c. Hence profiling is fometimes
ufed for defigning, or defcribing the member with rule,
compafs, &c.
Profile, in fculpture and painting.—A head, a por¬
trait, &c. are faid to be in profile, when they are repre-
fented fidevvife, or in a fide-view ; as, when in a portrait
there is but one fide of the face, one eye, one cheek,
&c. fhown, and nothing of the other.—On almoft all
medals, the faces are reprefented in profile.
PROFLUVIUM, in Medicine, denotes a flux, or li¬
quid evacuation of any thing.
PROGNOSTIC, among phyficians, fignifies a judge¬
ment concerning the event of a difeafe ; as whether it Prognoltic
fhall end in life or death, be (hort or long, mild or ma- II
lignant, &c. _ Progreflkrr
PROGR AMMA, anciently fignified a letter fealed
with the king’s feal.
Programma is alfo an univerfity term for a billet or
advertifement, pofted up or given into the hand, by way
of invitation to an oration, &c. containing the argu¬
ment, or fomuch as is neceflary for underftanding thereof.
PROGRESSION, in general, denotes a regular ad¬
vancing, or going forwards, in the fame courfe and man¬
ner.
Progression, in Mathematics, is either arithmetical
or geometrical. Continued arithmetic proportion is,
where the terms do increafe and decreafe by equal dif¬
ferences, and is called arithmetic progrejfion ;
d.
Thus y + aJr3^ &c' increafing 7 by the difference
1 a—a—2^» a—3^’ ^cc* decreafing ^
In numbers f 2’ 4’ 8’ I0’ >ncreaf'"S I by the difference 3.
mnumoers^ IO>8,6, 4, 2, &c. decreafing ^ 2
Geometric Progrejfion, or Continued Geometric Proportion, is when the terms do increafe or decreafe by equal
ratios : thus,
a, ar, arr, arrr, &c. increafing "1
a
a. ——
r
—, , &c. decreafing
\ multiplication
from a continual -j divIfi*n
1
by
I, 4, 8, 16, 33, 64,increafing7fromacontinuairmuiapliCationlby
4, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, decreafing 3 £ divmon J
64.
See the articles Fluxions, Geometry, and Series.
PROJECTILES.
Obiedl of nPHIS is the name for that part of mechanical philo-
the fcience. A fophy which treats of the motion of bodies any¬
how proje61ed from the furface of this earth, and mflu-
2 enced by the a&ion of terreftrial gravity.
Effedt of It is demonftrated in the phyfical part of aftronomy,
gravity on that a body fo projefted mull defcribe a conic feftion,
projedled having the centre of the earth in one focus and that it
bodies, AVU1 defcribe round that focus areas proportional to the
times. And it follows from the principles of that fci¬
ence, that if the velocity of projeftion exceeds 36700
feet in a fecond, the body (if not refilled by the air)
would defcribe a hyperbola -, i£ it be juft 36700, it would
defcribe a parabola ", and if it be lefs than this, it would
defcribe an ellipfis. If projeaed direaiy upwards, in the
firft cafe, it would never return, but proceed for ever •,
its velocity continually diminilhing, but never becoming
lefs than an afiignable portion of the excefs of the initial
velocity above 36700 feet in a fecond ; in the fecond
cafe, it would never return, its velocity would diminilh
without end, but never be extinguilhed. In the third
cafe, it would proceed till its velocity was reduced to an
afiignable portion of the difference between 36700 and
its initial velocity } and would then return, regaining its
velocity by the fame degrees, and in the fame places, as
it loft it. Thefe are neceffary confequences of a gravity
direfted to the centre of the earth, and inyerfely propor¬
tional to the fquare of the diftance. But in the greateft
projections that we are able to make, the gravitations
are fo nearly equal, and in directions fo nearly parallel,
that it would be ridiculous affeClation to pay any regard
to the deviations from equality and parallelifm. A bul¬
let rifing a mile above the furface of the earth lofes only
-g.-L.-g. of its weight, and a horizontal range of 4 miles
makes only J of deviation from parallelifm.
Let us therefore affume gravitation as equal and pa¬
rallel. The errors arifing from this affumption are
quite infenlible in all the ufes which can be made of this
theory.
The theory itfelf will ever be regarded with fome ve¬
neration and affeftion by the learned. It was the firft
fruits of mathematical philofophy. Galileo was the firft
who applied mathematical knowledge to the motions of
free bodies, and this was the fubjeft on which he exer-
cifed his fine genius. _ -
Gravity muft be confidered by us as a conftant or uni- conftant 01
form accelerating or retarding force, according as it uniform,
produces the defcent, or retards the afcent, of a body.
A conftant or invariable accelerating force is one which
produces an uniform acceleration $ that is, which in
equal times produces equal increments of velocity^ and
therefore produces increments of velocity proportional
to the times in which they are produced. Forces are of
themfelves imperceptible, and are feen only in their ef-
fe£ls *, and they have no meafure but the effect, or what
meafures the effect •, and every thing which we can dil-
cover with regard to thofe meafures, we muft affirm with
regard to the things of which we affume them as the
meafures. Therefore,
393
PROJECTILES.
4
Confe-
The motion of a falling body, or of a body projeaed
— of direaiy downwards, is uniformly accelerated ; and that
EaS.0 of 3 body Pr«je<aeid direaiy upwards is uniformly re¬
tarded : that is, the acquired velocities are as the times
in which they are acquired by falling, and the extin-
guithed. velocities are as the times in which they are
extinguiflied.
Cor. i. If bodies Amply fall, not being projeaed
S
Corollaries
drawn from downwards by an external force, the times of the falls
!t- are proportional to the final velocities ; and the times of
afcents, which terminate by the aaion of gravity alone,
are proportional to the initial velocities.
2. The fpaces defcribed by a heavy body falling from
relt are as the fquares of the acquired velocities; and
the differences of thefe fpaces are as the differences of
the fquares of the acquired velocities : and, on the other
hand, the heights to which bodies projefted upwards
will rife, before their motions be extinguifhed, are as
the fquares of the initial velocities.
3. The fpaces defcribed by falling bodies are propor¬
tional to the fquares of the timesfrom the beginning of the
fall; and thefpaces defcribed by bodies projefted direftly
upwards are as the fquares of the times of the afcents.
4. The fpace defcribed by a body falling from reft is
one half of the fpace which the body would have uni¬
formly defcribed in the fame time, with the velocity ac¬
quired by the fall.—And the height to which a body
will rife, in oppofition to the a&ion of gravity, is one
half of the fpace which it would uniformly defcribe in
the fame time with the initial velocity.
In like manner the difference of the fpaces which a
falling or rifing body defcribes in any equal fucceftive
parts of its fall or rife, is one half of the fpace which it
would uniformly defcribe in the faihe time with the
difference of the initial and final velocities.
This propofition will be more conveniently expreffed
for our purpofe thus :
A body moving uniformly during the time of any
fall with the velocity acquired thereby, will in that time
defcribe a fpace double of that fall; and a body pro-
je&ed diredlly upwards will rife to a height which is one
half of the fpace which it would, uniformly continued,
defcribe in the time of its afcent with the initial velo¬
city of projection.
Thefe theorems have been already demonftrated in a
popular way, in the article Gunnery. But we would
recommend to our readers the 39th prop, of the firft
book of Newton’s Principia, as giving the moft general
inveftigation of this fubject; equally eafy with thefe
more loofe methods of demonftration, and infinitely fu-
perior to them, by being equally applicable to every va¬
riation of the accelerating force. See an excellent ap¬
plication of this propofition by Mr Robins, for defining
the motion of a ball difcharged from a cannon, in the
6 article Gunnery, N0 15.
deforce •5* ^ *s a rnat,:er °f obfervation and experience, that
p gravity a heavy body falls 16 feet and an inch Englifii meafure
9 falling In a fecond of time ; and therefore acquires the velocity
cafcer3” ^ ^eet 2 inc^es Per fecond. This cannot be afcer-
«ned. tamed direClly, with the precifion that is neceffary. A
fecond is too fmall a portion of time to be exaCtly mea-
fured and compared with the fpace defcribed ; but it
is done with the greateft accuracy by comparing the
motion of a falling body with that of a pendulum. The
time of a vibration is to the time of falling through
Vol. XVII. Part I.
half the length of the pendulum, as the circumference
of a circle is to its diameter. The length of a pendu¬
lum can be afcertained with great precifion ; and it can
be lengthened or (hortened till it makes juft 86,400 vi¬
brations in a day : and this is the way in which the
fpace fallen through in a fecond has been accurately af.
certained.
As all other forces are afcertained by the accelera
tions which they produce, they are conveniently mea-
fured by comparing their accelerations with the accele¬
ration of gravity. This therefore has been affumed by
all the later and beft writers on mechanical philofophy,
as the unit by which every other force is meafured. It
gives us a perfe&ly diftind notion of the force which
retains the moon in its orbit, when we fay it is the
3600th part of the weight of the moon at the furface of
the earth. We mean by this, that if a bullet were herp
weighed by a fpring fteelyard, and pulled it out to the
mark 3600 ; if it were then taken to the diftance of the
moon, it would pull it out only to the mark 1. And
we make this affertion on the authority of our having
obferved that a body at the diftance of* the moon falls
from that diftance part of 16 feet in a fecond.
We do nol, therefore, compare the forces, which are
imperceptible things; we compare the accelerations,
which are their indications, effedls, and meafures.
.This has made philofophers fo anxious to determine Two modes
with precifion, the fall of heavy bodies, in order to haveofdeter-
an exadf value of the accelerating power of terreftrial m'n*ng ^
gravity. Now we muft here obferve, that this meafure fall1°t,hea':
may be taken in two ways: we may take the fpaceV> b0<hCS“
through which the heavy body falls in a fecond ; or we
may take the velocity which it acquires in confequence
of gravity having adled on it during a fecond. The
laft is the proper meafure ; for the laft is the immediate
effeft on the body. The a&ion of gravity has changed
the ftate of the body-!—in what way ? by giving it a de¬
termination to motion downwards this both points out
the kind and the degree or intenfity of the force of
gravity. The fpace defcribed in a fecond by falling,
is not an invariable meafure; for, in the fucceffive fe¬
cond?, the body falls through 16, 48, 80, 112, &c.
feet, but the changes of the body’s ftate in each fecond
is the fame. At the beginning it had no determination
to move with any appreciable velocity; at the end of
the firft fecond it had a determination by which it
would have gone on for ever (had no fubfequent force
afted on it) at the rate of 32 feet per fecond. At the
end of the fecond fecond, it had a determination by
which it would have moved for ever, at the rate of 64
feet per fecond. At the end of the third fecond, it
had a determination by which it would have moved
for ever, at the rate of 96 feet per fecond, &c. &c.
The difference of thefe determinations is a determination
to the rate of 32 feet per fecond. This is therefore
conftant, and the indication and proper meafure of the
conftant or invariable force of gravity. The fpace fal¬
len through in the firft fecond is of ufe only as it is
one half of the meafure of this determination ; and as
halves have the proportion of their wholes, different ac¬
celerating forces may be fafely affirmed to be in the pro- •
portion of the fpaces through which they uniformly im- 8
pel bodies in the fame time. But we Ihould always re- MdEkes of
colleff, that this is but one half of the true meafure 0fipa.thema-
the accelerating force. Mathematicians of the firft rank Efubjed,
3 have
394 P R O J E C
have committed great miftakes by not attending to this ;
and it is neceffary to notice it juft now, becaufe cafes will
occur in the profecution of this fubjeft, where we fliall be
very apt to confound our reafonings by a confufion in the
ufe of thofe meafures. Thofe mathematicians who are
accuftomed to the geometrical confideration of curvili-
neal motions, are generally difpofed to take the aBual de-
jlettmn from the tangent as the meafureof the deflefting
force ; while thofe who treat the fame fubjeft algebrai¬
cally, by the afliftance of fluxions, take the change of
velocity, which ismeafured by twice the deflettion.. The
reafon is this : when a body paffes through the point B
rcroft T ^ a curve ABC, fig. i. if the deflefting force were to
% i ceafe at that inftant, the body would defcribe the tan¬
gent BD in the fame time in which it defcnbes the arch
BC of the curve, and DC is the defleftion, and is
therefore taken for the meafure of the. deflefting force.
But the algebraift is accuftomed to confider the curve
by means of an equation between the abfciffae H «,
H £, H r, and their refpeftive ordinates A a, B £, C c ;
and’he meafures the defleftions by the changes made on
the increments of the ordinates. Ihus the increment of
the ordinate A a, while the body defcribes the arch AB
of the curve, is BG. If the deflefting force were to
ceafe when the body is at B, the next increment would
have been equal to BG, that is, it would have been EF j
but in confequence of the defleflion, it is only CF. there-
fore he takes EC for the meafure of the deflexion, and of
the deflefting force. Now EC is ultimately twice DC }
and thus the meafure of the algebraift (derived fblely
from the nature of the differential method, and without
any regard to phyfical confiderations) happens to coin¬
cide with the true phyfical meafure. There is therefore
Part icularly great danger of mixing thefe meafures. Of thiswecan-
^f Leibnitz. not give a more remarkable inftance than Leibnitz s at¬
tempt to demonftrate the elliptical motion of the planets
in the Leipfic Afts, 1689. He firft confiders the fub-
ieft mechanically, and takes the defleftion or DC for
the meafure of the defle£ting force. He then intro¬
duces his differential calculus, where he takes the dif¬
ference of the increments for tlm meafure *, and thus
brings himfelf into a confufion, which luckily compen-
fates for the falfe reafoning in the preceding part of
liis paper, and gives his refult the appearance of a
demonftration of Newton’s great difcovery, while, in
faft, it is a confufed jumble of affumptions, felf-con-
trad’iftory, and inconfiftent with the very laws of me¬
chanics which are ufed by him in the inveftigation.
Seventeen years after this, in 1706, having been cri-
ticifed for his bad reafoning, or rather accufed of an
envious and unfuccefsful attempt to appropriate New¬
ton’s invention to himfelf, he gives a .correaion of his
paralogifm, which he calls a correflion of language.
But he either had not obferved where the paralogifm
lay or would not let himfelf down by acknowledging
a miftake in what he wifhed the world to think his own
calculus (fluxions) 5 he applied the correaion where no
fault had been committed, for he had meaiured. both
the centrifugal force and the felicitation of gravity in the
Erne way, but had applied the fluxionary expreffion to
the laft and not to the firft, and, by fo doing, “e com'
nletely deftroyed all coincidence between his refult and
the planetary motions. We mention this inftance, not
only as a caution to our mathematical readers, but alio
as a very curious literary anecdote. This differtaLon 01
TILES.
Leibnitz is one of the moft obfcure of his obfeure writ¬
ings, but deferves the attention of an intelligent and
curious reader, and cannot fail of making an indelible
impreflion on his mind, with relation to the modefty,
candour, and probity of the author. It is preceded
by a differtation on the fubjeft which we are now
entering upon, the motion of proje&iles in a refilling
medium. Newton’s Principia had been publifhed a few
years before, and had been reviewed in a manner fliame-
fully flight, in the Leipfic Ads. Both thefe fubjeds
make the capital articles of that immortal work. Mr
Leibnitz publilhed thefe differtations, without (fays he)
having feen Newton’s book, in order to fhow the world
that he had, fome years before, difcovered the fame
theorems. Mr Nicholas Fatio carried a copy of the
Principia from the author to Hanover in 1686, where
he expeaed to find Mr Leibnitz ; he was then abfent,
but Fatio faw him often before his return to France in
1687, and does not fay that the book was not given him.
Read along with thefe differtations Dr Keill s letter to
John Bernoulli and others, publilhed in the JournalLitc-
raire de la Hayee 17Mi an<^ Bernoulli in MM’ I0
Newton has been accufed of a fimilar overfight by Newtonac.
John Bernoulli, (who indeed calls it a miftake in prin-cufec[ 0f a
ciple) in his Propofition x. book 2. on the very fub-fimilarmif.
jed we are now confidering. But Dr Keill has ftiown ^ke^by J.
it to be only an overfight, in drawing the tangent on
the wrong fide of the ordinate. lor in this very pro¬
pofition Newton exhibits, in the ftriaeft and moft beau¬
tiful manner, the difference between the geometrical
and algebraical manner of confidering the fubjea j and
exprefsly warns the reader, that his algebraical fymbol
expreffes the defleaion only, and not the variation of
the increment of the ordinate. It is therefore in the Butfaifeiy
laft degree improbable that he would make this mil-
take. He moft exprefsly does not; and as to the real
miftake, which he correfted in the fecond edition, the
writer of this article has in his poffeflion a manufcript
copy of notes and illuftrations on the whole Principia,
written in 1693 by Dr David Gregory, Savilian profellor
of aftronomy at Oxford, at the defire of Mr Newton,
as preparatory for a new edition, where he has rectified
this and feveral other miftakes in that work, and fays
that Mr Newton had feen and approved of the amend- IZ
ments. We mention thefe particulars, becaufe Mr Infincerity
Bernoulli publilhed an elegant differtation on this of Bernouli
fubjeft in the Leipfic A£ls in 1713', in which he w
charges Newton (though with many proteftations 01 j^eWtono
admiration and refpeft) with this miltake in principle •,
and fays, that he communicated his correaion to Mr
Newton, by his nephew Nicholas Bernoulli, that it
might be correaed in the new7 edition, which he heard
was in the prefs. And he afterwards adds, that it ap¬
pears by fome Iheets being cancelled, and new ones lub-
ftituted" in this part of the work, that the miftake would
have continued, had he not correaed iL We would
defire our readers to confult this differtation, which is
extremely elegant, and will be of fervice to us in this
article ; and let them compare the civil things which is
here faid of the vir incomparabilis, the omnitaude major,
the fummus Newtonus, with what the fame author, in
the fame year, in the Leipfic Aas, but under a bor¬
rowed name, fays of him. Our readers will have
no hefitation in afcribing this letter to this author.
For, after nraifing John Bernoulli zs fummus geometra,
4 flatus-
PROJECTILES!.
nuiui ad futmnonim geometarT-m paralogifmos corrigcn-
dos,fumtm candoris ut et mo define, lie betrays hirafelfby
an unguarded rvarmth, when defending J. E.’s demon-
itratiun of the inverfe problem of centripetal forces, by
calling it ME AM de?norijlrationem.
Let our readers now confider the fcope and inten¬
tion of this differtation on projedliles, and judge whether
the author’s aim was to inftrudt the world, or to acquire
fame, by corredling Newton. The differtation does
not contain one theorem, one corollary, nor one ftep of
argument, which is not to be found in Newton’s firft
edition 5 nor has he gone farther than New’ton’s Angle
propofition the xth. To us it appears an exadt com¬
panion to his propofition on centripetal forces, which he
boafts of having firft demonftrated, although it is in
every ftep a tranfcript of the 42ft of the firft Book of
Newton’s Principia, the geometrical language of New¬
ton being changed into algebraic, as he has in the pre-
fent cafe changed Newton’s algebraic analyfis into a
very elegant geometrical one.
We hope to be forgiven for this long digreffion. It
is a very curious piece of literary hiftory, and (hows
the combination which envy and want of honourable
principle had formed againft the reputation of our illu-
ftrious countryman j and we think it our duty to em¬
brace any opportunity of doing it juftice.—To return to
our fubjedl :
Accurate The accurate meafure of the accelerative power of
meaiure of gravity, is the fall 16 feet, if we meafure it by the
the accele- fpace? or the velocity of 32^ feet per fecond, if we take
efoT ravi" ^ie velocity‘ ^ greatly facilitate calculation, and
S V will be fufficiently exafl for all our purpofes, if we take
16 and 32, fuppofing that a body falls 16 feet in a fe¬
cond, and acquires the velocity of 3 2 feet per fecond.
Then, becaufe the heights are as the fquares of the
times, and as the fquares of the acquired velocities, a
body will fall one foot in one-fourth of a fecond, and
General for-™ acquire the velocity of eight feet per fecond. Now
mute de- let h exprefs the height in feet, and call it the pro-
duied. ducing height*, v the velocity in feet per fecond, and
call it the produced velocity, the velocity due j
and t the time in feconds.—We (hall have the follow¬
ing formulae, which are of eafy recolledtion, and will
ferve, without tables, to anfwer all queftions relative to
projeftiles.
I. v=%*/h, =8X4'» —$2t
II. <= —
4 32
III. ^=^=4/
IV. h- = 16/*.
64
E *5 To give fome examples of their ufe, let it be requi-
of their ufe re<^’
in falling I. To find the time of falling through 256 feet,
bodies. 16
Here//= 256, ^256=16, and—=4. Anfwer 4,/.
4
2. To find the velocity acquired by falling four fe¬
conds. *r=4.32x4=128 feet per fecond.
3. To find the velocity acquired by falling 625 feet.
^=625 . v'/srz 25 . ^ \lh'=z200 feet per fecond.
4. To find the height to which a body will rife
when proje&ed with the velocity of 56 feet per fecond,
595
or the height through which a bodv muft falLto acquire 16
this velocity. 1,1 bo^
J projected
r i6 r , upwards
^—56 • -7t=7> ~^h * 7 =49 feet*
or 56*=r3i36 . ^—^—49 feet.
17
5. Suppofe a body projected dire&ly downwards with and direcft-
the velocity of 10 feet per fecond j what -will be its ve- ly down-
locity after four feconds ? In four feconds it will have wai'ds*
acquired, by the action of gravity, the velocity of 4 X 3 2,
or 128 feet, and therefore its whole velocity will be 138
feet per fecond.
6. To find how far it will have moved, compound its
motion of projedlion, which will be 40 feet in four fe¬
conds, with the motion which gravity alone would have
given it in that time, which is 256 feet; and the whole
motion will be 296 feet.
y. Suppofe the body projedled as already mentioned,
and that, it is required to determine the time it will take
to go 296 feet downwards, and the velocity it will have
acquired.
Find the height x, through which it muft fall to ac¬
quire the velocity of projection, 10 feet, and the time
y of falling from this height. Then find the time % of
falling through the height 296-f-v, and the velocity v
acquired by this fall. The time of defcribing the 296
feet will be z—y, and v is the velocity required.
From fuch examples, it is eafy to fee the ivay of an-
fwering every queftion of the kind. 18
Writers on the higher parts of mechanics always More gene*
compute the aftions of other accelerating and retarding j’al l°rmu“
forces by comparing them with the acceleration of gra-J
vity, and in order to render their expreflions more gene¬
ral, ufe a fymbol, fuch as g for gravity, leaving the rea¬
der to convert it into numbers. Agreeably to this
view, the general formulae will ftand thus :
I. s/= V2gh, i. e. »y2\/gfih, =g t,
II. <= =n/a=yi
£ s/ig 2g g
mi. =^.
2g 2
In all thefe equations, gravity, or its accelerating
power, is eftimated, as it ought to be, by the change
of velocity which it generates in a particle of matter in
an' unit of time. But many mathematicians, in their
inveftigations of curvilineal and other varied motions,
meafure it by the defleftion which it produces in this
time from the tangent of the curve, or by the incre¬
ment by which the fpace defcribed in an unit of time
exceeds the fpace defcribed in the preceding unit. This
is but one half of the increment which gravity would
have produced, had the body moved through the whole
moment with the acquired addition of velocity. In this
fenfe of the fymbol g, the equations ftand thus:
I. v—2^/gh\=2gt
II. tzzj-
g
V
2g
IV. h- =£•/*, and v^= - V.
4g *Vg
It is alfo very ufual to confider the accelerating force
3 H 2 of
396
T9
Bodies pro¬
jected ob¬
liquely.
Fig. *.
20
Defcribes j
parabola.
P 11 O J E C T I L E S.
gravity as the unit of cotnparifon. This renders the
expreffions much more fimple. In this way, v expreffes
not the velocity, but the height necelTary for acquiring
it, and the velocity itfelf is expreffed by To re¬
duce fuch an expreflion of a velocity to numbers, we
mull multiply it by ^2g, or by according as
we make g to be the generated velocity, or the fpace
fallen through in the unit of time.
This will fuffice for the perpendicular afcents or de-
fcents of heavy bodies, and we proceed to confider their
motions when projefled obliquely. 'I'he circumftance
which renders this an interefting fubjeft, is, that the
flight of cannon fliot and fhells are inftances of fuch
motion, and the art of gunnery mult in a great mea-
fure depend on this doftrine.
Let a body B (fig. 2.), be projefted in any direc¬
tion BC, not perpendicular to the horizon, and with
any velocity. Let AB be the height producing this
velocity j that is, let the velocity be that which a heavy
body would acquire by falling freely through AB. It
is required to determine the path of the body, and all
the circumfiances of its motion in this path ?
i. It is evident, that by the continual aftion of gra¬
vity, the body will be continually defle&ed from the
line BC, and will deferibe a curve line BVG, concave
towards the earth.
i 2. This curve line is a parabola, of which the vertical
line ABE is a diameter, B the vertex of this diameter,
and BC a tangent in B.
Through any two points V, G of the curve draw
VC, GH parallel to AB, meeting BC in C and H,
and draw VE, GK parallel to BC, meeting AB in E,
K. It follows, from the compofition of motions, that
the body would arrive at the points V, G of the curve
in the fame time that it would have uniformly deferibed
BC, BEI, with the velocity of proje&ion ; or that it
would have fallen through BE, BK, with a motion uni¬
formly accelerated by gravity ; therefore the times of
deferibing BC, BH, uniformly, are the fame with the
times of falling through BE, BK. But, becaufe the
motion along BH is uniform, BC is to BH as the time
of deferibing BC to the time of deferibing BH, which
we may exprefs thus, BC : BH~T , BC : T, BH, —
T, BE : T, BK. But, becaufe the motion along BK
is uniformly accelerated, wre have BE : BK=T%
BE : T% BK, ~ BC* : BH1, = EV1 : KG1 ; there¬
fore .he curve BVG is fuch, that the abfciffse BE,
BK are as the Iquares of the correfponding ordinates
EV, KG •, that is, the curve BVG is a parabola, and
BC, parallel to the ordinates, is a tangent in the
point B.
3. If through the point A there be drawn the ho¬
rizontal line AD d, it is the diredlrix of the para¬
bola.
Let BE be taken equal to AB. The time of falling
through BE is equal to the time of falling through
AB •, but BC is deferibed with the velocity acquired by
falling through AB : and therefore by N° 4. of per¬
pendicular defeents, BC is double of AB, and EV is
double of BE •, therefore EV*zz4 BE1, =4 BE X AB,
rzrBE X4AB, and 4 A B is the parameter or /atus rec¬
tum of the parabola BVG, and AB being one-fourth of
the parameter, AD is the dire&rix.
4. The times of deferibing the different arches BV,
VG of the parabola are as the portions BC, BH 0?
the tangent, or as the portions AD, A d of the direc¬
trix, intercepted by the fame vertical lines AB, CV^
HG •, for the times of deferibing BV, BVG are the
fame with thofe of deferibing the corrdponding parts
BC, BH of the tangent, and are proportional to thefe
parts, becaufe the motion along BH is uniform ; and'
BC, BH are proportional to AD, A d.
Therefore the motion eilimated horizontally is uni¬
form.
5. The velocity in any point G of the curve is the
fame with that which a heavy body would acquire by
falling from the diredfrix alongx/G. Draw the tangent
GT, cutting the vertical AB in T j lake the points a,
f, equidiftant from A and d, and extremely near them,
and draw the verticals ab,fg; let the points con¬
tinually approach A and d, and ultimately coincide
with them. It is evident that B b will ultimately be to-
g G, in the ratio of the velocity at B to the velocity at
G ; for the portions of the tangent ultimately coincide
with the portions of the curve, and are deferibed in.
equal times *, but B is to ^ G as BH to TG : there¬
fore the velocity at B is to that at G as BH to 1G.
But, by the properties of the parabola, BH1 is to
TG1 as AB to d G $ and AB is to G as the fquare
of the velocity acquired by falling through AB to the
fquare of the velocity acquired by falling through r/G ;
and the velocity in BH, or in the point B of the para¬
bola, is the velocity acquired by falling along AB ;
therefore the velocity in TG, or in the point G of
the parabola, is the velocity acquired by falling along
dG. _ 21
Thefe few fimple propofitions contain all the theory The para-
of the motion of projefliles in vacuo, or independent bolic theory
on the refiftance of the air ; and being a very eafy and
neat piece of mathematical philofophy, and connect'd ul-e in pra0a
with very interefting pradlice, and a very refpedlable-jce.
profeflion, they have been much commented on, and
have furnilhed matter for many fplendid volumes. But
the air’s refiftance oceafions fuch a prodigious diminu¬
tion of motion in the great velocities of military pro-
jedliles, that this parabolic theory, as it is called, is
hardly of any ufe. A mulket ball, difeharged with the
ordinary allotment of powder, iflues from the piece
with the velocity of 1670 feet per fecond : this velo¬
city would be acquired by falling from the height of
eight miles. If the piece be elevated to an angle of
450, the parabola thould be of fuch extent that it would
reach 16 miles on the horizontal plain j whereas it does
not reach above half a mile. Similar deficiencies are
obferved in the ranges of cannon (hot. 22
We do not propofe, therefore, to dwell much on this A fhort
theory, and {hall only give fuch a fynoptieal view of itviewofit‘
as (hall make our readers underftand the more general
circumfiances of the theory, and be mailers of the lan¬
guage of the art.
Let OB (fig. 3.) be a vertical line. About the Fig. 3.
centres A and B, with the diftance AB, deferibe the
femicircles ODB, AHK, and with the axis AB, and
femiaxis GE, equal to AB, deferibe the femi-ellipfe
AEB : with the focus B, vertex A, diameter AB,
and tangent AD, parallel to the horizon, deferibe the
parabola APS.
Let a body be proje&ed from B, in any direftion
BC
397
PROJECTILES.
BC, with the velocity acquired by falling through AB.
By what has already been demonftrated, it will defcribe
a parabola BVPJVL Then,
1. ADL parallel to the horizon is the diredlrix of
every parabola which can be defcribed by a body pro¬
jected from B with this velocity. This is evident.
2. The femicircle AHK is the locus of all the foci
of thefe parabolas : For the diftance BH of a point B
of any parabola from the direCtrix AD is equal to its
diftance BF from the focus F of that parabola-, there¬
fore the foci of all the parabolas which pafs through
B, and have AD for their direCtrix, muft be in the cir¬
cumference of the circle which has AB for its radius,
and B for its centre.
3. If the line of direction BC cut the upper femi¬
circle in C, and the vertical line CF be drawn, cutting
the lower femicircle in F, F is the focus of the para¬
bola BVPM, deferibed by the body which is projected
In the dire&ion BC, with the velocity acquired by fall¬
ing through BA : for drawing AC, BF, it is evident
that ACFB is a rhombus, and that the angle ABF is
bife&ed by BC, and therefore the focus lies in the line
BF} but it alfo lies in the circumference AFK, and
therefore in F.
If C is in the upper quadrant of ODB, F'is in the
upper quadrant of AFK ; and if C be in the lower
quadrant of ODB (as when BC is the line of direction)
then the focus of the correfponding parabola B ^ M is
in the lower quadrant of AHK, as at/!
4. The ellipfis AEB is the focus of the vertex of
all the parabolas, and the vertex V of any one of them
BVPM is in the interfeftion of this ellipfis with the
vertical CF: for let this vertical cut the horizontal
lines AD, GE, BN, in 0, X, N. Then it is plain that
N A is half of N 0, and A V is half of C 0 ; therefore
NV is half of NC, and V is the vertex of the axis.
If the focus is in the upper or lower quadrant of the
circle AHK, the vertex is in the upper or the lower
quadrant of the ellipfe AEG.
5. If BFP be drawn through the focus of any one
of the parabolas, fuch as BVM, cutting the parabola
APS in P, the parabola BVM touches the paraoola.
APS in P: for drawing P^ x parallel to AB, cutting
the direftrix Ox of the parabola APS in x, and the di-
reftrix AL of the parabola BVM in then PB —Px ;
but BF=BA, — AO, rrxS: therefore P^=rPF, and
the point P is in the parabola BVM. Aifo the tan¬
gents to both parabolas in P coincide, for they bilecl
the angle x PB 5 therefore the tw7o parabolas having a
common tangent, touch each other in P.
Cor. All the parabolas which can be deferibed by a
body projedled from B, with the velocity acquired by
falling through AB, wjll touch the concavity of the pa¬
rabola APS, and lie wholly within it.
6. P is the moft diftant point of the line BP which
can be hit by a body projedted from B with the veloci¬
ty acquired by falling through AB.- For if the direflion
is more elevated than BC, the focus of the parabola de¬
feribed by the body will lie between F and A, and the
parabola will touch APS in fome point between P and
A ; and being wholly within the parabola APS, it
muft cut the line BP in fome point within P. Ihe
fame thing may be Ihown when the diredlion is lefs ele¬
vated than BC.
7. The parabola APS is the focus of the greateft
ranges on any planes BP, BS, &c. and no point lying
without this parabola can be ftruck.
8. The greateft range on any plane BP is produced
when the line of direction BC biledls the angle OBP
formed by that plane with the vertical: for the para¬
bola deferibed by the body in this cafe touches APS in
P, and its focus is in the line BP, and therefore the
tangent BC bifects the angle OBP.
Cor. The greateft range on a horizontal plane is made
with an elevation of 43°.
9. A point M in any plane BS, lying between B and
S, may he ftruck with two direftions, BC and Be;
and thefe diredlions are equidiftant from the diredion
B which gives the greateft range on that plane : lor.
if about the centre M, with the diftance ML from the
diredrix AL, w7e deicribe a circle LF/, it will cut the
circle AHK in two points F and f, which are evident¬
ly the foci of two parabolas BVM, B v M, having the
diredrix AL and diameter ABK. The interfedion
of the circle ODB, with the verticals FC,/c, deter¬
mine the diredions BC, Be of the tangents. Draw
A t parallel to BS, and join t B, C cy. F/; then OB t
— 4- GBS, and Br is the diredion which gives the
greateft range on the plane BS: but becaufe F/is a
chord of the circles deferibed round the centres B and
M, F/ is perpendicular to BM, and C c to Aand
the arches C/, c/are equal j and therefore the angles
CB /, c Bj are equal.
Thus we have given a general view of the fubjed,
which ftiows the connedion and dependence of every
circumftance which can influence the refult 5 for it is evi¬
dent that to every velocity of projedion there belongs
a fet of parabolas, with their diredions and ranges j
and every change of velocity has a line AB ccrrelpond-
ing to it, to which all the others are proportional. As
the height neeeflary for acquiring any velocity increa-
fes or diminilhes in the duplicate proportion of that
velocity, it is evident that all the ranges with given ele¬
vations will vary in the fame proportion, a double ve¬
locity giving a quadruple range, a triple velocity giving
a noncuple range, &c. And, on the other hand, when
the ranges are determined beforehand (which is the
ufual cafe), the velocities are in the fubduplicate pro¬
portion of the ranges. A quadruple range will require
a double velocity, &c.
Ox the-principles now eflabliflied is founded the or-Experience
dinary theory of gunnery, furnithing rules which are to principally
dired the art of throwing ftiot and Ihells, fo as to hit^^Lthe
the mark with a determined velocity. _ _ eunner!
But we muft obferve, that this theory is of little fer- s
vice for direding us in the pradice of cannonading.
Here it is neceflary to come as near as we can to the
objed aimed at, and the hurry of fervice allows no time
for geometrical methods of pointing the piece after each
difeharge. The gunner either points the cannon di-
redly to the objed, when within 200 or 300 yards of
it, in which cafe he is faid to Ihoot point blank {pointer
au b/anc, i. e. at the white mark in the middle ol the
gunners target) ; or, if at a greater diftance, he efti-
mates to the beft of his judgment the defledion corref¬
ponding to his diftance, and points the cannon accord¬
ingly. In this he is aided by the greater thicknefs at
the breech of a piece of ordnance. Or laftiy, when
the intention is not to batter, but to rake along a line
occupied
398
P ft O J E C T I L E S.
24
The mov¬
ing force
in theory
different
from that
in pra&ice.
F'g- 4-
occupied by the enemy, the cannon is elevated at. acon-
fiderable angle, and the flint difcharged with a fmall
force, fo that it drops into the enemy’s port, and bounds
along the line. In all thefe fervices the gunner is di¬
rected entirely by trial, and We cannot fay that this pa¬
rabolic theory can do him any fervice.
The principal ufe of it is to direft the bombardier in
throwing (bells. With thefe it is propofed to break
down or fet fire to buildings, to break through the vault¬
ed roofs of magazines, or to intimidate and kill troops
by burfling among them. Thefe objeCts are always un¬
der cover of the enemy’s works, and cannot be touched
by a direft (hot. The bombs and carcaffes are there¬
fore thrown upwards, fo as to get over the defences and
produce their eflfeCf.
Thefe (lie 11s are of very great weight, frequently ex¬
ceeding 200 lbs. The mortars from which they are
difcharged mud therefore be very ftrong, that they may
redd the exploflon of gunpowder which is neceflary for
throwing fuch a mafs of matter to a didance j they are
confequently unwieldy, and it is found mod convenient
to make them almofl a folid and immoveable lump.
Very little change can be made in their elevation, and
therefore their ranges are regulated by the velocities
given to the (hell. Thefe again are produced by the
quantities of powder in the charge; and experience (con¬
firming the bed theoretical notions that we can form of
the fubjefl) has taught us, that the ranges are nearly
proportional to the quantities of powder employed, only
not increafing quite fo fad. This method is much ea-
fier than by differences of elevation ; for we can feleft
the elevation which gives the greated range on the given
plane, and then we are certain that we are employing
the fmalled quantity of powder with which the fervice
can be performed : and we have another advantage, that
the deviations which unavoidable caufes produce in the
real diredlions of the bomb will then produce the fmall¬
ed poflible deviation from the intended range. This is
the cafe in mod mathematical maxima.
In military projedtiles the velocity is produced by the
explofion of a quantity of gunpowder; but in our theory
it is conceived as produced by a fall from a certain height,
by the proportions of which we can accurately determine
its quantity. Thus a velocity of 1600 feet per fecond
is produced by a fall from the height of 4000 feet, or
I333 yards.
The height CA (fig. 4.) for producing the velocity
of projection is called, in the language of gunnery, the
Impetus. We (hall exprefs it. by the fymbol h.
The didance AB to which the (hell goes on any
plane AB is called the. amplitude of the RANGE r.
The angle DBA, made by the vertical line and the
plane AB, may be called the angle of position of that
plane, p.
The angle DAB, made by the axis or direction of
the piece, and the direction of the objeCt, may be called
the angle of elevation of the piece above the plane
AB, a?.
The angle ZAD, made by the vertical line, and the
direction of the piece, may be called the ZENITH dif-
tance, ss.
The relations between all the circumdances of velo¬
city, didance, pofition, elevation, and time, may be in¬
cluded in the following propofitions.
L Let a (hell be pfojeCted from A, with the velocity Relations
acquired by falling through CA, with the intention of between
hitting the mark B fituated in the given line AB. the V!oci" \
Make ZArt^AC, and draw BD perpendicular to the ^dlftance!
horizon. Defcribe on ZA an arch of a circle ZD A,
containing an angle equal to DBA, and draw AD to
the interfeClion of this circle with DB ; then will a
body projeCled from A, in the direction AD, with the
velocity acquired by falling through C A, hit the mark
For, produce CA downwards, and draw BF parallel
to AD, and draw ZD. It is evident from the con-
druClion that AB touches the circle in B, and that the
angles ADZ, DBA, are equal, as alfo the angles AZD,
DAB ; therefore the triangles ZAD, ADB are fimi-
lar.
Therefore BD : DA=DA : AZ,
And DA»=BDxAZ;
Therefore BF,=r AF X AZ,= AF X 4 AC.
Therefore a parabola, of which AF is a diameter, and
AZ its parameter, will pafs through B, and this para¬
bola will be the path of the (hell projected as already
mentioned.
Remark. When BD cuts this circle, it cuts it in two
points D, d; and there are two directions which will
folve the problem. If B'D' only touches the circle in
D', there is but one direction, and AB' is the greateft
poflible range with this velocity. If the vertical line
through B does not meet the circle, the problem is im-
poflible, the velocity being too fmall. When B'D'
touches the circle, the two directions AD' and A d'
coalefce into one direction, producing the greateft range,
and bifeCting the angle ZAB ; and the other two di¬
rections AD, Ad, producing the fame range AB, are
equidiftant from AD', agreeably to the general propo-
lition.
It is evident that AZ : AD=:S,ADZ : S,AZD,=S,DBA : S,DAB,~S,/? : S,?
And AD : DB=S,DBA : S,DAB,= S,p : S,*
And DB : AB=3,DAB : S, ADB,=: S,* : S,z
Therefore AZ : AB=S*,/>x S,£ : S*, exS, %; r=S*,/> : S,<?xS, 2s
Or 4// : rzzS*,p : S, e X S, £, and 4/2 x S, eX S, izrrr x S1,^
Hence we obtain the relations wanted.
Thus h- and
4S,£>x S,ss S>
a j o **xSs/> , „ rxS*,p,
And S, ' , and S, e=~——1.
4^XV ’ 4// x S,»
I he only other circumftance in which we are intereft-
ed is the time of the flight. A knowledge of this is To calcu-
neceflary for the bombardier, that he may cut the fuzes late d16
of his (hells to fuch lengths as that they may burft at the*im® of
very inftant of their hitting the mark. ®
Now AB : DB=Sin, ADB : Sin, DAB, =S, s :
S, e, and DBrr:
r X S,g
S, 2
But the time of the flight is
the
27
The theory
of gunnery
, compared
with expe¬
riment.
28
This com-
parifon
Ihews the
deficiency
of the
theory.
PROJECTILES.
the fame with the time of falling through DB, and 16
feet • DBzni" : t"*. Hence t'n-=z and we have
16 0,a
the following eafy rule.
From the fum of the logarithms of the range, and of
the fine of elevation, fubtraft the funi of the logarithms
of 16, and of the fine of the zenith diftance, half the
remainder is the logarithm of the time in feconds.
Th is becomes Hill eafier in practice ; for the mortar
fliould be fo elevated that the range is a maximum : in
which cafe AB“DB, and then half the difference of
the logarithms of AB and of 16 is the logarithm of the
time in feconds.
Such are the deduflions from the general propofitions
which conftitute the ordinary theory of gunnery. It re¬
mains to compare them with experiment.
In fuch experiments as can be performed with great
accuracy in a chamber, the coincidence is as great as
can be wifhed. A jet of water, or mercury, gives us
the fineft example, becaufe we have the whole parabola
exhibited to us in the fimultaneous places of the fuc-
ceeding particles. Yet even in thefe experiments a de¬
viation can be obferved. When the jet is made on a
horizontal plane, and the curve carefully traced on a
perpendicular plane held clofe by it, it is found that the
difiance between the higheft point of the curve and the
mark is lefs than the diftance between it and the fpout,
and that the defcending branch of the curve is more
perpendicular than the afcending branch. And this
difference is more remarkable as the jet is made with
greater velocity, and reaches to a greater diftance. This
is evidently produced by the refiftance of the air, which
diminilhes the velocity, without affedling the gravity of
the projectile. It is ftill more fenfible in the motion of
bombs. Thefe can be traced through the air by the
light of their fuzes; and we fee that their higheft point
is always much nearer to the mark than to the mortar
on a horizontal plane.
The greateft horizontal range on this plane fliould
be when the elevation is 450. It is always found to be
much lower.
The ranges on this plane fliould be as the fines of
twice the elevation.
A ball difcharged at the elev. 190. s' ranged 448 yards
at 9-45 33°
It fliould have ranged by theory 241
The range at an elevation of 45° fhould be twice the
impetus. Mr Robins found that a mufket-ball, difchar-
ged with the ufual allotment of powder, had the velo¬
city of I'joo feet in a fecond. This requires a fall of
45156 feet, and the range ftiould be 90312, or
miles j whereas it does not much exceed half a mile. A
.24 pound ball difcharged with 16 pounds of powder
ftiould range about 16 miles j whereas it is generally
fliort of 3 miles.
Such fads fliow incontrovertibly how deficient the
parabolic theorv is, and how unfit for dire.Cling the. prac¬
tice of the artillerift. A very fimple confideration. is
fufficient for rendering this obvious to the moft unin-
ftruded. The refiftance of the air to a very light body
may greatly exceed its weight. Any one will feel this
in trying to move a fan very rapidly through the air }
therefore this xefiftance would occafion a greater .devia¬
tion from uniform motion than gravity would in that
body. Its path, therefore, through the air may differ
more from a parabola than the parabola itfelf deviates
from the ftraight line.
It is for fuch cogent reafons that we prefume to fay,
that the voluminous treatifes which have been publilhed
on this fubjed are nothing but ingenious amufements
for young mathematicians. Few perfons who have been
much engaged in the lludy of mechanical philofophy
have miffed this opportunity in the beginning of their
ftudies. The fubjed is eafy. Some property of the
parabola occurs, by which they can give a neat and
fyHematic folution of all the queftions ; and at this time
of ftudy it feems a confiderable effay of Ikill. They are
tempted to. write a book on the fubjed ; and it finds
readers among other young mechanicians, and employs
all the mathematical knowledge that moft of the young
gentlemen of the military profeflion are poffeffed of.
But thefe performances deferve little attention from the
pradieal artillerift. All that feems poflible to do for
his education is, to multiply judicious experiments on
real pieces of ordnance, with the charges that are ufed
in adual fervice, and to furnilh him with tables calcu¬
lated from fuch experiments.
Thefe obfervations will ferve to juftify us for having
given fo concife an account of this dodrine of the para¬
bolic flight of bodies. 2p
But it is the bufinefs of a philofopher to inquire into Caufes of
the caufes of fuch a prodigious deviation from a well-this defici-
founded theory, and having difcovered them, to afcer-ency*
tain precifely the deviations they occafion. Thus we
{hall obtain another theory, either in the form of the pa¬
rabolic theory correded, or as a fubjed of independent
difcuflion. This xve fttall now attempt. 30
The motion of projediles is performed in the atmo- Effeft of
fphere. The air is difplaced, or put in motion. What-the atmo-
ever motion it acquires muft be taken from the bullet. P ere’
The me’'on communicated to the air muft be in the pro¬
portion of the quantity of air put in motion, and of the
velocity communicated to it. If, therefore, the difplaced
air be always Jhnilarly difplaced, whatever be the velo¬
city of the bullet, the motion communicated to it, and
loft by the bullet, muft be proportional to the fquare of
the velocity of the bullet and to the denfity of the air
jointly. Therefore the diminution of its motion muft be
greater when the motion itfelf is greater, and in the
very great velocity of {hot and fhells it muft be prodi¬
gious. It appears from Mr Robins’s experiments that
a globe of 4^ inches in diameter, moving with the velo¬
city of 25 feet in a fecond, fuftained a refiftance of 315
grains, nearly ^ of an ounce. Suppofe this ball to move
800 feet in a fecond, that is 32 times fafter, its refift¬
ance would be 32X32 times \ of an ounce, or 768
ounces or 48 pounds. This is four times the weight of
a ball of calf iron of this diameter ; and if the initial
velocity had been 1600 feet per fecond, the refiftance
would be at leaft 16 times the weight of the ball. It is
indeed much greater than this. . 3,
This refiftance, operating conftantly and uniformly compared-
on the ball, muft take away four times as much from with that
its velocity as its gravity would do in the fame time, of gravity,
We know that in one fecond gravity would reduce, the
velocity 800 to 768 if the ball were projefted ftraight
upwards. This refiftance of the air would therefore re¬
duce it in one fecond to 672, if it operated uniformly ;
but as the velocity diminilhes continually by the refift¬
ance, and the refiftance diminiflies along with the velo-
PROJECTILES.
city, the real diminution Avill befomewhat lefs than 128
feet. We fhali, however, fee afterwards that in one fe¬
cund its velocity will be reduced from 800 to 687.
From this fimple indance, we fee that the refiftance of
the air mud occafion great deviation from parabolic mo-
tion.
and confi- order to judge accurately of its efFedf, we mud
dered as a confider it as a retarding force, in the fame way as we
retarding confider gravity. The weight W of a body is the ag¬
gregate of the aftion of the force of gravity g on each
particle of the body. Suppofe the number of equal par¬
ticles, or the quantity of matter, of a body to be M,
then W is equivalent to g M; In like manner, the re¬
fiftance R, which we obferve in any experiment, is the
aggregate of the aftion of a retarding force R' on each
particle, and is equivalent to R'M : and as ^ is equal to
*W R
—, fo R' is equal to —We (hall keep this diftinc-
tion in view, by adding the differential mark ' to the
33 letter R or r, which expreffes the aggregate refiftance.
Therefift- If we, in this manner, confider refiftance as a retard-
ance of the jng forcej we can compare it with any other fuch force
form0t Um* means of the retardation which it produces in fimilar
circumftances. We would compare it with gravity by
comparing the diminution of velocity which its uniform
aftion produces in a given time with the diminution
produced in the fame time by gravity. But we have
no opportunity of doing this dire&ly ; for when the re¬
fiftance of the air dirainiflies the velocity of a body, it
diminifhes it gradually, which occafions a gradual dimi¬
nution of its own intenfity. This is not the cafe with
gravity, which has the fame aflion on a body in motion
or at reft. We cannot, therefore, obferve the uniform
a&ion of the air’s refiftance as a retarding force. We
muft fall on fome other way of making the comparifon.
We can ftate them both as dead preflures. A ball may
be fitted to the rod of a fpring ftillyard, and expofed to
impulfe of the wind. This will comprefs the ftillyard
to the mark 3, for inftance. Perhaps the weight of the
ball will comprefs it to the mark 6. We know that
half this weight would comprefs it to 3. We account
this equal to the preffure of the air, becaufe they ba¬
lance the fame elafticity of the fpring. And in this way
we can eftimate the refiftance by weights, whofe pref-
fures are equal to its prefllire, and we can thus compare
it with other refiftances, weights, or any other preffures.
In fa£I, w7e are meafuring them all by the elafticity of
the fpring. This elafticity in its different pofitions is
fuppofed to have the proportions of the weights which
keep it in thefe pofitions. Thus we reafon from the na¬
ture of gravity, no longer confidered as a dead preffure,
but as a retarding force •, and we apply our conclufions
to refiftances which exhibit the fame preffures, but which
we cannot make to a& uniformly. This fenfe of the
words muft be carefully remembered whenever we fpeak
of refiftances in pounds and ounces.
Gravity The moft direT and convenient way of ftating the
and refill- comparifon between the refiftance of the air and the ac-
ance com- ceierating force of gravity, is to take a cafe in which
they are ^we know that they are equal. Since the refiftance is
.equal. here affumed as proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city, it is evident that the velocity may be fo increafed
that the refiftance (hall equal or exceed the weight of
the body. If a body be already moving downwards with
this velocity, it cannot accelerate 5 becaufe the accele¬
rating force of gravity is balanced by an equal retarding
force of refiftance. It follow's from this remark, that
this velocity is the greateft that a body can acquire by
the force of gravity only. Nay, we fhall afterwards fee
that it never can completely attain it ; becaufe as it ap¬
proaches to this velocity, the remaining accelerating
force decreafes fafter than the velocity increafes. It
may therefore be called the limiting or terminal velo¬
city by gravity.
Let a be the height through which a heavy body
muft fall, in vacuo, to acquire its terminal velocity in
air. If projected direftly upwards with this velocity, it
will life again to this height, and the height is half the
fpace which it would defcribe uniformly, with this velo¬
city, in the time of its afcent. Therefore the rtfiftance
to this velocity being equal to the weight of the body,
it would extinguifli this velocity, by its uniform adlion,
in the fame time, and after the fame diftance, that gra¬
vity would.
Now let g be the velocity which gravity generates
or extinguithes during an unit of time, and let u be
the terminal velocity of any particular body. The theo-
m u* y
rems for perpendicular afcents give us g=-^-, u and a
being both numbers reprefenting units of fpace ; there-
fore, in the prefent cafe, we have Fir—. For the whole
r la
refiftance r, or r'M, is fuppofed equal to the weight, or
u3,
to p- M; and therefore r' is equal to g, —, and 2 a—
a j X 2ai
-—. There is a confideration which ought to have place
g
here. A body defcends in air, not by the whole of its
weight, but by the excefs of its weight above that of
the air which it difplaces. It defcends by its fpecifc
gravity only as a ftone does in water. Suppofe a bo¬
dy 32 times heavier than air, it will be buoyed up by
a force equal to L 0f its weight; and inftead of ac¬
quiring the velocity of 32 feet in a fecond, it will only
acquire a velocity of 31, even though it fuftained no
refiftance from the inertia of the air. Let p be the
weight of the body and tt that of an equal bulk of air i
the accelerative force of relative gravity on each particle
willbe^Xi — — ; and this relative accelerating force
might be diftinguifhed by another fymbol y. But in
all cafes in which we have any intereft, and particular¬
ly in military projectiles, ^ is fo fmall a quantity that it
would be pedantic affeftation to attend to it. It is
much more than compenfated when we make^~32feet
inftead of 32TV which it fhould be.
Let e be the time of this afcent in oppofition to gra¬
vity. The fame theorems give us ewzzia; and fince
the refiftance competent to this terminal velocity is
equal to gravity, e will alfo be the time in which it
would be extinguilhed by the uniform aftion of the re¬
fiftance j for which reafon we may call it the extinguifh-
ing time for this velocity. Let R and E mark the re-
fiftanee and extinguiftiing time for the fame body mov¬
ing with the velocity I.
Since the refiftance are as the fquares of the veloci-
ties, and the refiftance to the velocity u is R will
be
4oi
be 2= —. Moreover, tlie times in which the fame ve-
2rt
locity will be extinguiflied by different forces, afling
uniformly, are inverfely as the forces, and gravity would
extinguifh the velocity i in the time -, (in thefe mea-
&
I 2 ci
fures) to —, = Therefore we have the following
u* u* °
la
PROJECTILES.
by the fame number. It is a number of units, of time,
or of length. , ^
Having afcertained thefe leading circumftances for an The corn-
unit of velocity, -weight, and bulk, we proceed to de- parifon
duce the fimilar circumftances for any other magnitude jma(le gff-
and, to avoid unneceffary complications, we fhall always nera,‘
fuppofe the bodies to be fpheres, differing only in dia¬
meter and denfity,
Firft, then, let the velocity be increafcd in the ratio
of I to v.
• ^ Cl
proportion — (=:R) : — (—g)— ■ : 2 a, and 2 c is The refiftance will now be -—, =r
2 a 2(1 u 2 cl
equal to E, the time in which the velocity I will be ex*-
tinguifhed by the uniform a£tion of the refiftance com¬
petent to this velocity.
The velocity I would in this cafe be extinguifhed af¬
ter a motion uniformly retarded, in which the fpace de-
fcribed is one-half of what would be uniformly defcrib-
ed during the fame time with the conftant velocity I.
Therefore the fpace thus defcribed by a motion which
begins wTith the velocity I, and is uniformly retarded
by the refiftance competent to this velocity, is equal to
the height through which this body muft fall in vacuo
in order to acquire its terminal velocity in air.
All thefe circumftances may be conceived in a man¬
ner which, to fome readers, will be more familiar and
palpable. The terminal velocity is that where the re¬
fiftance of the air balances and is equal to the weight
of the body. The refiftance of the air to any particular
body is as the fquare of the velocity ; therefore let R be
the whole refiftance to the body moving with the velo¬
city i, and r the refiftance to its motion with the termi¬
nal velocity ?/; we muft have r~Rx«% and this muft
be rz:W the weight. Therefore, to obtain the terminal
velocity, divide the weight by the refiftance to the ve¬
locity l, and the quotien’-is the fquare of the terminal
W
velocity, or ~ —«*; And this is a very expeditious me¬
thod of determining it, if R be previoufly known.
Then the common theorems give a, the fall neceffary
u1
for producing this velocity in vacuo — —, and the time
«f the fall — — ~e, and eu—Za, ~ the fpace uniformly
J . . .
defcribed with the velocity u during the time of the fall,
or its equal, the time of the extinftion by the uniform
action of the refiftance r ; and, fince r extinguilhes it in
the time e, R, which is times fmaller, will extinguilh
it in the time u*e, and R will extinguifh the velocity x,
which is u times lefs than u, in the time ue, that is, in
the time za ; and the body, moving uniformly during
the time 2 a, rrrE, with the velocity I, will defcribe
the fpace 2a; and, if the body begin te move with the
velocity I, and be uniformly oppofed by the refiftance
R, it will be brought to reft when it has defcribed the
fpace a ; and the fpace in which the refiftance to the
velocity i will extinguifti that velocity by its uniform
action, is equal to the height through which that body
muft fall in vacuo in order to acquire its terminal velo¬
city in air. And thus every thing is regulated by the
time E in which the velocity i is extinguifhed by the
uniform aftion of the correfponding refiftance, or by 2 a,
which is the fpace uniformly defcribed during this time,
with the velocity I. And E and 2a muft be<exprefled
Vox. XVII. Part H.
2 a
-E 2 a
The extinguifhing time will be -—, ~e,~ —, and
ev—2a; fo that the rule is general, that the fpace
along which any velocity will be extinguifhed by the
uniform adftion of the eorrefponding refiftance, is equal
to the height neeeffary for communicating the terminal
velocity to that body by gravity. For e u is tv'ice the
fpace through which the body moves while the velocity
v is extinguifhed by the uniform refiftance.
In the 2d place, let the diameter increafe in the pro¬
portion of l to d. The aggregate of the refiftance
changes in the proportion of the furface fimilarly refift-
ed, that is, in the proportion of I to d1. But the quan¬
tity of matter, or number of particles among which this
refiftance is to be diftributed, changes in the propor¬
tion of i to d*. Therefore the retarding power of
the refiftance changes in the proportion of i to When
the refiftance to a velocity
l
i was
The time in which this
the diameter was I,
—. It muft now be   -.
2a 2ad
diminifhed refiftance will extinguifh the velocity x
muft increafe in the proportion of the diminution of
force, and muft now be E </, or 2 a d, and the fpace
uniformly defcribed during this time with the initial ve¬
locity i muft be 2 o d; and this muft ftill be twice the
height neceffary for communicating the terminal veloci-
w*
ty w to this body. We muft ftill have    ; and
J } ^ 2 a d
therefore vo' — Tgad, and zgad— Z-ga^Jd.
U—dJ2ga. Therefore the terminal velocity to
for this body is d; and the height neceffary for
communicating it is a d. Therefore the terminal velo¬
city varies in the fubduplicate ratio of the diameter of
the ball, and the fall neceflary for producing it varies in
the fimple ratio of the diameter. The extinguiflung
time for the velocity v muft now be —
If, in the 3d place, the denfity of the ball be increaled
in the proportion of 1 to m, the number of particles
among which the refiftance is to be diftributed is in-
creafed in the fame proportion, and therefore the retard¬
ing force of the refiftance is equally diminilhed ; and if
the denfity of the air is increafed in the proportion of 1
to n, the retarding force of the refiftanee increafes in the
fame proportion : hence we eafily deduce thefe general
expreftlons. -  
The terminal velocity ~a d™  2gad>n
The producing fall in vacuo
3 E
a d ■
The
402
.36
Units necel-
fary by
which the
quantities
may be
me aiu red.
. 37
Sir Kaac
Newton’s
endeavours
in this way.
PROJECTILES.
The retarding power of refiftance to any velocity =
2ad,I!:
The extinguilhing time for any velocity v~
Er/j
And thus tve fee that the chief circumftances are re¬
gulated by the terminal velocity, or are conveniently re¬
ferred to it.
To render the deductions from thefe premifes perfpi-
cuous, and for communicating diftinft notions or ideas,
it will be proper to affume fome convenient units, by
which all thefe quantities may be meafured ; and, as
this fubjeft is chiefly interefting in the cafe of military
projeCtiles, we {hall adapt our units to this purpofe.
Therefore, let a fecond be the unit of time, a foot the
unit of fpace and velocity, an inch the unit of diameter
of a ball or fhell, and a pound avoirdupois the unit of
preffure, whether of weight or of refinance j therefore j1,
is 32 feet.
The great difficulty is to procure an abfolute meafure
of r, or u, or a ; any one of thefe will determine the
others.
Sir Ifaac Newton has attempted to determine r by
theory, and employs a great part of the fecond book of
the Principia in demonftrating, that the refiftance to a
fnliere moving with any velocity is to the force which
would generate or deftroy its whole motion in the time
that it would uniformly move over of its diameter
with this velocity as the denfity of the air is to the den-
fity of the fphere. This is equivalent to demonftrating
that the refiftance of the air to a fphere moving through
it with any velocity, is equal to half the weight of a co¬
lumn of air having a great circle of the fphere for its
bafe, and for its altitude the height from which a body
muft fall in vacuo to acquire this velocity. This.appears
from Newton’s demonftration •, for, let the fpecific gra¬
vity of the air be to that of the ball as 1 to m ,■ then,
becaufe the times in which the fame velocity will be ex-
tinguifhed by the uniform aClion of different forces are
inverfely as the forces, the refiftance to this velocity
would extinguifh it in the time of deferibing \ m d, d
being the diameter of the ball. Now 1 is to ra as the
weight of the difplaced air to the weight of the ball, or
as 4 of the diameter of the ball to the length of a co¬
lumn of air of equal weight. Call this length a ; a is
therefore equal to 4m d* Suppofe the ball to fall
from the height a in the time t, and acquire the velo¬
city u. If it moved uniformly with this velocity during
this time, it would deferibe a fpace — 2a,. or ^ m d.
Now its weight would extinguifti this velocity, or .de¬
ftroy this motion, in the fame time, that is, in the time
of deferibing 4 tn d; but the refiftance of the air would
do tins in the time of deferibing 4 d; that is, in twice
the time, The refiftance therefore is equal to half the
weight of the ball, or to half the weight of the column
of air whofe height is the height producing the velocity.
But the refiftances to different velocities are as the
fquares of the velocities, and therefore, as their produ¬
cing heights-, and, in general, the. refiftance of the air
to a fphere moving with any velocity, is equal to the
half weight of a column of air of equal fedlion, and
whofe altitude is the height producing the velocity.
The refult of this inveftigation has been acquiefced in by
all Sir Ifaac Newton’s commentators. Many faults
4
have indeed been found with his reafoning, and even 3s
with his principles ; and it muft be acknowledged that ^ r®^lt
although this inveftigation is by far the moft ingenious]^ ’rea40R_
of any in the Principia, and fets his acutenefs and ad- ir,g errone.
drefs in the moft: confpicuous light, his reafoning is liable ous.
to ferious objedlions, which his moft ingenious commen¬
tators have not completely removed. However, the
conclufion has been acquiefced in, as we have already
flated, but as if derived from other principles, or by
more logical reafoning. We cannot, however, fay that
the reafonings or afiumptions of thefe mathematicians
are much better than Newton’s: and wTe muft add, that
all the caufes of deviation from the duplicate ratio of the
velocities, and the caufes of increafed refiftance, which
the later authors have valued themfelves for difeovering
and introducing into their inveftigations, were pointed
out by Sir Ifaac Newton, but purpofely omitted by him,
in order to facilitate the difeuffion in re difficillima. (See
Schol. prop. 37. book ii.j.
It is known that the weight of a cubic foot of water
is 624 pounds, and thatsthe medium denfity of the air
is ^4^. of water ; therefore, let a be the height produ¬
cing the velocity (in feet), and d the diameter of the
ball (in inches), and tt the periphery of a circle whofe
. 6 2-^
diameter is I 5 the refiftance of the air will be —
tr l a .. a d*
X - X X -X d*— - pounds, very nearly, =
4 144 ^ 492^5'
v1 dl
pounds.
39
49284X64 SMH?
We may take an example. A ball of caft iron weigh¬
ing 12 pounds, is 44 inches in diameter. Suppofe this
ball to move at the rate of 25x9 feet in a fecond (the
reafon of this choice will appear afterwards). The
height which will produce this velocity in a falling body
is 94 feet. The area of its great circle is 0.11044 feet,
or tV^Vo one k)0t- Suppofe water to be 840 times
heavier than air, the weight of the air incumbent on
this great circle, and 94 feet high, is 0.081151 pounds :
half of this is 0.0405755 or x4§4^Mo> or nearly of
a pound. This fhould be the refiftance of the air to
this motion of the ball.
In all matters of phyfical difeuftion, it is prudent to^®0®1^?
confront every theoretical conclufion with experiment. °ne^eri
This is particularly neceffary in the prefent inftance, be¬
caufe the theory on which this propofition is founded is
extremely uncertain. Newton fpeaks of it with the
moft cautious diffidence, and fecures the juftnefs of the
conclufions by the conditions which he affumes in his
inveftigation. He deferibes with the greateft: precifion
the ft ate of the fluid in which the body muft move, fo
as that the demonftrations may be ftridl, and leaves it to
others to pronounce, whether this is the real confuta¬
tion of our atmofphere. It muft be granted that it is
not; and that many other fuppofttions have been intro¬
duced by his commentators and followers, in order to
fuit his inveftigation (for we muft affert that little or
nothing has been added to it) to the circumftances of
the cafe.
Newton himfelf, therefore, attempted to compare his^
propofitions with experiment. Some were made by raeiUs.
dropping balls from the dome of St Paul’s cathedral.j
and all thefe fhowed as great a coincidence with his
theory as they did with each other : but the irregulari¬
ties,
4°
Newton 5
4i
Inutility of
the theory
in pra&ice.
42
The at¬
tempts of
various
1 mathemati¬
cians, See.
P R O J E C
ties were too great to allow him to fay with precifion
what was the refinance. It appeared to follow the pro¬
portion of the fquares of the velocities with fufficient ex-
aftnefs *, and though he could not fay that the refiftance
was equal to the weight of the column of air having the
height neceflary for communicating the velocity, it was
always equal to a determinate part of it j and might be
ftated —n a, n being a number to be fixed by nume¬
rous experiments.
One great fource of uncertainty in his experiments
feems to have efcaped his obfervation : the air in that
dome is almoft always in a ftate of motion. In the fum-
mer feafon there is a very fenfible current of air down¬
wards, and frequently in winter it is upwards: and this
current bears a very great proportion to the velocity of
the defeents. Sir Ifaac takes no notice of this.
He made another fet of experiments with pendulums;
and has pointed out fome very curious and unexpected
eircumftances of their motions in a refilling medium.
There is hardly any part of his noble work in which his
addrefs, his patience, and his aftonilhing penetration,
appear in greater luftre. It requires the utmoft intenfe-
nefs of thought to follow him in thefe difquifitions ; and
we cannot enter on the fukjecl at prefent: fome notice
will be taken of thefe experiments in the article RESIST¬
ANCE of Fluids. Their refults were much more uni¬
form, and confirmed his general theory ; and, as we
have faid above, it has been acquiefced in by the firft
mathematicians of Europe.
Bat the deduftions from this theory were fo inconfift-
ent with the obferved motions of military projeCtiles,
when the velocities are prodigious, that no application
could be made which could be of any fervice for deter¬
mining the path and motion of cannon ihot and bernbs ;
and although Mr John Bernoulli gave, in 1718, a moft
elegant determination of the trajeClory and motion of a
body projected in a fluid which refills in the duplicate
ratio of the velocities (a problem which even Newton
did not attempt), it has remained a dead letter. Mr
Benjamin Robins, equally eminent for phyfical fcience
and mathematical genius, was the firft who fufpeCted
the true caufe of the imperfeCtion of the ufually received
theories; and in 1737 he publithed a fmall trad, in
which he fhowed clearly, that even the Newtonian theo¬
ry of refiftance umft caufe a cannon ball, difeharged
with a full allotment of powder, to deviate farther from
the parabola, in which it would move in vacuo, than
the parabola deviates from a ftraight line. But he farther
aflferted, on the authority of good reafoning, that in fuch
great velocities the refiftance muft be much greater than
this theory afligns; becaufe, befides the refiftance arifing
from the inertia of the air which is put in motion by the
ball, there muft be a refiftance arifing from a cor.denfa-
tion of the air on the anterior furface of the ball, and a
rarefadion behind it: and there muft be a third refift¬
ance, arifing from the ftatical preflure af the air onjts
anterior part, when the motion is fo Iwift that there is a
vacuum behind. Even thefe caufes of difagreement with
the theory had been forefeen and mentioned by Newton
(fee the Scholium to prop. 37. book ii. Princip.) ; but
the fubjed feems to have been little attended to. 7 he
eminent mathematicians had few opportunities of making
experiments ; and the profeflional men, who were in the
fervice of princes, and had their countenance and aid in
TILES. 403.
this matter, were generally too deficient in mathemati¬
cal knowledge to make a proper ufe of their opportuni¬
ties. The numerous and fplendid volumes which thefe
gentlemen have been enabled to publifti by the patro¬
nage of fovereigns are little more than prolix extenfions
of the Ample theory of Galileo. Some of them, how¬
ever, fuch as St Reray, Antonini, and Le Blond, have
given molt valuable colledions of experiments, ready
for the ufe of the profound mathematician. 4-
Two or three years after this firft publication, Mr Obferva-
Robins hit upon that ingenious method of meafuring t’on® ^
the great velocities of military projediles, which has^j^^y011
handed down his name to pofterity with great honour. ;UK< refift-
And having afeertained thefe velocities, he difeovered unce,
the prodigious refiftance of the air, by obferving the
diminution of velocity which it occafioned. This made
him anxious to examine what was the real refiftance to
any velocity whatever, in order to afeertain what was
the law of its variation ; and he w'as equally fortunate
in this attempt. His method of meafuring the refift¬
ance has been fully deferibed in the article Gunnery,
N° 9, &c.
It appears (Robins’s Math. Works, vol. i. page 205.)
that a fphere of inches in diameter, moving at the
rate of 25-f feet in a fecund, fuftained a refiftance of
0.04914 pounds, or a pound. This is a
greater refiftance than that of the Newtonian theory,
which gave Hys-g-s-Ms- in the proportion of 1000 to
1211, or very nearly in the proportion of five to fix in
fmall numbers. And we may adopt as a rule in all mo¬
derate velocities, that the refiftance to a fphere is equal
to ff-g of the weight of a column of air having the
great circle of the fphere for its bafe, and for its alti¬
tude the height through which a heavy body muft fall
in vacuo to acquire the velocity of projection.
This experiment is peculiarly valuable, becaufe the
ball is precifeiy the fize of a 12 pound (hot of call iron ;
and its accuracy may be depended on. There is but
one fource of error. The whirling motion muft have
occauoned fome whirl in the air, which would eontinue
till the ball again pafled through the fame point of its
revolution. The refinance obferved is therefore pro¬
bably fomewhat lefs than the true refiftance to the velo¬
city of 25;f feet, becaufe it was exerted in a relative ve¬
locity which was lefs than this, and is, in fa<ft, the re¬
fiftance competent to this relative and fmaller velocity. anj of jvTr
-—Accordingly, Mr Smeaton, a moft fagacious natu-Route and
ralift, places great confidence in the obfervations of a Borda.
Mr Roufe of Leceifterfhire, who meafured the refiftance
by the effeCt of the wind on a plane properly expofed
to it. He does not tell us in what way the velocity of
the wind was afeertained ; but our deference for his
great penetration and experience difpofes us to believe ^
that this point was well determined. The refiftance ob-They differ
ferved by Mr Roufe exceeds that refulting frCm Mr widely in
Robins’s experiments nearly in the proportion of 7 to io.t,'eir con*
Chevalier de Borda made experiments fimilar to thofeclufions*
of Mr Robins, and his refults exceed thefe of Ro¬
bins in the proportion of 5 to 6. Thefe differences
are fo confiderable, that we are at a lofs what meafure
to abide by. It is much to be regretted, that in a fub-
je£I fo interefting both to the philofopher and the
man of the world, experiments have not been multipli¬
ed. Nothing would tend fo much to perfect the fcience
4,04 P R 0 J E C
of gunnery ; and indeed till this be done, all the labours
of mathematicians are of no avail. Their inveftigations
mutt remain an unintelligible cipher, till this key be
fupplied. It is to be hoped that Dr Charles Hutton
of Woolwich, who has fo ably extended Mr Robins’s
Examination of the Initial Velocities of Military Pro-
jeftiles, will be encouraged to proceed to this part of
this fubjeft. We (hould with to fee, in the firtl place,
a numerous fet of experiments for afeertaining the re-
liftances in moderate velocities ; and, in order to avoid
all error from the refiftance and inertia of the machine,
■which is necefiarily blended with the reliftance of the
ball, in Mr Robins’s form of the experiment, and is fe-
parated with great uncertainty and rilk of error, we
would recommend a form of experiment fomewhat dif-
46 ferent.
A new form Let the axis and arm which carries the ball be con-
of expert- ne£Ied with wheelwork, by which it can be put in mo¬
ment re-^ tjon^ anc^ gra(iuaiiy accelerated. Let the ball be fo
commend- conneaed w|th a bent fpring, that this {hall gradually
comprefs it as the refiftance increafes, and leave a mark of
the degree of compreflion ; and let all this part of the
apparatus be fereened from the air except the ball. The
velocity will be determined precifely by the revolutions
of the arm, and the refiftance by the compreflion of the
fpring. The beft method would be to let this part of
the apparatus be made to Aide along the revolving arm,
fo that the ball can be made to deferibe larger and lar¬
ger circles. An intelligent mechanician will eafily con¬
trive an apparatus of this kind, held at any diftance
from the axis by a cord, which pafles over a pulley in
the axis itfelf, and is then brought along a perforation
in the axis, and comes out at its extremity, where it is
fitted with a fwivel, to prevent it from fnapping by be¬
ing twilled. Now let the machine be put in motion.
The centrifugal force of the ball and apparatus will
caufe it to fly out as far as it is allowed by the cord •,
and if the whole is put in motion by connedling it with
feme mill, the velocity may be moft accurately afeer-
tained. It may alfo be fitted with a bell and hammer
like Gravefande’s machine for meafuring centrifugal
forces. Now by gradually veering off more cord, the
diftance from the centre, and confequently the velocity
and refiftance increafe, till the hammer is difengaged
and ftrikes the bell.
Another great advantage of this form of the experi¬
ment is, that the refiftance to very great velocities may
be thus examined, which was impoffible in Mr Robins’s
way. This is the great defideratum, that we may learn
in what proportion of the velocities the refiftances in¬
creafe.
In the fame manner, an apparatus, confifting of Dr
Lynd’s Anemometer, deferibed in the article Pneuma¬
tics, N° 311, &.c. might be whirled round with pro¬
digious rapidity, and the fluid on it might be made
clammy, which would leave a mark at its greateft ele¬
vation, and thus difeover the refiftance of the air to ra¬
pid motions.
Nay, we are of opinion that the refiftance to very
rapid motions may be meafured direftly in the conduit
pipe of fome of the great cylinder bellows employed in
blaft furnaces : the velocity of the air in this pipe is
afeertained by the capacity of the cylinder and the
ftrokes of the pifton. We think it our duty to point out
3
TILES.
to fuch as have the opportunities of trying them methods
which promife accurate refults for afeertaining this moft.
defirable point. ^
We are the more puzzled what meafure to abide by, The refult
becaufe Mr Robins himfelf, in his Pradical Propofi-of Robins’s
tions, does not make ufe of the refult of his own expe-
riments, but takes a much lower meafure. We muft ino(t
content ourfelves, however, with this experimental mea-to be de-
fure, becaufe it is as yet the only one of which any ac-pended on,
count can be given, or well-founded opinion formed. 4s
Therefore, in order to apply our formulae, we muft Applied to
reduce this experiment, which was made on a ball of jhe forma.
4- inches diameter, moving with the velocity of 25-j-
feet per fecond, to what would be the refiftance to a
ball of one inch, having the velocity 1 foot. This will
„ 0.04914 . . .......
evidently give us R= —— — -, being di mini {tied m
4>5 ^ 25*2
the duplicate ratio of the diameter and velocity. This
gives us R=ro,ooooo38i973 pounds, or
a pound. The logarithm is 4.58204. The refiftance
here determined is the fame whatever fubftance the ball
be of; but the retardation occafioned by it will depend
on the proportion of the refiftance to the vis injita of
the ball j that is, to its quantity of motion. This in
fimilar velocities and diameters is as the denfity of the
ball. The balls ufed in military fervice are of call iron
or of lead, whole fpecific gravities are 7,207 and 11,37
nearly, water being 1. There is confiderable variety
in call iron, and this denfity is about the medium.
Thefe data will give us
For Iron.
W, or weight of a ball 1 inch in
diameter - - lbs. 0.13648
Log. of W
E"
Log. of E
«, or terminal velocity
Log. u - - -
«, or producing height
9-13509
1116".6
3.04790
189.03
2.27653
558-3
ForLead.
O.21533
9-33310
i76i',.6
3'2459I
237*43
2.37553
880.8
Thefe numbers are of frequent ufe in all queftions on
this fubjeft.
Mr Robins gives an expeditious rule for readily find¬
ing a, which he calls F (fee the article Gunnery), by
which it is made 900 feet for a caft iron ball of an inch
diameter. But no theory of refiftance which he pro-
feffes to ufe will make this height neceffary for produ¬
cing the terminal velocity. His F therefore is an em-
pirical quantity, analogous indeed to the producing
height, but accommodated to his theory of the trajec¬
tory of cannon-ftiot, which he promifed to publiftt, but
did not live to execute. We need wot be very anxious
about this; for all our quantities change in the fame
proportion with R, and need only a correction by a
multiplier or divifor, when R {hall be accurately efta-
bliftied.
We may illuftrate the ufe of thefe formulae by an ex¬
ample or two. 49
I. Then, to find the refiftance to a 24 pound ball Examples
moving with the velocity of 1670 feet in a fecond,of their ufs-
which is nearly the velocity communicated by 16lbs.
of powder. The diameter is 5,603 inches.
Log,
S°r
Table of
terminal
velocity
according
to Newton
and Robins,
Mr Mul¬
ler’s theory
altogether
erroneous.
PROJECTILES. . 405
Log. R
Log. d'
Log. 1670*
+ 4.58204
+ 1.49674
+6.44548
L°g* 334-4 lbs-=r - - 2.52426
But it is found, by unequivocal experiments on the
retardation of fuch a motion, that it is 504165. This
is owing to the caufes often mentioned, the additional
refiftance to great velocities, arifing from the condenfa-
tion of the air, and from its prelfure into the vacuum
left by the ball.
2. Required the terminal velocity of this ball ?
Log. R - - - +4.58204
Log. </* - - _ +1.49674
Log. refill, to veloc. I
Log. W
Diff. of a and by =log. «l
Log. 447.4 —u
6.oi'&'i<&=a
1.38021=^
5-3OI43
2.65071
As the terminal velocity u, and its producing height
a, enter into all computations of military projefliles,
we have infer ted the following Table for the ufual fizes
of cannon-fhot, computed both by the Newtonian theo-
ory of refillance, and by the refinances obferved in Ro¬
bins’s experiments.
3
4
6
9
12
18
24
32
Newton.
Term. Vel.
289.9
324-9
348.2
365-3
390.8
418.I
438.6
469-3
492.4
512.6
54°-5
2626.4
3298-5
3788.2
4170.3
4472.7
5463-5
6010.6
6883.3
7576.3
8024.8
9129.9
Robins.
Term. Vel.
263.4
295.2
316.4
33 ^
355-1
379-9
398-5
426.5
447-4
465-8
49I-5
2168.6
2723-5
3127.9
3442.6
3940-7
451 T-2
4962.9
5683.5
6255-7
6780.4
7538.3
Oiam.
Inch.
r-94
2- 45
2.80
3.08
3- 52
4.04
4- 45
5- 09
5.61
6.21
6- 75
Mr Muller, in his writings on this fubjefl, gives a
much fmaller meafure of refinance, and confequently a
much greater terminal velocity : but his theory is a
mirtake from beginning to end (See his Supplement to
his Treatife of Artillery, art. 150, &£.). In art. 148. he
affumes an algebraic expreffion for a principle of mecha¬
nical argument; and from its confequence draws erro¬
neous conclufions. He makes the refinance of a cylin¬
der one third lefs than Newton fuppofes it; and his rea-
fon is falfe. Newton’s meafure is demonllrated by his
commentators Le Seur and Jaquier to be even a little
too fmall, upon his own principles, (Not. 277. Prop. 36.
B. II.). Mr Muller then, without any feeming reafon,
introduces a new principle, which he makes the chief
fupport of his theory, in oppofition to the theories of
other mathematicians. The principle is falfe, and even
abfurd, as we lhall have occafion to Ihow by and by.
In confequence, however, of this principle, he is ena¬
bled to compare the refults with many experiments, and
the agreement is very flattering. But we (hall foon fee
that little dependence can be had on fuch comparifons.
We notice thefe things here, becaufe Mr Muller being
head of the artillery fchool in Britain, his publications
have become a fort of text-books. We are miferably
deficient in works on this lubjedl, and mult have re-
coilrfe to the foreign writers. e
We now proceed to confider thefe motions through The mo-
their whole courfe ; and we (hall firft confider them as tions eon-
affedled by the refiflance only 5 then we (hall confider fi(iere(l
the perpendicular afcents and defcents of heavy bodies
through the air 5 and, laftly, their motion in a curvili-courfe.
neal trajectory, when projected obliquely. This mult
be done by the help of the abftrufer parts of fluxionary
mathematics. To make it more perfpicuous, we (hall,
by way of introduction, confider the fimply refifted rec¬
tilineal motions geometrically, in the manner of Sir
Ifaac Newton. As we advance, we (hall quit this track,
and profecute it algebraically, having by this time ac¬
quired didinCt ideas of the algebraic quantities. ..
We mud keep in mind the fundamental theorems of Preliminary
varied motions. obferva-
1. The momentary variation of the velocity is pro-tions'
portional to the force and the moment of time jointly,
and may therefore be reprefented by z±ru=rf t, where v
is the momentary increment or decrement of the velo¬
city v, /The accelerating or retarding force, and t the
moment or increment of the time t.
2. The momentary variation of the fquare of the ve¬
locity is as the force, and as the increment or decrement
of the fpace jointly j and may be reprefented by
~fs. The firlt propofition is familiarly known. The
fecond is the 39th of Newton’s Principia, B. I. It is xherno-
demonftrated in the article Optics, and is the mod ex-tions as af-
tenfively ufeful propofition in mechanics. y fefted by
Thefe things being premifed, let the draight linere^lftanee
AC (fig. 5) reprefent the initial velocity V, and letp^g7'^
CO, perpendicular to AC, be the time in which this
velocity would be extinguiflied by the uniform action
of the refidance. Draw through the point A an equi¬
lateral hyperbola A e B, having OF, OCD for its af-
fymptotes •, then let the time of the redded motion be
reprefented by the line CB, C being the fird indant of
the motion. If there be drawn perpendicular ordinates
x. e,gf,~D~Bi, &C. to the hyperbola, they will be pro¬
portional to the velocities of the body at the indants
x,g, D, &c. and the hyperbolic areas ACxe, AC gf
ACDB, &c. will be proportional to the (paces defcrib-
ed during the times Cx, C^, CB, &c.
For, fuppofe the time divided into an indefinite num¬
ber of fmall and equal moments, C c, D / &c. draw
the ordinates ac,bd, and the perpendiculars £/3, a
Then, by the nature of the hyperbola, AC : ac~Qc :
OC j and AC—a c : a c—O c—OC : OC, that is, A #•
: a c—C c : OC, and A at : C c—a c : OC, rr AC ' ac \
AC-OC ; in like manner, B /3 : D t/rrED-Z* D : BD*
OD. Now D d—C c, becaufe the moments of time
were taken equal, and the rectangles AC-CO, BD-DO,
are equal, by the nature of the hyperbola ; therefore
A at : B (&—AC ‘ a c \ BD • b d: but as the points c, d
continually approach, and ultimately coincide with C,
D, the ultimate ratio of AC • a c to BD ' b dis that of
AC* toBD* j therefore the momentary decrements of;’
AG:
4 £6
F R O J E C
AC and BD are as ACi and BD*. Now, becaufethe
refiftance is meafured by the momentary diminution of
velocity, thefe diminutions are as the fquares of the ve¬
locities ^ therefore the ordinates of the hyperbola and
the velocities diminilh by the fame law; and the initial
velocity was reprefented by AC: therefore the veloci¬
ties at all the other inflants K,g, D, are properly repre¬
fented by the correfponding ordinates. Hence,
1. Since the abfciffae of the hyperbola are as the
times, and the ordinates are as the velocities, the areas
will be as the fpaces defcribed, and AC x. ^ is to A cgf
as the fpace defcribed in the time C x. to the fpace
defcribed in the time C^ (xft Theorem on varied mo¬
tions).
2. The re&angle ACOF is to the area ACDB as
the fpace formerly exprelfed by 2 a, or E to the fpace
defcribed in the refilling medium during the time CD:
for AC being the velocity V, and OC the extinguilhing
time e, this reftangle is ~e V, or E, or 2a, of our for¬
mer difquifitions; and becaule all the reftangles, fuch
as ACOF, BDOG, &c. are equal, this correfponds
with our former obfervation, that the fpace uniformly
defcribed with any velocity during the time in which it
would be uniformly extinguilhed by the correfponding
refinance is a conllant quantity, viz. that in which we
always had e w =E, or 2 a.
3. Draw the tangent A *; then, by the hyperbola
C xrrCO: now C x is the time in which the refinance to
the velocity AC would extinguifh it ; for the tangent
coinciding with the elemental arc A a of the curve, the
firft impulfe of the uniform adlion of the refiltance is
the fame with the firft impulfe of its varied adtion. By
this the velocity AC is reduced to a c. If this opera¬
ted uniformly like gravity, the velocities would diminilh
uniformly, and the fpace defcribed would be reprefent¬
ed by the triangle AC x.
This triangle, therefore, reprefents the height through
which a heavy body mull fall in vacuo, in order to ac¬
quire the terminal velocity.
4. The motion of a body refifted in the duplicate ra¬
tio of the velocity will continue without end, and a
fpace will be defcribed which is greater than any af-
fignable fpace, and the velocity will grow lefs than any
that can be affigned; for the hyperbola approaches
continually to the affymptote, but never coincides with
it. There is no velocity BD fo fmall, but a fmaller
ZP will be found beyond it; and the hyperbolic fpace
may be continued till it exceeds any furface that can be
afligned.
5. The initial velocity AC is to the final velocity
BD as the fum of the extinguilhing time and the time
of the retarded motion, is to the extinguilhing time
alone: for AC : BD=rOD (v OC-J-CD) ; OC ; or
V : v—e :
6. The extinguilhing time is to the time of the re-
-tarded motion as the final velocity is to the velocity
loft during the retarded motion: for the reftangles
AFOC, BDOG are equal; and therefore AVGF and
BVCD are equal, and YC : VA=VG : VB; there-
V—v , v
fore t~e , and e—t— .
v V—v
*], Any velocity is reduced in the proportion of m
to n in the time e ^ . For, let AC : BDnw : n ;
TILES.
then DO : Q,0~m : n, and DC : COrrrtf/—« : «, and
DCrr -CO, or t~e . * Therefore any velo-
n n J
city is reduced to one half in the time in which the ini¬
tial refiftance would have extinguished it by its uniform
adtion. ^
Thus may the chief circumftances of this motion be Another
determined by means of the hyberbola, the ordinates mod6 °?’
and abfcilFe exhibiting the relations of the times and
velocities, and the areas exhibiting the relations of both
to the fpaces defcribed. But we may render the con¬
ception of thefe circumftances infinitely more eafy and
fimple, by exprefling them all by lines, inftead of this
combination of lines and furfaces. We lhall accom-
plifh this purpofe by conftrudling another curve LKP,
having the line MO, parallel to OD for its abfcilfa,
and of fuch a nature, that if the ordinates to the hyper¬
bola AC, e x, fg, BD, &c. be produced till they cut
this curve in L,/>, n, K, &c. and the abfcifia in L, e,
h, &c. the ordinates 8p, h n, o K, &c. may be pro¬
portional to the hyperbolic areas e A Q x, f A (Z g,
^ Ac K. Let us examine what kind of curve this will
be.
Make OC : O x~0 x : Og ; then (Plamilton’s Co~
nics, IV. 14. Cor.), the areas AC x e, e xgf are equal:
therefore drawing ps, nt perpendicular to OM, we
fhall have (by the aft'umed nature of the curve p K),
M x—r /; and if the abfcifla OD be divided into any
number of fmall parts in geometrical progreflion (rec¬
koning the commencement of them all from O), the
axis V i of this curve will be divided by its ordinates
into the lame number of equal parts ; and this curve
will have its ordinates LM, p s, n t, &.c. in geometri¬
cal progreflion, and its abfcilfae in arithmetical progref-
fion.
Alfo, let KN, MV touch the curve in K and L, and
let OC be fuppofed to be to O c, as OD to O d, and
therefore C c to Dr/ as OC to OD ; and let thefe lines
C c, D d be indefinitely fmall ; then (by the nature of
the curve) L 0 is equal to K r: for the areas a AC c,
b BD d are in this cafe equal. Alfo £ <5 is to £ r, as LM
to KI, becaufe c C \ d D=CO : DO :
Therefore IN : IK=:r K : rk
IK : ML=r k : ol
ML : MV=o/ : 0 L
and IN : MN=rK : 0 L
That is, the fubtangent IN, or MV, is of the fame mag¬
nitude, or is a conftant quantity in every part of the
curve.
Laftly, the fubtangent IN, correfponding to the
point K of the curve, is to the ordinate K § as the
rectangle BDOG or ACOF to the parabolic area
BDCA.
For letfghn be an ordinate very near to BDSK ;
and let h n cut the curve in «, and the ordinate KI in
q ; then we have
Ky : q «rrKI : IN, or
D^ : <y»=rDO: IN;
but BD : ACrrCO : DO ;
therefore BD . D^ : AC . ^«~CO : IN.
Therefore the fura of all the retflangles BD . D^- is to
the fum of all the reflangles AC .qn, as CO to IN;
but
407
PROJECTI
but the fum of the reftangles BD is the fpace
ACDB; and, becaufe AC is given, the fum oftbere£t-
angles ISSZ.tjn is the red angle of AC and the fum of
all the lines qn ; that is, the redangle of AC and RL :
therefore the fpace ACDB : AC . RLrzCO : IN, and
ACDB x INrz AC . CO . RL; and therefore IN : RL
—AC . CO: ACDB.
Hence it follows that QL expreffes the area BVA, and
in general, that the part of the line parallel to OM,
which lies between the tangent KN and the curve L/jK,
expreffes the correfponding area of the hyperbola which
lies without the redfangle BDOG.
And now, by the help of this curve, we have an eafy
nvay of convincing and computing the motion of a body
through the air. For the fubtangent of our curve now
reprefents twice the height through which the ball mull
fall in vacuo, in order to acquire the terminal velocity;
and therefore ferves for a fcale on which to meafure all
56 the other reprefentatives of the motion.
The whole But it remains to make another obfervation on the
reduced to curve LK, which will fave us all the trouble of
P arithmeti graphical operations, and reduce the whole to a very
cal compu- Ample arithmetical computation. It is of fuch a na-
:t cation. ture, that when MI is considered as the abfciffa, and is
divided into a number of equal parts, and ordinates are
drawn from the points of divifion, the ordinates are a
feries of lines in geometrical progreffion, or are conti¬
nual proportionals. Whatever is the ratio between the
firft and fecond ordinate, there is the fame between the
fecond and third, between the third and fourth, and fo
on ; therefore the number of parts into which the ab¬
fciffa is divided is the number of thefe equal ratios
which is contained in the ratio of the firft ordinate to
the laft : For this reafon, this curve has got the name
of the logi/Iic or logarithmic curve; and it is of immenfe
ufe in the modern mathematics, giving us the folution
of many problems in the moft fimple and expeditious
manner, on which the genius of the ancient mathema¬
ticians had been exercifed in vain. Few of our readers
are ignorant, that the numbers called logarithms are of
equal utility in arithmetical operations, enabling us
not only to folve common arithmetical problems with
aftoniftring difpatch, but alfo to folve others which are
quite inacceflible in any other way. Logarithms are no¬
thing more than the numerical meafures of the abfciffa
of this curve, correfponding to ordinates, which are
meafured on the fame or anv other fcale by the natural
numbers ; that is, if ML S be divided into equal parts,
and from the points of divifion lines be drawn parallel to
MI, cutting the curve LK, and from the points of
interfeflion ordinates be drawn to MI, thefe will divide
MI into portions, which are in the fame proportion to
the ordinates that the logarithms bear to their natural
numbers.
In conftrudling this curve we were limited to no par¬
ticular length of the line LR, which reprefented the
fpace ACDB ; and all that we had to take care of was,
that when OG, Ok, were taken in geometrical pro-
greftion, Mr, M / fhould be in arithmetical progreflion.
Theabfciffae having ordinates equal to/>r, nt, &c. might
have been twice as long, as is fhown in the dotted curve
which is drawn through L. All the lines which ferve to
meafure the hyperbolic fpaces would then have been
doubled. But NI would alfo have been doubled, and
L E S.
our proportions would have ftill held good; becaufe this
fubtangent is the fcale of meafurement of our figure, as
E or 2# is the feale of meafurement for the motions.
Since then we have tables of logarithms calculated
for every number, we may make ufe of them inftead
of this geometrical figure, which ftill requires confi-
derable trouble to fuit it to every cafe. There are two
fets of logarithmic tables in common ufe. One is call¬
ed a table of hyperbolic or natural logarithms. It is
Anted to fuch a curve as is drawn in the figure, where
the fubtangent is equal to that ordinate r u which cor-
refponds to the fide O of the fquare O inferted be¬
tween the hyperbola and its aflymptotes. This fquare
is the unit of furface, by which the hyperbolic areas
are expreffed ; its fide is the unit of length, by Avhich
the lines belonging to the hyperbola are expreffed ; r v
is =1, or the unit of numbers to which the logarithms
are fuited, and then IN is alfo I. Now the fquare
^Oa being unity, the area BACD will be fomenumber;
wO being alfo unity, OD is fome number : Call it x.
Then, by the nature of the hyperbola, OB : O w =
5r0 : DB : That is, a? : 1 rz I : fo that DB is
x x
Now calling D d x, the area BD d b, which is the
fluxion (ultimately) of the hyperbolic area, is —Now
X
in the curve L ;jK, MI has the fame ratio to NI that
BACD has to £ A O tt : Therefore, if there be a fcale of
which NI is the unit, the number on this fcale cor¬
refponding to MI has the fame ratio to 1 which the
number meafuring BACD has to 1 ; and If, which
correfponds to BDr/£, is the fluxion (ultimately) of
MI : Therefore, if MI be called the logarithm of x$
‘-is properly reprefented by the fluxion of MI. In
X
fhort, the line MI is divided precifely as the line of
numbers on a Gunter’s fcale, which is therefore a
line of logarithms; and the numbers called logarithms
are juft the lengths of the different parts of this line
meafured on a fcale of equal parts. Therefore, when
we meet with fuch an expreffion as — viz. the fluxion
of a quantity divided by the quantity itfelf, we confider
it as the fluxion of the logarithm of that quantity, be¬
caufe it is really fo when the quantity is a number; and
it is therefore ftriclly true that the fluent of—is the hy-
x
perbolic logarithm of „r.
Certain reafnivs of convenience have given rife to ano¬
ther fet of logarithms; thefe are fuited to a logiftic
curve whofe fubtangent is only °f the ordinate
rv, which is equal to the fide of the hyperbolic fquare,
and which is alTtimed for the unit of nuniber. We {hall
fuit our applications of the preceding inveftigation to
both thefe, and fhall firft ufe the. common logarithms
whofe fubtangent is 0,43429.
The whole fubjeft will he beft illuftrated by taking ^^7{ ^
an example of the different queftions which may be pro-fcxam.U
pofed. pies.
Recoiled! that the redlangle ACOF is =z2c, or —, or
g
408
P R O J E C
E, for a ball of call-iron one inch diameter, and if it
has the diameter dy it is , or 2 a e?, or E r/.
g
I. It may be required to determine %vhat will be the
fpace defcribed in a given time / by a ball fetting. out
with a given velocity V, and what will be its velocity v
at the end of that time.
Here w'e have NI : MIrrACOF : BDCA } now
NI is the fubtangent of the logiftic curve j MI is the
difference between the logarithms of OD and OCj that
is, the difference between the logarithms of and e ;
ACOF is 2 ad, or —, or E^.
g
Therefore by common logarithms 0,43429
e-\t—log. e~2ad : S, zr fpace defcribed,
or 0,43429 : log. 2ad: S,
log.
and S.
lad
0,43429
X log.
e-\-t
1
by hyperbolic logarithms Srz^flt/xlog’
Let the ball be a 12 pounder, and the initial velocity
be 1600 feet, and the time 20 feconds. We muff firlt
find e, which is ? ■ .
+3-°3236
+0.65321
—3.20415
0.48x45
1.36229
0.48145
Therefore, log. 2 a
log. d (4,5)
log. V. (1600)
Log. of 3",03,=*?
And e-j-/is 23"03, of which the log. is
from which take the log. of e
remains the log. of -i.
e
This muff be confidered as a common number by
... , • , ^
which we are to multiply .
0.43429
Therefore add the logarithms oi lad + 3-68557
i e~\~t 1
log. 9-9449°
TILES.
fpaces, (bowing the motion during each fucceflive fe^
cond j the fourth column is the velocity at the end of
the time t ; and the laft column is the differences of ve¬
locity, (bowing its diminution in each fucceflive fecond.
We fee that at the diftance of 1000 yards the velocity
is reduced to one half, and at the diftance of lefs than
a mile it is reduced to one-third.
II. It may be required to determine the diftance at
which the initial velocity V is reduced to any other
quantity v. This queftion is folved in the very fame
manner, by fubftituting the logarithms of V and v for
thofe of e-\-t and e; for AC : BD—OD : OC, and
, , , AC , OD . V e+t
therefore log. — rrlog. or log. — — log. —•
Thus it is required to determine the diftance in which
the velocity 1780 of a 24 pound ball (which is the me¬
dium velocity of fuch a ball difcharged with 16 pounds
of powder) will be reduced to I50°.
Here d is 5.68, and therefore the loga¬
rithm of 2 is - - +3-7^671
L0g. ^- — 0.07433, of which the log is +8.87116
Log. 0.43429 - - - —9.63778
Log. 1047.3 feet> or 349 yards . , 3.02009
This reduftion will be produced in about of a fe¬
cond.
III. Another queftion may be to determine the time
which a ball, beginning to move with a certain veloci¬
ty, employs in pafling over a given fpace, and the dimi¬
nution of velocity which it fuftains from the refiftance
of the air.
We may proceed thus :
lad : 8=0,43429 : log.
6
zzt. Then to log.
log. 0.43429
Log. S. 9833 feet
For the final velocity,
OD : OCrrAC : BD, or e-\-t: errV : v.
23",03 : 3",03=i6oo : 210+ =^.
The ball has therefore gone 3278 yards, and its ve¬
locity is reduced from 1600 to 210.
It may be agreeable to the reader to fee the gradual
progrefs of the ball during fome feconds of its motion.
T. S. Diff. V. Dif.
0.88084 .fil add log. e, and we obtain log. e + /, and e-\-t; from
e
which if we take e we have t. Then to find t>, fay
e+/ : e~Y v. . 58 .
We (hall conclude thefe examples by applying this Apphcatto,
laft rule to Mr Robins’s experiment on a.mufket bullet '
of | of an inch in diameter, which had its velocity re- Mr RobinS.
duced from 1670 to 1425 by pafling through 100 feet See Ro-
of air. This we do in order to difcover the refiftance
which it fuftained, and compare it with the refiftance to vojTp
a velocity of 1 foot per fecond. 135.
We muft fir ft afcertain the fir ft term of our analogy.
The ball was of lead, and therefore 2a muft be multi¬
plied by d and by m, which expreffes the ratio of the
denfity of lead to that of caft iron, d is 0.75, and m is
9.63778
3.99269
n-37
7.21
i-577-
Therefore
log. la 3.03236
d 9.87506
m 0.19782
1"
2"
3"
4"
5"
6"
i383
2456
3336
4080
4725
5294
I073
880
1203
964
804
744 690
569
3 y 537
397
239
160
114
86
67
The fir ft column is the time of the motion, the fecond
is the fpace defcribed, the third is the differences of the
Log. ladm 3.10524
and ladm—12^.2. ^
Now 1274.2 : 100=0.43429 : o.o34o8=log.
^\xt and its logarithm = 9*88252,
which, added to 0.03408, gives 9.9x660, which is the
loe. 0ffJL/ =0.825, from which take e, and there
6 1 ’ remains
PROJECTILES.
A09
remains tz
f.o6it
62
1000
of a fecond, for the time
of paffage. Now, to find the remaining velocity, fay
825 : .763= 1670 : 1544, =v.
But in Mr Robins’s experiment the remaining velo¬
city was only 1425, the ball having loft 245 j whereas
by this computation it ftiould have loft only 126. It
appears, therefore, that the refiftance is double of what
it would have been if the refiftance increafed in the du¬
plicate proportion of the velocity. Mr Robins fays it
is nearly triple. But he fuppofes the refiftance to flow
motions much fmaller than his own experiment, fo often
mentioned, fully warrants.
The time e, in which the refiftance of the air would
extinguilh the velocity is Gravity, or the
weight of the bullet, would have done it in or 52" j
C2
therefore the refiftance is —times, or nearly 68 times
°-763
its weight, by this theory, or 5.97 pounds. If we cal¬
culate from Mr Robins’s experiment, we muft fay log.
V
— : o.43429moo : £■ V, which will be 630.23, and
630.23 _
°"-3774> and
52
_ 5?
Recapitu¬
lation.
,   gives 138 for the
1670 0.3774 6 _
proportion of the refiftance to the weight, and makes
the refiftance 12.07 Pounds> fully double of the other.
It is to be obferved that with this velocity, which
greatly exceeds that with which the air can rufti into
a void, there muft be a ftatical preflure of the atmo-
fphere equal to 6\ pounds. This will make up the dif¬
ference, and allows us to conclude that tire refiftance
arifing folely from the motion communicated to the air
follows very nearly the duplicate proportion of the ve¬
locity.
The next experiment, with a velocity of 1690 feet,
gives a refiftance equal to 157 times the weight of the
bullet, and this bears a much greater proportion to the
former than 1690* does to 1670*, which fhows, that
although thefe experiments clearly demonftrate a pro¬
digious augmentation of refiftance, yet they are by no
means fufceptible of the precifion which is neceflary for
difcovering the law of this augmentation, or for a good
foundation of pradlical rules j and it is ftill greatly to
be wiftied that a more accurate mode of inveftigation
could be difcovered.
Thus we have explained, in great detail, the princi¬
ples and the procefs of calculation for the Ample cafe of
the motion of projectiles through the air. The learn¬
ed reader will think that we have been unreafonably
prolix, and that the whole might have been comprifed
in lefs room by taking the algebraic method. We ac¬
knowledge that it might have been done even in a few
lines. But we have obferved, and our obfervation has
been confirmed by perfons well verfed in fuch fubjedts,
that in all cafes where the fluxionary procefs introduces
the fluxion of a logarithm, there is a great want of di-
itinct ideas to accompany the hand and eye. The fo-
lution comes out by a fort of magic or legerdemain, we
cannot tell either how or why. We therefore thought
it our duty to furnilh the reader with diftinCl conceptions
of the things and quantities treated of. For this reafon,
after ihowing, in Sir Ifaac Newton’s manner, how the
Spaces defcribed in the retarded motion of a projeftile
Vol. XVII. Part II. '
followed the proportion of the hyperbolic areas, we
fire wed the nature of another curve, where lines could
be found which increafe in the very fame manner as the
path of the projeClile increafes ; fo that a point defcrib-
ing the abfcifla MI of this curve moves precifely as the
projeCtile does. Then, difcovering that this line is the
fame with the line of logarithms on a Gunter’s feale, we
(hewed how the logarithm of a number really reprefents
the path or fpace defcribed by the projeCtile.
Having thus, we hope, enabled the reader to con¬
ceive diftinCtly the quantities employed, we ihall leave
the geometrical method, and profecute the reft of the
fubjeCt in a more compendious manner. 60
We are, in the next place, to confider the perpendi- Of the per-
cular afcents and defcents of heavy projeCtiles, where
the refiftance of the air is combined with the aCtion ofhea^ypro_
gravity : and we {hall begin with the defcents. jedtiles.
Let u, as before, be the terminal velocity, and g the
accelerating power of gravity : When the body moves
with the velocity //, the refiftance is equal to^-; and in
every other velocity v^ we muft have 1? : vx —g :
P*
—j-, =rr, for the refiftance to that velocity. In the
defcent the body is urged by gravity g, and oppofed
g v7,
by the refiftance : therefore the remaining acce¬
lerating force, which we {hall call is g
gU*—gV* _ g^u'-v*) _r
:: » Or . > —J'
g V
' ’
u‘ u'
Now the fundamental theorem for varied motions is
vv
vv u‘
Jszzuv, and jrr—7=-, = — X
f g
U1 V*
Now the fluent of
and s —
fllx fJOJL- _j_c.
g J u7—v* ^
“ — hyperb. log. of ^/a* — v%. For the fluxion of
u*—v% is —— -—, and this divided by the
V*’
quantity V —id, of which it is the fluxion, give;*
el)el)
precifely ———, which is therefore the fluxion of
its hyperbolic logarithm. Therefore Szr —    x
LxA1—^-pc. Where L means the hyperbolic lo¬
garithm of the quantity annexed to it, and A may be
ufed to exprefs its common logarithm. (See article
Fluxions).
The cbnftant quantity C for completing the fluent
is determined from this confideration, that the fpace
defcrfbed is 0, when the velocity is 0: therefore C—
— X u* — 0, and C ~ — X L ^ , and the
g ^ &    
complete fluent S =  X L ''A* L u1 i*1,
g
v=
if
l u1
u T
—- 
g ” u*—v* 0.43429 u‘
or (putting M for 0.43429, the modulus or fubtangent
. . N u1 f
of the common logiftjc curve)=:—— x W —r r*
M g if—u
3 F . This
4io
PROJECTILES.
This equation eftabliihes the relation between the
fpace fallen through, and the velocity acquired by the
fall. We obtain by it -  5———, and
2^S
L
or, which is fiill more conveni¬
ent for us,
M x 2J- S
= x
-, that is, equal to
the logarithm of a certain number : therefore having
found the natural number correfponding to the frattion
confider it as a logarithm, and take out the
number correfponding to it : call this «. Then, fince
• , * 1 * 2 *
« is equal to —  , w’e have nu —nv = u ,
and n u1 — u%
—i
u— CJ“
: n v1, or » "a* = a* X « — and v*
To expedite all the computations on this fubjeft, it
will be convenient to have multipliers ready computed
for M X 2^, and its half,
viz. 27,794, whofe log. is - - 1.44396
and 13,897 - - - 1..14293.
But v may be found much more expeditioufly by
—
obferving that V —^—— is the fecant of an arch
of a circle whofe radius is u, and whofe fine is v, or
V
whofe radius is unity and fine =r —: therefore, confi-
u
dering the above fra&ion as a logarithmic fecant, look
for it in the tables, and then take the fine of the arc of
which this is the fecant, and multiply it by & ; the pro-
dutt is the velocity required.
We fnall take an example of a ball whofe terminal
velocity is 689^- feet, and afeertain its velocity after a
fall of 1848 feet. Here,
^=475200 and its log. - =5.67688
u =689^ - - - 2.83844
p =32 - *.50515
8=1848 - - - 3.26670
Then log.'27,794 - - +1.44396
log. S - - - + 3.26670
log. u* - - - — 5.67688
Log. of 0,10809 = log. n
9-°3378
0,10809 is the logarithm of 1,2826 = «, and «—1 =
0,2826, and U —— = 323,6*, = o*, and
323,6.
In like manner, 0,054045 (which is half of 0,10809)
will be found to be the logarithmic fecant of 28°, whofe
fine 0,46947 multiplied by 689-5- gives 324 for the ve¬
locity.
The procefs of this folution fuggefts a very perfpicu-
ous manner of conceiving the law of defcent j and it
may be thus expreffed :
M is to the logarithm of the fecant of an arch whofe
fine is —, and radius I, as 2 c is to the height through
u
which the body muft fall in order to acquire the velo¬
city v. Thus, to take the fame example.
I. Let the height h be fought which will produce tfie
velocity 323,62, the terminal velocity of the ball being
689,44. Here 2 or — is 148 co, and - =2
g 689,34
0,46947, which, is the fine of 28°. The logarithmic
fecant of this arch is 0,05407. Now M or 0,43429 :
0,05407=14850 : 1848, the height wanted.
2. Required the velocity acquired by the body by
falling 1848 feet. Say 14850 : 1848= 0,43429:
0,05407. Look for this number among the logarith¬
mic fecants. It will be found at 28°, of which the lo¬
garithmic fine is - - - 9.67161
Add to this the log. of u - - 2.83844
The fum - - - 2.51005
is the logarithm of 323,62, the velocity required.
We may obferve, from thefe folutions, that the ac¬
quired velocity continually approaches to, but never
equals, the terminal velocity. For it is always expref¬
fed by the fine of an arch of which the terminal veloci- ^
ty is the radius. We cannot help taking notice here Erroneons
of a very ilrange affertion of Mr Muller, late profeffor affertion of
of mathematics and direclor of the royal academy at Muller.
Woolwich. He maintains, in his Treatife on Gunnery,
his Treatife of Fluxions, and in many of his numerous
works, that a body cannot poflibly move through the
air with a greater velocity than this j and he makes this
a fundamental principle, on which he ellablilhes a theo¬
ry of motion in a refilling medium, which he aflerts
with great confidence to be the only jufi theory ; fay¬
ing, that all the inveftigations of Bernoulli, Euler, Ro¬
bins, Simplon, and others, are erroneous. We ufe this-
llrong expreffion, becaufe, in his criticifms on the works
of thofe celebrated mathematicians, he lays afide good
manners, and taxes them not only with ignorance, but
with dilhonefiy *, faying, for infiance, that it required
no fmall dexterity in Robins to confirm by his experi¬
ments a theory founded on falfe principles ; and that
Thomas Simplon, in attempting to conceal his obliga¬
tions to him for fome valuable propofitions, by chan¬
ging their form, had ignorantly fallen into grofs errors.
Nothing can be more palpably ablurd than this afler-
tion of Mr Muller. A blown bladder will have but a
fmall terminal velocity •, and when moving with this
velocity, or one very near it, there can be no doubt that
it will be made to move much fwifter by a fmart ftroke.
Were the affertion true, it would be impofiible for a
portion of air to be put into motion through the reft,
for its terminal velocity is nothing. Yet this author
makes this affertion a principle of argument, faying,
that it is impoflible that a ball can iffue from the mouth
of a cannon with a greater velocity than this ; and that
Robins and others are grolsly miftaken, when they give
them velocities three or four times greater, and refin¬
ances which are 10 or 20 times greater than is poflible;
and by thus compenfating his fmall velocities by ftill
fmaller refiftances, he confirms his theory by many ex¬
periments adduced in fupport of the others. No rea-
fon whatever can be given for the affertion. Newton,
or perhaps Huygens, was the firft who obferved that
there was a limit to the velocity which gravity could
communicate to a body ; and this limit was found by
his commentators to be a term to which it was vaftly
convenient to refer all its other motions. It therefore
became
64
Motion of
, body pi*-
piled
ownwards
63
elation
stween
ne time
: defcent
id fpace
fcribed,
"became an ob jc£l of attention *, and Mr Muller, through
inadvertency, or want of difcernment, has fallen into
•this miftake, and with that arrogance and felf-conceit
which mark all his writings, has made this miftake a
fundamental principle, becaufe it led him to eftablifti a
novel fet of dodtrines on this fubjedl:. He was fretted
at the fuperior knowledge and talents of Mr Simpfon,
his inferior in the academy, and was guilty of feveral
mean attempts to hurt his reputation. But they were
unfuccefsful.
We might proceed to conftder the motion of a body
■ projected downwards. While the velocity of projection
is lefs than the terminal velocity, the motion is deter¬
mined by what we have already faid : for we muft com¬
pute the height neceffary for acquiring this velocity in
the air, and fuppofe the motion to have begun there.
But if the velocity of projection be greater, this method
fails. We pafs it over (though not in the leaft more
difficult than what has gone before), becaufe it is of
mere curiofity, and never occurs in any interefting cafe.
We may juft obferve, that fince the motion is fwifter
than the terminal velocity, the refiftance muft be great¬
er than the weight, and the motion will be retarded.
The very fame procefs will give us for the fpace defcrib-
u%
ed S= — X Lv » » » V being the velocity of pro-
jedfion, greater than u. Now as this fpace evidently
increafes continually (becaufe the body always falls),
but does not become infinite in any finite time, the frac-
V* u2
tion —   does not become infinite ; that is, v2 does
v—u
not become equal to a* : therefore although the veloci¬
ty V is continually diminiffied, it neCer becomes fo fmall
as u. Therefore a is a limit of diminution as well as of
augmentation.
We muft now afcertain the relation between the time
of the defcent and the fpace defcribed, or the velocity
acquired. For this purpofe we may ufe the other fun¬
damental propolition of varied motions f t~v, which, in
cr u1 I)2 • • * •
the prefent cafe, becomes^  —t—v; therefore t~
a* v u a £> . ii -f* uv
— X1= “ X1 and t—- x / -5 ^ Now
g a—v g u—v g u—v
M U *1) f U
(article Fluxions)ly —  . Therefore
/=-XLv  > — W~XA */ . This fluent
g a—v M a—w
needs no conftant quantity to complete it, or rather
C=:o ; for t muft be —0 when •vzzo. This will evi-
yu-^-v . j u
-—_ is L v =:
Li,=o.  
But how does this quantity rr-r— X sj —fignify a
u—v
time ? Obferve, that in whatever numbers, or by what¬
ever units of fpace and time, a and g are exprefled,
it
- expreiTes the number of units of time in which the ve-
S .
locity u is communicated or extinguiffied by gravity :
PROJECTILES.
and
A
u—v ’ M ^ u—v
/u+v
41 I
is always an abftrac!
number, multiplying this time.
We may illuftrate this rule by the fame example. In
what time will the body acquire the velocity 323,62 ?
Here a-f ^ 1012,96, a—urr 365,725 therefore
yu-\-v a . , ,
 —0.22122. and - (in feet and feconds) is
a—v §
21",542. Now, for greater perfpicuity, convert the
. a •
equation /——— x   mto a proportion : thus
 $ ax*
M : A v ~ _ : t, and we have 0,44420 : o,22i 22
u—v g y
— 21", 542 : 10",973 the time required.
This is by far the moft diftinft way of conceiving
the fubjeft ; and we ffiould always keep in mind that
the numbers or fymbols which we call logarithms are
really parts of the line Ml in the figure of the logiftic
curve, and that the motion of a point in this line is pre-
cifely fimiiar to that of the body. The Marquis Po-
leni, in a differtation publiffied at Padua in 1725, has
with great ingenuity conftrudted logarithmics fuited to
all the cafes which can occur. Herman, in his Phoro-
nomia, has borrowed much of Poleni’s methods, but has
obfeured them by an affectation of language geometri¬
cally precife, but involving the very obfeure notion of
abftraCt ratios.
It is eafy to fee that
is the cotangent of
the i complement of an arch, whofe radius is 1, and
V
whofe fine is For let KC (fig. 6.) be —andpig. jj,
BErrt/; then KDrrw-f-^, and DArrw—v. Join KB
and BA, and draw CG parallel to KB. Now GA is
the tangent of 4 BA, ~4 complement of HB. Then,
by fimilarity of triangles, GA : AC=ABr= : BK=
-\/AD : 'v/DKzrrVw—v : X u-\-v and (z= cotan»
4BA)= tJl-^—- ; therefore look for - among the na-
2 ' ^ u—v u
tural fines, or for log. - among the logarithmic fines,
and take the logarithmic cotangent of the half comple¬
ment of the correfpondiiig arch. rIhis, confidered as a
common number, will be the fecond term of our pro¬
portion. This is a fhorter procefs than the former.
By reverfing this proportion we get the velocity cor-
refponding to a given time.
To compare this defcent of 1848 feet in the air Fall^ft
with the fall of the body in vacuo during the famebody inaaif
time, fay 2i",542l : io",973*=i848 : 1926,6, which compared!
makes a difference of 79 feet. of one in
, ’'MCU&+
Cor. t. The time in which the body acquires the
velocity u by falling through the air, is to the time of
acquiring the fame velocity by falling in vacuo, as u.
L J to v ; for it would acquire this velocity in
^ n—V
3 F 8 "•actn
4-1 2
PROJECTILES.
*1) •••*••
vacuo during the time and it acquires it m the ajr in
, . "r /u+v
the time -L,V  •
g u—v
2. The velocity which the body acquires by falling
throueh the air in the time —L v ) is t° velo-
O g u V
city which it would acquire in vacuo during the
fame time, as to « L ij : F°r the velocity
’ u—v
u
which it would acquire in vacuo during the time -
O
mull be z/ L
J u-\-v
u—v
(becaufe in any time
6S
Time of
the afcent
of a body
projected
perpendi¬
cularly.
— the velocity w is acquired).
g
In the next place, let a body, whofe terminal velo¬
city is u, be projedted perpendicularly upwards, with
any velocity V. It is required to determine the height
to which it afcends, fo as to have any remaining velo¬
city v, and the time of its afcent ; as alio the height
and time in which its whole motion %vill be extin-
p-uithed.
We have now ^ for the expreflion of f;
IT
for both gravity and refiftance aft now in the fame di-
redlion, and retard the motion of the afcending body :
tlierefore1^  s——d v, and J^ X »
and X/-d£rr+C, =-y xL^Te +
C (fee art. Fluxions). This muft be =o at the be¬
ginning of the motion, that is, when vzzV, that is,
— — xLx/"1 + V1 + C=o, or c=—+
and the complete fluent will be J=:— X u1 —
T   v a* Z^ + V1 a* /u'+V*
L^/a* -}-V x L V a*+D**
Let h be the greateft height to which the body will
a*
rife. Then s = h when v = o ; and h zr — X
L = Mi x A We have
x ^ v itherefore A (Vq^)=
Therefore let n be the number whofe common logarithm
. n m i j a*-f-Va
is A-j we (hall have «—   ~ 
Here — will be found the tangent of 30.48-j-, the lo¬
garithmic fecant of which is 0,06606. This, multi-
a*
plied by > gives 2259 feet for the height. It would
have rifen 2640 feet in a void.
Suppofe this body to fall down again. We can Velocity of
compare the velocity of projedtion with the velocity projedtion
with which it again reaches the ground. The afcent C0.™Pared
& ° with that
y a* 4- V*" with which
 ^ , which ':t reaches
u the ground.
and defcent are equal : therefore
multiplies the conftant fadlor in the afcent, is equal to
—, the multiplier in the defcent. The firft is
a*—v% r
the fecant of an arch whofe tangent is V ; the other is
the fecant of an arch whofe fine is v. Thefe fecants
are equal, or the arches are the fame ; therefore the ve¬
locity of projedtion is to the final returning velocity as
the tangent to the fine, or as the radius to the cofine of
the arch. Thus fuppofe the body projedled with the
terminal velocity, or Yzzu; then v~——. IfVrr
V2
689, ^=487.
We muft in the laft place afcertain the relation of
the fpace and the time.
tt ^Cw, + 'y1)* * j * v
Here ZJ-——- t~—v, and t~ X -r——,, =
-* ”• az4-u*
a*
a u v
 X —1
g U^-j-V
and t —
g%
u v
f—— + c.
J u'+V*
Now
U‘ ■ a*-)-^* n
 a* •, and thus we obtain the relation of s and v, as in
the cafe of defcents: but we obtain it ftill eafier by ob-
ferving that tju1 + V* is the fecant of an arch whofe
radius is a, and whofe tangent is V, and that tju*-\-v*
is the fecant of another arch of the fame circle, whofe
tangent is v.
Let the fame ball be projedled upwards with the ve¬
locity 411,05 feet per fecond. Required the whole
height to which it will rife >
(art. Fluxions)^/t~i is an arch whofe tangent
= - and radius 1 ; therefore /=—-X arc. tan. - 4- C.
« g u
u
This muft be =z 0 when vzzV, or C X arc. tan.
g
V a V
—rro, and C=-Xarc. tan.—, and the complete flu-
u g ^ g
ent is — X ( arc. tan. arc. tan. - ). The quan-
g \ u ul
tities within the brackets exprefs a portion of the arch
of a circle whofe radius is unity 5 and are therefore ab-
ftradl numbers, multiplying -, which we have fhown to
be the number of units of time in which a heavy body
falls in vacuo from the height a, or in which it acquires
the velocity u. ^
We learn from this expreffion of the time, that how- Time of
ever great the velocity of projedlion, and the height afcent ^
to which this body will rife, may be, the time of its'
afcent is limited. It never can exceed the time of fal¬
ling from the height a in vacuo in a greater proportion
than that of a quadrantal arch to the radius, nearly the
proportion of 8 to 5. A 24 pound iron ball cannot
continue rifing above 14 feconds, even if the refiftance
to quick motions did not increafe fafter than the fquare
of the velocity. It probably will attain its greateft
height in lefs than 12 feconds, let its velocity be ever
fo great.
In the preceding example of the whole afcent, v—o,
and
mited.
63
« This time
compared
in bodies
projected
in air and
in vacuo.
Fig. 6.
69
Weceflrty
>f further
ixpert-
nents.
PROJECTILES.
4L?
and the time /=r-X arc. tan. —or - arc. 30°. 48'.
g u. $ .
Now 300. 48'=ri848/, and the radius 1 contains 3438 ;
therefore the arch ——0,5376; an^~ — 2i”j54-
Therefore /=2l",54XO,5376,rril",58, or nearly 11 r
feconds. The body would have rifen to the fame height
in a void in 10^ feconds.
' Cor. 1. The time in which a body, proje&ed in the
air with any velocity V, will attain its greateft height,
is to that in which it would attain its greateft height in
vacuo, as the arch whofe tangent exprefles the velocity
is to the tangent j for the time of the afeent in the air
u . . . V
is - X arch ; the time of the afeent in vacuo is —. Now
g g
V . _ _ T , V //
— is = tan. and v —z/Xtan. and —— - X tan.
« g g
It is evident, by infpe&ing fig. 6. that the arch AI
is to the tangent AG as the fe&or ICA to the tri¬
angle GCA } therefore the time of attaining the great¬
eft height in the air is to that of attaining the greateft
height in vacuo (the velocities of projedlion being the
fame), as the circular feftor to the correfponding tri¬
angle.
If therefore 3 body be proje&ed upwards with the
terminal velocity, the time of its afeent will be to the
time of acquiring this velocity in vacuo as the area of a
circle to the area of the circumfcribed fquare.
2. The height H to which a body will rife in a void,
is to the height h to which it would rife through the
air when projected with the fame velocity V as M’V* to
—; for the height to which it will rife in
ux
V*
vacuo is —, and the height to which it rifes in the air is
ifLAVAl±y.! J therefore H : /z = — :
^ u' ’ 2g
n' -v> • - X 2a7^±Z1 -v*.
w* ux 4-V* tit tt2 1 a*+V*
_X =M-V* :
Therefore if the body be projefted with its terminal
velocity, fo that V=zz, the height to which it will rife
30103 • •
in the air is     of the height to which it will rife
43429
m vacuo, or
— in round numbers.
We have been thus particular in treating of the per¬
pendicular afeents and defeents of heavy bodies‘tbrough
the air, in order that the reader may conceive diftin&ly
the quantities which he is thus combining in his algebraic
operations, and may fee their connexion in nature with
each other. We (hall alfo find that, in the prefent ftate
of our mathematical knowledge, this fimple ftate of the
cafe contains almoft all that we can determine with any
confidence. On this account it were to be wifiied that
the profeflional gentlemen would make many experi¬
ments on thefe motions. There is no way that pro-
mifes fo much for aflifting us in forming accurate no¬
il:
tions of the air’s refiftance. Mr Robins’s method with
the pendulum is impracticable with great {hot j and the
experiments which have been generally reforted to for
this purpofe, viz. the ranges of {hot and {hells on a ho¬
rizontal plane, are fo complicated in themfelves, that
the utmoft mathematical {kill is neceflary for making
any inferences from them j and they are fubjeCt to fuch
irregularities, that they may be brought to fupport al¬
moft any theory whatever on this fubjeCl. But the per¬
pendicular flights are affeCled by nothing but the initial
velocity and the refiftance of the air 5 and a confiderabla
deviation from their intended direClion does not caufe
any fenfible error in the confequences which we may
draw from them for our purpofe.
But we muft now proceed to the general problem, of ol>-
to determine the motion of a body projeCled in any di-hquepro-
reClion, and with any velocity. Our readers will be-je<^on-
lieve beforehand that this muft be a difficult fubjeft,
when they fee the fimpleft cafes of reClilineal motion
abundantly abftrufe : it is indeed fo difficult, that Sir
Ifaac Newton has not given a folution of it, and has This pro¬
thought himfelf well employed in making feveral ap- t>lem not
proximations, in which the fertility of his genius appears ^
in great luftre. In the tenth and fubfequent propofi-
tions of the fecond book of the Principia, he {hows what
ftate of denfity in the air will comport with the motion
of a body in any curve whatever: and then, by apply¬
ing this difeovery to fevcral curves which have fome li-
milarity to the path of a projeClile, he finds one which
is not very different from what we may fuppofe to ob¬
tain in our atmofphere. But even this approximation
was involved in fuch intricate calculations, that it feem-
ed impoffible to make any ufe of it. In the fecond edi¬
tion of the Principia, publifhed in 1713, Newton cor¬
rects fome miftakes which he had committed in thefirft,
and carries his approximations much farther, but ftill
does not attempt a direCt inveftigation of the path which
a body will deferibe in our atmofphere. This is fome-
what furprifing. In prop. 14. &c. he {hows how’ a
body, aCtuated by a centripetal force, in a medium of a
denfity varying according to certain laws, will deferibe
an eccentric fpiral, of which he afiigns the properties,
and the law of defeription. Had he fuppofed the den¬
fity conftant, and the difference between the greateft
and leaft diftances from the centre of centripetal force
exceedingly fmall in comparifon with the diftances them¬
felves, his fpiral would have coincided with the path of
a projeClile in the air of uniform denfity, and the fteps
of his inveftigation would have led him immediately to
the complete folution of the problem. For this is the
real ftate of the cafe. A heavy body is not aCled on by
equal, and parallel gravity, but by a gravity inverfely
proportional to the fquare of the diftance from the
centre of the earth, and in lanes tending to that centre -
nearly •, and it was with the view of fimplifying the
inveftigation, that mathematicians have adopted the
other hypothefis.
Soon after the publication of this fecond edition of D'fputes
the Principia, the difpute about the invention of the among
fluxionary calculus became very violent, and the great anc*
promoters of that calculus upon the continent were in mathema-
the habit of propofing difficult problems to exercife the ticians.
talents of the mathematician. Challenges of this kind
frequently paffed between the Britiih and foreigners.
Dr
414
PROJECTILES.
Dr Kelli of Oxford had keenly efpoufed the claim of
Sir Ifaac Newton to this invention, and had engaged in
a very acrimonious altercation with the celebrated John
Bernoulli of Bafle. Bernoulli had publiihed in the Atia
Eruditorum Lipfice an inveftigation of the law of forces,
by which a body moving in a refilling medium might
defcribe any propofed curve, reducihg the whole to the
fimplefi: geometry. This is perhaps the mofi: elegant
1’pecimen which he has given of his great talents. Dr
Keill propofed to him the particular problem of the
trajeddory and motion of a body moving through the
air, as one of the moft difficult. Bernoulli very foon
folved the problem in a way inuch More general than it
had been propofed, viz. without any limitation either of
'the law of refiftance, the law of the centripetal force, or
the law of denfity, provided only that they were regular,
and capable of being expreffed algebraically. Dr Brook
Taylor, the celebrated author of the Method of Incre¬
ments, folved it at the fame time, in the limited form
in which it was propofed. Other authors fince that
time have given other folutions. But they are all (as
indeed they muft be) the fame in fubftanee writh Ber¬
noulli’s. Indeed they are all (Bernoulli’s not excepted)
the fame with Newton’s firft approximations, modified
by the fteps introduced into the inveftigation of the
fpiral motions mentioned above j and we ftill think it
moft ftrange that Sir Ifaac did not perceive that the
•variation of curvature, which he introduced in that in¬
veftigation, made the whole difference between his ap¬
proximations and the complete folution. This we ftiall
73 point out as we go along. And we now proceed to the
Bernoulli’s problem itfelf, of which we {hall give Bernoulli’s folu-
iolntion. tjon^ reftri&ed to the cafe of uniform denfity and a re¬
fiftance proportional to the fquare of the velocity.
This folution is more fimple and perfpicuous than any
that has fince appeared.
Problem. To determine the traje&ory, and all the
circumftances of the motion of a body projefled
Fig. 7. through the air from A (fig. 7O dire&ion
AB, and refilled in the duplicate ratio of the velocityi
Let the arch AM be put =£, the time of defcribing
it /, the ahlciffa AP=x, the ordinate PM ~y. Let
the velocity in the point Mzii’y, and let MN“!3, be
defcribed in the moment t; let r be the refiftance of
the air, g the force of gravity, meafured by the ve¬
locity which it will generate in a fecotid ; and let a be
the height through which a heavy body muft fall in va¬
cuo to acquire the velocity which would render the
refiftance of the air equal to its gravity : fo that we have
r —V- ; becaufe, for any velocity a, and producing
2a
a*
height h, we have g=.
Let M m touch the curve in M; draw the ordinate
p N /«, and draw M 0, N a perpendicular to Np and
M m. Then we have MN=*, and M 0=*:, alfo mo
is ultimately —ij and M m is ultimately ~ MN or js.
Laftly, let us fuppofe x to be a conftant quantity, the
Aiftion of elementary ordinates being fuppofed equidiftant.
gravity in 'j'jjg a£Bon of gravity during the time t may be
ftin'J61 meafured by m N, which is half the fpace which it
2
would caufe the body to defcribe uniformly in the time
t with the velocity which it generates in that time.
Let this be refolved intow N,by which it deliedis the body
into a curvilineal path, and m.n, by which it retards the
afcent and accelerates the defcent of the body along the
tangent. The refiftance of the air afts folely in retard¬
ing the motion, both in afcending and defcending, and
has no defleftive tendency. The whole aflion of gra¬
vity then is to its accelerating or retarding tendency as
/w N to wz w, or (by fimilarity of triangles) as m M to
m 0. Or % \ y — g : and the whole retardation in
25
the afcent will be r-f-C-. The fame fluxionary fymbol
2;
will exprefs the retardation during the defcent, becaufe
in the defcent the ordinates decreafe, and y is a negative
quantity.
The diminution of velocity is'—v. This is propor¬
tional to the retarding force and to the time of its aftion
jointly, and therefore — •yrzr-f-^-X O' but the time
2;
t is as the fpace % divided by the velocity v ; therefore
* KV 2 rz-f-gy ,
— v — r Y> —, —  and — v v =1
% v v
r%—gy~———- gy. Becaufe wz N is the deflexion
by gravity, it is as the force g and the fquare of the time
t jointly (the momentary a£lion being held as uniform)*
We have therefore m N, or — yz=g tz. (Obferve that
zzz N is in fa<ft only the half of —y; but g being twice
the fall of a heavy body in a fecond, we have —y ftrift-
• • 25* •• o' CZ?
ly equal to gf). But t'zz — j therefore —^=-^5-,
and 15*=: - ~. r, and — vz y — g k*. The fluxion of
—y
-this equation is — — fu y v ~ 2g z z ; but, be¬
caufe z : y = m M : m 0, =: m N : m n, = y : z, vre have
as % — y y. Therefore 2gy y—2gzz, = — vly—
2v y v, and 2 v v y — v1 y — % g y y, and —
p ^  g y. But we have already v v zz
v1 z
2 a
2y
^ 'v'1 V V* Z j r 11 y „
■gy; therefore—n—= > and finally .. —
y a y
— ox ay zz ’z yt lot the fluxionary equation of the
a ’
curve.
75
If we put this into the form of a proportion, we Relation
between
have a : zz=. y\y. Now this evidently eftablilhes a re-the length
lation between the length of the curve and its variation
of curvature 5 and between the curve itfelf and its evo-.ts varja.
luta, which are the very circumftances introduced by tion 0f
Newton curvaturte
PROJECTILES.
Jviewton into his inveftigation of the fpiral motions. And id^ We get ^ by the area of another curve whofe
4*5
• % y .
the equation —is evidently an equation connedfed
a y
with the logarithmic curve and the logarithmic fpiral.
But we mull endeavour to reduce it to a lower order of
fluxions, before we can eltablilh a relation between z, xt
and y.
Let p exprefs the ratio of y to a?, that is, let ^ be =
or p x—y. It is evident that this expreffes the
x
inclination of the tangent at M to the horizon, and that
p is the tangent of this inclination, radius being unity.
Or it may be confidered merely as a number, multiply¬
ing x, fo as to make it —y. We now have y%~p* x*,
and fince «*= x2 -f- y*, we have z* =z x* -f- p* x*t —
l -\-p2 X x*, and z=x y/i
Moreover, becaufe we have fuppofed the abfciffa x
to increafe uniformly, and therefore x to be conftant,
we have y—xp, and yrz x p. Now let q exprefs the
ratio of p to x, that is, make ~ q, or q x =z p.
x
This gives us x q—p, and x* q—x p, —y.
By thefe fubftitutions our former equation ay—%y
changes to a x1 g — xij i _j_ xp, or » y ■xz ’p
1 and, taking the fluent on both fides, we have
1 ~\~PZ ^ being the conflant quantity
required for completing the fluent according to the li¬
miting conditions of the cafe.
f
Now X 2= ,
7
Alfo, fince yi=p x,
Therefore
X=A
and —zz
9
a,p
— EL
~ J
9
' pV I -j-yp j _f_ C
we have yzz
n p p
p v'l-f-yA-f C ‘
Alfo %—X I •\-pl\ —-
a p
wipp
j) p^1 +p
The values of x, y, z, give us
=f
+c
ft vr+^i+c
pp
J]p ^i+/|+C
P ^1+/I+C J j +/I+C
z—fr a ^1+P%\P pVi+p* 
The procefs therefore of defcribing the traje&ory is, iy?,
To find q in terms of p by the area of the curve whofe
abfciffa isyj and the ordinate is v^i -}-y>s.
abfciffa is p, and the ordinate is —.
9
34 We get y by the area of a third curve whofe ab¬
fciffa is p, and the ordinate is —.
9
The problem of the traje&ory is therefore complete¬
ly folved, becaufe we have determined the ordinate, ab¬
fciffa, and arch of the curve for any given pofition of g
its tangent. It now only remains to compute the mag-To com-
nitudes of thefe ordinates and abfciffse, or to draw them pute the
by a geometrical conftruflion. But in this confifts the magnitucjR.
difficulty. The hreas of thefe curves, which exprefs the "
lengths of x and y, can neither be computed nor exhi-abfciffa,
bited geometrically, by any accurate method yet difco-
veredj-and we mull content ourfelves with approxima¬
tions. Thefe render the defcription of the trajectory ex¬
ceedingly difficult and tedious, fo that little advantage
has as yet been derived from the knowledge we have got
of its properties. It will however greatly aflilt our con¬
ception of the fubjeCl to proceed fome length in this
conftruCtion •, for it mult be acknowledged that very
few diftinCt notions accompany a mere algebraic opera¬
tion, efpecially if in any degree complicated, which we
eonfefs is the cafe in the prefent quellion.
Let B//2 NR (fig. 8.) be an equilateral hyperbola, of Plate
which B is the vertex, BA the femitranfverfe axis, CCCCXLII
which we ffiall affume for the unity of length. Let AV 8‘
be the femiconjugate axis == BA, “ unity, and AS the
affymptote, bHeCling the right angle BAY. Let PN,
pn be two ordinates-to the conjugate axis, exceedingly
near to each other. Join BP, AN, and draw B /3, N v
perpendicular to the affymptote, and BC parallel to AP.
It is well known that BP is equal to NP. Therefore
PN5r=BA1-J-APNow fince BA—i, if we make
AP—y of our formulae, PN is Vi -fy1, and Py is =
y, and the area B APNBrzyi^? y VI -j-y1) : That is to
fay, the numbery^ y Vi -f-y* (for it is a number) has
the fame proportion to unity of number that the area
BAPNB has to BCVA, the unit of furface. This
area confifls of twTo parts, the triangle APN, and the
hyperbolic feftor ABN. APN rr^AP x PN, =r
~lpVi-j-y1, and the hyperbolic feCtor ABN^BN v p,
which is equivalent to the hyperbolic logarithm of the
number reprefented by A v when A /3 is unity. There¬
fore it is equal to 4- the logarithm of y +y2‘
Hence we fee by the bye that^ P ^ 1
hyperbolic logarithm y-f-v i-j-y*.
Now let AMD be another curve, fuck that its ordi¬
nates V m, PD, &c. may be proportional to the areas
AB w V, ABNP, and may have the fame proportion
to AB, the unity of length, which thefe areas have to
ABCV, the unity of furface. Then VM : VC—
Vm BA : VCBA, and PD : P 2=PNBA : VCBA,
&c. Thefe ordinates will now reprefenty^j p Vi -\-pz
wflth reference to a linear unit, as the areas to the
hyperbola reprefented it in reference to a fuperficial
unit.
Again,
4i 6
R R 0 J E C
Again, in every ordinate niak.e PD : P ^=P ^ : PO,
and thus we obtain a reciprocal to PD, or to
f’ pVh1?; or equivalent to •
This
and the area
will evidently be -V, and PO o p will be-
ap “
contained between the lines AF, AW, and the curve
GEOH, and cut off by the ordinate PO, will reprefent
PS
and
AP, =i
the area ALEQP
Fig. 7.
■Fig. 8.
TILES,
will defcribe limilar trajectories if the velocities are in
the fubduplicate ratio of the diameters. rl his we {hall ^
find to be of confiderable practical importance. Eutlet To deter-
us now proceed to determine the velocity in the differ-m‘ne the
ent points of the traje&ory, and the time of defcribing
its feveral portions. points.
_p~ %% •
Recoiled, therefore, that v* — —rr—, and that a*
a;si -\-pz and y — xp. This gives vt.—
—gxx+p'
Laftly, make PO : PQ^rrAV
y
then PQ^ qp will reprefent —, an
will reprefent
a
But we muff here obferve, that the fluents expreffed
by thefe different areas require what is called the cor¬
rection to accommodate them to the circumftances of
the cafe. It is not indifferent from what ordinate we
begin to reckon the areas. This depends on the initial
diredion of the projedile, and that point of the abfcif-
fa AP mutt be taken for the commencement of all the
areas which gives a value of p fuited to the initial di-
redion. Thus, if the projedion has been made from
A (fig. 7.) at an elevation of 450, the ratio of the
fluxions x and y is that of equality *, and therefore the
point E of fig. S. where the two curves interfcd and
have a common ordinate, evidently correfponds to this
condition. The ordinate EV paffes through V, fo that
AV or />=AB, =1, = tangent 450, as the cafe re-
>quires. The values of a; and of y correfponding to any
other point of the trajedory, fuch as that which has AP
for the tangent of the angle which it makes with the
horizon, are now to be had by computing the areas
VEOP, VEQP.
Another curve might have been added, of which the
ordinates would exhibit the fluxions of the arch of the
traiedory ssrr — , and ofwhich the area
would exhibit the arch itfelf. And this would have
r r - - * P \/1+P*
been very eafy, for it is ss = o :—  
which is evidently the fluxion of the hyperbolic loga¬
rithm P s/~i +P1\- But it is needlefs, fince as =r
x ikji +P*> and've have already got x. It is only in-
creafing PO in the ratio of BA to BP.
Confequen- And thus we have brought the inveftigation of this
ces of .problem a confiderable length, having afcertained the
knowing form of the trajedory. This is furely done when the
oTtlnTtra ra^° t'ie arc^’ at>fcifs» and ordinate, and the polition
jedory.r * ‘lts tangent, is determined in every point. But it is
ftill very far from a folution, and much remains to be
done before we can make any pradical application of it.
The only general confequence that we can deduce from
the premifes is,’that in every cafe where the refiftance
in any point bears the fame proportion to the force of
gravity, the trajedory will be fimilar. Therefore, two
balls, of the fame denfity, projeded in the fame diredion,
But p — q x. Therefore v* =
— — x l+ijl _
P 1 +P*I + ^
V a \/—g\/1+P*
JP s/1 +P*i + C
and
Alfo t was found ~—, —
_ xs/x+p' _
P x/i + P*
q v
juft found, we obtain t —
P
If we now fubftitute for v its value
sj—,
and t
gq
*/-
-g9
7
P 1\/ g
fjf,
(-'p +p*! + ^
n
The greateft difficulty ftill remains, viz. the accom-jj;^^
modating thefe formulae, which appear abundantly fim- 0f accom-
ple, to the particular cafes. It would feem at firft modating
fight, that all trajedories are fimilar ; fince the ratio of1*16 ^ormu‘
the fluxions of the ordinate and abfciffa correfponding
any particular angle of inclination to the horizon feems cafes,
the fame in them all : but a due attention to what has
been hitherto faid on the fubjed will {how us that we
have as yet only been able to afcertain the velocity in
the point of the trajedory, which has a certain inclina¬
tion to the horizon, indicated by the quantity p, and the
time (reckoned from feme alfigned beginning) when the
projedile is in that point.
To obtain abfolute meafures of thefe quantities, the
term of commencement mutt be fixed upon. This will
be expreffed by the conttant quantity C, which is affumed
for completing the fluent of P J1 +P% which is the
balls of the whole conftrudion. We there found q =
f’ pji +P*
a
C-f^> P \/1
This fluent is in general q —
+ P*
and the conftant quantity C is to
a
be accommodated to feme circumftances of the cafe.
Different authors have fekded different circumftances.
Euler,
So
PROJECTILES.
Euler, in his Commentary on Robins, and in a differta-
4*7
j uler’i me-tjon Jn t]ie Memoirs of the Academy of Berlin publilh-
l0^ 1 e ed in 1753, takes the vertex of the curve for the begin-
I mpleft.
?•
ning of his abfcifla and ordinate. This is the fimpleft;
method of any, for C muft then be fo chofen that the
whole fluent may vanifli when p~o, which is the cafe
in the vertex of the curve, where the tangent is paral¬
lel to the horizon. We fliall adopt this method.
Therefore, let AP (fig. 9.) —x, PM=ry, AM =2;.
Put the quantity C which is introduced into the fluent
equal to -. It is plain that « muft be a number j for
a
it muft be homologous with p V 1 p1, which is a
number. For brevity’s fake let us exprefs the fluent of
p Vi -\-p* by the Angle letter P 5 and thus we (hall
have T P  fPP
*=“ x/t+p--
'p x^T?
H^p '
And
+ P
ag C1 +/jl)
n + P
z = aX
Now the
And laftly,
-y/«-}-P
Thefe fluents, being all taken fo as to vanifli at the
vertex, where the computation commences, and w here
is — 0 (the tangent being parallel to the horizon), we
obtain in this cafe —
in
and n — —y.
lh
Hence we fee that the circumftance which modifies
all the curves, diftinguifhing them from each other, is
the velocity (or rather its fquare) in the higheft point
of the curve. For h being determined for any body
whofe terminal velocity is u, n is alfo determined; and
this is the modifying circumftance. Confidering it geo¬
metrically, it is the area which muft be cut off from
the area DMAP of fig. 8. in order to determine the
ordinates of the other curves.
We muft further remark, that the values now given
relate only to that part of the area where the body is
defcending from the vertex. This is evident j for, in
order that y may increafe as we recede from the vertex,
its fluxion muft be taken in the oppofite fenfe to what
it was in our inveftigation. There we fuppofed y to in¬
creafe as the body afcended, and then to diminifti du¬
ring the defcent; and therefore the fluxion of y was firft
pofitive and then negative. »
The fame equations, however, will ferve for the
afcending branch CNA of the curve, only changing
the fign of P j for if we confider y as decreafing during
P
the afcent, we muft confider q as exprefling —-—, and
x
therefore P, P ^ 1 -j- jP*> which is —muft be
taken negatively. Therefore, in the afcending branch,
we have A£) or # (increafing as ive recede from A)'—
AN °r2;::=
Vol. XVII. Part II.
81
height h neceffary for communicating any velocity v is
—«g (1 -\~P1) _ —^(l +/>*)
zg 2£-(« + P) ’ n+p
a X ;=4“ xA=i==, and the
*-/ n—P yfg J \ \ — P
r I | /p ^ ^
height producing the velocity at —-—p—.
Hence we learn by the bye, that in no part of the Remaik-
afcending branch can the inclination of the tangent beal,*e Pr?",
fuch that P (hall be greater than «; and that if we fup-^ertp°t €
pole r equal to n in any point ot the curve, the velo-tiaje&ory,
city in that point will be infinite. That is to fay, there
is a certain aflrgnable elevation of the tangent which
cannot be exceeded in a curve which has this velocity
in the vertex. The bell way for forming a conception
of this circumftance in the nature of the curve, is to
invert the motion, and fuppofe an accelerating force,
equal and oppofite to the refill ance, to aft on the body
in conjunftion with gravity. It muft defcribe the fame
curve, and this branch ANC muft have an affymptote
LO, which has this limiting politico of the tangent.
For, as the body defcends in this curve, its velocity
increafes to infinity by the joint aftion of gravity and
this accelerating force, and yet the tangent never ap¬
proaches fo near the perpendicular pofition as to make
P~77. This remarkable property of the curve was
known to Newton, as appears by his approximations,
which all lead him to curves of a hyperbolic form, ha¬
ving one affymptote inclined to the horizon. Indeed
it is pretty obvious : For the refiftance increafing fafter
than the velocity, there is no velocity of projeftion fo
great but that the curve will come to deviate fo from
the tangent, that in a finite time it will become pa¬
rallel to the horizon. Were the reliftance proportional
to the velocity, then an infinite velocity would produce
a reftilineal motion, or rather a defleftion from it lefs
than any that can be afligned. 82
We now fee that the particular form and magnitude Pn what
of this trajeftory depends on two circumftances, a andlts for.m ^
n. a affefts chiefly the magnitude. Another circum-depends,
ftance might indeed be taken in, viz. the diminution of
the accelerating force of gravity by the ftaticaleffeft of
the air’s gravity. But, as we have already obferved, this
is too trifling to be attended to in military projeftiles.
y
" was made equal to p. Therefore the ra-
cc
dius of curvature, determined by the ordinary me-
*0 +^*) (n/1^-^)
thods, is
and, becaufe
A is * Simpfon'i
Fluxions,
f 68, S19.
P
«-j-P
for the defcending branch of the curve, the
radius of curvature at M is —X, and,
in the afcending branch at N, it is
On both fides, therefore, when the velocity is infinitely
great, and P by this means fuppofed to equal or exceed
//, the radius of curvature is alfo infinitely great. We
alfo fee that the two branches are unlike each other, and
that when p is the fame in both, that is, when the tan¬
gent is equally inclined to the horizon, the radius of
curvature, the ordinate, the abfeifs, and the arch, are
alhgreater in the afcending branch. This is pretty ob-
• 3 -G vious.
4i8
83
Several pm
perties of it
afcertained
PROJECTILES.
vious. For as the refiftance adts entirely in diminiftiing
the velocity, and does not affcft the defledlion occafioned
by gravity, it mutt allow gravity to incurvate the path
fo much the more (with the fame inclination of its line
of aftion) as the velocity is more diminifhed. The
curvature, therefore, in thofe points which have the
fame inclination of the tangent, is greateft in the de-
fcending branch, and the motion is fwifteft in the
afcending branch. It is otherwife in a void, where both
fides are alike. Here u becomes infinite, or there is no
terminal velocity 5 and n alfo becomes infinite, being
a
2I1  
It is therefore in the quantity P, orP J1 +P\
that the difference between the trajedlory in a void and
in a refilling medium confiils; it is this quantity which
expreffes the accumulated change of the ratio of the
increments of the ordinate and abfeifs. In vacuo the
fecond increment of the ordinate is conllant when the
firft increment of the abfeifla is fo, and the whole
increment of the ordinate is as 1 -\-p. And this diffe¬
rence is fo much the greater as P is greater in refpedt
of n. P is nothing at the vertex, and increafes along
with the angle MTP 5 and when this is a right angle,
P is infinite. The traje£lory in a refilling medium
will eome therefore to deviate infinitely from a para¬
bola, and may even deviate farther from it than the
parabola deviates from a llraight line. 1 hat is, the di-
ftance of the body in a given moment from that point
of its parabolic path where it would have been in a
void, is greater than the dillance between that point of
the parabola from the point of the llraight line where
it wTould have been, independent of the adtion of gra¬
vity. This mull happen whenever the refillance is great¬
er than the weight of the body, which is generally the
cafe in the beginning of the trajedlory in military pro-
jeclilcs •, and this (were it now necelfary) is enough to
lhowr the inutility of the parabolic theory.
Although we have no method of deferibing this
trajedlory, which would be received by the ancient
' geometers, we may afeertain feveral properties of it,
which will afiill us in the folution of the problem. In
particular, we can alfign the abfolute length of any part
of it by means of the logiltic curve. » For becaufe P
~j'P^1
we have p sjP, and there-
x/i-f-P*
+ C, or = oX
q its pofition at m; then AM=r« X log-
«-fP
and Km
z=.ct X leg- - and therefore Mm is c X log-
« + Q.
Thus we can find the values of a great num-
r , . . /> V 1
fore z, which was — aX / —:—7=—
JJ'pji+P"
/p
 , may be expreffed by logarithms 5 or z = a
72 | P
x hyp. log. of ——, fince at the vertex A, where z
mull be =: 0, P is alfo = c.
Being able, in this way, to afeertain the length AM
of the curve (counted from the vertex), correfponding
to any inclination p of the tangent at its^extremity M,
we can afeertain the length of any portion of it, fuch
as Mot, by firll finding the length of the part Aot, and
then of the part AM. This we do more expeditioully
thus: Letp exprefs the pofition of the tangent in M, and
5
« + P *
ber of fmall portions, and the inclination of the tan¬
gents at their extremities. Then to each of thefe por¬
tions we can alfign its proportion of the abfeiffa and
ordinate, without having recourfe to the values of x and 3/.
For the portion of abfeifs correfponding to the arch Mw,
whofe middle point is inclined to the horizon in the
angle b, will be M ot X cofine b, and the correfponding
portion of the ordinate will be Mot X fin- b. 1 hen we
obtain the velocity in each part of the curve by the
equation X 1 -{-p1 j or> m°re dire&ly the velocity
nJrP  
/—+p‘
“u at M will be = >y/ a g
v/»+p'
Lallly, divide the
length of the little arch by this, and the quotient will be
the time of deferibing Mot very nearly. Add all thefe
together, and we obtain the whole time of deferibing
the arch AM, but a little too great, becaufe the mo¬
tion in the fmall arch is not perfeftly uniform. The
error, however, may be as fmall as we pleafe, becaufe
we may make the arch as fmall as vTe pleafe ; and for
greater accuracy, it will be proper to take the p by
which we compute the velocity, a medium betw'een
the p for the beginning and that for the end of the
arch. S4
This is the method followed by Euler, who was one Euler’s me
of the molt expert analyfls, if not the very firft, in Eu-^lod Pre*
rope. It is not the moil elegant, and the methods ofttire
fome other authors, who approximate diredlly to the areas
of the curves which determine the values of x and y, have
a more feientific appearance j but they are not ultimate¬
ly very different: For, in fome methods, thefe areas are
taken piecemeal, as Euler takes the arch 5 and by the
methods of others, who give the value of the areas by
Newton’s method of deferibing a curve of the parabolic
kind through any number of given points, the ordinates
of thefe curves, which exprefs x and y, muft be taken
fingly, which amounts to the fame thing, with the
great difadvantage of a much more complicated calcu¬
lus, as any one may fee by comparing the expreflions
ofw and y with the expreflion of z. As to thofe me¬
thods which approximate diredlly to the areas or va¬
lues of x and y by an infinite feries, they all, without
exception, involve us in moft complicated expreflions,
with coefficients of fines and tangents, and ambiguous
figns, and engage us in a calculation almoft endlefs.
And we know of no feries which converges fail enough
to give us tolerable accuracy, without fuch a number of
terms as is fufficient to deter any perfon from the at¬
tempt. The calculation of the arches is very mode¬
rate, fo that a perfon tolerably verfant in arithmetical
operations may compute an arch with its velocity and
time in about five minutes. We have therefore no he-
fitation in preferring this method of Euler’s to all that
we have feen, and therefore proceed to determine fome
other circumftances which render its application more
general. ^
85.
ts applica-
ion made
lore gene-
al.
Through
he whole
if this ar-
neans Ru¬
nt.
S<>
lode of
Paying
'is procefs
1 pradice.
PROJECTILES.
419
If there were no refinance, the fmalleft velocity would
be at the vertex of the curve, and it would immediately
increafe by the a6tion of gravity confpiring (in however
fmall degree) with the motion of the body. But in a
refilling medium, the velocity at the vertex isdiminifh-
ed by a quantity to which the acceleration of gravity
in that point bears no aflignable proportion. It is there¬
fore diminifhed, upon the whole, and the point of fmal-
lefl velocity is a little way beyond the vertex. For the
fame reafons, the greateft curvature is a little way be¬
yond the vertex. It is not very material for our pre-
fent purpofe to afcertain the exaft pofitions of thofe
points.
The velocity in the defcending branch augments con¬
tinually : but it cannot exceed a certain limit, if the ve¬
locity at the vertex has been lefs than the terminal velo¬
city \ for when the curve is infinite,/; is alfo infinite, and
h— --X5—, becaufe n in this cafe is nothing in refpeft of
P, which is infinite ; and becaufe p is infinite, the num¬
ber hyp. log. p'&'J\ +p% though infinite, vanifhes in
comparifon with /; X ^ 1 -\-pl j f° that in this cafe Pzr
4/;*, and h=.a, and v— the terminal velocity.
If, on the other hand, the velocity at the vertex has
been greater than the terminal velocity, it will diminifh
continually, and when the curve has become infinite, v
will be equal to the terminal velocity.
In either cafe- we fee that the curve on this fide will
have a perpendicular afiymotote. It would require a
long and pretty intricate analyfis to determine the place
of this affymptote, and it is not material for our prefent
purpofe. The place and pofition of the other affymp-
tote LO is of the greateft moment. It evidently di-
ftinguifhes the kind of trajeftory from any other. Its
pofition depends on this circumftance, that if p marks
the pofition of the tangent, n—P, which is the deno¬
minator of the fraftion exprefting the fquare of the ve¬
locity, muft be equal to nothing, becaufe the velocity
is infinite : therefore, in this place, P=r«, or « =
iP In order, therefore,
to find the. point L, where the aflymptote LO cuts the
horizontal line AL, put P—w, then will ALrz*—
1JX
y
It is evident that the logarithms ufed in thefe expref-
fions are the natural or hyperbolic. But the operations
may be performed by the common tables, by making
the value of the arch M m of the curve ^ X log.
--&c. where M means the fubtangent of the com-
«-f-P
mon logarithms, or 0,43429 ; alfo the time of deferi-
bing this arch will be expeditioufly had by taking a
1 , p ^1+P* j ^
medium u, between the values ot ———— and — , —,
v « -j- P
. AJ~a ”+0.
and making the time =r ^ j— X l°g-
M*v/
g
’'w-f P*
Such then is the procefs by which the form and mag¬
nitude of the trajectory, and the motion in it, may be
determined. But it does not yet appear how this is to
be applied to any queftion in practical artillery. In this
procefs we have only learned how to compute the mo¬
tion from the vertex in the defcending braucii till the
ball has acquired a particular direction, and the motion
to the vertex from a point of the afeending branch where
the ball has another direction, and all this depending on
the greatelt velocity which the body can acquire by fal¬
ling, and the velocity which it has in the vertex of the
curve. But the ufual queftion is, “ What will be the
motion of the ball projected in a certain direction with
a certain velocity ?”
The mode of application is this : Suppofe a trajecto¬
ry computed for a particular terminal velocity, produced
by the fall o, and for a particular velocity at the vertex,,
which will be charaCterifed by and that the velocity
at that point of the afeending branch where the incli¬
nation of the tangent is 30° is 900 feet per fecond.
Then, we are certain, that if a ball, whofe terminal ve¬
locity is that produced by the fall fl, be projected with
the velocity of 900 feet per fecond, and an elevation of
30°, it will deferibe this very trajeftory, and the velo¬
city and time correfponding to every point will be fuchu
as is here determined.
Now this trajeftory will, in refpeCt to form, anfvver
an infinity of cafes : for its charaCteriftic is the propor¬
tion of the velocity in the vertex to the terminal velo¬
city. When this proportion is the fame, the number n
will be the fame. If, therefore, we compute the tra¬
jectories for a fufficient variety of thefe proportions, we
(hall find a trajectory that will nearly correfpond to any
cafe that can be propofed \ and an approximation fuffi-
ciently exaCt will be had by taking a proportional me¬
dium between the two trajectories which come neareft
to the cafe propofed.
Accordingly, a fet of tables or trajectories have been Computed
computed by the Englilh tranflator of Euler’s Com-ta',les or.
mentary on Robins’s Gunnery. They are in number
18, diltinguiftied by the pofition of the aflymptote of the
afeending branch. This is given for 5®, io°, 150, &c.
to 85°, and the whole trajeCtory is computed as far as it
can ever be fuppofed to extend in praCtice. The follow¬
ing table gives the value of the number n correfponding
to each pofition of the alfymptote.
OLE
OLB
o
5
10
r5
20
25
3°
35
40
0,00000
0,08760
0,17724
0,27712
°,37i85
0,48269
0,60799
o,75382
0,929x4
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
M4779
1,43236
1,82207
2»39°33
3,29040
4,88425
8,22357
17,54793
67,12291
Since the path of a projeCtile is much lefs incurvated,
and more rapid in the afeending than in the defeending
branch, and the difference is fo much the more remark¬
able in great velocities it muft follow, that the range
on a horizontal or inclined plane depends moft on the
afeending branch : therefore the greateft range will not
be made with that elevation which bifeCls the angle of
pofition, but with a lower elevation 5 and the deviation
from the bifefting elevation will be greater as the initial
3 G 2 velocities
420
PROJECTILES.
velocities are greater. It Is very difficult to frame an
exa& rule for determining the elevation which gives the
greateft range. We have fubjoined a little table which
gives the proper elevation (nearly) correfponding to
the different initial velocities.
It was computed by the following approximation,
■which will be found the fame with the feries ufed by
Newton in his Approximation.
Let e be the angle of elevation, a the height
producing the terminal velocity, h the height produ¬
cing the initial velocity, and c the number whofe hy¬
perbolic logarithm is I (i. e. the number 2,718).
Then,
9=* X (tan. |j( CTSTT-I),
&c. Make y — v, and take the maximum by vary-
hyperbol. log.
ing e, we obtain Sin. 1 e-\-a e
2 h
(1 21
—  ), which gives us the angle e.
^ a fine e J
The numbers in the firft column, multiplied by^jm
terminal velocity of the projeftile, give us the initial
velocity ; and the numbers in the laft column, being
multiplied by the height producing the terminal veloci¬
ty, and by 2,3026, give us the greateft ranges. Ihe
middle column contains the elevation. I he table is not
computed with fcrupulous exaftnefs, the question not re¬
quiring it. It may, however, be depended on within
one part of 2000. . ^ .
To make ufe of this table, divide the initial velocity
by the terminal velocity a, and look for the quotient in
the firft column. Oppofite to this will be found the ele¬
vation giving the greateft range ; and the number in the
laft column being multiplied by 2,3026 Xa (tbe height
producing the terminal velocity) will give the range.
Table of Elevations giving the greatejl Range.
83
Advantage
to be de-
Initial vel.
Elevation.
Range.
2,3026 a
0,6909
0,7820
0,8645
i,38i7
*,S64l
1,7291
2,0726
2,3461
2,5936
2,7635
3,1281
3,4544
3»4581
3>9101
4,x452
4i3227
4,6921
4,8631
43-40'
43 -20
•50
.40
.20
.10
42
41
40
40
39
37
35
35
34
34
•50
.20
•5°
.40
.20
34 -20
33 -5°
33
33
31
31
•3°
•3°
•5°
•5°
o,i75x
0,2169
0,2548
0,4999
0,5789
0,6551
0,7877
0,8967
0,9752
1,0319
I»I411
1,2298
1,2277
L3371
I,39°I
1,4274
I,505°
I>5341
to ucuc- Such is the folution which the prefent ftate of our
rived from mathematical knowledge enables us to give of this cele-
the folution brated problem. It is exaft in its principle, and the ap-
tollT F plication .of it is by no means difficult, or even operofe.
4
But let us fee what advantage we are likely to derive
from it.
In the firft place, it is very limited in its applica¬
tion. There are few circumftances of general coinci¬
dence, and almoft every cafe requires an apropriated
calculus. Perhaps the only general rules are the two
following:
j. Balls of equal denfity, projefted with the fame
elevation, and with velocities which are as the fquare-
roots of their diameters, will defcribe fimilar curves.—
This is evident, becaufe, in this cafe, the refiftance will
be in the ratio of their quantities of motion. Therefore
all the homologous lines of the motion will be in the
proportion of the diameters.
2. If the initial velocities of balls proje&ed with the
fame elevation are in the inverfe fubduplicate ratio of
the whole refiftances, the ranges, and all the homo¬
logous lines of their track, will be inverfely as thofe re¬
fiftances.
Thefe theorems are of confiderable ufe : for by means
of a proper feries of experiments on one ball proje&ed
with different elevations and velocities, tables may be
conftrutted which will afcertain the motions of an infi¬
nity of others. . _
But when we take a retrofpe£live view of what we shown from
have done, and confider the conditions which were af- various con-
fumed in the folution of the problem, we fhall find that ^rations
much yet remains before it can be rendered of great very
pradtical ufe, or even fatisfy the curiofity of the man of
feience. The refiftance is all along fuppofed to be in
the duplicate ratio of the velocity; but even theory
points out many caufes of deviation from this law, fuch
as the preffure and condenfation of the air, in the cafe
of very fwift motions 5 and Mr Robins’s experiments are
fufficient to ftiow us that the deviations muft be ex¬
ceedingly great in fuch cafes. Mr Euler and all ffib-
fequent writers have allowed that it may be three times
greater, even in cafes which frequently occur and Eu¬
ler gives a rule for afeertaining with tolerable accuracy
what this increafe and the whole refifiance may amount
to. Let H be the height of a column of air whofe
weight is equivalent to the refiftance taken in the du¬
plicate ratio of the velocity. The whole refiftance will
H4
be expreffed by H-J- This number 28845 is the
height in feet of a column of air whofe weight balances
its elafticity. We (hall not at prefent call in queftion
his reafons for affigning this precife addition. They
are rather reafons of arithmetical conveniency than of
phyfical import. It is enough to obferve, that if this
meafure of the refiftance is introduced into the procefs
of invefligation, it is totally changed j and it is not too
much to fay, that with this complication it requires the
knowledge and addrefs of a Euler to make even a par¬
tial and very limited approximation to a. folution.—
Any law of the refiftance, therefore, which is more
complicated than what Bernoulli has affumed, namely,
that of a fimple power of the velocity, is abandoned by
all the mathematicians, as exceeding their abilities; and
they have attempted to avoid the error arifing from the
affumption of the duplicate ratio of the velocity, either
by fuppofing the refiftance throughout the whole tra-
jeftory to be greater than what it is in. general, or
they have divided the trajeftory into different por¬
tions, and affigned different refiftances to each, which
0 vary,
PROJECTILES.
42J
P
f'aufe of its
nutility.
Vary, through the whole of that portion, in the dupli¬
cate ratio of the velocities. By this kind of patch-
work they make up a trajectory and motion which cor-
refponds, in fome tolerable degree, with what ? With an
accurate theory ? No j but with a feries of experiments.
For, in the firft place, every theoretical computation
that we make, proceeds on a fuppofed initial velocity j
and this cannot be afcertained with any thing approach¬
ing to precifion, by any theory of the aftion of gun¬
powder that we are yet poffeffed of. In the next place,
our theories of the refilling power of the air are en¬
tirely eftablifhed on the experiments on the flights of
Ihot and Ihells, and are correCled and amended till they
tally with the moll approved experiments we can find.
We do not learn the ranges of a gun by theory, but the
theory by the range of the gun. Now the variety and
irregularity of all the experiments which are appealed to
are fo great, and the acknowledged difference between
the reliltance to flow and fwift motions is alfo fo great,
that there is hardly any fuppofition which can be made
concerning the refiftance, that will not agree in its re-
fults with many of thofe experiments. It appears from
the experiments of Dr Hutton of Woolwich, in 1784,
1785, and 1786, that the (hots frequently deviated to
the right or left of their intended track 200, 300, and
fometimes 400 yards. This deviation was quite acci¬
dental and anomalous, and there can be no doubt but
that the Ihot deviated from its intended and fuppofed
elevation as mueh as it deviated from the intended ver¬
tical plane, and this without any opportunity of mea-
furing or difcovering the deviation. Now, when we
have the whole range from one to three to choofe among
for our meafure of refillance, it is evident that the con¬
firmations which have been drawn from the ranges of
Ihot are but feeble arguments for the truth of any opi¬
nion. Mr Robins finds his meafures fully confirmed
by the experiments at Metz and at Minorca. Mr
Muller finds the fame. Yet Mr Robins’s meafure botl’
of the initial velocity aud of the refiftance are at leaft
treble of Mr Muller’s; but by compenfation they give
the fame refults. The Chevalier Borda, a very expert
mathematician, has adduced the very fame experiments
in fupport of his theory, in which he abides by the
Newtonian meafure of the refiftance, which is about \
of Mr Robins’s, and about -§■ of Muller’s.
What are we to conclude from all this ? Simply this,
that we have hardly any knowledge of the air’s refift¬
ance, and that even the folution given of this problem
has not as yet greatly increafed it. Our knowledge con-
fifts only in thofe experiments, and mathematicians are
attempting to patch up fome notion of the mntiop of a
body in a refilling medium, which fliall tally with them.
There is another effential defeat in the conditions af¬
firmed in the folution. The denfity of the air is fup¬
pofed uniform ; whereas we are certain that it is lefs
by one-fifth or one-fixth towards the vertex of the
curve, in many cafes which frequently occur, than it is
at the beginning and end of the flight. This is an¬
other latitude given to authors in their affumptions of
the air’s refiftance. The Chevalier de Borda has, with
confiderable ingenuity, accommodated his inveftigation
to this circumftance, by dividing the trajectory into
portions, and, without much trouble, has made one
equation anfwer them all. We are difpofed to think
that his folution of the problem (in the Memoirs of the.
Academy of Paris for 1769) correfponds better with
the phyfical circumftances of the cafe than any other.
But this procefs is there delivered in too concife a man¬
ner to be intelligible to a perfon not perfeftly familiar
with all the refources of modern analyfis. We there¬
fore preferred John Bernoulli’s, becaufe it is elementary
and rigorous. ^
After all, the praClical artillerift mull rely chiefly on Neceffity of
the records of experiments contained in the books of attending
praCtice at the academies, or thofe made in a more pub-t0 exPeri-
lic manner. Even a perfeCt theory of the air’s refill-ments‘
ance can do him little fervice, unlefs the force of gun¬
powder were uniform. This is far from being the cafe
even in the fame powder. A few hours of a damp day
will make a greater difference than occurs in any theory;
and, in fervice, it is only by trial that every thing is per¬
formed. If the firft (hell fall very much Ihort of the
mark, a little more powder is added ; and, in cannonad¬
ing, the correClion is made by varying the elevation.
We hope to be forgiven by the eminent mathemati¬
cians for thefe obfervations on their theories. They by
no means proceed from any difrefpeCl for their labours.
We are not ignorant of the almoft infuperable difficul¬
ty of the talk, and we admire the ingenuity with which
fome of them have contrived to introduce into their ana¬
lyfis reafonable fubftitutions for thofe terms which would
render the equations intraClable. But we mult Hill
fay, upon their own authority, that thefe are but inge¬
nious gueffes, and that experiment is the touchftone by
which they mould thefe lubftitutions ; and when they
have found a coincidence, they have no motive to make
any alteration. Now, when we have fuch a latitude for
our meafure of the air’s refiftance, that we may take it
of any value, from one to three, it is no wonder that
compenfations of errors ftiould produce a coincidence ;
but where is the coincidence ? The theorift fuppofes the
ball to fet out with a certain velocity, and his theory
gives a certain range ; and this range agrees with obfer-
vation—but how ? Who knows the velocity of the ball'
in the experiment ? This is concluded from a theory in¬
comparably more uncertain than that of the motion in a
refilling medium.
The experiments of Mr Robins and Dr Hutton fhow,
in the moll incontrovertible manner, that the refiftance
to a motion exceeding 1100 feet in a fecond, is almofl:
three times greater than in the duplicate ratio to the re¬
fiftance to moderate velocities. Euler’s tranllator, in
his companion of the author’s trajectories with experi¬
ment, fuppofes it to be no greater. Yet the coincidence
is very great. The fame may be faid of the Chevalier
de Borda’s. Nay, the fame may be faid of Mr Ro¬
bins’s own practical rules : for he makes his F, which
corrtfponds to our a, almoft double of what thefe au¬
thors do, and yet his rules are confirmed by praClice.
Our obfervations are therefore well founded.
But it mull not be inferred from all this, that the The theory
phyfical theory is of no ufe to the practical artillerift. is ftill of
It plainly Ihows him the impropriety of giving the pro-m
jeCtile an enormous velocity. This velocity is of no ef-pr ^ lce’
feCt after 200 or 300 yards at fartheft, becaufe it is fo
rapidly reduced by the prodigious refiftance of the air.
Mr Robins has deduced feveral praClical maxims of the
greateft importance from what we already know of this
fubjeCl, and which could hardly have been even conjec¬
tured without this knowledge. See Gunnery.
Audi
423
$3
;and may be
brought to
greater per,
fedtion.
PROJECTILE S.
94
Tables cal¬
culated on
the prece¬
ding prin¬
ciples.
And it mud dill be acknowledged, that this branch
of phyfical fcience is highly intereding to the philofo-
pher •, nor ihould we defpair of carrying it to a greater
perfe&ion. The defefts arife almod entirely from our
ignorance of the law of variation of the air’s reddance.
Experiments may be contrived much more conducive
to our information here than thofe commonly reforted
to. The oblique flights of projefliles are, as we have
feen, of very complicated invefligation, and ill fitted for
inflru&ing us *, but numerous and well contrived expe¬
riments on the perpendicular afcents are of great fim-
plicity, being affefled by nothing but the air’s refid*
ance. To make them inflru&ive, we think that the
following plan might be purfued. Let a fet of expe¬
riments be premifed for afcertaining the initial veloci¬
ties. Then let Ihells be difcharged perpendicularly
with great varieties of denfity and velocity, and let no¬
thing be attended to but the height and the time } even
a confiderable deviatien from the perpendicular will not
affeft either of thefe circumflances, and the effeft of
this eircumdance can eafily be computed. 1 he heiglit
can be afcertained with fufficient precifion for very va¬
luable information by their light or fmoke. It is evi¬
dent that thefe experiments will give clireffi informa¬
tion of the air’s retarding force ; and every experiment
gives us two meafures, viz. the afcent and defcent: and
the comparifon of the times of afcent and defcent, com¬
bined with the obferved height in one experiment made
with a great initial velocity, will give us more informa¬
tion concerning the air’s refidance than 50 ranges. If
we fhould fuppofe the refidance as the fquare of the ve¬
locity, this comparifon will give in each experiment an
exafi determination of the initial and final velocities,
whieh no other method can give us. T hefe, with ex¬
periments on the time of horizontal flights, with known
initial velocities, will give us more indruftion on this
head than any thing that has yet been done \ and till
fomething of this kind is carefully done, we prefume
to fay that the motion of bodies in a refiding. medium
will remain in the hands of the mathematicians as a
matter of curious fpeculation. In the mean time, the
rules which Mr Robins has delivered in his Gunnery
are very firaple and eafy in their ufe, and feem to come
as near the truth as any we have met with. He has
not informed us upon what principles they are founded,
and we are difpofed to think that they are rather em¬
pirical than fcientific. But we profefs great deference
for his abilities and penetration, and doubt not but that
he had framed them by means of as fcientific a difcuf-
fion as his knowledge of this new and difficult fubjeft
enabled him to give it.
We ffiall conclude this article, by giving two or three
tables, computed from the principles eflablithed. above,
and which ferve to bring into one point of view the
chief circumflances of the motion in a refifling medium.
Although the refult of much calculation, as any perfon
who confiders the fubjeft will readily fee, they mud not
be confidered as offering any very accurate refults ; or
that, in comparifon with one or two experiments, the
differences fliall not be confiderable. Let any perfon
perufe the publiflied regifiers of experiments which have
been made with every attention, and he will fee fuch
enormous irregularities, that all expectations of perfedt
agreement with them mud ceafe. In the experiments
at Woolwich in 1735, Avhich were continued for feve-
ral days, not only do the experiments of one day differ
among themfelves, but the mean of all the experiments
of one day differs from the mean of all the experiments
of another no lefs than one-fourth of the whole. The
experiments in which the greated regularity may be
expeCted, are thofe made with great elevations. When
the elevation is fmall, the range is more affeCted by a
change of velocity, and dill more by any deviation from
the fuppofed or intended direction of the (hot.
The firfl table fliows the diflance in yards to which
a ball projected with the velocity 1600 will go, while
its velocity is reduced one-tenth, and the diflance at
which it drops 16 feet from the line of its direction.
This table is calculated by the refidance obferved in Mr
Robins’s experiments. The firfl column is the weight
of the ball in pounds. The fecond column remains the
fame whatever be the initial velocity ; but the third co¬
lumn depends on the velocity. It is here given for the
velocity which is very ufual in military fervice, and its
ufe is to affifl us in directing the gun to the mark.—
If the mark at which a ball of 24 pounds is direCted is
474 yards diflant, the axis of the piece mud be pointed
16 feet higher than the mark. Thefe defleCtions from
the line of direction are nearly as the fquares of the di-
flances.
I. II. III.
2
4
9
18
32
92
121
I59
2CO
272
420
428
456
470
479
The next table contains the ranges in yards of a 2
pound (hot, projected at an elevation of 450, with the
different velocities in feet per fecond, expreffed in the
firff column. The fecond column contains the diflances
to which the ball would go in vacuo in a horizontal
plane •, and the third contains the didances to which it
will go through the air. The fourth column is added,
to {how the height to which it rifes in the air; and the
fifth fliows the ranges correCled for the diminution of the
air’s denfity as the bullet afcends, and may therefore be
called the corrcBed range.
The
423
P R O J E
95 The initial velocities can never be pulhed as far as
pis ot the we liaVe calculated for in this table ; but we mean it
ill table. £or a ta{jle 0f more extenfive ufe than appears at firft
light. Recolleft, that while the proportion of the ve¬
locity at the vertex to the terminal velocity remains the
fame, the curves will be fimilar : therefore, if the initial
velocities are as the fquare-roots of the diameters of the
balls, they will defcribe fnnilar curves, and the ranges
will be as the diameters of the balls.
Therefore, to have the range of a 12 pound {hot, if
proje&ed at an elevation of 45, with the velocity 1500 j
fuppofe the diameter of the 12 pounder to be d, and
that of the 24 pounder D ; and let the velocities be v
and V : Then fay, tjd : D rr 1500, to a fourth
proportional V. If the 24 pounder be projected with
the velocity V, it will defcribe a curve fimilar to that
defcribed by the 12 pounder, having the initial velocity
1500. Therefore find (by interpolation) the range of
the 24 pounder, having the initial velocity V. Call this
R. Then D : </:=:R : r, the range of the 12 pounder
which was wanted, and which is nearly 3380 yards.
We fee by this table the immenfe difference between
the motions through the air and in a void. We fee
that the ranges through the air, inftead of increafing in
the duplicate ratio of the initial velocities, really in-
creafe flower than thofe velocities in all cafes of mili¬
tary fervice \ and in the tnofl: ufual cafes, viz. from 800
to 1600, they increafe nearly as the fquare-roots of the
velocities.
A fet of fimilar tables, made for different elevations,
would almoff complete what can be done by theory,
and would be much more expeditious in their ufe than
Mr Euler’s Trajectories, computed with great labour
by his Englifh tranflator.
The fame table may alfo ferve for computing the
ranges of bomb-fhells. We have only to find what muft
be the initial velocity of the 24 pound fhot which cor-
refponds to the propofed velocity of the fhell. This
muft be deduced from the diameter and weight of the
fhell, by making the velocity of the 24 pounder fuch,
that the ratio of its weight to the refiftance may be the
fame as in the fhell.
C T I L E S.
That the reader may fee with one glance the rela¬
tion of thofe different quantities, we have given this
table, expreffed in a figure (fig. 10.). The abfciffa, Fig. I0.
or axis DA, is the fcale of the initial velocities in feet 96
per fecond, meafured in a fcale of 400 equal parts in
an inch. The ordinates to the curve ACG exprefs thet ie, 1 e"
. - . . . r r , . rent quan-
yards 01 the range on a Icale containing 000 yards inties in it
an inch. The ordinates to the curve A x.y exprefs (by
the fame fcale) the height to which the ball rifesin the
air.
The ordinate BC (drawn through the point of the
abfciffa which correfponds to the initial velocity 2000)
is divided in the points 4, 9, 12, 18, 24, 32, 42, in the
ratio of the diameters of cannon-fliot of different weights;
and the fame ordinate is produced on the other fide of
the axis, till BO be equal to BA ; and then BO is
divided in the fubduplicate ratio of the fame diameters.
Lines are drawn from the point A, and from any point
D of the abfciffa, to thefe divifions.
We fee diftinftly by this figure how the effefl of the
initial velocity gradually diminiflies, and that in very
great velocities the range is very little increafed by its
augmentation. The dotted curve APQR, fhows what
the ranges in vacuo w7ould be.
By this figure may the problems be folved. Thus,,
to find the range of the 12 pounder, with the initial
velocity 1500. Set off 1500 from B to F ; draw FH
parallel to the axis, meeting the line 12A in H; draw
the ordinate HK ; draw KL parallel to the axis, meet¬
ing 24 B in L ; draw the ordinate LM, cutting 12 B
in N. MN is the range required.
If curves, fuch as ACG, were laid down in the fame
manner for other elevations, all the problems might be
folved with great difpatch, and with much more accu¬
racy than the theory by which the curves arc drawn
can pretend to.
Note, that fig. 10. as given on Plate CCCCXLII. is
one-half lefis than the fcale according to which it is
defcribed ; but the pr attic a l mathematician will find no
difficulty in drawing the figure on the enlarged fcale to
correfipond to the defcrip lion.
PROJECTION OF THE SPEIERE.
tereogra- 'T’HE PROJECTION of the SPHERE is a perfpe&ive
jeaiotTV rel,refentati‘)n the circles on the furface of the
!e Sphere. %^>ere j anA is varioufly denominated according to the
,i different pofitions of the eye and plane of projeftion.
There are three principal kinds of projection ; the
Jlereographic, the orthographic, and gnomic. In the
ftereographic projection the eye is fuppofed to be placed
on the furface of the fphere ; in the orthographic it is
fuppofed to be at an infinite diftance ; and in the gno¬
mic projection the eye is placed at the centre of the
fphere. Other kinds of projection are, the globular,
Mercator1 s, ficenographic, &c. for which fee the articles
Geography, Navigation, Perspective, &c.
Definitions.
1. The plane upon which the circles of the fphere
are defcribed, is called the plane of projection, or the
primitive circle. The pole of this circle is the pole Stereogra.
of projettion, and the place of the eye is the projecting
P0lnt’^ r • i r i r 1 • the Sphere.
2. The line of meajures ot any circle 01 the iphere is ■ -- j— , -
that diameter of the primitive, produced indefinitely,
which paffes through the centre of the projected circle.
Axiom.
The projection, or reprefentation of any point, is
where the ftraight line drawn from it to the pro¬
jecting point interfeCts the plane of projection.
SECTION I.
Of the Stereographic Projection of the Sphere.
In the ftereographic projection of the fphere, the
eye '
4M
Stereogra- pyg Js placed on the furface of the fphere in the pole of
phic Fro- t^e at c5rcie upon which the fphere is to be projefl-
j eft ion of The proje<c|ion of the hemifphere oppofite to the
ue piere. ^ within the primitive, to which the proje&ion
is generally limited*, it, however, may be extended to
the other hemifphere, or that wherein the eye is placed,
the projection of which falls without the primitive.
As all circles in this projection are projected either
into circles or ftraight lines, which are eafily defcribed,
it is therefore more generally underltood, and by many
preferred to the other projections.
Fig.
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every great circle which palfes through the projecting
point is projected into a ttraight line palling through
the centre of the primitive*, and every arch of it,
reckoned from the other pole of the primitive, is pre
jcCled into its femitangent.
ccccxliii. Let ABCD (fig. i.) be a great circle palling through
fig. i. AC the poles of the primitive, and interacting it in
the line of common feCtion BED, E being the centre
of the fphere. From A, the projefting point, let there
be drawn ftraight lines AP, AM, AN, A&, to any
number of points P, M, N, Q, in the circle ABCD:
thefe lines will interfeCt BED, which is m the lame
nlane with them. Let them meet it in the points/>, m,
i, q ; then p, tn, «, are the projeftions of P, M, N,
Q - hence the whole circle ABCD is projeded into the
ftraight line BED, palling through the centre of the
^ Again, becaufe the pole C is projected into E, and
the point M into m; therefore the arch CM is projed-
ed inte the ftraight line E m, which is the femitan¬
gent of the arch CM to the radius AE. In like man¬
ner, the arch CP is projeded into its femitangent, E
yi, &c.
Corollaries.
1. Each of the quadrants contiguous to the projed-
ing point is projeded into an indefinite ftraight line,
imd each of thofe that are remote into a radius of the
^^Every fmall circle which paflfes through the pro-
jeding point is projeded into that ftraight line which is
its common fedion with the primitive. _ # .
2. Every ftraight line in the plane of the primitive,
and produced indefinitely, is the projedion of fome
circle on the fphere palling through the projeding
^°4 The projedion of any point in the furface of the
fphere, is diftant from the centre of the primitive, by
the femitangent of the diftance of that point from the
pole oppofite to the projeding point.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. Sed. I.
But if the circle MN (fig. 2.) be not parallel to the Stereogra-
primitive circle BD, let the great circle ABCD, paf-
iing through the projeding point, cut it at right angles ^ sphere,
in the diameter MN, and the primitive in the diameter .
BD. Through M, in the plane of the great circle, let
MF be drawn parallel to BD} let AM, AN be joined,
and meet BD in tn, n. Then, becaufe AB, AD are
quadrants, and BD, MF parallel, the arch AM is equal
to AF, and the angle AMF m Kmn is equal to ANM.
Hence the conic furface defcribed by the revolution of
AM about the circje MN is cut by the primitive in a
fubcontrary pofition j therefore the fedion is in this cafe
likewife a circle.
Proposition II. Theorem II.
Every circle on the fphere which does not pafs through
^ the projeding point is projeded into a circle.
If the given circle be parallel to the primitive, then
a ftraight line drawn from the projeding point to any
point in the circumference, and made to revolve
the circle, will deferibe the furface of a cone; which
being cut by the plane of projedion parallel to the bale,
the fedion will be a circle. See CONIC-Setitons.
Corollaries.
1. The centres and poles of all circles parallel to the
primitive have their projedion in its centre.
2. The centre and poles of every circle inclined to
the primitive have their projections in the line of mea-
fures.
3. All projeded great circles cut the primitive in
two points diametrically oppolite} and every circle in
the plane of projedion, which palfes through the extre¬
mities of a diameter of the primitive, or through the
projedions of two points that are diametrically oppo¬
fite on the fphere, is the projedion of fome great
circle.
4. A tangent to any circle of the fphere, which does
not pafs through the projeding point, is projeded into
a tangent to that circle’s projedion \ alfo, the circular
projedions of tangent circles touch one another.
5. The extremities of the diameter, on the line of
meafures of any projeded circle, are diftant from the
centre of the primitive by the femitangents of the leaft;
and greateft diftances of the circle on the fphere, from
the pole oppofite to the projeding point.
6. The extremities of the diameter, on the line of
meafures of any projeded great circle, are diftant from
the centre of the primitive by the tangent and cotan¬
gent of half the great circle’s inclination to the primi-
tlV7. The radius of any projeded circle is equal to half
the fum, or half the difference of the femitangents of
the leaft and greateft diftances of the circle from the
pole oppofite to the projeding point, according as that
pole is within or without the given circle.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
An angle formed by two tangents at the fame point
in the furface of the fphere, is equal to the angle
formed by their projedions.
Det FGI and GH (fig. 3.) be the two tangents, Fig. 3,
and A the projeding point*, let the plane AGF cut
the fphere in the circle AGL, and the primitive in the
line BML. Alfo, let MN be the line of common fec-
tion of the plane AGH with the primitive: then the
angle FGHrrLMN. If the plane FGH be parallel
to the primitive BLD, the propofition is manifeft. If
not, through any point K in AG produced, let the
plane FKH, parallel to the primitive, be extended to
meet FGH in the line FH. Then, becaufe the plane
AGF meets the two parallel planes BLD, FKH, the
lines of common fedion LM, FK are parallel; there-
I Ml. I.
■ Itereogra- for the angle. AML=AKF. But fince A is the pole
:phkPr°- 0f BLD, the chords, and confequently the arches AB
I)iie'sphere. are e<lual» and tlie arch ABG is the fum of the
^ ■ arches AL, BG 5 hence the angle AML is equal to an
angle at the circumference Handing upon AG, and
therefore equal to AG1 or FGK ; confequently the
angle FGK—FKG, and the fide FG=FK. In like
manner HGrrHK : hence the triangles GHF, KHF
are equal, and the angle FGH=FKH=r LMN.
42s
= 2NHG=NCG: hence ENC=INE + 1NC=NCG Stereogca.
-f-INC—a right angle 5 and therefore NC is a tan- I»hic Pro-
gent to the primitive at N ; but the arch ND is the sphere
diftance of the lei's circle from its neareft pole D : > ^ •
hence NC is the tangent, and EC the fecant of the
diftance of the lefs circle from its pole to the radius of
the primitive.
Proposition VI. Theorem VI.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
Corollaries.
1. An angle contained by any two circles of the
fphere is equal to the angle formed by their projec¬
tions. For the tangents to thefe circles on the fphere
are proje&ed into ftraight lines, which either coincide
with, or are tangents to, their projc&ions on the primi¬
tive.
2. An angle contained by any two circles of the
fphere is equal to the angle formed by the radii of their
projedlions at the point of interfe&ion.
Proposition IV. Theorem IV.
The centre of a proje£ted great circle is diftant from
the centre of the primitive *, the tangent of the incli¬
nation of the great circle to the primitive, and its ra¬
dius, is the fecant of its inclination.
Let MNG (fig. 4.) be the projection of a great
circle, meeting the primitive in the extremities of the
diameter MN, and let the diameter BD, perpendicular
to MN, meet the projeftion in F, G. Bife£l FG in
H, and join NH. Then, becaufe any angle contained
by two circles of the fphere is equal to the angle formed
by the radii of their proje£Hons at the point of interfec-
tion j therefore the angle contained by the propofed
great circle and the primitive is equal to the angle
ENH, of which EH is the tangent, and NH the fe¬
cant, to the radius of the primitive.
Corollaries.
1. All circles which pafs through the points M, N,
are the proje&ions of great circles, and have their cen¬
tres in the line BG j and all circles which pafs through
the points F, G, are the projections of great circles,
and have their centres in the line HI, perpendicular to
BG.
2. If NF, NH be continued to meet the primitive in
L, F *, then BL is the meafure of the great circle’s in¬
clination to the primitive j and MT=z2BL.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
The centre of projection of a lefs circle perpendicular to
the primitive, is diftant from the centre of the primi¬
tive, the fecant of the diftance of the lefs circle from
its neareft pole j and the radius of projection is the
tangent of that diftance.
Let MN (fig. 5.) be the given lefs circle perpendi¬
cular to the primitive, and A the projecting point.
Draw AM, AN to meet the diameter BD produced
in G and H ; then GH is the projected diameter of
the lefs circle : bifeCt GH in C, and C will be its
centre ; join NE, NC. Then becaufe AE, NI are
parallel, the angle INErrNEA j but NEAcrzNMA
Vol. XVII. Part II.
The projection of the poles of any circle, inclined to tire
primitive, are, in the line of meafures, diftant from
the centre of the primitive, the tangent, and cotan¬
gent, of half its inclination.
Let MN (fig. 6.) be a great circle perpendicular to p,-- ^
the primitive ABCD, and A the projecting point j then
P, p are the poles of MN, and of all its parallels mr),
&.c. Let AP, A p meet the diameter BD in FA
which will therefore be the projected poles of MN and
its parallels. The angle BEM is the inclination of the
circle MEN, and its parallels, to the primitive: and
becaufe BC and MP are quadrants, and MC common
to both j therefore PCzrBM : and hence PEC is alfo
the inclination of MN and its parallels. Now EF is
the tangent of EAF, or of half the angle PEC the in¬
clination j and EyA the tangent of the angle EA/V
but EA/L the complement of EAF, hence E/A the
cotangent of half the inclination.
Corollaries.
1. The projeClion of that pole which is neareft: to the
projecting point is without the primitive, and the pro¬
jection of the other within.
2. The projected centre of any circle is always be¬
tween the projection of its neareft pole and the centre of
the primitive ; and the projected centres of all circles
are contained between their .projected poles.
Proposition VII. Theorem VII.
Equal arches of any two great circles of the fphere
will be intercepted between two other circles drawn
on the fphere through the remote poles of thofe great
circles.
Let AGB, CFD (fig. 7.) be two great circles of the Fig. >
fphere, whofe remote poles are E, P 5 through which
draw the great circle PBEC, and lefs circle PGE, in-
terfeCting the great circles AGB, CFD, in the points
B, G, and D, F j then the arch BG is equal to the
arch DF.
Becaufe E is the pole of the circle AGB, and P the
pole of CFD, therefore the arches EB, PD are equal j
and fince BD is common to both, Lence the arch ED
is equal to the arch PB. For the fame reafon, the
arches EF, PG are equal; but the angle DEF is
equal to the angle BPG : hence thefe triangles are
equal, and therefore the arch DF is equal to the arch
BG.'
Proposition VIII. Theorem VIII.
If from either pole of a projected great circle, two ftraight
lines be drawn to meet the primitive and the pro-
jeflion, they will intercept fimilar arches of thefe
-circles.
3 H On
426
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
Stereogra- On the plane of pro] eft ion AGB (Eg. 7.) let the
''e^ionof Sreat circle CFD be projected into cfd, and its pole P
the Sphere. into P> jo draw the ftraight lines o then
1 - t ■ are the arches GB,y d fimilar.
Since pd lies both in the plane AGB and APBF.,
it is in their common feet ion, and the point B is alio
in their common fection } therefote p d pafies through
the point B. In like manner it may be drown that
the line pf paffes through G. Now the points D, F
are projected into d,f: hence the arches YT),f d are
limilar; but GB is equal to FD, therefore the inter¬
cepted arch of the primitive GB is fimilar to the pro¬
jected arch f d.
Corollary.
Hence, if from the angular point of a projected fphe-
rical angle two ftraight lines be drawn through the
projedted poles of the containing fides, the intercepted
arch of the primitive will be the meafure of the fpheri-
cal angle.
Proposition IX. Problem L.
To deferibe the ^rojedtion of a great circle through two
given points in the plane of the primitive.
Let P and B be given points, and C the centre of
the primitive.
Fig. S. 1. When one point P (fig. 8.) is the centre of the
primitive, a diameter drawn through the given points
will be the great circle required.
Fig. 9. 2. When one point P (fig. 9.) is in the circumfe¬
rence of the primitive. Through P draw the diameter
PD 5 and an oblique circle deferibed through the three
points P, B, D, will be the projefHon of the required
great circle.
3. When the given points are neither in the centre
nor circumference of the primitive. Through either of
Fig. 10. the given points P (fig. 10.) draw the diameter ED,
and at right angles thereto draw the diameter FG.
From F through P draw the ftraight line FPH, meet¬
ing the circumference in H : draw the diameter HI,
and draw the ftraight line FIK, meeting ED produced
in K *, then an arch, terminated by the circumference,
being deferibed through the three points, P, B, K, will
be the great circle.
Proposition X. Problem II.
To deferibe the reprefentation of a great circle about
any given point as a pole.
Let P be the given pole, and C the centre of the pri¬
mitive.
1. When P (fig. 8.) is in the centre of the primitive^
then the primitive will be the great circle required.
Fig. n. 2. When the pole P (fig. II.) is in the circumfe¬
rence of the primitive. Through P draw the diameter
PE, and the diameter AB drawn at right angles to PE
will he the projected great circle required.
3. When the given pole is neither in the centre nor
circumference of the primitive. 1 hrough the pole P
Plate (fig. 1 2.) draw the diameter AB, and draw the diame-
ctccxi.iv. ter DE perpendicular to AB ; through E and P draw
the ftraight line EPF, meeting the circumference in F.
Make FG equal to FD 5 through E and G draw the
Sed. I,
ftraight line EGH, meeting the diameter AB produ- Stereogra.
ced if neceflary in H ; then from the centre H, with F1IC. 1'ro-
the radius HE. deferibe the oblique circle DIE, and it 01
will be-the projection 01 Use great circle required. ■ ( , _
Or, make DK equal to FA ; join EK, which inter-
feifts the diameter AB in I ; then through the three
points, D, I, E, deferibe the oblique circle DIE.
Proposition XL Problem III.
To find the poles of a great circle.
1. When the given great circle is the primitive, its
centre is the pole..
2. To find the pole of the right circle ACB(fig. 11.),
Draw the diameter PE perpendicular to the given circle
AB ; and its extremities P, E are the poles of the circle.
ACB.
3. To find the pole of the oblique circle DEE (fig. Flo. n,
13.). Join DF, and perpendicular thereto draw the
diameter AB, cutting the given oblique circle DEF
in E. Draw the ftraight line FEG, meeting the cir¬
cumference in G. Make Gl, GH, each equal to AD y
then FI being joined, cuts the diameter AB in P, the
lower pole j through F and H draw the ftraight line
FH p, meeting the diameter AB produced in yi, which
will be the oppofite or exterior pole.
Proposition XII. Problem IV.
To deferibe a lefs circle about any given point as a pole*
and at any given diftance from that pole.
1. When the pole of the lefs circle is in the centre
of the primitive ; then from the centre of the primitive,
with the femitangent of the diftance of the given circle
from its pole, delcribe a circle, and it will be the pro¬
jection of the lefs circle required.
2. If the given pole is in the circumference of the
primitive, from C (fig. 14.), the centre of the primitive, Fig. 14.
fet off CE the fccant of the diftance of the lefs circle
from its pole P y then from the centre E, with the tan¬
gent of the given diftance, deferibe a circle, and it will
be the lefs circle required. Or, make PG, PF each
equal to the chord of the diftance of the lefs circle from
its pole. Through B, G, draw the ftraight line BGD
meeting CP produced in D : bifeft GD in H, and
draw HE perpendicular to GD, and meeting PD in
E$ then E is the centre of the lefs circle.
3. When the given pole is neither in the centre nor
circumference of the primitive. Through P (fig. 15.), Fig. 15-
the given pole, and C the centre of the primitive, draw
the diameter AB, and draw the diameter DE perpen¬
dicular to ABq join EP, and produce it to meet the
primitive inp; makeyi F,jo G, each equal to the chord
of the diftance of the lefs circle from its pole * join EF
which interfefls the diameter ABinH; from E through
G draw the ftraight line EGI, meeting the diameter
AB produced in I* bifeft HI in K : Then a circle de¬
feribed from the centre K, at the diftance KH or KI,
will be the projpdtion of the lefs circle.
Proposition XIII. Problem V.
To find the poles of a given lefs circle.
The poles of a lefs circle are alfo thofe of its parallel
* great
i
51. L
see
Stereogra¬
phic Pro-
jeiflion ot
he Sphere.
'*«• 15-
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
427
great circle. If therefore the parallel great circle be
given, then its poles being found by Prob. III. will be
thofe of the lefs circle. Bat if the parallel great circle
be not given, let HMIN (fig. 15.) be the given lefs
circle. Through its centre, and C the centre of the pri¬
mitive, draw the line of meafures IAHB j and draw the
diameter DE perpendicular to it, alio draw the ftraight
line EHF meeting the primitive in Fj make F/J equal
to the chord of the diifance of the lefs circle from its
pole: join Eand its interfe£fion P with the diame¬
ter AB is the interior pole. Draw the diameter y? CL
through E and L, draw ELy meeting the diameter AB
produced in q ; then q is the external pole. Or thus :
join El interfering the primitive in G join alfo
EH, and produce it to meet the primitive in F; bifedl
the arch GH in p ; from E to draw the ftraight line
EPy>, and P is the pole of the given lefs circle.
Proposition XIV. Problem VI.
To meafure any arch of a great circle.
1. Arches of the primitive are meafured on the line
of chords.
2. Right circles are meafured on the line of femi-
tangents. beginning at the centre of the primitive. Thus,
"ig. i(J. the meafure of the portion AC (fig. 16.) of the right
circle DE, is found by applying it to the line of femL
tangents. The meafure of the arch DB is found by
fubtraSing that of BC from 90° : the meafure of the
arch AF, lying partly on each fide of the centre, is ob¬
tained by adding the meafures of AC and CF. Laftly,
To meafure the part AB, which is neither terminated at
the centre or circumference of the primitive, apply C A
to the line of femitangents-, then CB, and the difference
between the meafures of thefe arches, will be that of
AB. ‘
Or thus : Draw the diameter GH perpendicular to
DE then from either extremity, as D, of this diame¬
ter, draw lines through the extremities />f the arch in¬
tended to be meafured ; and the intercepted portion of
the primitive applied to the line of chords will give the
meafure of the required arch. Thus IK applied to the
line cf chords will give the meafure of AB.
3. To meafure an arch of an oblique circle : draw
lines from its pole through the extremities of the arch
to meet the primitive, then the intercepted portion of
the primitive applied to the line of chords will give the
meafure of the arch of the oblique circle. 1 hus, let
Fig. 17. AB (fig. 17.), be an arch of an oblique circle to be
meafured, and P its pole from P draw the lines PAD,
PBE meeting the primitive in B and Ej then the arch
DE applied to the line of chords will give the meafure
of the arch of the oblique circle AB.
Broposition XV. Problem VII.
To meafure any arch of a lefs circle.
Pig, js. Let DEG (fig. 18.) be the given lefs circle, and
DE the arch to be meafured : find its internal pole P 7
and defcribe the circle AFI parallel to the primitive,
and whofe diftance from the proje&ing point may be
equal to the diftance of the given lefs circle from its
pole P : then join PD, PE, which produce to meet
the parallel circle in A and F. Now AF applied to a
line of chords will give the meafure of the arch DE of Stereogra-
the given lefs circle. o'f
tlie Sphere-
Proposition XVI. Problem VIII. v—v-—^
To meafure any fpherical angle.
1. If the angle is at the centre of the primitive, it is
meafured as a plane angle.
2. When the angular point is in the circumference of
the primitive j let A (fig. 19.) be the angular point, Fig. 19,
and ABE an oblique circle inclined to the primitive.
Through P, the pole of ABE, draw the line APja meet¬
ing the circumference iny> : then the arch Ey> is the
meafure of the angle BAD, and the arch AFy; is the
meafure of its fupplement BAF : alfo p F is the mea¬
fure of the angle BAG, and 7? ED that of its fupple¬
ment.
3. If the angular point is neither at the centre nor
circumference of the primitive. Let A (fig. 20.) be Fig. 20.
the angular point, and DAH, or GAF, the angle to
be meafured, P the pole of the oblique circle DAF,
and p the pole of GAH : then from A, through the
points Pj9, draw the ftraight lines APM, A/>N, and
the arch MN will be the meafure of the angle DAH j
and the fupplement of MN will be the meafure of the
angle HAF or DAG.
Proposition XVII. Problem IX.
To draw a great circle perpendicular to a projedled
great circle, and through a point given in it.
Find the pole of the given circle, then a great circle
defcribed through that pole and the given point will be
perpendicular to the given circle. Hence if the given
circle be the primitive, then a diameter drawn through
the given point Will be the required perpendicular. If
the given circle is a right one, draw a diameter at right
angles to it; then though the extremities of this dia¬
meter and the given point defcribe an oblique circle,
and it will be perpendicular to that given. If the given
circle is inclined to the primitive, let it be reprefented
by BAD (fig. 21.), whofe pole is P, and let A be the Fig. 2 ij
point through which the perpendicular is to be drawn :
then, by Prob. I. defcribe a great fc.ircle through the
points P and A, and it will be perpendicular to the ob¬
lique circle BAD.
Proposition XVIII. Problem X.
Through a point in a proje&ed great circle, to defcribe.
another great circle to make a given angle with the
former, provided the meafure of the given angle is
not lefs than the diftance between the given point and
circle.
Let the given circle be the primitive, and let A (fig.
19.) be the angular point. Draw- the diameters AE, DF
perpendicular to each other j and make the angle C AG
equal to that given, or make CG equal to the tangent
of the given angle j then from the centre G, with the
diftance GC, defcribe the oblique circle ABE, and it
will make with the primitive an angle equal to that
given.
If the given circle be a right one, let it be APB (fig. Fig. aa,
22 ) and let P be the given point. Draw the diameter
3 H 2 • GH
428
Stereogra- GH perpendicular to AB j join GP, and produce it to
.!>h!5.Pro- a ; make H b equal to twice A a: and G b being joined
the Sphere. ^nter^e<^s Draw CD perpendicular to AB,
v.—.y—,and equal to the cotangent of the given angle to the
radius PC ; or make the angle CPD equal to the com¬
plement of that given : then from the centre D, with
the radius DP, defcribe the great circle FPE, and the
angle APF, or BPE, will be equal to that given.
Fig. 23. If APB (fig. 23.) is an oblique circle. From the
angular point P, draw the lines PG, PC through the
centres of the primitive and given oblique circle.
Through C, the centre of APB, draw GCD at right
angles to PG 5 make the angle GPD equal to that
given ; and from the centre D, with the radius DP,
defcribe the oblique circle FPE, and the angle APF,
or BPE, will be equal to that propofed.
Proposition. XIX. Problem XL
Any great circle cutting the primitive being given, to
defcribe another great circle which {hall cut the
given one in a propofed angle, and have a given arch
intercepted between the primitive and given circles.
Plate If the given circle be a right one, let it be reprefent-
CCCCXLV ed by APC (fig. 24.) ; and at right angl es thereto draw
%• 24- the diameter BPM 5 make the angle BPF equal to the
complement of the given angle, and PF equal to the
tangent of the given arch j and from the centre of the
primitive with the fecant of the fame arch defcribe the
arch Gg. Through F drawr FG parallel to AC, meet¬
ing G ^ in G 5 then from the centre G, with the
tangent PF, deferibe an arch n 0, cutting APC in I,
and join GI. Through G, and the centre P, draw the
diameter HK 5 draw PL perpendicular to HK, and
IL perpendicular to GI, meeting PL in L *, then L
■will be the centre of the circle HIK, which is that re¬
quired.
But if the given great circle be inclined to the pri-
Tig- »5- mitive, let it be ADB (fig. 25.), and E its centre :
make the angle BDF equal to the complement of that
given, and DF equal to the tangent of the given arch,
as before. From P, the centre of the primitive, with
the fecant of the fame arch, defcribe the arch G^, and
from E, the centre of the oblique circle, with the ex¬
tent EF, defcribe an arch interfering G^ in G. Now
G being determined, the remaining part of the opera¬
tion is performed as before.
When the given arch exceeds 90°, the tangent and
fecant of its fupplement are to be applied on the line
DF the contrary way, or towards the right; the former
conftrudHon being reckoned to the left.
Proposition, XX. Problem XII.
Any great circle in the plane of projeflion being given,
to defcribe another great circle, which {hall make gi¬
ven angles with the primitive and given circles.
Fig. 26. Let ADC (fig. 26.) be the given circle, and £) its
pole. About P the pole of the primitive, deferibe an
arch m n, at the diftance of as many degrees as are in the
angle which the required circle is to make with the pri¬
mitive. About Q the pole of the circle ADC, and
at a diftance equal to the meafure of the angle w'hich
the required circle is to make w'ith the given circle
ADC, defcribe an arch 0//, cutting « in n. Then
Sea. II.
about « as a pole, defcribe the great circle EDF, cut- Stereogra¬
ting the primitive and given circle in E and D, and it Phiu. ^r«-
will be the great circle required. jwftionof
° 1 the Sphere.
Scholium.
It will hence be an eafy matter to conftrudl all the
various fpherical triangles. The reader is, however,
referred to the article Spherical TRIGONOMETRY, for
the method of conftrudling them agreeably to this pro-
jeflion y and alfo for the application to the refolution of
problems of the fphere. For the method of projecting
the fphere upon the plane of the meridian, and of the
horizon, according to the ftereographic projection, fee
the article Geography.
SECTION IL
Of the Orthographic ProjeElion of the Sphere.
The orthographic projedtion of the fphere, is that in
which the eye is placed in the axis of the plane of pro-
jedtion, at an infinite diftance with refpedl to the dia¬
meter of the fphere j fo that at the fphere all the vifual
rays are aflumed parallel, and therefore perpendicular to
the plane of projedtion.
Hence the orthographic projedtion of any point is
where a perpendicular from that point meets the plane
of projedlion ; and the orthographic reprefentation of
any objedt is the figurd formed by perpendiculars draw n
from every point of the objedt to the plane of pro-
jedlion.
This method of projection is ufed in the geometrical
delineation of eclipfes, occultations, and tranlits. It is
alfo particularly ufeful in various other projections, fuch
as the analemma. See Geography, &c.
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every ftraight line is projected into a ftraight line. If
the given line be parallel to the plane of projection,
it is projected into an equal ftraight line j but if it is
inclined to the primitive, then the given ftraight line
will be to its projection in the ratio of the radius to
the cofine of inclination.
Let AB (fig. 27.) be the plane of projection, andp^
let CD be a ftraight line parallel thereto: from the ex- b '
tremities C, D of the ftraight line CD, draw' the lines
CE, DF perpendicular to AB 5 then by 3. of xi. of
Eucl. the interfedlion EF, of the plane CEFD, with
the plane of projection, is a ftraight line : and becaufe
the ftraight lines CD, EF are parallel, and alfo CE,
DF j therefore by 34. of i. of Eucl. the oppofite fides
are equal 3 hence the ftraight line CD, and its projec¬
tion EF, are equal. Again, let GH be the propofed
ftraight line, inclined to the primitive j then the lines
GE, HF being drawn perpendicular to AB, the inter¬
cepted portion EF will be the projection of GH.
Through G draw GI parallel to AB, and the angle
IGH will be equal to the inclination of the given line
to the plane of projection. Now GH being the radius,
GI, or its equal EF, will be the cofine of IGH ; hence
the given line GH is to its projection EF as radius to
the cofine or inclination.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
Corollaries,
e£t. II. PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
429.
Irthogra- COROLLARIES.
:>hlC pro-
(«eft ion of i. A ftraight line perpendicular to the plane of pro-
| ie Sphere. jeft;on js prqjefted into a point.
2. Every ftraight line in a plane parallel to the pri¬
mitive is projected into an equal and parallel ftraight
line.
3. A plane angle parallel to the primitive is projefted
into an equal angle.
4. Any plane re&ilineal figure parallel to the primi¬
tive is projedted into an equal and fimilar figure.
5. The area of any re&ilineal figure is to the area
of its projeflion as radius to the cofine of its inclina¬
tion.
Proposition II. Theorem II.
Every great circle, perpendicular to the primitive, is
projedled into a diameter of the primitive j and every
arch of it, reckoned from the pole of the primitive,
is proje&ed into its fine.
tance of the parallel circle from the primitive, or the
fine of its diftance from the pole of the primitive.
Proposition IV. Theorem IV.
Orthogra¬
phic Pro..
jeftion of
the Sphere.
An inclined circle is projected into an ellipfe, whofe
tranfverfe axis is the diameter of the circle.
I. Let ELF (fig. 30.) be a great circle inclined to^'S1 3°-
the primitive EBF, and EF their line of common fec-
tion. From the centre C, and any other point K, in
EF, let the perpendicular CB, KI be drawn in the
plane of the primitive, and CL, KN, in the plane of
the great circle, meeting the circumference in L, N.
Let LG, ND be perpendicular to CB, KI •, then G,
D are the projeftions of L, N. And becaufe the tri¬
angles LCG, NKD are equiangular, CL* : CG*:: NK* :
DK* : or EC* : CG* :: EKF : DK* : therefore the
points G, D are in the curve of an ellipfe, of which
EF is the tranfverfe axis, and CG the femiconjugate
axis.
fig- *8.
ig. 29.
Let BFD (fig. 28.) be the primitive, and ABCD
a great circle perpendicular to it, paffing through its
poles A, C j then the diameter BED, which is their
line of common fedtion, will be the proje&ion of the
circle ABCD. For if from any point, as G, in the
circle ABC, a perpendicular GH fall upon BD, it will
alfo be perpendicular to the plane of the primitive :
therefore H is the projedlion of G. Hence the whole
circle is projefted into BD, and any arch AG into EH
equal to GI its fine.
Corollaries.
1. Every arch of a great circle, reckoned from its in-
terfedlion with the primitive, is proje&ed into its verfed
fine.
2. Every lefs circle perpendicular to the primitive is
projedted into its line of common feftion with the pri¬
mitive, which is alfo its own diameter; and every arch
of the femicircle above the primitive, reckoned from the
middle point, is projefted into its fine.
3. Every diameter of the primitive is the projedlion
of a great circle ; and every chord the projection of a
lefs circle.
4. A fpherical angle at the pole of the primitive is
projedted into an equal angle.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
A circle parallel to the primitive is projected into a
circle equal to itfelf, and concentric with the primi¬
tive.
Let the lefs circle FIG (fig. 29.) be parallel to the
plane of the primitive BND. The ftraight line HE,
which joins their centres, is perpendicular to the primi¬
tive ; therefore E is the projection of H. Let any radii
HI and IN perpendicular to the primitive be drawn.
Then IN, HE being parallel, are in the fame plane ;
therefore IH, NE, the lines of common feCtion of the
plane IE, with two parallel planes, are parallel ; and
the figure IHEN is a parallelogram. Hence NE=
IH, and confequently FIG is projected into an equal
circle KNL, whofe centre is E.
Corollary.
The radius of the projection is the cofine of the dif-
3
Corollaries.
1. In a projected great circle, the femiconjugate axis
is the cofine of the inclination of the great circle to the
primitive.
2. Perpendiculars to the tranfverfe axis intercept
correfponding arches of the projection and the primi¬
tive.
3. The eccentricity of the projection is the fine of
the inclination of the great circle to the primitive.
Cafe 2. Let AQB (fig. 31.) be a lefs circle, incli-Fig. 31.
ned to the primitive, and let the great circle LBM, per¬
pendicular to both, interfeCt them in the lines AB, LM.
From the centre O, and any other point N in the dia¬
meter AB, let the perpendiculars TOP, NQ^, be drawn
in the plane of the lefs circle, to meet its circumference
in T, P, Q. Alfo from the points A, N, O, B, let
AG, NI, OC, BH, be drawn perpendicular to LM ;
and from P, £), T, draw PE, QD, TF, perpendicular
to the primitive ; then G, I, C, H, E, D, F, are the
projections of thefe points. Becaufe OP is perpendicu¬
lar to LMB, and OC, PE, being perpendicular to the
primitive, are in the fame plane, the plane COPE is
perpendicular to LBM. But the primitive is perpen¬
dicular to LBM ; therefore the common feClion EC is
perpendicular to LBM, and to LM. Hence CP is a
parallelogram, and ECrrOP. In like manner, FC,
DI, are proved perpendicular to LM, and equal to
OT, N£). Thus ECF is a ftraight line, and equal to
the diameter PT. Let QR, DK be parallel to AB,
LM ; then RO=NQ=DI=KC, and PRxRT=EK
XKF. But AO : CG :: NO : Cl; therefore AO*:
CG* :: QR* : DK* : and EC1 : CG* : EKF:
DK*.
Corollaries.
1. The tranfverfe axis is to the conjugate as radius to
the cofine of the circle’s inclination to the primitive.
2. Half the tranfverfe axis is the cofine of half the
fum of the greateft and leaft diftances of the lefs circle
from the primitive.
3. The extremities of the conjugate axis are in the
line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the primi¬
tive by the cofines of the greateft and leaft diftances of •
the lefs circle from the primitive^
4. IT
43»
Orthogra¬
phic Pro¬
jection of
the Sphere.
Hg. 33-
riS- 3v
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. Sea. II.
4. If from tlie extremities of the conjugate axis of
any elliptical projection perpendiculars be drawn (in the
fame direCHon if the circle do not interfeCt the primi¬
tive, but if otherwife in oppolite directions), they will
interfeCt an arch of the primitive, wliofe chord is equal
to the diameter of the circle.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
The projeCled poles of an inclined circle are in its line
of meafures diltant from the centre of the primitive
the fine of the inclination of the circle to the pri¬
mitive.
GV of the primitive equal to QP, and draw VA at Orthogra-
right angles to GO, and in Gg, towards the oppofite Ph'c.Pn'-.
parts of C, take CB equal to AC 5 then, with _ the ^
greater axis RS, and lefs axis AB, defcribe an ellipfe, *, 1... ■
and it will be the projection of the oblique circle re¬
quired.
3. When the difiance of the given point from the
primitive is equal to the cofine of the given inclination.
Every thing remaining as in the preceding cafe j let
A be the given point, and AC the cofine ot an arch
GV, equal to the given arch QP; then drawing the
diameter RCS at right angles to ACB, the ellipfe de-
■fr* ril-w-'/'J w hh thp o-iv. n axis RS. AB will be the proiec-
Let ABCD (fig. 32.) be a great circle, perpendicu¬
lar both to the primitive and the inclined circle, and,
interfeCHng them in the diameters AC, MN. Then
ABCD paffes through the poles of the inclined circle :
let thefe be P,. O ; and let Py>, Qy, be perpendicular to
AC; />, q are the projected poles; and it is evident that
ja O ar fine of BP, or MA, the inclination.
Corollaries.
1. The centre of the primitive, the centre of the pro-
je&ion, the proje&ed poles, and the extremities of
the conjugate axis", are all in one and the fame ftraight
line.
2. The diftance of the centre of prrjeflion from the
centre of the primitive, is to the cofine of the diftance
of the circle from its own pole, as the fine of the cir¬
cle’s inclination to the primitive is to the radius.
Proposition VI. Problem I.
tlon of the inclined circle.
4. When the difiance of the given point from the
centre of the primitive is lefs than the femidiameter of the
primitive, but greater than the cofine of the given in¬
clination.
Let D be the given point, through which draw the
diameter IC?,- and at the point D draw DL perpen¬
dicular to DC meeting the primitive in L; alfo draw
LK, making with LD'the angle DLK equal to the
complement of the given inclination.- Let LK meet
DC in K; then will DK be lefs than DC. On DC as Walker on.
a diameter defcribe a circle, and make DH equal \.othe Sphere^
DK; through H draw a diameter of the primitiveP-1 259*
RCS, and defcribe an ellipfe through the points R, D,
S, and it will be the proje&ion of the inclined circle.
Proposition VIII. Problem III.
Through two given points in the plane of the primi¬
tive to defcribe the projection of a great circle.
To defcribe the projection of a circle perpendicular to
the primitive, and whofe diftance from its pole is equ&l
to a given quantity.
Let PAp B (fig. 33.) be the primitive circle, and
P, p the poles of the right circle to be projected.
Then if the circle to be projected is a great circle,
draw the diameter AB at right angles to the axis Pp,
and it will be that required. But if the required pro¬
jection is that of a lefs circle, make PE, PF each equal
to the chord of the diftance of the lefs circle from its
pole; join EF, and it will be the projection of the lefs
circle required.
Proposition VII. Problem II.
Through a given point in the plane of the primitive to
defcribe the projection of a great circle, having a
given inclination to the primitive.
1. When the given inclination is equal to a right an¬
gle, a ftraight line drawn through the centre of the
primitive, and the given point, will be the projeftion re¬
quired.
2. When the given inclination is lefs than a right
angle, and the given point in the circumference of the
primitive. Let R (fig. 34O be a point given in the
circumference of the primitive, through which it is re¬
quired to draw the projection of a great circle, inclined
to the primitive in an angle meafured by the arch QP
of the primitive. ^ .
Through the given point R draw7 the diameter RCS,
and draw GCj- at right angles to it. Make the arch
2
1. If the two given points and the centre of the pri¬
mitive be in the fame ftraight line, then a diameter of
the primitive being drawn through thefe points will be
the projection of the great circle required. .
2. When the two given points are not in the fame
ftraight line with the centre of the primitive; and one of
them is in the circumference of the primitive.
Let DR (fig. 34.) be the two given points, of which
R is in the circumference of the primitive. Draw the
diameters RCS, and GC g, FDH perpendicular to
it, meeting the primitive in Gj^F. Divide GC, ^ C,
in A, B, in the fame proportion as FH is divided inD;
and defcribe the ellipfe whofe axes are RS, AB, and
centre C; and it will be the projeftion required.
3. When the given points are within the primitive,
and not in the fame ftraight line with its centre.
Let D, E (fig. 35.) be the two given points; Fig. 35>
through C the centre of the primitive draw the ftraight
lines ID, KE ip draw DL perpendicular to It, and
EO perpendicular to K £, meeting the primitive in L,
O. Through E, and towards the fame parts of C,
draw EP parallel to DC, and in magnitude a fourth
proportional to LD, DC, OE. Draw the diameter
CP meeting the primitive in R, S, and defcribe an el¬
lipfe through the points D and R, or S, and it will alfo
pafs through E. Phis ellipfe will be the projeCHon of
the propofed inclined circle.
PkoposiTioN IX. Problem IV.
?o defcribe the proje&ion of a lefs circle parallel to the
primitive, its diftance from the pole of the primitive
heing given, Fr0B1
)
eft.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE,
Orthogra- From the pole of the primitive, with the fine of the
phic I'ro given diftance of the circle from its pole, defcribe a
circle, and it will be the projeftion of the given lefs
16 P1 2 ‘ circle.
431
g. 36’
g-37-
Proposition X. Problem V.
About a given point as a projcfted pole to defcribe the
projeftion of an inclined circle, whofe diftance from
its pole is given.
Let P (fig. 36.) be the given proje&ed pole, through
which draw the diameter G^, and draw the diameter
H £ perpendicular thereto. From P draw PL per¬
pendicular to GP meeting the circumference in L j
through which draw the diameter L/. Make LT,
LK each equal to the chord of the diftance of the lefs
circle from its pole, and join TK, which interfe&s L /,
in £). From the points T, O^, K, draw the lines FA,
QS, KB, perpendicular to G^; and make OR, OS,
each equal to QT, or QK. Then an ellipfe defcribed
through the points A, S, B, R will be the projedlion of
the propofed lefs circle.
Proposition XL Problem VI.
To find the poles of a given projefled circle..
1. If the projected circle be. parallel to the primitive,
the centre of the primitive will be its pole.
2. If the circle be perpendicular to the primitive,
then the extremities of a diameter of the primitive drawn
at right angle^ to the ftraight line reprefenting the pro¬
jected circle, will be the poles of that circle.
' 3. When the projected circle is inclined to the pri¬
mitive.
Let ARBS (fig. 36, 37.) be the elliptical projection
of any oblique circle 5 through the centre of which,
and C the centre of the primitive, draw the line of mea-
fures CB A, meeting the ellipfe in B, A ; and the pri¬
mitive in G,^. Draw CH, BK, AT perpendicular
to G^g, meeting the primitive in H, K, T. BifeCt the
arch KT in L, and draw LP perpendicular to Gg ;
then P will be the projected pole of the circle, of which
ARBS is the projection.
Proposition XII. Problem VII.
intercepted portion BF of the primitive will be the Onhogra-
mealure of the given arch DE of the lefs circle DEH. iJro*
3. If the given lefs circle, of which an arch is to be
mealured, is perpendicular to the primitive. v * t
Let ADEB (fig. 40.) be the . lefs circle, of which Fig. 40.
the mealure of the arch DE is required. Through C,
the centre of the primitive, draw the line of meafures
M m, and from the interfeCtion O of the given right
circle, and the line of meafures, with the radius OA, or
OB, defcribe the femicircle AFGB through the points
D, E, draw the lines DF, EG parallel to the line of
meafures, and the arch FG will be the meafure of DE,
to the radius AO. In order to find a fimilar arch in the
circumference of the primitive, join OF, OG, and at
the centre C of the primitive, make the angle m CH
equal to FOG, and the arch wzH to the radius C/« will
be the meafure of the arch DE.
4. When the great projeCHon is of a lefs circle incli¬
ned to the primitive.
Let RDS (fig. 41.) be the projection of a lefs circle pj I
inclined to the primitive, and DE a portion of that cir- ^ ^
ele to be meafured. Through O the centre of the pro-
jefted circle, and C the centre of the primitive, draw
the line of meafures ; and from the centre O, with
the radius OR, or OS, dei’eribe the femicircle RGFS ;
through the points D, E, draw the lines DF, EG
parallel to the line of mealures, and FG will be the
meafure of the arch DE to the radius OR, cr OS.
Join OF, OG, and make the angle mCH equal to
FOG, and the arch m PI of the primitive will be the
meafure of the arch DE of the inclined circle RDS.
The converfe of this propofition, namely, to cut off
an arch from a given projected circle equal to a given
arch of the primitive, is obvious.
The above operation would be greatly ftiortened by
ufing the line of fines in the fedlor.
It feems unneceffary to iufift farther on this projec¬
tion, efpecially as the reader will fee the application of
it to the projedlion ot the fphere on the planes of the
Meridian, Equator, and Horizon, in the article Geo¬
graphy ; and to the delineation of Eclipfes in the arti¬
cle Astronomy. The Analemma, Plate CCXXXV. in
the article Geography, is alfo according to this pro-
jeftion ; and the method of applying it to the folution
of aftronomical problems is there exemplified.
To meafure any portion of a projefted circle, and con-
verfely,
1. When the given projection is that of a great cir¬
cle.
3^ Let ADBE (fig. 38.) be the given great circle,
either perpendicular or inclined to the primitive, of
which the portion DE is to be meafured, and let M m
be the line of meafures of the given circle. Through
the points D, E, draw the lines EG, DF parallel to
M m; and the arch FG of the primitive will be the
meafure of the arch DE of the great circle, and con-
verfely.
2. When the projeftitm is that of a lefs circle paral¬
lel to the primitive.
Pkte Let DE (fig. 39.) be the portion to be meafured,
ccxlvi. 0£ t]ie jep. c;rcle DEH parallel to the primitive. From
6 the centre C draw the lines CD, CE,and produce them
to meet the primitive in the points B, F. Then the
SECTION HI.
Of the Gnomonic Projection of the Sphere.
In this projection the eye is in the centre of the
fphere, and the plane of projeCHon touches the fphere
in a given point parallel to a given circle. It is named
gnomonic, on account of its being the foundation of di¬
alling : the plane of projection may alfo reprefent the
plane of a dial, whofe centre being the projected pole,
the femiaxis of the fphere will be the ftile or gnomon
of the dial.
As the projection of great circles is reprefented by
ftraight lines, and lefs circles parallel to the plane of
projection are projected into concentric circles : there-
fere many problems of the fpbere are very eafily refol-
ved. Other problems, however, become more intricate
on account of feme of the circles being projected into
ellipfes, parabolas, and hyperbolas.
Proposition
43^
Gnoinonic
i’rojedlkm
of the
Sphere.
Fig. 42.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
Sed. Ill,
Proposition I. Theorem I.
Every great circle is proje&ed into a ftraiglit line per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures; and whofe diftance
from the circle is equal to the cotangent of its incli¬
nation, or to the tangent of its nearelf diltance from
the pole of the projection.
Let BAD (fig. 42.) be the given circle, and let
the circle CBED be perpendicular to BAD, and to
the plane of projection ; whofe interfeCtion CF with
this lalt plane will be the line of meafures. Now fince
the circle CBED is perpendicular both to the given
circle BAD and to the plane of projection, the com¬
mon feCtion of the two laft planes produced will there¬
fore be perpendicular to the plane of the circle CBED
produced, and confequently to the line of meafures .
hence the given circle will be projected into that fec-
tion ; that is, into a ftraight line palling through </,
perpendicular to C d. Now C c? is tile cotangent of the
angle C d A, the inclination of the given circle, or the
•tangent of the arch CD to the radius AC.
Corollaries.
1. A great circle perpendicular to the plane of pro¬
jection is projeCted into a ftraight line palling through
the centre of projection : and any arch is projeCted into
its correfpondent tangent.
2. Any point, as D, or the pole of any circle, is pro-
jeCted into a point d, whofe diltance from the pole of
projection is equal to the tangent of that diltance.
3. If two great circles be perpendicular to each
other, and one of them paffes through the pole of pro¬
jection, they will be projeCted into two Itraight lines
perpendicular to each other.
4. Hence if a great circle be perpendicular to feveral
other great circles, and its reprelentation pafs through
the centre of projection } then all thefe circles will be
reprefented by lines parallel to one another, and per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures, for reprefentation of
that firlt circle.
Proposition II. Theorem II.
If two great circles interfeCt in the pole of projection,
their reprefentations will make an angle at the centre
of the plane of projection, equal to the angle made by
thefe circles on the fphere.
For fince both thefe circles are perpendicular to the
plane of projection, the angle made by their interfeCtions
with this plane is the fame as the angle made by thefe
circles.
Proposition III. Theorem III.
Any lefs circle parallel to the plane of projection is pro¬
jected into a circle whofe centre is the pole of projec¬
tion, and its radius is equal to the tangent of the dif¬
tance of the circle from the pole of projection.
Let the circle PI (fig. 42.) be parallel to the plane
GF, then the equal arches PC, Cl are projeCted into
the equal tangents GC, CH ; and therefore C the point
of contaCt and pole of the circle PI and of the projec¬
tion, is the centre of the reprefentation G, H.
Corollary.
Gnomonic
Projection
If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, and 5°^^
45 degrees from the pole, it is projeCted into a circle <   j
equal to a great circle of the fphere •, and therefore may
be confidered as the primitive circle, and its radius the
radius of projection.
Proposition IV. Theorem IV.
A lefs circle not parallel to the plane of projection is
projected into a conic feCtion, whofe tranfverfe axis
is in the line of meafures j and the diftance of its
neareft vertex from the centre of the plane of pro¬
jection is equal to the tangent of its neareft diftance
from the pole of projection 5 and the diftance of the
other vertex is equal to the tangent of the greateft
diftance.
Any lefs circle is the bafe of a cone whofe vertex is
at A (fig. 43.) } and this cone being produced, its in- ^
terfeCtion with the plane of projection will be a conic
feCtion. Thus the cone DAF, having the circle DF
for its bafe, being produced, will be cut by the plane
of projection in an ellipfe whofe tranfverfe diameter is
df; and C </ is the tangent of the angle CAD, and
C/ the tangent of CAF. In like manner, the cone
AFE, having the fide AE parallel to the line of mea¬
fures df, being cut by the plane of projection, the /
feCtion will be a parabola, of which/is the neareft ver¬
tex, and the point into which E is projeCted is at an
infinite diftance. Alfo the cone AEG, whofe bafe is
the circle FG, being cut by the plane of projection,
the feCtion will be a hyperbola ; of which/is the near¬
eft vertex j and G A being produced gives d the other
vertex.
Corollaries.
1. A lefs circle will be projeCted into an ellipfe, a
parabola, or hyperbola, according as the diftance of
its moft remote point is lefs, equal to, or greater than,
90 degrees.
2. If H be the centre, and K £, / the focus of the
ellipfe, hyperbola, or parabola j then HK= ——L-
for the ellipfe ; H A for the hyperbola j
and /« being drawn perpendicular to AE//=
” ^ for the parabola.
Proposition V. Theorem V.
Let the plane TW (fig. 44.) be perpendicular to the Fig. 44
plane of projection TV, and BCD a great circle of
the fphere in the plane TW. Let the great circle
BED be projeCted into the ftraight line bet. Draw
CQS perpendicular to b k, and C m parallel to it and
equal to CA, and make £>S equal to Qm; then any
angle QS / is the meafure of the arch / of the pro¬
jected circle.
Join AQ: then becaufe Cm is equal to CA, the
angle QC m equal to QCA, each being a right angle,
and the fide QC common to both triangles; therefore
Qw, or its equal QS, is equal QA. Again, fince the
plane ACQ is perpenidicular to the plane TV, and b Q
;efl. HI.
Gnomomc to tlie inierfe&ion therefore is perpendicular
>roJ‘^on both to A^) and Q^S : hence, fince A Q and QS are
n f ft equal, all the angles at S cut the line Z>£) in the fame
points as the equal angles at A. But by'the angles at
A the circle BED is projedled into the line b Q.
Therefore the angles at S are the meafures of the parts
of the projected circle j and S is the dividing centre
thereof. y
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
of the
Sphere.
Corollary.
Hence, if from the projected pole of any circle a
perpendicular be eredted to the line of meafures, it
■will cut off a quadrant from the reprefentation of that
circle.
Proposition VIII. Theorem VIII.
433
Gnoroonic
Projedticn
of th©
Sphere,
Corollaries.
1. Any great circle £ is projecfed into a line of
tangents to the radius S£).
2. If the circle b C pafs through the centre of pro-
jedlion, then the projecting point A is the dividing cen¬
tre thereof, and C £ is the tangent of its correfpondent
arch CB to CA the radius of projection.
Proposition VI. Theorem VI.
[• 44- Let the parallel circle GLH (fig. 44.) be as far from
the pole of projection C as the circle FNI is from its
pole j and let the diftance of the poles C, P be bifeCt-
ed by the radius AO: and draw Z»AD perpendicular
to AO; then any ftraightline bQt drawn through b
will cut off the arches // /, F « equal to each other in
the reprefentations of thefe equal circles in the plane
of projection.
Let Y n k (fig. 45.) be the projection of any circle FI, 45'
and p the projection of its pole P. If C^ be the
cotangent of CAP, and g B perpendicular to the
line of meafures g C, let CAP be bifeCted by A 0,
and the line oB drawn to any point B, and alfo joB
cutting Y n k \u d; then the angle g 0 B is the mea-
fure of the arch F d.
The arch PG is a quadrant, and the angle g 0 A~
P A+0 AP=:g AC-J-oAP=r^ AC-fC A o=gAo;
therefore g A~g 0; confequently 0 is the dividing cen¬
tre of g B, the reprefen tation of GA ; and hence, by
Prop. v. the angle ^ 0 B is the meafure of ^ B. But
lince pg reprefents a quadrant, therefore p is the pole of
^B ; and hence the great circle pdYt palling through
the pole of the circles ^ B and F n will cut off equal
arches in both, that is Yd~g Brzrangle^ oB.
Corollary.
Let the proji Clions of the lefs circles be defcribed.
Then, becaufe BD is perpendicular to AO, the arches
BO, DO are equal ; but fince the lefs circles are
equally diftant each from its refpeftive pole, therefore
the arches FO, OH are equal; and hence the arch BF
is equal to the arch DH. For the fame reafon the
arches BN, DL are equal; and the angle FBN is equal
to the angle LDH ; therefore, on the fphere, the
arches FN, HL are equal. And fince the great circle
BNLD is projefled into the ilraight line bQnl, &c.
therefore n is the projection of N, and / that of L ;
hence f«, ///, the projections of FN, HL refpeCtively,
are equal.
Proposition VII. Theorem VII.
!'4S* If F « £, /z /g, (fig. 45 ) be the projections of two equal
circles, whereof one is as far from its pole P as the
other from its pole C, which is the centre of projec¬
tion ; and if the diftance of the projected poles C, p
be divided in 0, fo that the degrees in C 0, op be
equal, and the perpendicular 0 S be ereCted to the
line of meafures g h. Then the line^?«, C/ drawn
from the poles C, p, through any point £) in the line
oS, will cut off the arches Yn,h/ equal to each
other, and to the angle QCp>
The great circle A 0 perpendicular to the plane of the
primitive is projeCled into the ftraight line 0 S perpendi¬
cular to gh, by Prop. i. cor. 3. Let () be the projec¬
tion of q; and fince jo£), CQ^ are ftraight lines, they are
therefore the reprefentations of the arches Y q, C q of
great circles. Now fince P <7 C is an ifofceles fpherical
triangle, the angles PCQ^, CP£) are therefore equal;
and hence the arches P C ^ produced will cut off
equal arches from the given circles FI, GH, whofe re¬
prefentations F«, h i are therefore equal : and fince the
angle QC p is the meafure of the arch h /, it is alfo the
meafure of its equal F «.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
The angle j 0 B is the meafure of the angle g pY>.
For the triangle gpY> reprefents a triangle on ihe
fphere, wherein the arch which g B reprefents is equal
to the angle which the angle yj reprefents ; becaufe gp
is a quadrant; therefore ^oB is the meafure of both.
Proposition IX. Theorem I.
To draw a great circle through a given point, and
whofe diftance from the pole of projection is equal to
a given quantity.
Let ADB (fig. 46.) be the projection, C its pole or Fig. 45.
centre, and P the point through which a great circle is
to be drawn : through the points P, C draw the ftraight
line PCA, and draw CE perpendicular to it: make the
angle CAE equal to the given diftance of the circle
from the pole of projection C ; and from the centre C,
with the radius CE, deferibe the circle EFG : through
P draw the ftraight line PIK, touching the circle EFG
in I, and it will be the projection of the great circle re¬
quired.
Proposition X. Problem II.
To draw a great circle perpendicular to a great circle
which paffes through the pole of projection, and at a
given diftance from that pole.
Let ADB (fig. 46.) be the primitive, and Cl the
given circle : draw CL perpendicular to Cl, and make
the angle CL I equal to the given diftance : then the
ftraight line KP, drawn through I parallel to CL, will
be the required projection.
Proposition XI. Problem III.
At a given point in a projected great circle, to draw
another great circle to make a given angle with the
former ; and, converfely, to meafure the angle con¬
tained between two great circles.
Let P (fig. 47.) be the given point in the given great Fig. 47.
3 I circle
434
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE.
Grotnonic circle PB, and C the centre of the primitive : through
Projection tjje p0jnt;s P, C draw the ftraight line PCG ; and draw
Sphere ra(iius of the primitive CA perpendicular thereto ;
. 1 ^ ' - jmn PA 5 to which draw AG perpendicular: through G
draw BGD at right angles to GP, meeting PB in B ;
bifeft the angle CAP by the ftraight line AO ; join
BO, and make the angle BOD equal to that given j
then DP being joined, the angle BPD will be that re¬
quired.
If the meafure of the angle BPD be required, from
the points B, D draw the lines BO, DO, and the angle
BOD is the meafure of BPD.
Proposition XII. Problem IV.
To defcribe the projection of a lefs circle parallel to the
plane of projection, and at a given diftance from its
pole.
Sea. in.
one half of « Q: then with the vertex f, and focus h, de- Gnonvonic
fcribe the parabola f /«, for the projection of the given Pr°je,^ion
circle FE. ' Sphere.
Proposition XV. Problem VII. k—-v—-»
To find the pole of a given projected circle.
Let DMF (fig. 50.) be the given projected circleDg. 50.
whofe line of meafures is DF, and C the centre of pro¬
jection ; from C draw the radius of projection C A, per¬
pendicular to the line of meafures, and A will be the
projecting point: join AD, AF, and bifeCt the angle
DAF by the ftraight line AP ; hence P is the pole.
If the given projection be an hyperbola, the angle
f AG (fig. 49.), bifeCted, will give its pole in the line
of meafures j and in a parabola, the angle jT AE bifeCt¬
ed will give its pole.
Proposition XVL Problem VIII.
Fig. 4$. Let ADB (fig. 46.) be the primitive, and C its cen¬
tre : fet the diftance of the circle from its pole, from B
to H, and from H to D ; and draw the ftraight line
AED, interfeCting CE perpendicular to BC, in the
point E : with the radius CE defcribe the circle EFG,
and it is the projection required.
Proposition XIII. Problem V.
To draw a lefs circle perpendicular to the plane of pro¬
jection.
Plate .
ccccxlvii. Let C (fig. 48.) be the centre of projection, and 11
fig- 48' a great circle parallel to the propofed lefs circle : at C
make the angles ICN, TCO each equal to the diftance
of the lefs circle from its parallel great circle TI j jet
CL be the radius of projection, and from the extremity
L draw LM perpendicular thereto j make CV equal to
LM 5 or CF equal to CM : then with the vertex V and
J. See Conicaflymptotes CN, CO defcribe the hyperbola WVK f •,
SeSliont. or, with the focus F and CV defcribe the hyperbola, and
it will be the perpendicular circle deferibed.
Proposition XIV. Problem VI.
To defcribe the projection of a lefs circle inclined to the
plane of projection.
Fig. 4P* Draw the line of meafures dp (fig. 49.) ; and at C, the
centre of projection, draw C A perpendicular to dp, and
equal to the radius of projection : with the centre A, and
radius AC, defcribe the circle DCFG ; and draw R AE
parallel to dp ; then take the greateft and leaft diftances
of the circle from the pole of projection, and fet them
from C to D and F refpeCtively, for the circle DF j and
from A, the projecting point,draw the ftraight lines AF/i
and AD</; then df will be the tranfverfe axis of the
ellipfe 5 but if D fall beyond the line RE, as at G, then
from G draw the line GADi/, and df \& the tranfverfe
axis of an hyperbola : and if the point D fall in the line
RE, as at E, then the line AE will not meet the line of
meafures, and the circle will be projected into a parabola
whofe vertex bifeCt dfivi H, the centre, and tor
the ellipfe take half the difference of the lines Ad, A/,
which laid from H will give K the. focus : for the hy¬
perbola, half the fum of Ad, Af being laid from H,
will give k its focus : then with the tranfverfe axis df,
and focus K, or k, defcribe the ellipfe dMf, or hyper-
bolaym, which will be the projection of the inclined
circle : for the parabola, make E£) equal to F_/J and
drawl's perpendicular to AQ, and makpy£ equal to
To meafure any portion of a projected great circle, or to
lay off any number of degrees thereon.
Let EP (fig. 51.) be the great circle, and IP a por- p;g_ 5r
tion thereof to be meafurecL draw ICD perpendicular to
IP j let C be the centre, and CB the radius of projec¬
tion, with which defcribe the circle EBD j make IA
equal to IB : then A is the dividing centre of EP ;
hence AP being joined, the angle IAP is the meafure
of the arch IP.
Or, if IAP be made equal to any given angle, then
IP is the correfpondent arch of the projeCHon.
Proposition XVII. Problem IX.
To meafure any arch of a projeCled lefs circle, or to lay
off any number of degrees on a given projefted lefs
circle.
Let F n (fig. 52.) be the given lefs circle, and P its Fig. 5*.
pole: from the centre of projection C draw C A perpen¬
dicular to the line of meafures GH, and equal to the ra¬
dius of projection ; join AP, and bifed the angle CAP
by the ftraight line AO, to which draw AD perpendi¬
cular : defcribe the circle G /H, as far diftant from the
pole of projedion C as the given circle is from its pole
P ; and through any given point «, in the projected cir¬
cle F n, draw D « /, then H / is the meafure of the arch
F n.
Or let the meafure be laid from H to /, and the line
D / joined will cut off F « equal thereto.
Proposition XVIII. Problem X.
To defcribe the gnomonic projection of a fpherical
triangle, when three fides are given ; and to find the
meafures of either of its angles.
Let ABC (fig. 53.) be a fpherical triangle whofe Fig. 53.
three fides are given : draw the radius CD (fig. 54.) pjg. 54.
perpendicular to the diameter of the primitive EF 3 and
at the point D make the angles CD A, CDG, ADI,
equal refpeCtively to the fides AC, BC, AB, of the
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53*)» the lines DA, DG
interfeCting the diameter EF, produced if neceffary in
the points A and G : make DI equal to DG ; then
from the centre C, with the radius CG, defcribe an
arch 3 and from A, with the diftance AI, defcribe ano¬
ther arch, interfering the former in B 3 join AB, CB,
and ACB will be the projeaion of the fpherical tri¬
angle (fig. 53.) 3 and the reCtilineal angle ACB is the
meafure of the fpherical angle ACB (fig. 53.).
Proposition
Sea. III. PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE,
435
IGnomonic
Projection
of the
Sphere.
Proposition XIX. Problem XI.
The three angles of a fpherical triangle feeing given, to
projeft it, and to find the meafures of the tides.
Let ABC (fig. 5j.) fee the fpherical triangle of
which the angles are given : conftruft another fpherical
triangle EFG, whofe tides are the fupplements of the
given angles of the triangle ABC j and with the fades
of this fupplemental triangle defcribe the gnomouic pro-
jedtion, &c. as before.
It may be obferved, that the fupplemental triangle
EFG has alfo a fupplemental part EF g ; and when the
fades GE, GF, which are fubflituted in place of the
angles A, B, are obtufe, their fupplements J1' E, ^ F
are to be ufed in the gnomonic projection of the tri¬
angle.
Proposition XX. Problem XII.
Given two fides, and the included angle of a fpheri-
cal triangle, to defcribe the gnomonic projection of
that triangle, and to find the meafures of the other
parts.
ig. 56. Let the fides AC, CB, and the angle ACB (fig.
53.), be given ; make the angles CD A, CDG (fig.
56.) equal refpediively to the fides AC, CB (fig 53.) ;
alfo make the angle ACB (fig. 56.) equal to tlae
fpherical angle ACB (fig. 53.), and CB equal to CG,
and ABC will be the projection of the fpherical tri¬
angle.
To find the meafure of the fide AB : from C draw
CL perpendicular to AB, and CM parallel thereto,
meeting the circumference of the primitive in M j
make LN equal to LM •, join AN, BN, and the angle
ANB will be the meafure of the fide AB.
To find the meafure of either of the fpherical angles,
as BAG : from D draw DK perpendicular to AD,
and make KH equal to KD : from K draw KI per¬
pendicular to CK, and let AB produced meet KI in
I, and join HI : then the reCtilineal angle KHI is the
meafure of the fpherical angle BAC. By proceeding
in a fimilar manner, the meafure of the other angle will
be found.
of the triangle ; and to find the meafurt? of the re- Gnomonic
mainiiag parts. Projedkm
Let the fides AC, CB, and the angle BAC of the Sphere.
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.) be given : make the ' v
angles CD A, CDG (fig. j6.) equal refpeClively to
the meafures of the given fides AC, BC : draw DK
perpendicular to AD, make KH equal to DK, and
the angle KHI equal to the given fpherical angle
BAC : draw the perpendicular KI, meeting HI in
I ; join AI ; and from the centre C, with the diftaaace
CG, defcribe the arch GB, meeting AI in B, join
CB, and ABC will be the rectilineal projection of the
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.) and the meafures
of the unknown parts of the triangle may be found as
before.
Proposition XXIII. Problem XV.
Given two angles, and a fide oppofite to one of them, to
defcribe the gnomonic projection of the triangle, and
to find the meafures of the other parts.
Let the angles A, B, and the fide BC of the tri¬
angle ABC (fig. 55.) be given : let the fupplemental
triangle EFE be formed, in which the angles E, F, G,
are the fupplements of the fides BC, CA, AB, refpec-
tively, and the fides EF, FG, GE, the fupplements of
the angles C, A, B. Now at the centre C (fig. 56.)
make the angles CDA, CDK equal to the meafures
of the fides GE, GF refpeClively, being the fupple¬
ments of the angles B and A; and let the lines DA,
DK interfeCf the diameter of the primitive EF in the
points A and K : draw DG perpendicular to AD,
make GH equal to DG, and at the point H make the
angle GHI equal to the angle E, or to its fupplement;
and let El, perpendicular to CH, meet HI in I, and
join Al : then from the centre C, with the diftance
CG, defcribe an arch interfeCling AI in B ; join CB,
and ABC will be the gnomonic projeftion of the gi¬
ven triangle ABC (fig. 55.) : the fupplement of the
angle ACB (fig. 56.) is the meafure of the fide AB,
(fig. 55.) ; the meafures of the other parts are found
as before.
Proposition XXI. Problem XIII.
Two angles and the intermediate fide given, to defcribe
the gnomonic projeCtion of the triangle 5 and to find
the meafures of the remaining parts.
Let the angles CAB, ACB, and the fide AC of the
fpherical triangle ABC (fig. 53.), be given : make the
angle CDA (fig. 56.) equal to the meafure of the given
fide AC (fig. 53.) j and the angle ACB (fig. 56.) equal
to the angle ACB (fig. 53.) 5 produce AC to H, draw
DK perpendicular to AD, and make KH equal to KD $
draw KI perpendicular to CK, and make the angle
KHI equal to the fpherical angle CAB : from I, the
interfeaion of KI, HI, to A draw IA, and let it in-
terfea CB in B, and ACB will be the gnomonic pro-
jeftion of the fpherical triangle ACB (fig. 53.). The
unknown parts of this triangle may be meafured by laft
problem.
Proposition XXII. Problem XIV.
Two fides of a fpherical triangle, and an angle oppo¬
fite to one of them given, to defcribe the projeftion
It has already been obferved, that this method of pro*,
jeftion has, for the moft part, been applied to dialling
only. However, from the preceding propofitions, it ap¬
pears that all the common problems of the fphere may
be more eafily refolved by this than by either of the pre¬
ceding methods of projeftion ; and the facility with
which thefe problems are refolved by this method has
given it the preference in dialling. It may not per¬
haps be amifs, in this place, to give a brief illuftratioa
of it in this particular branch of fcience.
In an horizontal dial, the centre of projeftion Z
(fig. 57.) reprefents the zenith of the place for which Fig. 57.
the dial is to be conftrufted ; ZA the perpendicular
height of the flyle 1 the angle ZPA, equal to the given
latitude, determines the diftance ZP of the zenith from
the pole 5 and AP the edge of the ftyle, which by its
ftaadow gives the hour : the angle ZAP, equal alfo to
the latitude, gives the diftance of the equator ££) from
the zenith : let E « be equal to EA, and a will be the
dividing point of the equator. Hence if the angles
E a I, E « II, &c. E a XI, E a X, &c. be made equal
to 150, 30°, &c. the equator will be divided into hours j
3 I 2 and
43^
Gnomon ic
Fiojedtion
of the
Sphere.
PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. Sed. III.
and lines drawn from P to thefe points of divifion will
be hour lines.
If the dial is either vertical, or inclined to the hori¬
zon, then the point Z will be the zenith of that place
whofe horizon i> parallel to the plane of the dial : ZE
will be that latitude of the place 5 and the hours on the
former dial will now be changed into others, by a quan¬
tity equal to the difference of longitude between the
given place and that for whiph the dial is to be con-
itrudted. Thus, if it is noon when the thadow of the
ftyle falls on the line PX, then the difference of meri¬
dians is the angle E a X, or 30°. Hence, when a dial
is to be conftru&ed upon a given plane, either perpen¬
dicular or inclined to the horizon, the declination and
inclination of that place muft be previoufly found.
In an ereft dire6t foutb dial, its zenith Z is the
fouth point of the horizon, ZP is the diftance of this
point from the pole, and ZE its diltance from the equa¬
tor. If the dial is dire fled to the north, Z reprefents the
north point of the horizon 5 PZ the diftance of Z from
the pole under the horizon j and ZE the elevation of the
equator above the horizon.
If the dial is an erefl eaft or weft dial, the zenith Z
is the eaft or weft points of the horizon accordingly,
and the pole P is at an infinite diftance, for the angle
ZAP is a right angle j and therefore the line AP will
not meet the meridian PZ. The line ZA produced!) Gnomonic
the equator, and is divided into hours by lines perpen- ^roje(hiot»
dicular to it. Sphere
If the plane of the dial is parallel to the equator, its '
zenith Z coincides with one of the poles of the equa¬
tor P and hence the hour lines of this dial are formed
by drawing lines from the point Z, containing angles
equal to 15°.
In the preceding methods of projection of the fphere,
equal portions of a great circle on the fphere are re-
prefented by unequal portions in the plane of projec¬
tion, and this inequality increafes with the diftance from
the centre of projeflion. Hence, in projections of the
earth, thofe places towards the circumference of the
projection are very much diftorted. In order to avoid
this inconveniency, M. de la Hire * propofed, that the * Hift. de
eye thould be placed in the axis produced at the di- i'Academit
ftance of the fine of 450 beyond the pole : In this cafe ^7^"
arches of the fphere and their projections are very near- thJir-
ly proportional to each other. Hence in a map of the tide G«-
earth agreeable to this conftruCtion, the axis, inftead of graphs
being divided into a line of femitangents, is divided
equally, in like manner as the circumference. The map
of the world is conftruCted agreeable to this method of
projection.
Projection
II
Prolate.
PRO
PROJECTION, in PerfpcBive, denotes the appear¬
ance, or reprefentation of an objeCt on the perfpeCtive
1 The projection of a point is a point through which an
optic ray paffes from the objeaive point through the
plane to the eye •, or it is the point wherein the plane
cuts the optic ray.
And hence may be eafily conceived what is meant
by the projection of a line, a plane, or a folid.
PROJECTION, in Alchemy, the catting of a certain
imaginary powder, called powder of projeShon, into a
crucible, or other veffel, full of feme prepared metal,
or other matter which is to be hereby prefently tranf-
muted into gold.
Powder of PROJECTION, or of the phdofophers ftone,
is a powde/fuppofed to have the virtue of changing any
quantitv of an imperfeCt metal, as copper or lead, into
a more perfeCt one, as filver or gold, by the admixture
of a little quantity thereof.
The mark to which alchemifts direCted all their en¬
deavours, was to difeover this powder of projection. See
Philosophers Stone, and Chemistry, Hijlcry of
PROJECTURE, in ArchiteBure, the outjetting and
prominency, or emboffing, which the mouldings and
other members have beyond the naked wall, column,
See.
PROLAPSUS, in Surgery, a prolapfion or falling
out of any part of the body from its natural fituation :
thus we fay, prolapfus intefini, “ a prolapfion of the in-
teftine,” &c. See Sorcery.
PROLATE, in Geometry, an epithet applied to a
fpheroid produced by the revolution of a femi-ellipfis
about its larger diameter. See Spheroid,
.5
Prolific.
PRO
PROLEGOMENA, in Philology, certain prepara- prolego-
tory obfervations or difeourfes prefixed to a book, &c. mena
containing fomething neceffary for the reader to be ap-
prifed of, to enable him the better to underftand the
book, or to enter deeper into the fcience, &c.
PROLEPSIS, a figure in Rhetoric, by which we an¬
ticipate or prevent what might be objeCted by the ad-
verfary. See Oratory, N° 80.
PROLEPTIC, an epithet applied to a periodical dif-
eafe which anticipates, or whofe paroxyfm returns fooner
and fooner every time ; as is frequently the cafe,in agues.
PROLIFER flos, {proles, “ an offspring j” and
fero, “ to bear) j” a prolific flower, or a flower which
from its own fubftance produces another 5 a Angular de¬
gree of luxuriance, to which full flowers are chiefly in¬
cident. See Botany.
PROLIFIC, fomething that has the qualities necef¬
fary for generating.
The prolific powers of fome individuals among man¬
kind are very extraordinary.—Inftances have been found
where children, to the number of fix, feven, eight, nine,
and fometimes fixteen, have been brought forth after
one pregnancy. The wife of Emmanuel Gago, a la¬
bourer near Valladolid, was delivered, the 14th of June
1779, of five girls, the two firft of whom were bap¬
tized : the other three were born in an hour after j two
of them were baptized ; but the laft, when it came into
the world, had every appearance of death. The cele¬
brated Tarfin was brought to bed in the feventh month
of her pregnancy, at Argenteuil near Paris, 17th July
1779, of three boys, each 14 inches and a half long,
and of a girl 13 inches : they were all four baptized,
but did not live 24 hours.
The
/o
°^6>.
T
PLATE CCCCJ/JU.
PROJECTIONof die SPHERE.
PROJECTION of the SPHERE.
PLATE CCCCXfylV.
-U 1 ^Ays-Zu/ta/d J'ritjfrj . *
PROJECTIONofthe SPHERE. PLATE CCCCXLVS
t '/(3
IT. tJrc/?//’<*/s? .Trtl/f? • *
PRO .[)•; C TI ON oftlie SPHERE. PLATE CCCCX/J//
W .1: ;/// . /
I
-
Prolific
oinife*
I
oraife
fined.
PRO [ 437 ] PRO
The public papers for the month of June 1779,
made mention of one Maria Ruiz, of the diftridt of
Lucena in Andalulia, who was fucceflively delivered of
16 boys, without any girls 5 and feven of them were
ftill alive on the x 7th of Auguft thereafter. The fol¬
lowing, though a recent faft, is almoil incredible : In
the year 1755, a Mufcovite peafant, named James
Kyrloff, and his wife, were prefented to the emprefs
of RulTia. This peafant had been twice married, and
was then 70 years of age. His firft wife was brought
to bed 21 times j namely, four times of four children
each time *, feven times of three, and ten times of two 5
making in all 57 children, who were then alive. His
fecond wife, who accompanied him, had already been
delivered feven times, once of three children, and fix
times of twins, which made 15 children for her (hare.
Thus the Mufcovite patriarch had already had 72 chil¬
dren by two marriages. We are affured that the ful-
tan Muftapha III. had iffue by his concubines 580
male children. What number of female children he
had, and whether there were twins of both fexes, we
are not informed. Thefe fails fuppofe great fecundity j
and whatever credit is given them, we muft confider as
entirely fabulous what is reported concerning a countefs
of Holland who was delivered of 365 children, of a
very ftnall fize.
PROLIXITY in difcourfe, the fault of entering in¬
to too minute a detail, or being too long, precife, and
circumilantial, even to a degree of tedioufnefs.
PROLOCUTOR of the convocation, the fpeaker
or chairman ot that affembly. See Convocation.
PROLOGUE, in dramatic poetry, a difcourle ad-
drefled to the audience before the drama or play begins.
The original intention was to advertife the audience of
the fubjeil of the piece, and to prepare them to enter
more eafily into the a£tion, and fometimes to make an
apology for the poet.
PROMETHEUS, the fon of Japetus, fuppofed to
have been the firft difcoverer of the art of ftriking fire
by flint and fteel •, which gave rife to the fable of his
Healing fire from heaven : A renowned warrior ; but
whofe hiftory is involved in fable. He flouriftied about
1687 B. C. The poetical account is, that he formed a
man of clay of fueh exquifite workmanlhip, that Pallas,
charmed with his ingenuity, offered him whatever in
heaven eould contribute to finifti his defign ; and for this
purpofe took him up with her to the celeftial manfions,
where he ftole fome fire from the chariot of the fun,
which he ufed to animate his image. At this theft
Jupiter was fo enraged, that he ordered Vulcan to chain
him down on Mount Caucafus, and lent an eagle or vul¬
ture to prey on his liver \ which every night was renewed,
in proportion to the quantity eaten up in the day-time,
until at laft he was delivered by Hercules, who killed
the vulture.
Prometheus, in Ancient AJlronomy, was the name
of a conftellation of the northern hemifphere, now called
Hercules Eugona/in. See Astronomy.
PROMISE, in ordinary cafes, is a declaration of
fome intention to be put in execution ; but in morals is
a folemn affeveration by which one pledges his veracity
that he {hall perform, or caufe to be performed, the
thing which he mentions.
As fuch a declaration excites expe£lations in the
minds of thofe to whom it is made j and as to fruftrate
thefe expedlations might roufe indignation, and be fol- Promiie.
lowed by confequences injurious to the perfon, the cha- 111,1
rafter, or intereft, of him who made it—it becomes UHowit
matter of prudence in the promifer to keep his word.COnies to
And farther, as a certain degree of confidence is found be binding,
neceffary to the very exiftence of civil fociety, and as
others may have afted on the faith of his promife, it is
now not a matter of prudence only to keep his word—
it is a duty which he owes to all who have fpent their
time, their money, or their labour, in confequence of
thofe expeftations which he has warranted them to en¬
tertain.
It, then, being confonant to found reafon, neceffary
to the exiftence of civil fociety, and in general the in¬
tereft of both the promifer and promifee, that the words
of the promife ftiould be fulfilled, it has become a
maxim in morals that a man is obliged to perform his
promife. ^
In many inftances, the great difficulty concerning a Interpreta-
promife is, how to explain it j for although the grounds tion of a
of its obligation be thofe expeftations which it hasjm^fe^
raifed, a queftion will occur, Is the promifer bound tocl^lcuju
anfwer fully all the expeftations to which the different
conftruftions of his words may have given birth ? Should
I, for inftance, defire a man to run with a letter to fuch
a place, and engage to fatisfy him upon his return; and
if on his return I gave him double of the ufual hire in
like cafes *, but if he be not fatisfied with lefs than the
triple of fuch a fum, am I obliged to grant his demands ?
This will lead us to confider the rules by which a pro¬
mife fhould be interpreted.
If a promife were always to be deemed obligatory whether
in the fenfe in which the promifee receives
would not know what he had promifed j the
from a difference of views, affociations, and
might conceive a fenfe of which the promifer had ne-ought to be
ver dreamed; might fuppofe engagements which were taken,
never intended, which could not be forefeen, and, al¬
though forefeen, could not be performed. For thefe
reafons it is natural to think that the fenfe of the pro¬
mifer ftiould rather direct the interpretation. He knows
precifely what it is he has undertaken, and is unquef-
tionably the beft judge of what meaning he affixed to
his words. His explanation ftiould therefore be admit¬
ted, if information alone could give him a title to de¬
cide in the affair.
But fomething more than mere information, or a
knowledge of the caufe, is expefted from a judge, as
integrity is equally effential to his charafter. Doubts
may arife when the words will admit of various mean¬
ings, whether the promifer will be fo candid as impar¬
tially to own the precife meaning which he had aftually
annexed to his expreffions : At any rate, if he wiihes to
deceive, he might purpofely ufe an ambiguous phrafeo-
logy, and perform the promife in a fenfe of his own
without fatisfying the reafonable hopes of the promifee.
When the daughter of Tarpeius bargained with Ta-
tius to betray the citadel for what he and his Sabines
•wore on their left hands, meaning their rings and their
golden bracelets, Tatius probably performed his pro¬
mife in the xvay which he intended, when he caufed her
to be buried under their Ihields, which they carried alfo
on their left hands. But who will fay that here were
not treachery and a difhonourable abufe of that confi¬
dence which had been repofed in him ?
xt, a man the mean-
promifee, of the
• . a promifer
interefts,
It
PRO
[ 438 ]
PRO
Promire.
mg
the promi-
fee.
It mufi: therefore be obvious, that the import of a
— * promife, where its meaning is difputed, is not to be de-
In doubtful termine(^ t»y ^ie ^en^e t^ie promifer nor by the expec-
cafes the tations of the promifee •, and if it was faid that the obli-
Hiterpreta- gation of a promife arofe from thofe expe£l:ations which
tionofnei- been raifed by it, the affertion now muft be limited
be trerted to expe61ations which were intentionally raifed by
the promifer, or thofe which to his knowledge the pro¬
mifee was induced to entertain in confequence of that
declaration which had been made to him. Should there
ftill be a doubt about what expedtations were intention¬
ally raifed, and what Humid have been reafonably enter¬
tained, recourfe muft be had to the judgment of thofe
who are allowed to be perfons of candour, and who are
acquainted with the characters of the men, and with
6 thofe circumftances in which the promife was made.
Cafeswhere The following are feme of the cafes in which a pro-
a promife mife [s not binding. As the obligation to perform the
is not bin(bpromife arJfes from thofe expectations which are inten¬
tionally raifed by the promifer; it is plain that no pro¬
mife can be binding before acceptance, before the pro¬
mife has been communicated to the promifee, and be¬
fore he has entertained hopes of its performance. The
cafe is fimilar where a promife is releafed, that is, where
the performance is difpenfed with by the promifee, and
? where he entertains no expectations on account of any
When it is thing than the promifer has faid to him. Should a third
releafed by perfon entertain hopes on account of the promife, he is
.1 ^ cherifh thefe hopes at his own hazard, having no en¬
couragement from the promifer to do fo : yet if this per¬
fon has been warranted to hope by the promifee, the pro¬
mifee has renounced his privilege of releafing the pro¬
mife, and along with the promifer becomes bound for its
performance.
A promife is not binding where the performance is
per.urm- unlawful *, and the performance is unlawful where it is
ance-is un- contrary to former promifes, or to any moral and reli-
lawful. gious precept, which from the beginning to the end of
time is of perpetual and unalterable obligation. Thus
no man is bound by his promife to give to me what he
has already promifed to another j and no man is bound
by his promife to blafpheme God, to commit murder,
©r to criminate the innocent. Such promifes are un¬
lawfully made, and cannot be otherwife than unlawful¬
ly performed.
9 Some have even carried their fcruples fo far as to
wnerlf doubt, whether any promife unlawfully made, can be
doubts have lawfully performed. Should a man, during the lifetime
arii'en. of his wife, happen to promife marriage to another, fuch
a man (they fay) by the Chriftian religion has already
committed adultery in his heart: and ftiould he after--
wards become a widower, he is not bound, and he even
ought not, to fulfil his engagements, as this would be
putting his criminal intention into execution. This fpe-
cies of reafoning, we muft confefs, is to us unintelligi¬
ble. As the wife is dead, what now ftiould prevent the
man from marrying the objeCt of his affeClions ? Why,
fay the cafuifts, he already is under a promife to marry
her, and his promife was made at a time when it ftiould
not have been made. It is true, the performance, con-
fidered by itfelf, is oppofed by no law human or divine-,
but then it originated in what was wrong ; and however
much the Supreme Being and the bulk of the creation
may be out of the fecret, we have difcovered by the in¬
genious logic of cafuiftry, that evil can never fpring
3
Where its
perform-
out of good, nor good out of evil $ but that the means Promife.
and the end, the motive and the adlion, are always of ‘ v-”—■
the fame complexion in morals. IG>
When a promife is made, the particular circumftances £rroneous
in which it is to be deemed obligatory are fometimes promifes,
mentioned. “ I promife (for inftance) to lend my friend
200 pounds within three days, provided a certain cre¬
ditor which I name do not make a demand on me before
that time. In other cafes no circumftance is forefeen
by the promifer to prevent the fulfilling of his engage¬
mentand hence we have erroneous promifes, which
proceed on the fuppofition that things are true, poflible,
and lawful, which are not fo. An erroneous promife,
which proceeds on the falfe reprefentation of the pro¬
mifee, is not binding.
A London gentleman lately purchafed an eftate in
the fouth of England at a public fale, believing the
defcription which he faw in the newfpapers, and which
likewife was given by the auflioneer, to be true but
finding afterwards that the eftate nowife correfponded
to the defcription, the law freed him from his engage¬
ment, becaufe the feller had evidently been guilty of
a breach of promife in not fatisfying thofe expedlations
which he had intentionally and even ftudioufly excited
in the buyers. _ it
An erroneous promife, whofe performance is impof- A promife
fible, is not binding. Before the conclufion of the
late war, a planter of Tobago, promifed to fend to hiSperform_
friend in England 12 hoglheads of fugar from the next ance is im-
year’s produce of his eftate ; but before that time T o- poffible,
bago fell into the hands of the French, and the Weft
Indian found it impoflible to anfwer the expeflations of
his friend in England. _ I2
An erroneous promife, whofa performance is unlaw- n0r when
ful, or, to fpeak more precifely, whofe performance is it is unlaw,
contrary to a prior promife, or to any moral or reli-ful-
gious obligation, is not binding. A father, believing
the accounts from abroad of his fon’s death, foon af¬
ter bequeathes his fortune to his nephew : but the
fort, the report of whofe death had been falfe, returns
home, and the father is releafed from the promife to
his nephew, becaufe it was contrary to a prior pronfife^
which he had tacitly come under to his fon. This prior
promife was implied in the whole of the father’s con-
duft, and was expreffed in figns as emphatic and as
unequivocal as thofe of language. It had all the ef-
feft too of the moft folemn promife on the fon, who,
to his father’s knowledge, was induced in confequence
of this promife to entertain the- moft fanguine hopes
of fucceeding to his father, if he furvived. The world
likewife could bear teftimony that thefe expectations
were not rafhly cherilhed. He was brought into exif-
tence by means of his father, who was thereby under-
ftood to love him affe&ionately; he was uftiered in¬
to fociety as the reptefentative of his family, and. was
therefore fuppofed to be the heir of its wealth. Religion
itfelf fupported his pretenfions, pronouncing the father
worfe than an infidel who negledts to (how that atten¬
tion to his children which the world naturally expels
from a parent.—That the father’s promife was not re¬
leafed from the mere circumftance that the miftake was
known to his nephew the promifee, will appear plain
from the following circumftance. Suppofe tne father
a landed proprietor, that the leafe of one of his farms
has expired, and that he has long been expecting
r to
Promife.
R O C 439 .3 PRO
fuppofe that this fum is refufed, lion, intereft, or opinion. For thefe reafons, it appears
furpriling how any perfon Ihould ever imagine that the
..t3
tility no
ritorion
thereby to
idge of
'he validity
f promifes.
,14.
his prin-
ple would
jive a fanc-
on to vice
id falfe-
bod.
to let it at 200I. j
' and that he agrees with the prefent tenant to grant a
new leafe at 150I.—the obligation here to perform
his promife is not diffolved by an after offer of 200I.
though the tenant knew that 200I. had been expect¬
ed, and that only from defpairing of that fum his
landlord had granted the new leafe at 150I.: the pro¬
mife i; binding, becaufe the performance is every way
lawful, contrary to no prior engagement, and oppofed
to no principle in morals. The law of the land, were
the proprietor reluftant, would enforce the obligation,
and exaCt obedience in the tone of authority j becaufe
breaches of faith, were they permitted in fuch cafes,
would deftroy all confidence, and annihilate the bonds
of focial union:
Men live and profper but in mutual trull: j
A confidence of one another’s truth. Oroonoko.
The great difficulty which many have to encounter
in determining when erroneous promifes ought or ought
not to be kept, arifes from their proceeding on a prin¬
ciple of whofe confequences they do not feem to be al¬
ways aAvare. There is feldom, they perceive, a virtu¬
ous aClion that is not attended with fome happy eflFe&s $
and it will, perhaps, be generally allowed, that the com¬
parative merit of fimilar virtues may fafely be eftimated
by their utility : But to make utility, as fome do, the
criterion of virtue, and pronounce an aClion Vicious or
virtuous merely on account of thofe confequences which
they fee may flow from it, is a dangerous maxim. Evil
has often fprung out of good, and good out of evil 5 and
good and evil have frequently fprung from the fame ac¬
tion. In Mandeville’s Hive,
That root of evil Avarice,
That damn’d ill-natur’d baneful vice,
Was Have to Prodigality,
That noble fin ; whillt Luxury
Employ’d a million of the poor,
And odious Pride a million more.
Envy itfelf and Vanity
Were minifters of Induftry :
That darling folly, Ficklenefs,
In diet, furniture, and drefs.
That ftrange ridiculous vice, was made
The very wheel that turn’d the trade.
The defcription here is pot altogether falfe ; and thefe
indeed may be fome of the confequences that flow from
avarice, luxury, pride, vanity, and envy : but thefe
are not all.—To fee at once all the confequences that
fpring from an a&ion, the good and the bad, the par¬
ticular and general, the immediate and remote, would
require fometimes the forefight of Omnifcience, and at
all times a knowledge fuperior to what is human. In
the Fable of the Bees, the author’s objedl was to fhow
that private vices are public benefits j and he therefore
was naturally led by his argument to confider only fuch
confequences of vice as favoured his hypothefis. He
wanted candour. And that artifice which runs through
his Fable happens to remind us, that while the remote
and the general effedls of an adtion may not be feen,
the particular and immediate, which fall within our no¬
tice, are apt to be viewed through the medium of paf-
Promife.
obligation to perform a promife fhould depend entirely
upon the ideas which the promifer apprehended of its
utility.
The bell refutation of fuch an opinion are the Angu¬
lar conclufions to which it leads. ^
A late writer on political juftice, who appears toxheconfe-
have embraced it, gets into reafoning not very common, quences
In a part of his fyftem he looks on morals as an articletliat
of trade : virtue and vice, in his Chapter of Promifes,
are but antiquated terms for profit and lofs 5 and right ancj abftird.
and wrong are ufed to exprefs what is beneficial and
what is hurtful, in his apprehenfion, to himfelf and the
community.—With refpedt to veracity, thofe “ rational
and intelligent beings,” by whom he wifties the affairs
of the world to be carried on, may, while they adt as
rational and intelligent, break or perform their promifes
at pleafure. He thinks it “ effential to various circum-
ftances of human intercourfe, that we Ihould be known
to bellow a Heady attention upon the quantities of con¬
venience or inconvenience, of good or evil, that might
arife to others from our condudt.” After this atten¬
tion, the difappointment of the promife is not to be
minded, though the expedlations excited by thefe “ ra¬
tional and intelligent beings” may have “ altered the na¬
ture of his fituation, and engaged him in undertakings
from which he would otherwife have abftained.” What
the promifer takes to be the general utility and the fit-
nefs of things is to be his guide. And a breach of
promife will be attended with the following advantages :
“ The promifee, and all other men, wTill be taught to
depend more upon their own exertions, and lefs upon
the affiftance of others, which caprice may refufe or
juftice withhold. He and all others will be taught to
acquire fuch merit, and to engage in fuch purfuits, as
fhall oblige any honeft man to come to their fuccour if
they ftiould Hand in need of affiftance.” This breach
of promife, with a view to the general utility, will, fa
far from being criminal, form a part of that refolute
execution of juftice which would in a thoufand ways
increafe the independence, the energies, and the virtue
of mankind*.” * Godwin's
Such are the views which determined this author to Inquiry
confider “ the validity of promifes” as “ inconfiftent
with juftice,” and as “ foreign to general good.” From yltjiicc
one, however, who relies with fo much confidence on book in’,
the promifer, it would certainly be defirable to know, chap. 3.
whether the perfon, who violates his faith for the pub¬
lic utility, is always to be candid. Where breach
faith promotes his owm intereft, ought he alone to de-has no right
cide on the validity of his promife ? or where promiles to intrude
are broken for the general good, is he to be guided by fejiernes
his own vifionary fchemes of utility ? Is he to a<ft as the^ubH-'
truftee for the public without any delegated power?
and fhall the community fubmit to his decifions without
fo much as putting the queftion, Who hath made thee
a ruler over us ? When a writer thus deviates fo far
from the path of reafon, it is natural to alk, what was
the igtiis fatuus that milled him ? In the prefent cafe it
is pretty obvious. Being fomething of opinion with
the celebrated Turgot f, that romances are the only | gee
books in which moral principles are treated in an im- book iii.
partial manner, thjs gentleman, in his Chapter ofchaP-
Promifes, feems to have borrowed a part of his morality
from
16
pA private
individual
PRO
Promife. from the doggerels of Butler j
 though from different motives, the political principles
of Sir Hudibras’s fquire, that obedience to civil go¬
vernment is not due becaufe it is promifed, he has come
to exaflly the fame conclufion -with refpeft to the ob¬
ligation of keeping one’s word. But Ralph has rea-
foned with more ingenuity ; and has fliown not only
that the public good, but the glory of the Lord, may
be fometimes promoted by a breach of faith.
* The faints
are God¬
win’s ra¬
tional and
intelligent
beings.
- 17 r
Views of
utility an
unfafe
guide in
morals.
The faints*, whom oaths and vows oblige,
Know little of their privilege 5
Farther, I mean, than carrying on
Some felf-advantage of their own :
For if the dev’l, to ferve his turn,
Can tell truth, why the faints Ihonld fcorn,
When it ferves theirs, to fwear and lie,
I think there’s little reafon why :
Fife h’ has a greater pow’r than they,
Which ’twere impiety to fay :
W’ are not commanded to forbear,
Indefinitely, at all to fwear j
But to fwear idly, and in vain,
Without felf-intereft and gain •,
For breaking of an oath and lying
Is but a kind of felf-denying,
A faint-like virtue 5 and from hence
Some have broke oaths by Providence :
Some, to the glory of the Lord,
Perjur’d themfelves and broke their word
For faints may do the fame thing by
The fpirit, in fincerity,
Which other men are tempted to,
And at the devil’s inftance do.
Hudirras, Canto II.
Here are new views of utility ; which, were they to
be confidered as of any weight, would increafe the dif¬
ficulty of determining when an erroneous promife ought
to be kept.
But (hould views of utility be laid afide, and ftiould
it be made an invariable rule that truth is on no account
to be violated, that deceit is never to be praftifed, and
that moral obligations are not to be diffolved for the
profpeft of any phyfical advantage ; thofe doubts which
arife concerning the validity of erroneous promifes will
foon difappear. Difagreeable perhaps and ridiculous
confequenees may fometimes arife to a few individuals
from an honeft and confcientious adherence to their
promife ; but will any affert that the general good, that
burden of the fong, will ever be endangered by too much
veracity.
So numerous inconveniences arife daily from the re¬
gular operation of thofe great phyfical laws, which are
under the immediate diredtion of Providence, that thofe
philofophers -who have adopted the principle of utility,
and are much furprifed to fee the univerfe fo awkwardly
planned for the eafe and comfort of them and their fpe-
cies, have been under the neceflity of imputing many
events in nature to the malignity of fome evil indepen¬
dent being 5 or of allowing that things have degenera¬
ted fince they firft came from the hands of the Crea¬
tor, and that they muft now be exceedingly altered
from what they had been when He chofe to pronounce
them all very good. Thus, abfurdity or impiety muft
[ 440 ] PRO
and having adopted, always be the confequence of judging of the vice Promife,
and virtue of an aftion by its utility, and of eftima-
ting its utility by our limited views and erroneous con¬
ceptions.
As for extorted promifes, it is curious to obferve
how this queftion ftiould always be ftarted, whether or
not they ought to be kept ? and another queftion
ftiould feldom be thought of, whether or not they ought
to be made ? Fortitude was one of the cardinal virtues, Extorted
among the ancients - and is deemed of fuch importance promit'es.
in the Chriftian fyftem, that the fearful are ciaffed with
the unbelievers, and are thought unworthy of the fa¬
vour of the Deity, as being incapable of fupporting thofe
trials to which heaven expofes the faithful as the trueft ^
left of Chriftian virtue.—If a perfon fliould want the whether
neceflary fortitude to be virtuous, it will be a poor ex- binding or
ciife for his bafenefs, that he has added deceit tq his not.
cowardice : and furely it is not the bufinefs of morality,
when it has found him guilty of one crime, to grant
him a difpenfation for committing two. The laws of
jurifprudence, it will readily be allowed, cannot favour
the claims of the promifee ; becaufe they ought never
to lend their fupport to oppreflion and violence. But
their acquittal, Ihould he violate his faith, will by
no means vindicate the charadter of the promifer.
Their acquitting a woman from the charge of adultery,
goes a ftiort way in reftoring the fair reputation of her
innocence. 1
Let jurifprudence decide as it will, the man of honour
and the generous patriot can never be brought to re-
fpe<ft the perfon who, ftruck with a panic, could betray
either himfelf or his friends. The magnanimous fpirits
who could die for the truth will view with contempt
his pitiful deceit. Thofe unfortunate men who may
fuffer from that very diftruft which the breach of his
faith has begotten, will always deteft him as a traitor
and enemy ; and heaven itfelf cannot be fuppofed to re¬
ward that foldier who deferts her caufe, and relinquiflies
the poll which flic has afligned him, at the fight of dan-
ger.
If we once begin to accommodate morality to the
difpofitions and humours of mankind, it is hard to fay
where this fpecies of complaifanee will end. Ihe de¬
grees of timidity are fo various, and fome tempers by
nature fo yielding, that repeated importunity or an ear¬
ned requeft will extort a promife. _ 20
A young lady, was frequently preffed by her dying Tlie iaws
bufband to grant him a promife that (he would not 0f morality
marry after his death. For fome time Ihe was able to are not to
refill with becoming fpirit his abfurd requeft ; but upon
and
his declaring oftener than once that he could not other- tjie ^
wife die in peace, Ihe complied and promifed. ’Iooni0ursa—
young, however, for this effort of continence, Ihe after-interefts ot
wards liftened to the addreffes of a fecond lover, and mankin .
found her heart infenfibly engaged before flie adverted
to the impropriety of a new attachment. But propo-
fals of marriage could fcarcely fail to remind her of her
promife and awaken her fcruples. Thefe Ihe foon com¬
municated to her lover, with her firm refolution to re¬
main a widow, if the contrary meafure, which ftie
greatly preferred, and on which her earthly happinefs
depended, were not approved by fume fpiritual coun-
fellor.
Upon this declaration it was agreed to take the advice
of their own minifter, who was an eminent diffenting
clergyman
PRO
promlfe. clergyman In the diocefe of Oxford
v ^ man, unwilling to decide in a matter of fuch importance,
propofed to refer it to Dr Seeker, who was then bifliop
of that fee. This prelate too declined to give any judges
ment in the cafe j but, as was his way, muftered up a
number of arguments on each fide of the queftion, and
committed them to a letter, which a learned gentleman
of our acquaintance had fome time ago an opportunity
of feeing in roanufeript.
If the fentiments to which the bilhop was inclined
could have been inferred from his ftatement of argu¬
ments, he feemed to think that the promife was binding.
In our opinion, he ought to have given a pofitive deci-
fion. It was no matter whether the promife was ex¬
torted or not: the promife was made 5 and the queftion
was now, whether or not was the performance lawful ?
That it was lawful appears evident. The lady was un¬
der a moral obligation to remain a widow j and no
moral obligation, fo far as we know, required her to
marry.
To be fruitful and multiply, indeed, is declared in
Scripture, and is found, to the woful experience of many,
to be one of the general laws of our nature. But of
all thofe laws intended by nature to regulate the con-
duft of inferior intelligences, the moral, which were meant
to be checks and correftors of thofe abufes to which
2I the phyfical are apt to be carried, are certainly the moft
Moral laws facred and obligatory. To procreate his fpecies, a man
fuperier to 'IS not then to be guilty of adultery, or of fornication,
phylical m or to m the lewd calls of incontinency. St Paul’s
Isatkm.°b"obfervation, that it is better to marry than burn, _can-
^ ‘ not be allowed in this inftance to have much weight.
He has not defined what degree of amorous inflamma¬
tion conftitutes burning, nor in what cafes this burning
would be a fufficient warrant for marrying. In the
prefent inftance he does not even confider marriage as
a duty •, he compares it with burning, and thinks it on¬
ly the lead of the two evils. Not that marriage is evil
of itfelf} for he that marrieth doth well : but there are
circumftances in which it would be inconvenient to mar¬
ry, and in which he that marrieth not is faid to do bet¬
ter. But if thofe inconveniences be reafons fufficient to
deter from marrying, is that perfon to be held excufable
who, in order to gratify an animal paffion, fomewhat
refined, fhould violate an oath, and trample on a facred
moral obligation ?
The young lady might indeed declare that her earth¬
ly happinefs was at an end if fhe were not permitted to
marry again : but what circumftance prevented her
from marrying ? It was not the opinion of her own
paftor, or the biftiop of Oxford : the truth is, it was
certain fcruples of her own, which being unable of her-
felf to overcome, ffie had pioufly folicited the affiftance
«f others. It is certainly a misfortune that a devotion¬
al and amorous turn ffiould always be fo clofely con-
ne£!ed in the females. Both, however, cannot always
be indulged. Who will fay, that the motive is rational
which inclines one to cheriffi a paffion which conscience
difapproves ? The virtue of continency might indeed
have borne hard on this lady’s conftitution, and in her
way to immortal happinefs might have formed a gate fo
ftrait and narrow as it might be difficult for her to pafs
through : but after all, her cafe was not harder than that
of nuns, who take the vows of perpetual chaftity, and
endure fufferings of a fimilar nature, and in fome inftances
Vol. XVII. Part IL
[ 44* 1 PRO
but this gentle- even perhaps greater than hers j yet doing it cheerfully, PrSmif®
^ ' from the fuppofition that the Omnifcient is well acquaint-
ed with the nature of the great facrifice which they
make, and that after death he will ftudy to requite them,
and beftow on them fomething like an equivalent, which
in their opinion can fcarcely be lefs than a happineis in
heaven as ample as their wifties and as lafting as their
fouls.
Every promife, therefore, which is not releafed, nor
fraudulently obtained by the promifee, is to be held bind¬
ing if the performance be lawful and poffible. _ 23
The Chriftian cannot, and a man of honour will A promife
fcarcely venture to rejeft this maxim, that a good
ought not to change though he fwear to his hurt. Yet™
a fimple promife and a promiflory oath are not very dif¬
ferent in point of obligation. Moft people knorv, and
where any moral duty is concerned, they ought parti¬
cularly to refledl, that this world is governed by an Al¬
mighty Being, who knows all things, who lives always,
and who is juft to reward and to puniffi. The perfort
who makes a promiflory oath does it avowedly under
an immediate fenfe of thefe truths \ the perfon who
makes a fimple promife, though he certainly ought, yet
may not refleft on thefe at the time. The former,
when he violates his oath, exhibits, only to outward
appearance, a greater contempt of the Divine power,
knowledge, and juftice, than he who violates a fimple
promife under an impreffion of the fame truths. To
Him who knows the fecrets of the heart, the breach of
the promife muft appear as criminal as the breach of the
oath. See Assumpsit and Oath.
PROMONTORY, in Geography, a high point of
land or rock proje&ing into the fea j the extremity of
which towards the fea is called a cape or headland.
See Geography Index.
PROMPTER, in the drama, an officer pofted be¬
hind the feenes, whofe bufinefs it is to watch attentively
the affors fpeaking on the ftage, in order to fuggeft and
put them forward when at a ftand, to correft them whea
amifs, &c. in their parts.
PROMULGATED, or Promulged, fomething
publifhed or proclaimed, and generally applied to a
law, to denote the publiftiing or proclaiming it to the
people.
PRONAOS, in ancient archite&ure, a porch to a
church, palace, or other fpacious building. See the ar¬
ticle Porch.
PRONATION, among anatomifts. The radius of
the arm has two kinds of motion, the one called pre>-
nation, the other fupination. Pronation is that where¬
by the palm of the hand is turned downwards ; and fu¬
pination, the oppofite motion thereto, is that whereby
the back of the hand is turned downwards. The pe¬
culiar mufcles whereby pronation is performed, are call¬
ed pronatores, as thofe by which fupination is performed
are termed fupinatores. See Anatomy, Table of th}?
Mufcles, and Plates.
PRONG-Hoe, in husbandry, a term ufed to exprefe
an inftrument ufed to hoe or break the ground near and
among the roots of plants, ^
The ordinary contrivance of the hoe is very defe&ive,
it being only made for feraping on the furface; but the
great ufe of hoeing being to break and open the ground,
befide the killing of the weeds, which the ancients, anti
manv among us, have thought the only ufe of the hoe,
3 K this.
PRO [ 442 ]
Pi’ong-hoe tins dull and blunt inftrument is by no means calculated gibberijh.
Pronuncia ^or ^ PurP°^es ^ *s to ^erve* The prong-hoe confifts of
tion^ two hooked points of five or feven inches long, and when
ftruck into the ground will Itir and remove it the fame
depth as the plough does, and thus anfwer both the ends
of cutting up the weeds and opening the land. It is ufe-
ful even in the horfe-hoeing hufbandry, becaufe the hoe-
plough can only come within three or four inches of the
rows of the corn, turnips, and the like; whereas this in-
flrument may be ufed afterwards, and with it the land
may be raifed and flirted even to the very flalk of the
plant. See Agriculture.
PRONOUN, Pronomen, in Grammar, 2. declinable
part offpeech, which being put inflead of a noun, points
out fome perfon or thing. See Grammar.
PRONUNCIATION, in Grammar, the manner of
articulating or founding the words of a language.
Pronunciation makes the moft difficult part of written
grammar ; in regard that a book expreffing itfelf to the
eyes, in a matter that wholly concerns the ears, feems
next akin to that of teaching the blind to diftinguiffi co¬
lours: hence it is that there is no part fo defective in
grammar as that of pronunciation, as the writer has fre¬
quently no term whereby to give the reader an idea of
the found he would exprefs; for want of a proper term,
therefore, he fubflitutes a vicious and precarious one.
To give a juft idea of the pronunciation of a language,
it feems neceffary to fix as nearly as poffible all the feve-
ral founds employed in the pronunciation of that lan¬
guage. Cicero tells us, that the pronunciation under¬
went feveral changes among the Romans: and indeedit
is more precarious in the living languages, being, as Du
Bos tells us, fubfervient to fafhion in thefe. The French
language is clogged with a difficulty in pronunciation
from which moft others are free; and it confifts in this,
that moft of their words have two different pronuncia¬
tions, the one in common profe, the other in verfe.
As to the pronunciation of the Englifh language, the
ingenious Mr Martin, in his Spelling-Book of Arts and
Sciences, lays down the following rules: 1. The final (e)
lengthens the found of the foregoing vowel; as in can,
cane; rob, robe; tun, tune, &c. 2. The final (e), in words
ending in re, is founded before the r like u; asmajjacre,
maffh-cur; lucre, lu-cur, &c. 3. The Latin diphthongs
ce, ce, are founded like e; as /Etna, Etna, (economy, eco¬
nomy, &c.: but at the end of the words oe founds like 0;
as in toe, foe, &c. 4. Alfo the Englifti improper diph¬
thongs, ea, eo, eu, ue, found only the e and u; as tea or
ts; feoffee or fcffee; due or du; true or tru, &c. though
fometimes eo and ca are pronounced like ee, as in people,
fear, near, &c. 5. Sometimes the diphthong (ze) is
pronounced like e in ceiling, like eein field, and, at the
end of words, always like y, as in lie, &c.; and ei i« pro¬
nounced either like e or rtz'. asin deceit,rcign, &c. 6.The
triphthong eau is pronounced like 0, inbeauandjet d"'eau;
and icu founds like u in lieu, adieu, &c. The found
of c is hard before the vowels a, 0, u, as in call, cold, cup,
&c.; alfo fometimes before/z, as in chart, cold, &c.;
and before /and r, as in clear, creep, &c. It is other-
wife generally foft, asin city, cell,cyder, child. &c. 8. In
French words ch is founded like Jlo, as in chagreen, ma¬
chine; and fometimes like qu, as in choir. 9. 1 he
found of^g is hard before a, o,u,l, r, as in gall, go, gum,
glean,grope; alfo before ui, as in guilt, guild, &c. ; and
before h, as in ghojl; fometimes before z, as in gibbous}
Proof,
PRO
It is alfo generally hard before e, as in Pronuncia.
geld, &c. ; but foft in many words derived from the _tlon>
Greek and Latin, as in geometry, genealogy, genus, &c. ,
Two gg are always hard, as in dagger, &c. The found
of g, when foft, is like that of j. 10. In any part of a
viosd, ph founds like f, as in philofophy, &c. II. The
found of qu, at the end of French words, is like k, as in
rifque, &c. 12. The fyllables ti and ci, if followed by
a vowel, found likey? or Jin; as in fiBion, logician, &c.
13. When cc occurs before i, the firft is hard and the
latter is foft; as in flaccid, &c. 14. The letter p is not
pronounced at the beginning of fyllables before f and t;
as in pfalm, ptarmics, &c. As to other peculiarities re¬
garding the pronunciation of fingle letters, many of them
have been taken notice of at the beginning of each, in
the courfe of this work.
But it is not enough to know the juft pronunciation
of fingle letters, but alfo of words : in order to which,
the accenting of words ought to be well underftood ;
fince nothing is more harlh and difagreeable to the ear,
than to hear a perfon fpeak or read with wrong ac¬
cents. And indeed in Englifti the fame word is often
both a noun and a verb, diilinguiffied only by the ac¬
cent, which is on the firft fyllable of the noun, and on
the laft of the verb ; as ferment and ferment; record
and record, &c. We are to obferve alfo, that in order
to a juft expreffion of words, fome require only a fingle
accent on the fyllable, as in torment, &c.; but in others
it ftiould be marked double, as in am'mal, becaufe it is
pronounced as if the letter was wrote double, viz. anni-
mal.
Mr Sheridan’s Didlionary will be found extremely
ufeful as a direftory in acquiring the pronunciation of
the Englifti language ; but care mull be taken to avoid
his provincial brogue, which has certainly mifled him in
feveral inftances. Mr Walker’s Pronouncing Diction¬
ary, lately publiffied, will likewife deferve the fludent’s
attention. It is a work of great labour and merit, and
is highly ufeful. It has indeed fome faults and inaccu¬
racies, but it is notwithftanding, in all probability, the
belt of the kind.
Pronunciation is alfo ufed for the fifth and laft
part of rhetoric, which confifts in varying and regulat¬
ing the voice agreeably to the matter and words, fo as
moft effeftually to perfuade and touch the hearers. See
Oratory, Part IV.
PROOF, in Law and Logic, is that degree of evi¬
dence which carries conviction to the mind. It differs
from demonftration, which is applicable only to thofe
truths of which the contrary is inconceivable. It dif¬
fers likewife from probability, 'which produces for the
moft part nothing more than opinion, while proof pro¬
duces belief. See PROBABILITY.
The proof of crimes was anciently effeCted among
our anceftors divers ways ; viz. by duel or combat, fire,
water, &c. See DUEL and OrDEAL.
PROOF of Artillery and Small Arms, is a trial whe¬
ther they Hand the quantity of powder allotted for that
purpofe. The rule of the board of ordnance is, that
all guns, under 24-pounders, be loaded with powder as
much as their fliot weighs ; that is, a brafs 24-pounder
with 2f lb. a brafs 32-pounder with 26 lb. 12 oz. and
a 42-pounder with 31 lb. 8 oz. ; the iron 24-pounder
with 18 lb. the 32-pounder with 21 lb. 8 oz. and the
42-pounder with 25 lb.
PRO
443 J
PRO
The brafs light field-pieces are proved with powder
that weighs half as much as their (hot, except the 24-
pounder, which is loaded with 10 lb. only.
Government allows 11 bullets of lead in the pound for
the proof of mulkets and 14.5, or 29 in two pounds, for
fervice j 17 in the pound for the proof of carabines, and
20 for fervice 5 28 in the pound for the proof of piftols,
and 34 for fervice.
When guns of a new metal, or of lighter conftruc-
tion, are proved j then, befides the common proof, they
are fired 200 or 300 times, as quick as they can be,
loaded with the common charge given in adlual fervice.
Our light 6-pounders wrere fired 300 times in 3 hours
27 minutes, loaded with 1 lb. 4 oz. without receiving
any damage.
PROOF of Powder, is in order to try its goodnefs and
ftrength. See Gunpowder.
PROOF of Cannon, is made to afeertain their being
well caft, their having no cavities in their metal, and,
in a word, their being fit to refift the effort of their
charge of powder. In making this proof, the piece is
laid upon the ground, fupported only by a piece of
wood in the middle, of about 5 or 6 inches thick, to
raife the muzzle a little •, and then the piece is fired
againft a folid butt of earth.
Tools ufed in the PROOF of Cannon, are as follows :
Searcher, an iron focket with branches, from 4 to 8
in number, bending outwards a little, with fmall points
at their ends : to this focket is fixed a wooden handle,
from 8 to 12 feet long, and inch in diameter. This
fearcher is introduced into the gun after each firing, and
turned gently round to difeover the cavities within : if
any are found, they are marked on the outfide with
chalk ; and then the
Searcher with one point is introduced : about which
point a mixture of wax and tallow is put, to take the
impreffion of the holes ; and if any are found of one-
fourth of an inch deep, or of any confiderable length,
the gun is rejefted as unferviceable to the government.
4 Reliever, is an iron ring fixed to a handle, by means
of a focket, fo as to be at right angles; it ferves to dif-
engage the firft fearcher, when any of its points are re¬
tained in a hole, and cannot otherwife be got out.
When guns are rejected by the proof-mailers, they or¬
der them to be marked X thus, which the contradors
generally alter IVP thus 5 and after fuch alteration, dif-
pofe of them to foreign powers for Woolwich proof.
The mod curious inftrument for finding the principal
defeds in pieces of artillery, uvas lately invented by Lieu¬
tenant-general Defaguliers, of the royal regiment of ar¬
tillery. This inftrument, grounded on the trued mecha¬
nical principles, is no fooner introduced into the hollow
cylinder of the gun, than it difeovers its defeds, and
more particularly that of the piece not being truly bor¬
ed ; which is a very important one, and to which moft
of the difafters happening to pieces of artillery are in a
great meafiire to be imputed j for, when a gun is not
truly bored, the moft expert artillerift will not be able
to make a good (hot.
Proof of Mortars and Howitzers, is made to afeer¬
tain their being well caft, and of ftrength to refift the
effort of their charge. For this purpofe the mortar or
howitzer is placed upon the ground, with fome part of
their trunnions or breech funk below the furface, and
Proof,-
Propag*-
tion.
refting on wooden billets, at an elevation of about 70
degrees.
The mirror is generally the only inftrument to dif¬
eover the defeds in mortars and howitzers. In order
to ufe it, the fun muft (hine j the breech muft be placed
towards the fun, and the glafs over-againft the mouth
of the piece : it illuminates the bore and chamber fuffi*
ciently to difeover the flaws in it.
PROOF of Foreign Brafs-Artillery, ift, The Pruflians.
Their battering-train and garrifon artillery are proved
with a quantity of powder equal to -J the weight of the
(hot, and fired 75 rounds as fall as in real fervice j that
is, 2 or 3 rounds in a minute. Their light field-train,
from a 12-pounder upwards, are proved with a quantity
of powder — i^d of the weight of the (hot, and fired
150 rounds, at 3 or 4 rounds in a minute. From a 12-
pounder downwards, are proved with a quantity of pow¬
der — I-5th of the (hot’s weight, and fired 300 rounds,
at 5 or 6 rounds each minute, properly fpunged and
loaded. Their mortars are proved with the chambers
full of powder, and the (hells loaded. Three rounds are
fired as quick as poflible.
2d, The Dutch prove all their artillery by firing each
piece 5 times 5 the two firft rounds with a quantity of
powder = 2-3ds of the weight of the {hot j and the
three laft rounds with a quantity of powder rr ^ the
weight of the (hot.
3d, The French the fame as the Dutch.
Proof, in brandy and other fpirituous liquors, is a
little white lather which appears on the top of the li¬
quor when poured into a glafs. This lather, as it dimi-
nifties, forms itfelfinto a circle called by the French the
chapelet, and by the Englfth the bead or bubble.
PROOFS of Prints, were anciently a few imprefllons Nichols's
taken off in the courfe of an engraver’s procefs. He ^0*
proved a plate in different dates, that he might afeertain^
how far his labours had been fuccefsful, and when they
were complete. The excellence of fuch early impref-
fions, worked with care, and under the artift’seye, occa-
fioning them to be greedily fought after, and liberally
paid for, it has been cuftomary among our modern print-
fellers to take off a number of them, amounting perhaps,
to hundreds, from every plate of confiderable value ; and
yet their want of rarenefs has by no means abated their
price. On retouching a plate, it has been alfo ufual, a-
mong the fame confcientious fraternity, to cover the in-
feription, which Avas immediately added after the firft
proofs Avere obtained, Avilh flips of paper, that a number
of fecondary proofs might alfo be created.
Proof, in the fugar trade. See Sugar.
Proofs, in printing. See Printing.
PROPAGATION, the aft of multiplying the kind.
See Generation.
PROPAGATION of Plants. The moft natural and the
moft univerfal Avay of propagating plants is by feeds.
See Plants. But they may alfo be propagated by fets,
pieces, or cuttings, taken from the parent plant. Wil-
Ioavs are very eafily propagated by fets : fuch as rife to
be confiderable timber trees being raifed from fets feA'e'n
or eight feet long, (harpened at their larger ends, which
are thruft into the ground by the fidesof ditches, on the
banks of rivers, or in any moift foil. The falloAV trees
are raifed from fets only three feet long. The plane tree,
mint, dec. may be propagated in the fame Avay. In pro-
3 K 2 viding
PRO
[ 444 1
PRO
?ro|Wgn-
ti<;n
11
Property.
vxding the flips, fprigs, or cuttings, however, care muft
be taken to cut off fuch branches as have knots or joints
two or three inches beneath them : fmall top fprigs of
» two or three years growth are the beft for this operation.
Plants are alfo propagated by parting their roots, each
part of which, properly managed, fends out frelh roots.
Another mode of propagating plants is by layering or
laying the tops of the branches in the ground.
The method of layering is this: Dig a ring-trench
round the ftool, of a depth fuitable to the nature of the
plant; and having pitched upon the (hoots to be layer¬
ed, bend them to "the bottom of the trench (either with
or without plafhing, as may be found mott convenient),
and there peg them faff ; or, putting fome mould upon
them, tread them hard enough to prevent their fpring-
ing up again—fill in the mould—place the top of the
layer in an upright pofture, treading the mould hard
behind it j and cut it carefully off above the firft, fe-
cond, or third eye. Plants are alfo propagated by their
bulbs.
The number of vegetables that may be propagated
from an individual is very remarkable, efpecially in the
moft minute plants. The annual product of one feed
even of the common mallow has been found to be no
lefs than 200,000 •, but it has been proved, by a ttrid
examination into the more minute parts of the vegetable
world, that the common wall mofs produces a much
more numerous offspring. In one of the little heads of
this plant there have been counted 13,824 feeds. Now
allotting to a root of this plant eight branches, and to
each branch fix heads, which appears to be a very
moderate computation, the produce of one feed is
6x13824=182944; and 8x82944 gives 663,552
feeds as the annual produce of one feed, and that fo
fmall that 13824 of them are contained in a capfule,
whofe length is but one-ninth of an inch, its diameter
but one 23d of an inch, and its weight but the 13th part
of a grain.
For the propagation or culture of particular plants,
fee Agriculture.
PROPER, fomething natural and effentially belong¬
ing to any thing.
PROPERTIUS, Sextus Aurelius, a celebrated
Latin poet, born at Mevan.ia, a city of Umbria, now
tailed Bevagna, in the duchy of Spoletto. He went to
Rome after the death of his father, a Roman knight,
who had been put to death by order of Auguftus, for
having followed Antony’s party during the triumvirate.
Propertius in a (hort time acquired great reputation by
his wit and abilities, and had a confiderable (hare in the
efteem of Maecenas and Cornelius Callus. He had alfo
Ovid, Tibullus, Baffus, and the other ingenious men of
his time, for his friends. He died at Rome 19 B. C.
He is printed with almoft all the editions of Tibullus
and Catullus : but the beft edition of him is that which
was given feparately by Janus Brouckhufius at Amfter-
dam, 1702, in 4to, and again in ^lo^cum cuns fe-
cundis ejufdem. We have four books of his Elegies or
Amours with a lady called Hqflia, or Hoflilia, to whom
he gave the name of Cynthia.
PROPERTY, in a general fenfe, is a particular vir¬
tue or quality which nature has beftowed on fome things
exclufive of all others: thus, colour is a property of
light; extenfion, figure, divifibility, and. impenetrabili¬
ty, are properties of body..
Property, in Law, is defcribed to be the higheft Property,
right which a perfon has or can have to any thing. “v“—-4
There is nothing which fo generally (trikes the ima-
gination, and engages the affe&ions of mankind, as the
right of property 5 or that foie and defpotic dominion
which one man claims and exercifes over certain external
things of the world, in total exclufion of the right of any 2
other individual in the univerfe. And yet there are very The origL
few that will give themfelves the trouble to confidtr pal founda.
the original and foundation of this right. Pleafed as^™t0[(tI“e
we are with the poffeflioo, we feem afraid to look back
to the means by which it was acquired, as if fearful ofnot gene.
fome defeat in our title ; or at beft we reft fatisfied with rally con.
the decifion of the laws in our favour, without examin- fi^ered.
ing the reafon or authority upon which thofe laws have
been built. We think it enough that our title is deri¬
ved by the grant of the former proprietor, by defcent
from our anceftors, or by the laft will and teftament of
the dying owner : not caring to reflefi, that (accurate¬
ly and ftri&ly fpeaking) there is no foundation in na¬
ture or in natural law, why a fet of words upon parch¬
ment (hould convey the dominion of land ; why the fon
(hould have a right to exclude his fellow creatures from
a determinate fpot of ground, becaufe his father had
done fo before him ; or why the occupier of a particu¬
lar field or of a jewel, when lying on his death-bed and
no lopger able to maintain poffeflion, (hould be entitled
to tell the reft of the world which of them (hould enjoy
it after him. Thefe inquiries, it muft be owned, would
be ufelefs and even troublefome in common life. It is-
well if the mafs of mankind will obey the laws when
made, without fcrutinizing too nicely into the reafons
of making them. But when law is to be confidered
not only as a matter of pra&ice, but alfo as a rational
fcience, it cannot be improper or ufelefs to examine
more deeply the rudiments and grounds of thefe pofitive
conftitutions of fociety. #
In the beginning of the world, we are informed by -phis rjg},{
holy writ, that the all-bountiful Creator gave to man arifes froai
“ dominion over all the earth ; and over the fi(h of the a divine
« fea, and over the fowl of the air, and over eyery li-gra,lU
“ ving thing that moveth upon the earth.” This is the
only true and folid foundation of man’s dominion. ov@r
external things, whatever airy metaphyfical notions may
have been ftarted by fanciful writers upon this fubjeft.
The earth, therefore, and all things therein, are the ge¬
neral property of all mankind, exclufive of other beings,
from the immediate gift of the Creator. And, while
the earth continued thinly inhabited, it is reafonable to
fuppofe, that all was in common among them, and that
every one took from the public (lock to his own ufe fuch
things as his immediate neceflities required. . 4
Thefe general notions of property were then fufficient The date-
to anfwer all the purpofes of human life ; and might per- of property
haps ft ill have anfwered them, had it been poffible for
mankind to have remained in a ftate of primeval fimpli- v^rldi
city : as may be collefted from the manners of many A-
merican nations, w'hen firft difcovered by the Europe¬
ans ; and from the ancient method of living among the
firft Europeans themfelves, if we may credit either the
memorials of them preferved in the golden age of the
poets, or the uniform accounts given by hiftorians of thofe
times wherein erant omnia comtnunia et indivifa omnibus,
veluti unum cunblis patrimonium ejjet. Not that this Blackft-
communion of goods feemsever to have been applicable,
even.
PRO
[ 445 ]
PRO
Property, even in tlie earlieft ages, to auglit but the fubjlance of
■Y—"’' the thing •, nor could it be extended to the ufe of it. For,
bv the law of nature and reafon, he who firft began to
ufe it, acquired therein a kind of tranfient property,
that lafted fo long as he was ufing it, and no longer :
or, to fpeak with greater precifion, the right of poffef-
fion continued for the fame time only that the aB of pof-
feffion lafted. Thus the ground was in common, and
no part of it was the permanent property of any man in
particular \ yet whoever was in the occupation of any
determinate fpot of it, for reft, for fliade, or the like,
acquired for the time a fort of ownerflup, from which
it would have been unjuft, and contrary to the law of
nature, to have driven him by force ; but the inflant
that he quitted the ufe or occupation of it, another might
feize it without injuftice. Thus alfo a vine or other
tree might be faid to be in common, as all were equal¬
ly entitled to its produce; and yet any private indivi¬
dual might gain the foie property of the fruit, which he
had gathered for his own repaft, A do&rine w'ell illu-
ftrated by Cicero, who compares the world to a great
theatre, which is common to the public, and yet the
place which any man has taken is for the time his own.
Rife of per- But when mankind increafed in number, craft, and
manent ambition, it became neceffary to entertain conceptions
property in mnre permanent dominion ; and to appropriate to in-
T01’8 dividuals, not the immediate ufe only, but the very
lI1SS' fubjlance of the thing to be ufed : otherwife innume¬
rable tumults muft have arifen, and the good order of
the world been continually broken and difturbed, while
a variety of perfons were ftriving who Ihould get the
firft occupation of the fame, thing, or difputing which
of them had a&ually gained it. As human life alfo
grew more and more refined, abundance of convenien-
cies were devifed to render it more eafy, commodious,
and agreeable ; as habitations for ftielterand fafety, and
raiment for warmth and decency. But no man would
be at the trouble to provide either, fo long as he had
only an ufufruftuary property in them, which was to
ceafe the inftant that he quitted pofleftion if, as foon
as he walked out of his tent, or pulled off his garment,
the next ftranger who came by would have a right to
inhabit the one and to w'ear the other. In cafe of ha¬
bitations in particular, it was natural to obferve, that
even the brute creation, to whom every thing elfe was
in common, maintained a permanent property in their
dwellings, efpecially for the prote£Hon of their young j
that the birds of the air had nefts, and the beafts of the
field had caverns, the invafion of which they ejleemed a
very flagrant injuftice, and wouid facnfice their lives to
preferve them. Hence a property wras foon eftablilhed
in every man’s houfe and home-ftall j whichfeem to have
been originally mere temporary huts or moveable cabins,
fuited to the defign of Providence for more fpeedily peo¬
pling the earth, and fuited to the wandering life of their
owners, before any extenfive property in the foil or
ground was eftablilhed. And there can be no doubt,
but that moveables of every kind became fooner appro¬
priated than the permanent fubftantial foil: partly be-
caufe they were more fufceptible of a long occupancy,
which might be continued for months together without
any fenfible interruption, and at length by ufage ripen
into an eftabliftied right; but principally becaufe^ few
of them could be fit for ufe, till improved and meliora¬
ted by the bodily labour of the occupant; which bodily
labour, bellowed upon any fubjedl which before lay in
4
common to all men, is univerfally allowed to give the t
faireft and moft reafonable title to an exclufive property ^
therein. _ r j
The article of food was a more immediate call, and In food^an^
therefore a more early confideration. Such as were not i'aryarticles,
contented with the fpontaneous produft of the earth
fought for a more folid refreflrment in the flelh of beafts,
which they obtained by hunting. But the frequent dif-
appointments incident to that method of provifion indu¬
ced them to gather together fuch animals as were of a
more tame and fequacious nature ; and to eftablilh a per¬
manent property in their flocks and herds, in order to
fuftain themfelves in a lefs precarious manner, partly by
the milk of their dams, and partly by the flefh of the
young. The fupport of thefe their cattle made the ar- 7
tide of water alfo a very important point. And there-Nature of
fore the book of Genefis (the moft venerable monument
of antiquity, confidered merely with a view to hiftory)1 1 ‘
will furnilh us with frequent inftances of violent conten¬
tions concerning wells ; the exclufive property of which
appears to have been eftabliftied in the firft digger or oc¬
cupant,even in fuch places tvhere the ground and herbage
remained yet in common. Thus we find Abraham, who
was but a fojourner, afferting his right to a well in the
country of Abimelech, and exafling an oath for his fe-
curity, “ becaufe he had digged that well.” And Ifaac,
about 90 years afterwards, reclaimed this his father’s
property ; and, after much, contention with the Philx-
ftines, was fuffered to enjoy it in peace.
All this while the foil and pafture of the earth re¬
mained ftill in common as before, and open to every oc¬
cupant : except perhaps in the neighbourhood of towns,
where the neceflity of a foie and exclufive property in
lands (for the fake of agriculture) was earlier felt, and
therefore more readily complied with. Otherwife, when
the multitude, of men and cattle had confumed every
convenience on one fpot of ground, it was deemed a na¬
tural right to feize upon and occupy fuch other lands as
would more eafily fupply their neceffities. This praftice
is ftill retained among the wild and uncultivated nations
that have never been formed into civil ftates, like the
Tartars and others in the.eaft ; where the climate itfelf,
and the boundlefs extent of their territory, confpire to
retain them ftill in the fame favage ftatp of vagrant
liberty, which was univerfal in the earlieft ages, and
which Tacitus informs us continued among the Ger¬
mans till the decline of the Roman empire. We have
alfo a ftriking example of the fame kind in the hifto¬
ry of Abraham and his nephew Lot. When their joint,
fubftance became fo great, that pafture and other con-
veniencies grew fcarce, the natural coniequence was,
that a ftrife arofe between their fervants ; fo that it was
no longer pra6licable to dwell together. Ihis conten¬
tion Abraham endeavoured to compofe : “ Let there
be no ftrife, I pray thee, between thee and me. Is not
the whole land before thee ? Separate thyfelf,. I pray
thee, from me 1 if thou wilt take the left hand, then I
will ’go to the right; or if thou depart to the right
hand, then I will go to the left.” ' This plainly implies
an acknowledged right, in either, to occupy whatever
ground he pleafed, that was not pre-occupied by other ,
tribes. “ And Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all
the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered every where,
even as the garden of the Lord. Then Lot chofe him
all the plain of Jordan, and journeyed eaft j and Abra¬
ham dwelt in the land of Canaan.”
Upon i
PRO
[ 446 ]
PRO
Property. Upon the fame principle was founded the right of
» ' migration, or fending colonies to find out new habita¬
tions, when the mother-country was overcharged with
inhabitants ; which was pra&ifed as well by the Phoe¬
nicians and Greeks, as the Germans, Scythians, and
other northern people. And, fo long as it was confined to
the Hocking and cultivation of defert uninhabited coun-
8 tries, itkept ftri£tly within the limits of the law of nature.
Neceffity of ]^ut as the world by degrees grew more populous, it
a nT of Taws became more difficult to find out new fpots to in-
refpe&ing habit, without encroaching upon former occupants ; and
ft. by conftantly occupying the fame individual fpot, the
fruits of the earth were confirmed, and its fpontaneous
produce deftroyed, without any provifion for a future
fupply or fucceffion. It therefore became necefiary to
purfue fome regular method of providing a conftant fub-
iiftence ; and this neceffity produced, or at leaft pro¬
moted and encouraged, the art of agriculture. And the
art of agriculture, by a regular connection and confe-
quence, introduced and eltabliffied the idea of a more
permanent property in the foil than had hitherto been
received and adopted. It was clear that the earth would
not produce her fruits in fufficient quantities without the
affiftance of tillage $ but who would be at the pains of
tilling it, if another might watch an opportunity to feize
upon and enjoy the produCt of his induftry, art, and la¬
bour ? Had not therefore a feparate property in lands,
as well as moveables, been veiled in fome individuals,
the world mull have continued a forell, and men have
been mere animals of prey ; which, according to fome
philofophers, is the genuine Hate of nature. Whereas
now (fo gracioully has Providence interwoven our duty
and our happinefs together) the refult of this very ne-
iceffity has been the ennobling of the human fpecies, by
giving it opportunities of improving in rational facul¬
ties, as well as of exerting its natural. Neceffity begat
property : and in order to infure that property, recourfe
was had to civil fociety, which brought along with it a
long train of infeparable concomitants Hates, govern¬
ment, laws, puniffiments, and the public exercife of re¬
ligious duties. Thus connected together, it was found
that a part only of fociety was fufficient to provide, by
their manual labour, for the neceffary fubfiflence of all}
and leifure was given to others to cultivate the human
mind, to invent ufeful arts, and to lay the foundations of
fcience.
The only queHion remaining is, How this property
became aClually veiled 5 or what it is that gave a man
an exclufive right to retain in a permanent manner that
fpecific land which before belonged generally to every
body, but particularly to nobody ? And as we before
obferved, that occupancy gave the right to the temporary
life of the foil; fo it is agreed upon all hands, that oc¬
cupancy gave alfo the original right to the permanent
property in the fubjlance of the earth itfelf, which ex¬
cludes every one elfe but the owner from the ufe of it.
There is indeed fome difference among the writers on
natural law, concerning the reafon why occupancy ffiould
convey this right, and inveff one with this abfolute pro¬
perty : Grotius and Puffendorf infilling, that this right
of occupancy is founded upon a tacit and implied af-
fent of all mankind, that the firff occupant ffiould be¬
come the owner •, and Barbeyrac, Titius, Mr Locke,
and others, holding that there is no fuel) implied affent,
neither is it neceffary that there ffiould be j for that the
very a£t of occupancy, alone, being a degree of bodily
3
Property
acquired
firft by oc¬
cupancy.
labour, is from a principle of natural juHice, without any Property
confent or compadl, fufficient of itfelf to gain a title. A * ~
difpute that favours too much of nice and fcholaltic re¬
finement. However, both fides agree in this, that oc¬
cupancy is the thing by which the title was in fa£t ori¬
ginally gained j every man feizing to his ow n continu¬
ed ufe fuch fpots of ground as he found molt agreeable
to his own convenience, provided he found them unoc¬
cupied by any one elfe. IO
Property, both in lands and moveables, being thus By what
originally acquired by the firff taker, which taking means it is
amounts to a declaration, that he intends to appropriate P^e^ve<*
the thing to his own ufe, it remains in him, by the prin¬
ciple of univerfal law, till fuch time as he does fome
other aft which fliows an intention to abandon it j for
then it becomes naturally fpeaking, publicijuris once
more, and is liable to be again appropriated by the next
occupant. So if one is poffeffed of a jewel, and caffs it
into the fea or a public highway, this is fuch an exprefs
dereliftion, that a property will be veiled in the firft
fortunate finder that ftiall feize it to his own ufe. But
if he hides it privately in the earth, or other fecret place,
and it is difeovered, the finder acquires no property
therein ; for the owner had not by this aft declared
any intention to abandon it, but rather the contrary : and
if he lofes or drops it by accident, it cannot be collefted
from thence that he defigned to quit the poffeffion j and
therefore in fuch cafe the property Hill remains in the
lofer, who may claim it again of the finder. And this,
we may remember, is the doftrine of the Englilh law
with relation to TREASURE-Trove.
But this method of one man’s abandoning his pro¬
perty, and another feizing the vacant poffeffion, hov'-
ever urell-founded in theory, could not long fubfiit in
faft. It was calculated merely for the rudiments of
civil fociety, and neceffarily ceafed among the compli¬
cated interells and artificial refinements of polite and
eftabliffied governments. In thefe it was found, that
what became inconvenient or ufelefs to one man, was
highly convenient and ufeful to another; who v'as rea-
dy to give in exchange for it fome equivalent that was
equally defirable to the former proprietor. This mu¬
tual convenience introduced commercial traffic, and
the reciprocal transfer of property by fale, grant, or
conveyance : which may be confidered either as a con¬
tinuance of the original poffeffion which the firft occu¬
pant had •, or as an abandoning of the thing by the
prefent owner, and an immediate fucceffive occupancy
of the fame by the new proprietor. The voluntary de¬
reliftion of the owner, and delivering the poffeffion to
another individual, amount to a transfer of the proper¬
ty ; the proprietor declaring his intention no longer to
occupy the thing himfelf, but that his own right of oc¬
cupancy ftiall be veiled in the new acquirer. Or, taken
in the other light, if I agree to part with an acre of my
land to Titius, the deed of conveyance is an evidence
of my intending to abandon the property ; and Titius,
being the only or firft man acquainted with fuch my
intention, immediately Heps in and feizes the vacant pof¬
feffion : thus the confent expreffed by the conveyance
gives Titius a good right againft me ; and pofleffion or
occupancy confirms that right againft all the world be-
fides. _ _ . HowVt
The molt univerfal and effeftual way of abandoning roes on tiie
property is by the death of the occupant : ■' hen, both death of
the aftual poffeffion and intention 01 ’ nn g poife.
'^■r. ihe occu-
, • ant.
PRO [ 447 ]
Property, fion ceafing, the property, which is founded upon fuch into general law
poffeflion and intention, ought alio to ceafe of courfe.
For, naturally fpeaking, the inftant a man ceafes to be,
he ceafes to have any dominion : elfe, if he had a right
to difpofe of his acquifitions one moment beyond his life,
lie would alfo have a right to direft their difpofal for a
million of ages after him •, which would be highly ab-
furd and inconvenient (a). All property muft there¬
fore ceafe upon death, confidering men as a'ofolute indi¬
viduals, and unconnefled with civil fociety : for then,
by the principles before eftablifhed, the next immediate
occupant would acquire a right in all that the deceafed
poflefled. Rut as, under civilized governments, which
are calculated for the peace of mankind, fuch a confti-
tution would be productive of endlefs difturbances, the
univerfal law of almolt every nation (which is a kind of
fecondary law of nature) has either given the dying per-
fon a power of continuing his property, by difpofing of
his polfeffions by will *, or, in cafe he negleCts to difpofe
of it, or is not permitted to make any difpofition at all,
the municipal law of the country then fteps in, and de¬
clares who fhall be the fucceffor, reprefentative, or heir
of the deceafed 5 that is, who alone (hall have a right to
enter upon this vacant poffeflion, in order to avoid that
confufion which its becoming again common would oc-
cafion. And farther, in cafe no teftament be permitted
by the law, or none be made, and no heir can be found
fo qualified as the law requires, (fill, to prevent the re¬
buff title of occupancy from again taking place, the doc¬
trine of efeheats is adopted in almoft every country ;
whereby the fovereign of the (fate, and thofe who claim
under his authority, are the ultimate heirs, and fucceed
to thofe inheritances to which no other title can be
formed.
The right of inheritance, or defeent to the children
and relations of the deceafed, feems to have been allow¬
ed much earlier than the right of devifing by teftament.
We are apt to conceive at the firft view that it has na¬
ture on its fide ; yet we often miftake for nature what
we find eftabliftied by long and inveterate cuftom. It
is certainly a wife and effe&ual, but clearly a political,
eftabliftiment ; fince the permanent right of property,
veiled in the anceftor himfelf, was no natural, but mere¬
ly a civil, right. It is true, that the tranfmifficvn of one’s
poffeflions to pofterity has an evident tendency to make
a man a good citizen and a ufeful member of fociety :
it fets the paflions on the fide of duty, and prompts a
man to deferve well of the public, when he is fure that
the reward of his fervices will not die with himfelf, but
be tranfmitted to thofe with whom he is connefted by
the deareft and moft tender affections. Yet, reafonable
as this foundation of the right of inheritance may feem,
it is probable that its immediate original arofe not from
fpeculations altogether fo delicate and refined, and, if
not from fortuitous circumftances, at leaft from a plainer
and more fimple principle. A man’s children or neareft
relations are ufually about him on his death-bed, and
are the earlieft witneffes of his deceafe. They became
therefore generally the next immediate occupants, till
at length in procefs of time this frequent ufage ripened
12
tfthe right
f inheri-
mce.
PRO
And therefore alfo in the earlieft Property,
ages, on failure of children, a man’s fervants born under v "
his roof were allowed to be his heirs j being immediate¬
ly on the fpot when he died. For we find the old pa¬
triarch Abraham exprefsly declaring, that “ fince God
had given him no feed, his fteward Eliezer, one born in
his houfe, was his heir.” ^
While property continued only for life, teftaments Laft wills
were ufelefs and unknown j and when it became inhe- or tefta-
ritable, the inheritance was long indefeafible, and thements
children or heirs at law were incapable of exclufion by
will. Till at length it was found, that fo ftriCt a rule
of inheritance made heirs difobedient and headftrong,
defrauded creditors of their juft debts, and prevented
many provident fathers from dividing or charging their
eftates as the exigence of their families required. This
introduced pretty generally the right of difpofing of
one’s property, or a part of it, by tejlament; that is, by
written or oral inftruftions properly witnej/ed and au¬
thenticated, according to the pleafure of the deceafed j
which we therefore emphatically ftyle his will. This
was eftablilhed in fome countries much later than in
others. In England, till modern times, a man could
only difpofe of one-third of his moveables from his wife
and children ; and in general, no will was permitted of
lands till the reign of Henry VIII. and then only of a
certain portion j for it was not till after the Reftoration
that the power of devifing real property became fo uni¬
verfal as at prefent.
Wills, therefore, and teftaments, rights of inheritance, are crea-
and fucceflions, are all of them creatures of the civil or tPr.es d1®
municipal law's, and accordingly are in all refpe£ls re-clvl*.°f ,
gulated by them ; every diftimft country having differ-iawSt 1
eat ceremonies and requifites to make a teftament com¬
pletely valid ; neither does any thing vary more than Black/}.
the right of inheritance under different national eftablifh- Comment.
ments. In England particularly, this diverfity is carri¬
ed to fuch a length, as if it had been meant to point out
the power of the laws in regulating the fucceflion to
propertv, and how futile every claim muft be that has
not its foundation in the pofitive rules of the ftate. In
perfonal eftates, the father may fucceed to his children;
in landed property, he never can be their immediate heir
by any the remoteft poflibility : in general, only the eld-
eft fon, in fome places only the youngeft, in others all
the fons together, have a right to fucceed to the inberi--
tance : In real eftates, males are preferred to females,
and the eldeft male will ufually exclude the reft ; in the
divifion of perfonal eftates, the females of equal degree
are admitted together with the males, and no right of
primogeniture is allowed. r~
This one confideration may help to remove the Scruples
fcruples of many well-meaning perfons, who fet up are^Pc<fting
• n 1 r • • r.?* . .1 1 r i heritable
miftaken confcience in oppofition to the rules of law.
If a man difinherits his fon, by a will duly executed, jenj0ve£^
and leaves his eftate to a ftranger, there are many who
confider this proceeding as contrary to natural juftice ;
while others fo fcrupuloufly adhere to the fuppofed in¬
tention of the dead, that if a will of lands be attefted
by only two witneffes inftead of three, which the law
requires,
(a) This right, inconvenient as it certainly is, the law of Scotland gives to every man over his real eftate, by
autliorifing him to entail it on his heirs for ever, See Law, clxxx. 9, 10, 11, and Iailzie,
PRO
t
PRO
Property.
requires, they are apt to imagine that the heir is
bound in confcience to relinquifti his title to the devi-
fee. But both of them certainly proceed upon very er¬
roneous principles : as if, on the one hand, this fon had
by nature a right to fucceed to his father’s lands 5 or
if, on the other hand, the owner was by nature
xS
Of things
that are
mon
entitled to direft the fuccefiion of his property after
his own deceafe. Whereas the law of nature fuggefts,
that on the death of the pofftflor, the eflate fhould
again become common, and be open to the next occu¬
pant, unlefs otherwife ordered, for the fake of civil
peace, by the pofitive law of fociety. 1 he pofitive
law of fociety, which is with us the municipal laws of
England and Scotland, dire&s it to veil in fuch perfon
as the laft proprietor (hall by will, attended with certain
requifites, appoint *, and, in defeat of fuch appointment,
to go to fome particular perfon, who from the refult of
certain local conftitutions, appears to be the heir at
law. Hence it follows, that, where the appointmentjs
regularly made, there cannot be a fliadow of right in
any one but the perfon appointed •, and, where the ne-
celTary requifites are omitted, the right of the heir is
equally Itrong, and built upon as folid a foundation, as
the right of the devifee would have been, fuppofing fuch
requifites were obferved.
But, after all, there are fome few things, which not-
uiau withftanding the general introdu&ion and continuance
ftill in com-of property, mutf ftill unavoidably remain in common j
being fuch wherein nothing but an ufufruftuary pro¬
perty is capable of being had : and therefore they ftill
belong to the firft occupant, during the time he holds
pofleflion of them, and no longer. Such (among others)
are the elements of light, air, and water j which a man
may occupy by means of his windows, his gardens,
his mills, and other conveniences ; fuch alfo are the
generality of thofe animals which are laid to be feicc
nalur#, or of a wild and untameable difpofition *, which
any man may feize upon and keep for his own ufe or
pleafure. All thefe things, ft) long as.they remain in
poffelfion, every man has a right to enjoy without dif-
turbance $ but if once they efcape from his cuftody, or
he voluntarily abandons the ufe of them, they return to
the common ftock, and any other man has an equal
right to feize and enjoy them afterwards.
off ••,ar Again, there are other things in which a permanent
things property may fubfift not only as to the temporary ufe,
•whieh have but alfo the folid fubftance 5 and which yet would be
been ap- frequently found without a proprietor, had not the wif-
cropriated. (jom of the jaw provided a remedy to obviate this in¬
convenience. Such are forefts and other wafte grounds,
which were omitted to be appropriated in the general
diftribution of lands : fueh alfo are wrecks, eltrays, and
that fpecies of wild animals, which the arbitrary con¬
ftitutions of pofitive law have diftinguilhed from the
rreft by the well-known appellation of game. With re¬
gard to thefe and fome others, as difturbances and quar¬
rels would frequently arife amcmg individuals contend¬
ing about the acquifition of this fpecies of property by
firft occupancy, the law has therefore wifely cut up
the root of diffenfion, by veiling the things,themfelves
in the lovereign of the ft ate } or elfe in his.reprefenta-
tives appointed and authorifed by him, being ufually
the lords of manors. And thus our legiflature. has uni-
verfally promoted the grand ends of civil .fociety, the
peace and fecurity of individuals, by fteadily purfuing
ri7.
44-8 ] .
that wife and orderly maxim, of aftigning to every Property,
thing capable of ownerlhip a legal and determinate
owner. _ is
In this age of paradox and innovation, much has The reafon..
been faid of liberty and equality; and fome few have ing of thofti
contended for an equalization of property. . One of^cf°"'ar
the wildeft declaimers on this fubjeft, who is for abo-equalizra_ar
lilhing property altogether, has (inadvertently we fup- tion of pr»-
pofe) given a complete confutation, not only of hisperty.
own arguments, but alfo of the arguments of all who
have written, or, we think, can write, on the fame fide
of the queftion. After labouring to prove that it is
grofs injuftice in any man to retain more than is
abfolutely neceffary to fupply him with food, clothes,
and Ihelter, this zealous reformer ftates an objedion to
his theory, arifing from the well-known allurements of
Doth, which, if the accumulation of property were not
permitted, would banifh induftry from the whole world.
The objection he urges fairly, and anfwers it thus: “It
may be obferved, that the equality for which we are
pleading is an equality that would fucceed to a ftate
of great intellectual improvement. So bold a revolu¬
tion cannot take place in human affairs, till the general
mind has been highly cultivated. The prefent age of
mankind is greatly enlightened j but it is to be feared
is not yet enlightened enough. Hafty and undigefted
tumults may take place, under the idea of an equaliza¬
tion of property j but it is only a calm and clear con¬
viction of juftice, of juftice mutually to be rendered and
received, of happinefs to be produced by the defertion of
our mojl rooted habits, that can introduce an invariable
fyftem of this fort. Attempts without this preparation
will be productive only of confufion. Their effeCt will
be momentary, and a new and more barbarous inequali¬
ty will fucceed. Each man with unaltered appetite will
watch his opportunity to gratify his love of power,.or
his love of diftinCtion, by ufurping on his inattentive
neighbours.” 19
Thefe are juft obfervations, and fuch as we have of-The effe£
ten made to ourfelves on the various propofed reforma- oi igmv
tions of government. The illumination which the au* homin'da-
thor requires before he would introduce his abolition l)f ture
property, would conftitute men more than angels j for
to be under the influence of no paffion or appetite, and
to be guided in every aCtion by unmixed benevolence
and pure intelled, is a degree of perfeaion which we
can attribute to no being inferior to God. But it is
the objeCt of the greater part of this writer’s book to
prove that all men muft arrive at fuch perfection be¬
fore his ideal republic can contribute to their happi¬
nefs 5 and therefore every one who is confcious of be-
ino- at any time fwayed by paffion, and who feels that
he& is more attached to his wife or children than to
ftrangers, will look without envy to the prefect inequa¬
lities of property and power, if he be an intelligent
difciple of Mr Godwin.
.Literary PROPERTT. See COPT-Right. , Derm-tion.
PROPHECY is a rvord derived from Trgotpyleice, and
■in its original import fignifies the prediction of future
As God alone can perceive with certainty the future prophecy
-aCtioas of free agents, and the remote confequences of proves a
thofe laws of nature which he himfelf eftablifhed, Pro' communlol
phecy, when clearly fulfilled, affords the moft-convincing Wltj1
evidence of an intimate and fupernatural communion Deity.
between
PRO
tended to
it.
The word
in Scrip-
» Ch. vl
ver. 7.
■}■ r Cor.
ch. xiv.
Ter. 3.
Prophecy. ^ between God and the perfon who uttered the predic-
tion. 1 ogether with the power of working miracles,
it is indeed the only evidence which can be given of fuch
The ^ro a communion. Hence among the profeflbrs of every re-
feflhrTof Kg1™3 fvftem, except that which is called the religion
all religions of nature, there have been numberlefs pretenders to
have pre- the gift of prophecy. The Pagan nations of antiquity
had their oracles, augurs, and foothfayers. Modern
idolaters have their necromancers and diviners; and the
Jews, Chriftians, and Mahometans, have their feers and
prophets.
The ill-founded pretenfions of paganifm, ancient and
modern, have been expofed under various articles of
this work. (See Divination, Magic, Necroman¬
cy, and Mythology). And the claims of the Ara¬
bian impoftor are examined under the articles Alco¬
ran and Mahometanism ; fo that at prefent tfe have
only to confider theufe, intent, and truth, of the Jewilh
and Chriftian prophecies.
Previous to our entering on this inveftigation, it may
be proper to obferve, that in the Scriptures of the Old
Tashmcan*an(* ^eW ’J'e^aments) the fignification of the word pro-
rioas mean- phecy js not a|ways confineci to t|5e foretelling of fu¬
ture events. In feveral inftances it is of the fame im¬
port with preaching, and denotes the faculty of illu-
flrating and applying to prefent practical purpofes the
do&rines of prior revelation. Thus in Nehemiah it is
faid, “ Thou haft appointed prophets to preach*;” and
whoever fpeaketh unto men to edification, and exhorta¬
tion, and comfort, is by St Paul called a prophet *.
Hence it was that there were fchools of prophets in
Ifrael, where young men were inftrufted in the truths
of religion, and fitted to exhort and comfort the people.
In this article, however, it is chiefly of importance to
confine ourfelves to that kind of prophecy which, in
declaring truths either paft, prefent, or future, required
the immediate infpiration of God.
Every one who looks into the hiftory of the world
muft obferve, that the minds of men have from the be¬
ginning been gradually opened by a train of events ftill
improving upon, and adding light to each other ; as
that of each individual is, by proceeding from the firft
elements and feeds of fcience, to more enlarged views,
and a ftill higher growth. Mankind neither are nor
ever have been capable of entering into the depths of
knowledge at once ; of receiving a whole fyftem of na¬
tural or moral truths together ; but muft be let into
them by degrees, and have them communicated by little
and little, as they are able to bear it. That this is the
cafe with refpedl to human fcience, is a facf which can¬
not be queftioned ; and there is as little room to que-
ftion it with refpecft to the progrefs of religious know¬
ledge among men, either taken colle£l;ively or in each
individual. Why the cafe is thus in both, why all are
not adult at once in body and mind, is a queftion which
the religion of nature is equally called upon with reve¬
lation to anfwer. The fa<ft may not be eafily accounted
for, but the reality of it is incontrovertible.
Accordingly, the great objeft of the feveral revela-
^ons recorded in the Old Teftament was evidently to
Teftament ^eeP alive a fenfe of religion in the minds of men, and
^adual. to train them by degrees for the reception of thofe
Ample but fublime truths by which they were to be fa-
ved. The notions which the early defeendants of A-
dam entertained of the Supreme Being, and of the re-
Vox. XVII. Part II.
[ 449 1
PRO
„ . S
Science and
relidon
gradually
acquired.
3
tHie reve¬
lations of
the Old
lation in which they flood to him, were probably very Prophecy^
grofs; and we fee them gradually refined by a feries of' 1 *
revelations or prophecies, each in fucceflion more ex¬
plicit than that by which it was preceded, till the ad¬
vent of Him who was the way, the truth, and the life,
and who brought to light life and immortality. j
When a revelation was made of any important truth, Prophesy
the grounds of which the mind of man has not facui- a*wr,ys al¬
lies to comprehend, that revelation, though undoubt-
edly a prophecy, muft have been fo far from confirm-cles,
ing the truth of revealed religion in general, that it
could not gain credit itfelf, but by fome extrinfic evi¬
dence that it came indeed from God. Hence we find
Mofes, after it was revealed to him from the burning
bulh that he fhould deliver his countrymen from Egyp¬
tian bondage, replying, Behold, they will not believe
me, nor hearken to my voice ; for they will fay, the
Lord hath not appeared unto thee.” This revelation
certainly conftituted him a prophet to Ifrael; and there
cannot be a doubt but that he perfeflly knew the divine
fource from which he received it: but he very naturally
aud reafonably concluded, that the children of Ifrael
would not believe that the Lord had appeared to him,
unlefs he could give them fome other proof of this pre¬
ternatural appearance than his own fimple affirmation of
its reality. This proof he was immediately enabled to
give, by having conferred upon him the power of work¬
ing miracles in confirmation of his prophecy. Again,
when Gideon was called to the deliverance of Ifrael,
the angel of the Lord came and faid unto him, “ The
Lord is with thee, thou mighty man of valour : go in this
thy might, and thou (halt fave Ifrael from the hand of
the Midianites. Have not I fent thee ?” Here was a
prophecy delivered by the angel of the Lord to en¬
courage Gideon’s undertaking: but he, being probably
afraid of fome illufion of fenfe or imagination, demand¬
ed a fign that he was really an angel who talked with
him. A fign is accordingly given him, a miraculous
fign, with which he is fatisfied, and undertakes the work
appointed him. g
From thefe and many fimilar tranfa&ions recorded and of it-
in the Old Teftament, it appears that prophecy was never ^ can he
intended as evidence of an original revelation. It is^P™^
indeed, by its very nature, totally unfit for fuch a pur-iatien.
pofe ; becaufe it is impoffible, without fome extrinfic
proof of its divine origin, to know whether any pro¬
phecy be true or falfe, till the era arrive at which it ought
to be fulfilled. When it is fulfilled, it affords complete
evidence- that he who uttered it fpake by the fpirit of
God, and that the do£lrines which he taught of a reli¬
gious nature, were all either dilated by the fame fpirit,
or at leaft are trpe, and calculated to dire£t mankind in
the way of their duty.
The prophecies vouchfafed to the patriarchs in the it •
moft early periods of the world, were all intended to tended to
keep alive in their minds a lenfe of religion, and to di-Pre^rve a
re£t their views to the future completion of that
and greateft prophecy which was made to Adam itn’-mong mtIJ,
mediately on his fall : but in order to fecure credit to
thofe prophecies themfelves, they were always accom¬
panied by fome miraculous fign that they were indeed
given by the God of truth, and not the delufions of
fanaticifm or hypocrify. Prophecy, in the proper fenfe
of the word, commenced with the fall ; and the firfl
inftance of it is implied in the fentence denounced upon
3 B the'
$ .
was
FRO
t 45° J
PRO
IO
Probable
effedts of
the fii ft
prophecy
on our firft
parents.
Prophecy, the original deceiver of mankind j u I will put enmity
m~‘ between thee and the woman, and between thy feed
and her feed : It lliall bruife thy head, and thou (halt
bruife his heel.”
This prophecy, though one of the moll important
that ever was delivered, when confidered by it fell, is ex¬
ceedingly obfcure. That Adam Ihould have under-
flood it, as fome of his degenerate fons have pretended
to do, in a literal fenfe, is abfolutely impoflible. He
knew well that it was the great God of heaven and
earth who was fpeaking, and that fuch a Being was
incapable of trifling with the wretchednefs of his fallen
creature. The fentence denounced upon himfelf and
his wife was awful and fevere. The woman was doom¬
ed to forrow in conception ; the man to forrow and
travel all the days of his life. The ground wTas cur-
fed for his fake ; and the end of the judgment was,
u Dull thou art, and to dull thou (halt return.” Had
our firit parents been thus left, they mull; have looked
upon themfelves as rejected by their Maker, delivered
up to trouble, and forrow in the world, and as having no
hope in any other. With fuch impreflions on their minds
they could have retained no fenfe of religion •, for reli¬
gion, when unaccompanied by hope, is a Hate of frenzy
and diftraftion : yet it is certain that they could have no
hope from any thing exprefsly recorded by Mofes, ex¬
cept what they might draw from this fentence palled
on their deceiver. Let us then endeavour to afcertain
what confolation it could afford them.
At that awful juncture, they mufl: have been fenfible
that their fall was the vidlory of the ferpent, whom by
experience they had found to be an enemy to God and
to man. It could not therefore but be fome comfort
to them to hear this enemy firft condemned, and to fee
that, however he had prevailed againft them, he had
gained no viflory over their Maker. By his condem¬
nation they were fecured from thinking that there was
any malignant being equal to the Creator in power and
dominion j an opinion which, through the prevalency of
evil, gained ground in after times, and was deftruftive
of all true religion. The belief of God’s fupreme do¬
minion being thus preferved, it was ftill neceffary to
give them fuch hopes as might induce them to love as
well as to fear him •, and thefe they could not but con¬
ceive wheq they heard from the mouth of their Creator
and Judge, that the ferpent’s viftory was not complete
even over themfelves ; that they and their pofterity
Ihould be enabled to con tell his empire j and that
though they were to fuflfer much in the flruggle, they
Ihould yet finally prevail, bruife the ferpent’s head, and
deliver themfelves from his power and dominion.
This prophecy therefore was to our firfl: parents a
light Ihining in a dark place. All that they could
certainly conclude from it was, that their cafe was not
defperate j that iome remedy, fome deliverance from the
evil they were under, would in time appear j but when or
where, or by what means they were to be delivered, they
could not poflibly underftand, unlefs the matter was
further revealed to them, as probably it was at the infti-
tution of facrifice (fee Sacrifice). Obfcure, how¬
ever, as this promife or prophecy was, it ferved after
the fall as a foundation for religion, and truft and con¬
fidence towards God in hopes of deliverance in time
from the evils of difobedience : and this appears to have
been the foie purpofe. for which it was given, and not,
as fome well-meaning though weak advocates for Chrif- Proptiecy.
tianity have imagined, as a predi&ion pointing direBhj /—o
to the crofs of Chrift.
As this prophecy was the nrft, fo is it the only con-
fiderable one in which we have any concern from the
creation to the days of Noah. It was proportioned to
the then wants and neceflities of the world, and was the
grand charter of God’s mercy after the fall. Nature
had no certain help for finners j her rights were loft
with her innocence. It was therefore neceffary either
to deftroy the offenders, or to raife them to a capacity
of falvation, by giving them fuch hopes as might ena¬
ble them to exercife a realonable religion. So far the
light of this prophecy extended. By what means God
intended to work their falvation, he did not exprefsly
declare : and who has a right to complain that he did
not, or to prefcribe to him rules in dilpenfing his mercy
to the children of men l .11
Upon the hopes of mercy which this prophecy gives The curfe
in very general terms, mankind refted till the birth of removed
Noah. At that period a new prophecy was delivered tron^e
by Lamech, who foretels that his fon Ihould comfort*1 jun
them concerning the work and toil of their hands,
“ becaufe of the earth which the Lord had curfed.'1'1 W e
are to remember that the curfo pronounced upon the
earth was part of the fentence paffed upon our firft pa¬
rents j and when that part was remitted if it ever was
remitted, mankind would acquire new and more lively
hopes that in God’s good time they fhould be freed from
the whole. But it has been Ihown by Bilhop Sherlock *, *
that this declaration of Lamech’s was a prediftion, \\\al
during the life of his fon the curfe Ihould be taken off
from the earth : and the fame prelate has proved with
great perfpicuity, and in the moft fatisfaftory manner,
that this happy revolution aftually took place after
the flood. The limits prefcribed to an article of this
kind will not permit us even to abridge his arguments.
We (hall only obferve, that the truth of his conclufion
is manifeft from the very words of fcripture j for when
God informs Noah of his defign to deftroy the world.,
he adds, “ But with thee will I eftabliflimy covenant:”
and as foon as the deluge was over, he declared that he
“ would not again curfe the ground any more for man s
fake •, but that while the earth ftiould remain, feed-time
and harveft, and cold and heat, and fummer and winter,
and day and night, fliould not ceafe.” From this laft
declaration it is apparent that a curfe had been on the
earth, and that feed-time and harveft had often failed j
that the curfe was now taken off •, and that in confe-
quence of this covenant, as it is called, with Noah and
his feed and with every living creature, mankind fliould
not henceforth be fubjefted to toil fo fevere and fo gene¬
rally fruitlefs. is
It may feem furprifing perhaps to fome, that alter fo A future
great a revolution in the world as the deluge made, life not ^
God Ihould fay nothing to the remnant of mankind reJ
the punilhments and rewards of another life, but Ikould vcajttji
make a new covenant with them relating merely to fruit¬
ful le'afons and the bleffmgs of the earth. But in the
fcriptures we fee plainly a gradual working of provi¬
dence towards the redemption of the world from the
curfe of the fall; that the temporal bleffmgs were firft
reftored as an earneft and pledge of better things to
follow *, and that the covenant given to Noah had,
ftri£Uy fpeaking, nothing to do with the hopes of futuri-
P R
Prophecy, ty, winch were referved to be the matter of another
v—covenant, in another age, and to be revealed by him,
whofe province it was to “ bring life and immortality
to light through the gofpel.” But if Noah and his
forefathers expefted deliverance from the whole curfe of
the fall, the a&ual deliverance from one part of it was
a very good pledge of a further deliverance to be ex¬
pected in time. Man himfelf was curfed as well as the
ground j he was doomed to duft : and fruitful feafons
are but a {mall relief compared to the greatnefs of his
lofs. But when fruitful feafons came, and one part of
the ciirfe was evidently abated, it gave great affurance
that the other ihould not laft for ever, but that by
fome means, ft ill unknown to them, they {hould be
freed from the whole, and finally bruife the ferpent’s
head, who, at the deluge, had fo feverely bruifed man’s
heel.
Upon this afturance mankind refted for fome genera¬
tions, and praftifed, as we have every reafon to believe,
a rational worftiip to the one God of the univerfe. At
laft, however, idolatry was by fome means or other in¬
troduced (fee Polytheism), and fpread fo univerfally
through the world, that true religion Would in all pro¬
bability have entirely failed, had not God vifibly inter-
pofed to preferve fuch a fenfe of it as was neceffary for
the accompliftrment of his great defign to reftore man¬
kind. This he did by calling Abraham from amidft
his idolatrous kindred, and renewing to him the word
of propheey : “ Get thee out of thy country (faid he),
and from thy kindred, and from thy father’s houfe,
unto a land that I will ftiew thee. And I will make of
thee a great nation, and I will blefsthee, and make thy
name great; and thou (halt be a blefling. And I will
blefs them that blefs thee, and curfe him that curfeth
thee ; and in thee (hall all the families of the earth be
blefled.” Thefe magnificent promifes are feveral times
repeated to the father of the faithful with additional cir-
cumftances of great importance, fuch as, “ that he Ihould
be multiplied exceedingly; that he ftiould be a father
of many nations-, that kings ftrould come out of him
and above all, that God would eftablifti an everlajling
covenant with him and his feed, to give him and them
all the land of Canaan for an everlajiing pojftjjion^ and
to be their God.'*'*
Upon fuch of thefe promifes as relate to tempo¬
ral bleflings we need not dwell. They are much of
the fame nature with thofe which had been given be¬
fore to Lamech, Noah, Shem, and Japheth ; and all
the world knows how amply and literally they have
been fulfilled. There was, however, fo little probability
in nature of their accompliftiment at the time when they
were made, that we ftnd the patriarch alking, “Where¬
by he ftiould know\ that he fhould inherit fuch an ex-
*• &c. tent of country ?” And as the promifes that he ftiould
f 451 1
PRO
*3
romife to
ikahara.
jenefis
inherit it were found to be a foundation for religion Prophecy,
and confidence in God, a miraculous fign was given him "v
that they came indeed from the fpirit of truth. This
removed from his mind every doubt, and made him give
the fulleft credit, not only to them, but alfo to that
other promife, “ that in his feed ftiould all the nations
of the earth be blefled.”
What diftinft notion he had of this blefling, or in
what manner he hoped it ftiould be effected, we cannot
pretend to fay. “ But that he underftood it to be a
promife of reftoring mankind, and delivering them from
the remaining curfe of the fall, there can be no doubt.
He knew that death had entered by fin ; he knew that
God had promifed vi&ory and redemption to the feed
of the w’oman. Upon the hopes of this reftoration the
religion of his anceftors was founded 5 and when God,
from whom this blefling on all men was expedled, did
exprefsly promife a bleffing on all men, and in this pro¬
mife founded his everlafting covenant—what could A-
braham elfe expedt but the completion in his feed of
that ancient promife and prophecy concerning the vic¬
tory to be obtained by the woman’s feed ? The curfe of
the ground was expiated in the flood, and the earth re^
ftored with a blefling, which was the foundation of the
temporal covenant with Noah ; a large ftiare of which
God exprefsly grants to Abraham and his pofterity par¬
ticularly, together with a promife to bring, by their
means, a new and further blefling upon the whole race
of men. If we lay thefe things to heart, we cannot
fuppofe that lefs could be expedted from the new pro¬
mife or prophecy given to Abraham than a deliverance
from that part of the curfe ftill remaining on men :
Dujl thou art, and to dujl thoujhalt return. In virtue
of this covenant Abraham and his pofterity had reafon
to expedl that the time would come when man ftiould
be called from his duft again. For this expedition they
had his affurance who gave the covenant, that he would
be their God for ever. Well might our Saviour then * SW-
tell the fons of Abraham, that even Mofes at the bufh loek’s Ufe
{hawed the refurredtion of the dead, when he called thea^ Intent
Lord the God of Abraham, and the God of Ifaac, and %P' °^he'
the God of Jacob 14
Thefe promifes made to Abraham were renewed toToKic
Ifaac and Jacob*, to the laft: of whom it was revealed,an<^ ^aco^*
not only that all the nations of the earth ftrould be
blefled in his feed, but that the blefling fhould fpring
from his fon Judah. It is, however, by no means evi¬
dent that any one of thofe patriarchs knew precifely by
what means (a) the curie of the fall was to be entirely
removed, and all men called from their duft again. It
was enough that they were convinced of the fadt in ge¬
neral terms, fince fuch convidiion was a fufticient foun¬
dation of a rational religion ; and the defendants of
Abraham had no other foundation upon which to reft:
3 ^ 2 their
(a) This they certainly could not know from the promifes exprefled in the very general terms in which they
are recorded in the book of Genefis. It is, however, not improbable that thofe promifes, as they immediately re¬
ceived them, were conceived in terms more precife and particular and, at all events, Dr Warburton has proved
to the. full convidtion of every man who is not a determined unbeliever, that Abraham wTas commanded to facri-
fice his fon Ifaac, not only as a trial of his obedience, but alfo that God might give him what he earneftly de-
fired, a fcenical reprefentation of the means by which mankind were to be redeemed from death. The learned
writer thinks, and his reafoning compels us to think with him, that to this tranfadlion our Saviour alludes when
«e fays, “ Your father Abraham rejoiced to fee my day, and he faw it and was glad.”
PRO
[ 452 ]
PRO
the fuc-
ceeding
prophets
Prophecy, their hopes, and pay a cheerful vvorfhip to the God of
Vl" "s - their fathers, till the giving of the law to Mofes. Then
The hw of in^ec^ they were incorporated into a fociety with muni-
Mofes and cipal laws of their own, and placed under a theocratic
government ; the temporal promifes made to their fa¬
thers were amply fulfilled ; religion was maintained a-
mong them by rewards and punilhments equally dittri-
buted in this world (fee Theology) : and a feries of
prophets fucceeding one another pointed out with greater
and greater clearnefs, as the fulnefs of time approach¬
ed, the perfon who was to redeem mankind from the
power of death j by what means he was to work that
great redemption, and at what precife period he was to
make his appearance in the world. By thefe fuperna-
tural interpofitions of divine providence, the principles
of pure theifm and the pradtice of true religion 'were
preferved among the children of Ifrael, when all other
nations were funk in the groffeft idolatry, and wallowed
in the moft abominable vices j when the far-famed E-
gyptians, Greeks, and Romans, fell down with adoration
to docks and ftones and the vileft reptiles j and when
they had no well-grounded hope of another life, and
were in fadl without God in the world.
Frojn this (hort deduction, we think ourfelves intitled
intended to conclude, that the primary ufe and intent of prophe-
16
Were all
keep alive
a fenfe of
religion.
*7
The pro¬
phecies to
be confider-
ed, in con¬
nection.
cy, under the various difpenfations of the Old Tefta-
ment, was not, as is too often fuppofed, to eftablilh the
divine million of Jefus Chrift, but to keep alive in the
minds of thofe to whom it was given, a fenfe of reli¬
gion, and a hope of future deliverance from the curfe of
the fall. It was, in the expreflive language of St Peter,
“ a light that (hone in a dark place, unto which men
did well to take heed until the day dawned and the day-
ftar arofe in their hearts.” But though this was cer¬
tainly the original intent of prophecy (for Chrift, had
he never been foretold, would have proved himfelf to
be the fon of God with power by his aftonilhing mi¬
racles, and his refurredlion from the dead), yet it can¬
not be denied, that a long feries of prophecies, given
in different and far diftant ages, and having all their
completion in the life, death, and refurreftion, of Jefus,
concur very forcibly with the evidence of miracles to
prove that he was the feed of the woman ordained to
bruife the head of the ferpent, and reftore man to his
forfeited inheritance. To the Jews the force of this
evidence mull have been equal, if not fuperior, to that
of miracles themfelves ; and therefore we find the A-
poftles and firll preachers of the gofpel, in their ad-
drefles to them, conftantly appealing to the law and the
prophets, whilft they urged upon the Gentiles the evi¬
dence of miracles.
In order to form a right judgment of the argument
for the truth of Chriftianity drawn from the fure word
of prophecy, we mull not confider the prophecies given
i.n the Old Teftament as fo many prediBions only inde¬
pendent of each other j for if we do, we (hall totally lofe
fight of the purpofe for which they were originally gi¬
ven, and lhall never be able to fatisfy ourfelves when
confronted by the objections of unbelievers. It is eafy
for men of leifure and tolerable parts to find difficulties
in particular prediClions, and in the application of them
made by writers, who lived many hundred years ago,
and who had many ancient books and records of the
Jewiffi church, from which they drew many paffages,
and perhaps feme prophecies) which books and records
we have not to enable us to underfland, and to juflify Prophecy,
their applications. But it is not fo eafy a matter to 'v—J
(how, or to perfuade the world to believe, that a chain
of prophecies reaching through feveral thoufand years,
delivered at different times, yet manifeftly fubfervient
to one and the fame adminiftralion of providence from
beginning to end, is the efteCt of art and contrivance
and religious fraud. In examining the feveral prophe¬
cies recorded in the Old Teftament, we are not to fup-
pole that each of them exprejsly pointed out and clear¬
ly chara&erized Jelus Chrift. Had they done fo, in-
ftead of being a fupport to religion in general, the pur¬
pofe for which they were originally intended, they
would have had a very different effeCt, by making thofe
to whom they were given repine at being placed under
difpenfations fo very inferior to that of the gofpel. We
are therefore to inquire only whether all the notices,
which, in general and often metaphorical terms, God
gave to the fathers of his intended Salvation, are perfect¬
ly anfwered by the coming of Chrift and we (hall find
that nothing has been promifed with refpeCt to that fub-
jeCl; which has not been performed in the ampleft man¬
ner. If we examine the prophecies in this manner, we
{hall find that there is not one of them, which the
Apoftles have applied to the Meffiah, that is not appli¬
cable in a rational and important fenfe to fomething in
the birth, life, preaching, death, refurreCtion, and afeen-
fion of Jefus of Nazareth ; that as applied to him they
are all confiftent with each other ; and that though
fome few of them may be applied without abfurdity to
perfons and events under the Jewiffi difpenfation, Chrift
is the only per (on that ever exifted in whom they all
meet as in a centre. In the limits preferibed us, it is
impoffible that we fliould enter upon a particular proof
of this pofition. It has been proved by numberlefs wri¬
ters, and, with refpeCt to the moft important prophecies,
by none with greater fuccefs than Bifhop Sherlock in
his Ufe and Intent of Prophecy in the feveral ages of
the World ; a work which we recommend to our read¬
ers as one of the moft valuable on the fubjeft in our own
or any other language. _ lg
But admitting that it would have been improper, for objedtion
the reafons already hinted at, to have given a clear and from the
precife defeription of Chrift, and the Chriftian difpenfa-oblcunty^
tion, to men who were ordained to live under difpen-^ Pr0P
fations lefs perfeCf, how, it may be afked, comes it to
pafs that many of the prophecies applied by the writers
of the gofpel to our Saviour and his aCHons are ftill dark
and obfeure, and fo far from belonging evidently to him
and to him only, that it requires much learning and fa-
gacity to fhow even now the conneClion between feme
prophecies and the events ? J9
In anfwer to thefe queftions, the learned prelate juft Anfwere<k
referred to obfetves, “ That the obfeurity of prophecy
does not arife from hence, that it is a relation or deferip¬
tion of (omelhing future ; for it is as eafy to fpeak of
things future plainly, and intelligibly, as it is of things
paft or prefent. It is not, therefore, of the nature of
prophecy to be obfeure •, for it may eafily be made,
when he who gives it thinks fit, as plain as hiftory. On.
the other fide, a figurative and dark defeription of a
future event will be figurative 'and dark ftill when the
event happens j and confequently will have all the ob¬
feurity of a figurative and dark defeription as well after
as before the event. The prophet Ifaiah deferibes the
peace.
PRO t 453 1 PRO
Prophecy, peace of Chrift’s kingdom in the following manner :
‘ The wolf fhall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard
(hall lie down with the kid, and the calf and the young
lion, and the falling, together, and a little child lhall
lead them.’ Nobody, fome modern Jews excepted,
ever underlined this literally •, nor can it now be /zle-
rn/Zf/ applied to the tlate of the gofpel. It was and is
capable of different interpretations; it may mean tem¬
poral peace, or that internal and fpiritual peace—that
tranquillity of mind, which fets a man at peace with
God, himfelf, and the world. But whatever the true
meaning is, this prophecy does no more obtrude one
determinate fenfe upon the mind fince the coming of
Chrift than it did before. But then we fay, the llate
of the gofpel was very properly prefigured in this de¬
fer! ption, and is as properly prefigured in a hundred
more of the like kind j and fince they all agree in a fair
application to the Hate of the gofpel, we itrongly con¬
clude, that this Hate w7as the thing foretold under fuch
exprelfions. So that the argument from prophecy for
the truth of Chriftianity does not reft on this, that the
event has neceffarily limited and afeertained the parti¬
cular fenfe and meaning of every prophecy ; but in this,
that every prophecy has in a proper fenfe been completed
by the coming of Chrift. It is abfurd, therefore, to
expefl clear and evident conviction from every fingle
prophecy applied to Chrift ; the evidence muft arife
from a view and comparifon of all together.” It is
doubtlefs a great miftake to fuppofe that prophecy was
intended folely or chiefly for their fakes in whofe time
the events predifled are to happen. What great occa-
fion is there to lay in fo long beforehand the evidence
«f prophecy to convince men of things that are to hap¬
pen in their own times; the truth of which they may,
if they pleafe, learn from their own fenfes? Yet fome
people are apt trt talk as if they thought the truth of
the events predicted depended very much on the evi¬
dence. of prophecy : they fpeak, for inftance, as if they
imagined the certainty and reality of our Saviour’s re-
furreflion were muoh concerned in the clearnefs of the
prophecies relating to that great and wonderful event,
and feem to think that they are confuting the truth of
his refurreftion when they are pointing out the abfurdi-
ty of the prophecies relating to it. But can any thing
be more abfurd ? For what ground or pretence is there
to inquire w'hether the prophecies foretelling that the
Mefliah fhould die and rife again do truly belong to
Chrift, unlefs we are firft fatisfied that Chrift died and
rofe again ?
The part which unbelievers ought to take in this
queftion, if they would make any ufe of prophecy,
fhould be, to fhow from the prophets that Chrift was
neceffarily to rife from the dead; and then to prove
that in fa£l Jefus never did rife. Here would be a plain
confequence. But if they like not this method, they
ought to let the prophecies alone; for if Chrift did not
rife, there is no harm done though the prophets have
not foretold it. And if they allow the refurreiflion of
Chrift, what do they gain by diferediting the prophets?
The event will be what it is, let the prophecies be what
they will.
Thefe confiderations ftiow how far the gofpel h> necef¬
farily concerned in prophetical evidence, and how clear
the prophecies fhould be. Chrift claims to be the per-
fcn.foretold in the law and the prophets; and as truth
muft ever be confiftent with itfelf, this claim muft be Prophecy.
true as well as all others. This is the part then to be ,
tried on the evidence of prophecy : Is Chrift that per-
fon deferibed and foretold under the Old Teftament or
not ? Whether all the prophecies relating to him be
plain or not plain, it matters little; the fingle queftion
is, Are there enough plain to ftiow us that Chrilt is the
perfon foretold under the Old Teftament ? If there be,
we are at an end of our inquiry, and want no farther
help from prophecy; efpecially fince we have feen the
day dawn and enjoyed the marvellous light of the gof^
pel of God. a©
But fo unreafonable are unbelievers, that whilft fome Objections
of them object to the obfeurity of the prophecies, ^rorn l^e
others have rejected them altogether on account of their °
clearnefs, pretending that they are hiftories and not j;heci,.s>
prediftions. The prophecies againft which this objec¬
tion has been chiefly urged are thofe of Daniel, which
were firft called in queftion by the famous Porphyry.
He affirmed that they were not compofed by Daniel,
whofe name they bear, but by fome author who lived
in Judea about the time of Arvtiochus Epiphanes;
becaufe all to that time contained true hiftory, but that
all the fa£ls beyond that were manifeftly falfe. aI
This method of oppofing the prophecies, as a father anfwered,
of the church rightly obferves, is the ftrongeft teftimo-
ny of their truth *. for they are fo exadlly fulfilled, that
to infidels the prophet feemed not to have foretold
things future, but to have related things paft. To an
infidel of this age, if he has the fame ability and know¬
ledge of hiftory that Porphyry had, all the fubfequent
prophecies of Daniel, except thofe which are ftill ful- 2J
filling, would appear to be hiftory and not prophecy ;fr0m what
for it entirely overthrows the notion of their being has happen-
written in the days of Antiochus Epiphanes, or of the ec* ^inc.e
Maccabees*, and eftablifhes-the credit of Daniel as a pro-
phet beyond contradiction, that there are feveral of ftaited
thofe prophecies which have been fulfilled fince that pe¬
riod as well as before ; nay, that there are prophecies of
Daniel which are fulfilling at this very time in the
world.
Our limits will not permit us to enter into the objec¬
tions which have been made to this prophet by the au¬
thor of The Literal Scheme of Prophecy confidered ;
nor is there occafion that we (hould enter into them.
They have been all examined and completely anfwered
by Biftiop Chandler in his Vindication of his Defence
of Chriftianity, by Mr Samuel Chandler in his Vindica¬
tion of the Antiquity and Authority of Daniel’s Prophe- 2 „
cies, and by Biftinp Newton in his excellent Diflerta- and frore
tions on the Prophecies. To thefe authors we refer theL<fts of the
reader; and lhall conclude the prefent article with a Prefen,; age»
view of fome prophecies given in very remote ages,
which are in this age receiving their accomplilhment.
Of thefe the firft is that of Noah concerning the fer-
vitude of the pofterity of Canaan. In the greater part
of original manuferipts, and in our verfion of the holy
feriptures, this prophecy is thus expreffed : “ Curfed
be Canaan; a fervant of fervants lhall he be unto his
brethren but in the Arabic verfion, and in fome co¬
pies of the Septuagint, it is, “'Curfed be Ham the fa¬
ther of Canaan ; a fervant of fervants lhall he be to his
brethren.” Whether the curfe was really pronounced
upon Ham, which we think mod probable, or only up¬
on his Ion Canaan, we lhall find the predi&ion remark>-
ably*
PRO C 454 3 PRO
Prophecy, ably fulfilled, not barely ages after the book of Genefis
was very generally known, but alfo at this very day.
It is needlefs to inform any man who has but looked
into the Old Teftament, that when the ancient patri¬
archs pronounced either a curfe or a bleffing upon any
of their fons, they meant to declare the future fortunes,
not of that fon individually, but of his defcendants as a
tribe or a nation. Let us keep this in mind, and pro¬
ceed to compare with Noah’s prophecy firjl the fortunes
of the defcendants of Canaan, the fourth fon of Haiti,
and then the fortunes of the pofterity of Haiti by his
other fons.
With the fate of the Canaanites every reader is ac¬
quainted. They were conquered by Jofliua feveral cen¬
turies after the delivery of this prophecy j and fuch of
them as were not exterminated were by him and Solo¬
mon reduced to a ftate of the loweft fervltude to the li-
raelites, the pofterity of Shem the brother of Ham. The
Greeks and Romans, too, who were the defcendants of
Japheth, not only fubdued Syria and Paleftine, but alfo
purfued and conquered fuch of the Canaanites as were
anywhere remaining, as for inftance the J yrians and
Carthaginians, of whom the former were ruined by A-
lexander and the Grecians, and the latter by Scipio and
the Romans. Nor did the effeds of the curfe ftop
there. The miferable remainder of that devoted people
have been ever fince flaves to a foreign yoke j firft to the
Saracens who are defcended from Shem, and afterwards
to the Turks who are defcended from japheth •, and un¬
der the Turkifti dominion they groan at this day.
If we take the prophecy as it Hands in the Arabic
verfion, its accompliftiment is ftill more remarkable.
The whole continent of Africa was peopled principally
by the pofterity of Ham. And for how many ages have
the better parts of that country lain under the dominion
firft of the Romans, then of the Saracens, and now of
the Turks ? In what wickednefs, ignorance, barbarity,
fiavery, and mifery, live moft of its inhabitants ? and
of the poor negroes how many thoufands are every year
fold and bought like beafts in the market, and conveyed
from one quarter of the world to do the work of beafts
in another ; to the full accomplilhment indeed of the
prophecy, but to the lafting difgrace of thofe who are
' . from the love of gain the inftruments of fulfilling it.
Nothing can be more complete than the execution of
ithe fentence as well upon Ham as upon Canaan \ and
the hardieft infidel will not dare to fay that it was pro¬
nounced after the event.
The next prophecy which we ftiall notice is that of
Abraham concerning the multitude of his defcendants ;
which every one knows is ftill fulfilled in the Jews even
in their difperfed ftate, and therefore cannot have been
given after the event of which it fpeaks.
Of the fame kind are the feveral prophecies concern¬
ing Khmael } of which fome have been fulfilled, and
others are at prefent fulfilling in the moft aftoniftiing
manner. Of this fon of Abraham it was foretold, that
“ he ftiould be a wild man ; that his hand ftiould be
againft every man, and every man’s hand againft him j
that he (hoUld dwell in the prefence of all his brethren •,
that he ihould be multiplied exceedingly, beget twelve
princes, and become a great nation.” The facred hi-
ftorian who records thefe prophecies adds, that “ God
was with the lad, and he grew, and dwelt in the wilder-
;aefs, and became an archer.”
3
To {how how fully and literally all thefe prophecies “rbpljecy
have been accomplifhed, would require more room than v—*-«*
we have to beftow ; and to the reader of hiftory the la¬
bour would be fuperfluous. We ftiall therefore only re-
queft the unbeliever to attend to the hiftory of thef
Arabs, the undoubted defcendants of Iftnnael j and to
fay how it comes to pafs, that though they have been
robbers by land and pirates by fea for time immemorial,
though their hands have been againft every man, and
every man’s hand againft them, they always have dwelt,
and at this day dwell, in the prefence of their brethren,
a free and independent people, It cannot be pretended
that no attempt has ever been made to conquer them j
for the greateft conquerors in the World have all in their
turns attempted it : but though fome of them made
real progrefs, not one was ever crowned with fuccefs.
t cannot be pretended that the inacceftiblenefs of their
country has been their protection 5 for their country has
been often penetrated, though it never was entirely
fubdued. When in all human probability they have
been on the brink of ruin, they were fignally and pro¬
videntially delivered. Alexander was preparing an ex¬
pedition againft them, when he was cut off in the flower
of his age. Pompey was in the career of his conquefts
when urgent affairs called him elfewhere. TElius Cal¬
lus had penetrated far into their country, when a fatal
difeafe deftroyed great numbers of his men, and obliged
him to return. Trajan befieged their capital city, but
was defeated by thunder and lightning and whirlwinds.-
Severus befieged the fame city twice, and was twice re¬
pelled from before it. The Turks, though they were
able to wreft from them their foreign conquefts, have
been fo little able to fubdue the Arabs therafelves, or
even to reftrain their depredations, that they are obliged
to pay them a fort of annual tribute for the fafe paffage
of the pilgrims who go to Mecca to pay their devotions.
On thefe faefts we fhall not exclaim. He who is not
ftruck upon comparing the fimple hiftory of this lingular
people with the prophecies fo long ago delivered of them
and their great anceftor, whofe love of liberty is compa¬
red to that of the wild afs, would rife wholly unmoved
from our exclamations.
A fourth prophecy of this kind, which cannot be al-xhe dif-
leged to have been uttered after the event, is the denun- perfion of
ciation of Mofes againft the children of Ifrael in cafe oftlle JewS
their difobedience $ which is fo literally fulfilled, that
even at this moment it appears rather a hiftory of the
prefent ftate of the Jews, than a remote prediClion of
their apoftafy and punilhment. “ And the Lord {hall
fcatter thee among all people from the one end of the
earth even unto the other. And among thefe nations
{halt thou find no eafe, neither {hall the foie of thy foot
have reft ; but the Lord {ball give thee there a tremb¬
ling heart and failing of eyes, and forrow of mind. And
thy life {hall hang in doubt before thee ; and thou {halt
fear day and night, and {hall have none affurance of thy
life,” (Deut. xxviii. 64, 65, 66.). “ And thou {halt
become an aftfcniftiment, a proverb, and a bye-word,
among all nations, whither the Lord {hall lead you.”
(Deut. xxviii. 37.).
Similar to this denunciation, but attended with fome
circumftances ftill more wonderful, is the following, pre-
diftion of the prophet Hofea : “ The children of Ifrael
fhall abide many days without a king, and without a
prince, and without a facrifice, and without an image,
^ , and
r 455 j PRO
rr&pheqr. and without an ephod, and without teraphim. After-
v ' wards thall the children of Ifrael return, and feek the
Lord their God, and David their king; and {hall fear
the Lord and his goodnefs in the latter days (b),” In
this paffage we find the ftate of the Jews for the laft
1700 years clearly and diftinftly defcribed with all its
circumftances. From the time that they rejedted. their
Meffiah all things began to work towards the deftruc-
tion of their politics both civil and religious; and with¬
in a few years from his death, their city, temple, and
government, were utterly ruined; and they themfelves
not carried into a gentle captivity, to enjoy their laws,
and live under governors of their own, as they did in
Babylon, but they were fold like beafts in a market,
and became Haves in the fl.ri£teft fenfe; and from that
day to this have had neither prince nor chief among
them. Nor will any one of them ever be able, after all
their pretences, to prove his defeent from Aaron, or to
fay with certainty whether he is of the tribe of Judah
or of the tribe of Levi, till he {hall difeover that un¬
known country where never mankind dwelt, and where
the apocryphal Efdras has placed their brethren of the
ten tribes. This being the cafe, it is impofiible they
can have either an altar, or a facrifice, or a priefthood,
according'to the inftitution of Mofes, but are evidently
an outcaft people living under laws which cannot be ful-
,s filled.
d the The caufe of this deplorable condition is likewife af-
oleofit. figned with the fame perfpicuity: They are fcattered
over the face of the earth, becaufe they do not acknow¬
ledge Chrift for the Meffiah; becaufe they do not fub-
mit to their own king, the true David. In the prophe¬
tic writings the name of David is frequently given to
the Mefliah, who was to defeend from that prince.
Thus Ezekiel, fpeaking of the kingdom of Chrift, fays,
“ I will fet up one Shepherd over them, and he ftiall
feed them, even my fervant David; he lhall feed them,
and he {hall be their {hepherd.” And Jeremiah fays,
“ They {hall ferve the Lord their God, and David their
king, whom I will raife up unto them.”
I hat in thefe places, as well as in the paflage under
confideration, the IVIeftiah is meant, is undeniable; for
David the fon of Jefle was dead long before any of the
three prophets was born; and by none of them it isfaid
afterwards David their king {hall come again;” but
“ afterwards the children of Ifrael [hall return to David
their king,” they {hall recover from their blind infatua¬
tion, and feek him whom they have not yet known.
By their not receiving Jefus for their Chrift, they have
forfeited all claim to the divine favour, and are, of con-
fequence, “ without a king, and without a chief, and
without a facrifice, and without an altar, and without a
1 25 priefthood.”
hirrc- I he time, however, will come, when they {hall re-
fc'aM0 ^rn ar,d feek “ the Lord their God and David their
1 ’ king;” when they {hall tremble before him whom their
fathers crucified, and honour the fon even as they ho¬
nour the father. That this part of the prophecy will Prophecj.
in time be as completely fulfilled as the other has been, —-
may be confidently expeded from the wonderful prefer--*
vation of the Jews for fo many ages. Scattered as they
are over the whole earth, and hated as they are by all
nations, it might naturally be thought, that in procefs
of time they would have coalefced with their conquer¬
ors, and have been ultimately abforbed and annihilated
by their union, fo that no trace of them ftiould now
have remained; yet the faft is, that, difperfed as they
have ever fince been over the whole face of the globe,
they have never, inafingle inftance, in any country, loft
their religious or natural diftinaions; and they are now
generally fuppofed to be as numerous as they were under
the reigns of David and Solomon. _L his is contrary to
all hiftory, and all experience of the courfe of human
affairs in fimilar cafes; it has been boldly and juftly
ftyled a {landing miracle. Within 1000 or 1200 years
back, a great variety ol extraordinary and important re¬
volutions have taken place among the nations of Eu¬
rope. In the fouthern part of this ifland the Britons
were conquered by the Saxons, the Saxons by the Danes,
and the Danes and Saxons by the Normans; but in a
few centuries thefe oppofite and hoftile nations w'ere con-
folidated into one indiftinguiftiablemafs. Italy, about the
fame time that Britain was fubdued by the Saxons, was
conquered by the Goths and Vandals: and it is not eafy
to conceive a more ftriking contraft than that which fub-
fifted between the poliftied inhabitants of that delightful
country and their favage invaders; and yet how foon
did all diftimftion ceafe between them! In France, the
Roman colonies gradually aflimilated with the ancient
Gauls; and in Spain, though the Moors continued for
feveral ages, and till their final expulfion, a diftinft
people, yet after they were once reduced to a ftate of
fubjedtion, their numbers very fenfibly diminifhed; and
fuch of them as were fuffered to remain after their laft
overthrow have been long fince fo blended with the Spa¬
niards that they cannot now be diftinguiftied. But with
regard to the Jews, the wonder is, that though they do
not in any country where they are fettled bear any pro¬
portion to the natural inhabitants, though they are uni-
verfally reduced to a ftate of the loweft fubjedtion, and
even expofed to hatred, contempt, and perfecution; yet
in no inftance does there feemtobe the leaft appearance
or probability of their numbers being diniiniftied, in no
inftance do they difeover any decay of attachment to their
religious principles. Whence then comes it that this
people alone, who, having no form of government or a
republic anywhere fubfifting, are without the means bv
which other people are kept united and diftindt, ihould
ftill be preferved amongft fo many different nations ?
Flow comes it, when they have been thus fcattered in¬
to fo many diftant corners, like duft which cannot be
perceived, that they ftiould ftill fo long furvive the dif.
folution of their own ftate, as well as that of fo many
others ? To thefe queftions the anfvver is obvious: They
(B) Such is eur tranflation of this remarkable prophecy ; but the Greek verfion of the Seventy has it, per¬
haps more properly, thus: “ The children of Ifrael fhall abide many days without a king, and without a
chief, and without a facrifice, and without an altar, and without a priefthood, and without prophecies. Aftc--
JT.ards,” &c. * a t r
PRO
Prophecy,
Prophet.
27
Of prophe¬
cies-re-
fpeifling
the Chri-
itian
church.
are preferved, that, as a nation, ,
feek the Lord their God and David their king, and fear
the Lord and his goodnefs in the latter days.”
We might here fubjoin many prophecies both from
the Old and the New Teftament, and efpecially from
the writings of St Paul and St John, which fo clearly
defcribe the various fortunes of the Chriftian church,
her progrefs to that date of general corruption under
which (lie was funk three centuries ago, and her gradual
[ 456 1 ,P.R °'
“ they may return and the greater prophets, viz. Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Prophet
- - " " ’ ' fo called from the length and extent oi their p
wl-iirh p.xnee.d thofe ot the others, viz. Hofea,  
Daniel ,  ? • rj r
writings, which exceed thofe ot the others, viz. rloiea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habak-
kuk, Haggai, Zechariah, and Maiachi, who are called
the lejfer prophets, from the (hortnefs of their writings.
The Jews do not place Daniel among the prophets, be-
caufe, they fay, he lived the life of a courtier rather
than that of a prophet. An account of the feveral wri-
which (lie was iunk three centuries ago ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ be feen each under its parti-
reftoration to her primitive purity, that they cannot DC g P P . ; i Isaiah &c.
fuppofed to proceed from the cunning craftinefs of men, cular head. See the a. tide iSAlAH, 6CC
or to have been written after the events of Avhich they
fpeak. To do juftice to thefe, however, would require
a volume, and many excellent volumes have been writ¬
ten upon them. The reader who wifties for fatisfaCtion
on fo interefting a fubjeft will do well to confult the
writings of Mr Mede and Sir Ifaac Newton, together
with Bilhop Newton’s Differtations, and the Sermons of
Hurd, Halifax, and Bagot, preached at Warburton s
Icdure. We (hall only obferve, that one of the ableic
reafoners that Great Britain ever produced, after having
paid the clofeft attention to the prediftions of the New
Teftament, hath been bold enough to put the truth of
revealed religion itfelf upon the reality of that prophetic
fpirit which foretold the defolation of Chrift’s church
and kingdom by antichrift. “ If (fays he), in the
days of St Paul and St John, there was any foot-
ftep of fuch a fort of power as this in the world ; or it
there HAD BEEN any fuch power in the world j or it
there was then any appearance or probability that
could make it enter into the heart of man to imagine
that there EVER GOULD BE any fuch kind of power in
the world, much lefs in the temp/e or church of God;
and if there be not NOW fuch a power affually and con-
fpicuoufly exercifed in the world *, and if any pi&ure ot
this power, DRAWN AFTER THE EVENT, can now de¬
fcribe it more plainly and exaftly than it was originally
defcribed in the words of the prophecy—then may it,
with fome degree of plaufibility, be fuggefled, that the
•prophecies are nothing more than enthufiaftic imagina-
Upon the whole, we conclude with Biftiop Sherlock,
that the various prophecies recorded in the Holy Scrip¬
tures were given, not to enable man to forefee with
clearnefs future events, but to fupport the feveral dif-
penfations of religion under which they were refpeaive-
ly promulgated. The principal prophecies recorded in
the Old Teftament led mankind to hope for a complete
deliverance from the curfe of the fall j and therefore
tended to fill their minds with gratitude, and to enforce
a cheerful obedience to that God who in the midft of
iudomient remembereth mercy. The prophecies, whe¬
ther in the Old or New Teftament, that pourtray the
-prefent (late of the Jews, and the various fortunes of the
Ghriftian church, as they are daily fulfilling in tj16 Pre-
fence of all men, are the ftrongeft poflible proof of the
divinity of our holy religion, and fuppjy to us in the
latter-days the place of miracles, by which.it was at hrit
cftabliftied. . f
PROPHET, in general, a perfon who foretels tuture
events-, but is particularly applied to fuch infpired per¬
sons among the Jews as were commiftioned by o to
declare his will and purpofes to that people. Among
the canonical books of the Old Teftament we have the
writings of 16 prophets, four of whom are denominated
Sons of the PROPHETS, in fcripture hiftory, an appel¬
lation given to young men who were educated in the
fchools or colleges under a proper mafter, who was
commonly, if not always, an infpired prophet, in the
knowledge of religion and in facred mufic, and thus
were qualified to be public preachers } w hich feems to
have been part of the bufinefs of the prophets on the
Sabbath days and feftivals. It is probable that God
generally chofe the prophets, whom he infpired, out of
thefe fchools. See Prophecy.
PROPITIATION, in Theology, a facnfice offered
to God to affuage his wrath and render him propitious.
Among the Jews there were both ordinary and public
facrifices, as holocaufts, &c. offered by way of thankf-
giving j and extraordinary ones, offered by particular
perfons guilty of any crime, by way of propitiation.
The Romifh church believe the mats to be a facnfice
of propitiation for the living and the dead. 1 he re¬
formed churches allow of no propitiation but that one
offered by Jefus Chrift on the crofs. See SACRIFICE.
PROPITIATORY, any thing rendering God pro¬
pitious } as we fay propitiatory facrifices,. in contradi-
ftindtion to facrifices which were euchurijlical.. Among
the Jews the propitiatory was the cover or lid of the
ark of the covenant \ which was lined both within and
withoutfide with plates of gold, infomuch that there was
no wood to be feen. This propitiatory was a type or
figure of Chrift, whom St Paul calls the propitiatory
ordained from all ages. See ARK of the Covenant.
PROPOLIS, the name of a certain (ubftance more
tenacious than wax, with which the bees ftop up all the
holes or cracks in the fide of their hives. See Bee,
N° 13.
PROPONTIS, or Sea of Marmora, a part of the
Mediterranean, dividing Europe from Afia j it has the
Hellefpont or canal of the Dardanelles to the (outh-
weft whereby it communicates with the Archipelago,
and the ancient Bofphorus of Ihrace, or ftrait of
Conftantinople to the north-eaft, communicating with
the Black or Euxine fea. It has two caftles : that on
the Afia fide is on a cape, where formerly flood a tem¬
ple of Jupiter. The caftle of Europe is on an oppo-
fite cape, and had anciently a temple of Serapis. It is
120 miles long, and in fome places upwards of 40 miles
bl PRO PORT I ON, the identity or fimilitude of two
ratios. Hence quantities that have the fame be¬
tween them are faid to be proportional *, e. p it A be
to B as C to D, or 8 be to 4 as 30 to 15 A, B, C, 12,
and 8, 4, and 15* are faid to be ^ proportion, or
are Amply called proportionals. Proportion is frequent¬
ly confounded with ratio yet have the two in reality
very different ideas, which ought by all means to e
diftinguiflied. Ratio is properly the relation or habi-
PRO
[ 457 1
PRO
'Proportion, tude of two things, which determines the quantity of
-1 one from the quantity of another, without the interven¬
tion of any third : thus we fay the ratio of 5 and xo is
2, the ratio of I 2 and 24 is 2. Proportion is the fame-
nefs or likenefs of two fuch relations j thus the relations
between 5 and 10 and 12 and 24 being the fame, or
equal, the tour terms are faid to be in proportion.
Hence ratio exifts between two numbers, but propor¬
tion requires at lead; three. Proportion, in fine, is the
habitude or relation of two ratios when compared toge¬
ther 4 as ratio is of two quantities. See Algebra, A-
RITHMETIC, and GEOMETRY.
Arithmetical and Geometrical P ROPORTION. See PRO¬
GRESSION.
Inordinate PROPORTION, is where the order of the
terms compared is difturbed or irregular. As, for ex¬
ample, in two ranks of numbers, three in each rank,
viz. in one rank, - - 2, 3, 9,
and in the other, - - 8, 24, 36,
which are proportional, the former to the latter, but in
a different order, viz. - 2 : 3 : : 24 : 36,
and - - - - 3 : 9 : : 8 : 24,
then ; carting out the mean terms in each rank it is coh-
cluded that - - 2 : 9 : : 8 : 36,
that is, the firft is to the third in the firft rank, as the
firft is to the third in the fecond rank.
Harmonical or Mujical PROPORTION, is a kind of
numeral proportion formed thus : of three numbers, if
the firft be to the third as the difference of the firft and
fecond to the difference of the fecond and third ) the
three numbers are in harmonical proportion.
Thus 2, 3, 6, are harmonical, becaufe 2 : 6 : : I : 3.
So alfo four numbers are harmonical, when the firft is
to the fourth as the difference of the firft and fecond to
the difference of the third and fourth.
Thus 24, 16, 12, 9, are harmonical, becaufe 24 : 9
: : 8 : 3. By continuing the proportional terms in the
firft cafe, there arifes an harmonical progreflion or fe-
ries.
x. If three or four numbers in harmonical propor¬
tion be multiplied or divided by the lame number ; the
products or quotients will alfo be in harmonical pro¬
portion : thus, if 6, 8, 12, which are harmonical, be
divided by 2, the quotients 3, 4, 6, are alfo harmo¬
nical 5 and reciprocally the products by 2, viz. 6, 8,
1 2.
2. To find an harmonical mean between two num¬
bers given *, divide double the produft of the two num¬
bers by their fum, the quotient is the mean required *,
thus fuppofe 3 and 6 the extremes, the product of tbefe
is 18, which doubled gives 36 ; this divided by 9 (the
fum of 3 and 6) gives the quotient 4. Whence 3, 4, 6,
are harmonical.
3. To find a third harmonical proportion to two
numbers given.
Call one of them the firft term, and the other the
fecond ; multiply them together, and divide the pro-
du£t by the number remaining after the fecond is fub-
trafted from double the firft j the quotient is a third
harmonical proportional : thus, fuppofe the given terms
3, 4, their product 12 divided by 2 (the remainder af¬
ter 4 is taken from 6, the double of the firft), the quo¬
tient is 6, the harmonical third fought.
4. To find a fourth harmonical proportion to three
terms given ; multiply the firft into the third, and di-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
vide the produfl by the number remaining after the Proportion
middle or fecond is fubtradted from double the firft ; lj, . _
the quotient is a third harmonical proportion ; thus fup- . ^ ‘
pofing the numbers 9, 12, 16, a fourth will be found by
the rule to be 24.
5. If there be four numbers difpofed in order, where¬
of one extreme and the two middle terms are in arith¬
metical proportion ; and the fame middle terms with
the other extreme are in hannonical proportion ; the
four are in geometrical proportion ; as here 2 : 3 ; : 4 :
6, which are geometrical j whereof 2, 3, 4, are arith¬
metical, and 3, 4, 6, are hannonical.
6. If betwixt any two numbers you put an arithme¬
tical mean, and alfo an harmonical one, the four will be
in geometrical proportion : thus betwixt 2 and 6 an
arithmetical mean is 4, and an harmonical one 3 j and
the four 2 : 3 : : 4 : 6, are geometrical.
We have this notable difference between the three
kinds of proportion, arithmetical, harmonical, and geo¬
metrical ; that from any given number we can raife a
continued arithmetical feries iucreafing z/z infinitum, but
not decreafing : the harmonical is decreafable in infini¬
tum, but not increafable •, the geometrical is both.
Proportion, or Rule of Three. See Arithmetic.
Reciprocal PROPORTION. See RECIPROCAL.
Proportion is alfo ufed for the relation between
unequal things of the fame kind, whereby their feveral
parts correfpond to each other with an equal augmenta¬
tion or diminution.
Thus, in reducing a figure into little, or in enlarging
it, care is taken to obferve an equal diminution or en¬
largement through all its parts : fo that if one line,
e. gr. be contracted by one-third of its length, all the
reft lhall be contrafted in the fame proportion.
Proportion, in Architecture, denotes the juft mag¬
nitude of the members of each part of a building, and
the relation of the feveral parts to the whole ; e. gr. of
the dimenfions of a column, &c. with regard to the or-
donnance of the whole building.
One of the greateft differences among architects, M.
Perrault obferves, is in the proportion of the heights
of entablatures with refpeCt to the thicknefs of the
columns, to which they are always to be accommo¬
dated.
In effeCt, there is fcarcely any work, either of the
ancients or moderns, wherein this proportion is not dif¬
ferent j feme entablatures are even near twice as high
as others :—yet it is certain this proportion ought of
all others to be moft regulated ; none being of greater
importance, as there is none in which a defeft is fooner
feen, nor any in which it is more (hocking.
CompaJ's of PROPORTION, a name by which the
French, and after them fome Englifh, authors call the
Sector.
PROPORTIONAL, relating to proportion. Thus
we fay, proportional compaffes, parts, feales, fpirals, &c.
Proportionals, in Geometry, are quantities, either
linear or numeral, which bear the fame ratio or relation
to each other.
PROPOSITION, in Logic, part of an argument,
wherein fome quality, either negative or pofitive, is at¬
tributed to a fubjeft.
Proposition, in Mathematics, is either fome truth
advanced and fhown to be fuch by demonftration, or
fome operation prtipofed and its folution Ihown. If the
3 M propofition
PRO [ 458 ] PRO
Proportion proportion be deduced from feveral theoretical defini-
II tions compared together, it is called a theorem; if from
f’ro^e' a praxis, or feries of operations, it is called a problem.
See the articles THEOREM and PROBLEM.
Proposition, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° 28.
124.
Proposition, in Poetry, the firfl part of a poem,
wherein the author propofes briefly, and in general,
what he is to fay in the body of his work. It (hould
comprehend only the matter of the poem, that is, the
aflion and perfons that a£t. Horace prefcribes modefty
and fimplicity in the propofition, and would not have
the poet promife too much, nor raife in the reader too
great ideas of what he is going to relate.
PROPREFECT, among the Romans, the prefe&’s
lieutenant, or an officer whom the prefect of the pre-
torium commiffioned to do part of his duty in his
place.
PROPRETOR, a Roman magiftrate, who, having
difcharged the office of pretor at home, was fent into a
province to command there with his former pretorial
authority. It was alfo an appellation given to thofe
who, without having been pretors at Rome, were fent
extraordinarily into the provinces to adminifter juftice
with the authority of pretors.
PROPRIETOR, or Proprietary, is he who pof-
feffes any thing as his own in the utmoft degree. Such
monks were called proprietary as had referved goods and
effeiRs to themfelves, notwithftanding their formal re¬
nunciation of all at the time of their profeffion. They
are frequently mentioned in the Monajl. Anglic. &c.
and were to be very feverely dealt with; to be excom¬
municated, deprived of burial, &c. Monacln proprieta-
rii excommunicentur ab abbatibus: et,Ji in morte propn-
etarius inventus fuerit, ecdefiajlica careat fepultura, &c.
Addit. ad Matt. Par.
PRO RAT A, in commerce, a term fometimes ufed
by merchants for in proportion; as, each perfon mufl reap
the profit or fuflain the \ok, pro rata to his intereft, that
is, in proportion to his flock.
PROROGATION, the aft of prolonging, adjourn¬
ing, or putting off, to another time. The difference be¬
tween a prorogation and an adjournment of parlia¬
ment is, that by prorogation the feffion is ended, and
f'uch bills as paffed in either houfe, or both houfes, and
had not the royal affent, muft at the next affembly be¬
gin again.
PROSCRIPTION, a publication made in the name
of the chief or leader of a party, whereby he promifes
a reward to any one who ftiall bring him the head of one
of his enemies.
Sylla and Marius by turns profcribed each others ad¬
herents.—Under the triumvirate great part of the beft
and braveft of the Romans fell by profcription.
The term took its rife from the praftice of writing
down a lift of the perfons names, and polling it in pub¬
lic ; from pro and fcnbo, “ I write.”
PROSE, the natural language of mankind, loofe and
unconfined by poetical meafures, rhymes, &c. In which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to verfe.
There is, however, a fpecies of profe which ismeafu-
red, fuch as that in which epitaphs and other infcrip-
tions are generally written; and indeed every man who
has formed for himfelf a ftyle writes in uniform periods
regularly recurring. It has been much difputed whe-
I
ther a poem can be written in profe. We enter not into
that difpute, as we have faid enough on the fubjeft elfe-
where. See Novel.
The word profe comes from the Latin profa, which
fome will have derived from the Hebrew poras, which
fignifies expendit: others deduce it from the Latinpro?-
fa, oiprorfus, “ going forwards :” by way of oppofi-
tion to verfa, or “ turning backwards,” as is neceffary in
writing.
PROSECUTION, in the criminal law. The next
ftep towards the pumflrmentof offenders after Commit¬
ment, is their prolecution, or the manner of their for¬
mal accufation. And this, in the Englifti law, is either
upon a previous finding of the faft by an inqueft or
grand jury ; or without fuch previous finding.
The former way is either by Presentment or In¬
dictment. See thefe articles.
The remaining methods of profecution are without
any previous finding by a jury, to fix the authoritative
ftamp of verifimilitude upon the accufation. One of
thefe, by the common law, was when a thief was taken
with the mainour, that is, with the thing ftolen upon
him, in manu. For he might, when fo detefted, fla¬
grante delido, be brought into court, arraigned, and
tried, without indiftment: as by the Baniffi law he
might be taken and hanged upon the Ipot without ac¬
cufation or trial. But this proceeding was taken away
by feveral ftatutes in the reign of Edward III. though
in Scotland a fimilar procefs remains to this day. So
that the only fpecies of proceeding at the fuit of the
king, without a previous indiftment or prefentment by
a grand jury, now feems to be that of Information ;
which fee.
Thefe are all the methods of profecution at the fuit
of the king. There yet remains another, which is
merely at the fuit of the fubjeft, and is called an Ap¬
peal. See that article.
But of all the methods of profecution, that by indift¬
ment is the moft general. See INDICTMENT.'
PROSECUTOR, in Law, he that purfues a caufe in
another’s name.
PROSELYTE, a new convert to fome religion or
religious feft.
PROSERPINACA, a genus of plants belonging to
the triandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 15th order, Inundates. See Botany Index.
PROSERPINE, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter
of Jupiter and Ceres, was carried off by Pluto as Hie
was gathering flowers with her companions. Ceres,
difconfolate for the lofs of her daughter, after having
long fought her, heard where fhe was, and intreated
Jupiter to let her return from hell. This requeft Ju¬
piter granted, on condition fhe had tailed nothing in
Pluto’s dominions. Ceres therefore went to fetch her;
but when her daughter was preparing to return, Alca-
laphus gave information that he had teen Proferpine eat
fome grains of a pomegranate fhe had gathered in Plu¬
to’s garden; on which fhe was fentenced to continue in
Tartarus in quality of Pluto’s fpoufe, and the queen of
thofe gloomy regions: but to mitigate the grief of Ce¬
res for her difappointment, Jupiter granted that her
daughter fhould only fpend fix months together in hell
with her hufband, and the other fix on earth with her
mother.
Some mythologifts imagine that the latter part of the
fable
PRO [ 459 ] ' PRO
Proferpine fable alludes to the corn, which muft remain all the
if winter hid in the earth, in order to fprout forth in the
| !Protagoras.^ ancj produce the harveft.
PROSEUCHE, in antiquity, properly fignifies pray¬
er ; but it is taken for the places of prayer of the Jews,
and was pretty near the fame as their fynagogues. But
the fynagogues were originally in the cities, and were
covered places : whereas, for the moft part, the pro-
feuches were out of the cities, and on the banks of ri¬
vers j having no covering except perhaps the {hade of
fome trees or covered galleries. The word is Greek,
prayer.
PROSE AMBANOMENE, the name of a mufical
note in the Greek fyftem.
As the two tetrachords of the Greeks were conjunc¬
tive, or, in other words, as the higheft note of the firft
ferved likewife for the lowed; note of the fecond, it is
plain that a complete o&ave could not be formed. To
remedy this deficiency, therefore, one note beneath the
lowed tetvachord was added, as an odtave to the high¬
eft of the laft tetrachord. Thus, if we fuppofe the
firft to have begun on B, the laft muft have ended upon
A, to which one note fubjoined immediately beneath
the loweft B in the diatonic order muft have formed an
oftave. This note was called projlambanomcne. But
it appears from authors who have fcrutinized antiquity
with fome diligence, and perhaps with as much fuccefs
Burney's as gata Up0n which they proceeded could produce,
‘muHc of that the names of the notes in tb*Greek which
Diftert. originally fignified their natural ftation in the fcale of
§ i. afcending or defcending founds, were afterwards ap¬
plied to their pofitions in the lyre. Higher or lower,
then, according to this application, did not fignify their
degrees of acutenefs or gravity, but their higher or
lower fituation upon this inftrument.
PROSODY that part of grammar which treats of
the quantities and accents of fyllables, tlie manner
of making vcrfes. '%• a , .
The Englifti profody turns chiefly on two things,
numbers and rhyme. See roETRY, N° 66—76. and
Part HE
PROSOPIS, in 3otany, a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonf»ng to fhe decandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is hemifpherical and quadridentate; the
{Vgma is fimple; the legumen inflated and monofper-
mous. See Botany Index.
PROSOPOPOEIA, a figure in oratory, whereby
we raife qualities of things inanimate into perfons. See
Oratory.
PROSTAT./E, in Anatomy, a gland, generally fup-
pofed to be two feparate bodies, though in reality but
one, fituated juft before the neck of the bladder, and
furr^inding the beginning of the urethra. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
PROSTYLE, in ArchiteBure, a range of columns
in the front of a temple.
PROTAGORAS, a famous Greek philofopher, was
Enfield's born at Abdera. In his youth, his poverty obliged
Hi/lory of him to fubmit to the fervile office of frequently car-
Philofopby, rying logs of wood from the neighbouring fields to
Abdera. It happened that *s he was one day going
on bri&ly towards the city unkr one of thefe loads, he
was met by Democritus, who was particularly ftruck
with the neatnefs and regularity of the bundle. Defi¬
xing him to flop and reft himfelf, Democritus exami¬
ned more clofely the ftrufture of the load, and found that Protons
it was put together with mathematical exaflnefs 5 upon
which he alked the youth whether he himfelf had made
it up. Protagoras affured him that he had j and imme¬
diately taking it to pieces, with great eafe replaced
every log in the fame exadt order as before. Democri¬
tus exprefled much admiration of his ingenuity; and
faid to him, “ Young man, follow me, and your talents
{hall be employed upon greater and better things.” The
youth confented, and Democritus took him home, main¬
tained him at his own expence, and taught him philo-
fophy, which qualified him for the office of legiflator of
the Thurians. He was more fubtle than folid in his
reafonings; however, he taught at Athens with great
reputation, but was at length baniftied from thence for
the impiety of his dottrines. He then travelled, and vi-
fited the iflands in the Mediterranean, where it is faid
that he was the firft philofopher who taught for money.
He died in a voyage to Sicily, in a very advanced age.
He commonly reafoned by dilemmas, and left the mind
in fufpenfe with refpeft to all the queftions he propofed.
His moral principles were adopted by Hobbes. (See
Moral Philosophy) Plato wrote a dialogue againil
him. He flourifhed 400 years B. C.
PROTASIS, in the ancient drama, the firft part of
a comic or tragic piece, wherein the feveral perfons are
ftiown, their chara&ers intimated, .and the fubjeft of
the piece propofed and entered upon.
It might reach as far as our two firft a£ts; and where
it ended the.epitafis commenced. See the article Epi-
TASIS.
PROTEA, the Silver-tree, a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the tetrandria clafs; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 47th order, Stellatce. See
Botany Index.
PROTECTOR, a perfon who undertakes to fhelter
and defend the weak, helplefs, and diftrefled.
Every Catholic nation, and every religious order, has
a protestor refiding at the court of Rome, who is a car¬
dinal, and is called the cardinalproteBor.
Proteftor is alfo fometimes ufed for a regent of a king¬
dom, made choice of to govern it during the minority
of a prince.
Cromwell affumed the title and quality of lord pro¬
teBor of the commmonwealth of England.
PROTESILAI Turris, the fepulchre of Protefi-
laus, with a temple, at which Alexander facrificed,
(Arian); fituated at the fouth extremity of the Helle-
fpont, near the Cherfonefus Thracia. Protefilaus was
the firft Greek who landed on the coaft of Troy, and
the firft Greek flain by the Trojans, (Homer, Ovid).
His wife Laodamia, to afluage her grief, begged the
gods for a fight of his (hade; and obtaining her requeft,
{he expired in his embraces, (Hyginus). Protefilaus
was alfo called Phylacides, from Phylace, a town of
Theffaly.
PROTEST, in Law, is a call of witnefs, or an open
affirmation that a perfon does, either not at all, or but
conditionally, yield his confent to any a£t, or to the
proceeding of any judge in a court in which his jurif-
di&ion is doubtful, or to anfwer upon his oath farther
than he is bound by law.
Any of the lords in parliament have a right to pro-
teft their diflent to any bill paffed by a majority: which
proteft is entered in form. This is faid to be a very
3 M 2 ancient
Pro ted
II
Protogene?.
PRO [ 460 ] PRO
anctent privilege. The commons have no right to pro-
teft. See Parliament.
Protest, in Commerce, a fummons written by a no¬
tary-public to a merchant, banker, or the like, to accept
or difcharge a bill of exchange drawn on him, after his
having refufed either to accept or pay it. See BILL of
Exchange.
PROTESTANT, a name firft given in Germany
to thole who adhered to the doftrine of Luther ; be-
caufe in 1529 they protefted againft a decree of the
emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires-, declaring
that they appealed to a general council. The fame
name has alfo been given to thofe of the fentiments of
Calvin : and is now become a common denomination
for all thole of the reformed churches.
PROTEUS, in Heathen Mythology. See Egypt,
N° 6.
PRO FHONOT ARY, a term which properly lig-
nifies /fr/? notary, and which was anciently the title
of the principal notaries of the emperors of Conflanti-
nople.
Prothonotary, with us, isuftdfor.an officer in the
court of king’s bench and common pleas ; the former
of which courts has one, and the latter three. The
prothonotary of the king’s bench records all civil ac¬
tions fued in that court, as the clerk of the crown-office
does all criminal caufes. The prothonotaries of the
common pleas enter and enrol all declarations, plead¬
ings, affizes, judgments, and actions: they alfo make
out all judicial writs, except writs of habeas corpus, and
dijlringas jurator, for which there is a particular office,
called the habeas corpora office; they likewife enter re¬
cognizances acknowledged, and all common recoveries j
make exemplifications of records, &c.
In the court of Rome there is a college of 12 pre¬
lates, called apojlolicalprothonotaries, empowered to*re¬
ceive the laft wills of cardinals, to make all informa¬
tions and proceedings neceffary for the canonization of
faints ; and all fuel) aifts as are of great conlcquence to
the Papacy : for which purpofe they have the right of
admiffion into all conliftories, whether public or half
public. They alfo attend on the pope whenever he
performs any extraordinary ceremony out of Rome.
PROTO, a Greek term, frequently ufed in com-
pofition of priority : thus proto-collum, in the ancient
jurifprudence, lignifies the firft leaf of a book ; proto¬
martyr, the firlt martyr j proto-plaft, the firft man
formed, &c.
PROTOGENES, a celebrated ancient painter,
was born at Caunas, a city of Caria, fubjeft to the
Rhodians, and flouriflied 300 years before the birth of
our Saviour. He was firft obliged to paint {hips for his
livelihood but afterwards acquired the Kigheft repu¬
tation for hiftory-painting ; though Apelles blamed him
for finiihing his pieces too highly, amd not knowing
when to have done. The fineft of his piflures was
that of Jalifus, which is mentioned by foveral ancient
authors, though none of them give any dt for ip ion of
it. He worked feven vears on this pifture during
which time he lived entirely upon lupines and water,
being of opinion that this light and fimple nourifh-
ment left him greater freedom of fancy. Apelles, on
feeing this pidure, was ftruck with fuch admiration,
that he was unable to fpeak, or to find words fufficient
to exprefs his idea of its beauty. It was this picture
that laved the city of Rhodes when fieged by De- Protogenas
metrius king of Macedonfor being able to attack it II
only on that fide where Protogenes worked, which he Pfotra^'0fi
intended to burn, he chofe rather to abandon his de- v~"^
fign than to deftroy fo fine a piece. Pliny fays, that
Apelles alking him what price he had for his pi&ures,
and Protogenes naming an inconfiderable fum, Apelles
concerned at the injuftice done to the beauty of his
productions, gave him 50 talents, about io,oeol. for
one pifture only, declaring publicly, that he would
fell it for his own. This generolity made the Rho¬
dians fenfible of the merit of Protogenes; and they were
fo eager to purebafe the picture Apelles had bought,
that they paid him a much greater price for it than he
had given.
PROTOTYPE, is the original or model after which
a thing was formed ; but chiefly ufed for the patterns
of things to be engraved, call, &c.
PROTRACTOR, an inftrument for laying down-
and meafuring angles upon paper with accuracy and
difpatch ; and by which the ufe of the line of chords
is fuperfeded. This inftrument is varioufly formed, as
femicircular, redlangular, or circular ; and conftrudled
of different materials, as brafs, ivory, &c. It is necef¬
fary in laying down thofe furveys or other plans where
angles are concerned. <
The vedlangular protraftor is conflrudled in form
of a right-angled parallelogram, which, when applied
to a cafe of mathematical inftruments, is fubftituted in
place of the femicircular protraflor and fcale of equal Plate
parts. Fig. I. is a reprefentation of it: the manner of ccctxlviii.
ufing it is exadlly fimilar to that of the femicircular flg* 1‘
one.
The circular protra&or, as its name implies, is a
complete circle, and is fuperior by far to either of the
former, beth in point of accuracy and difpatch, efpe-
cially when ftyeral angles are to be formed at the fame
point. The limE 0f this inftrument is divided into
360 degrees, and eac^ degree in fome ptotra61ors is
halved : it has a fubdivitf*,^ fcale or vernier, by which
an angle may be laid down t* rneafured to a fingle mi¬
nute. In the centre of the proira(^or js a £ne mark,
which, when an angle is to be protra&ed or meafured,
is to be laid upon the angular point, and o, or zeio on
the limb, upon the given line forming on° fide of ?he
angle.
Fig. 2. reprefents a circular protra<ftor wbofe limb 2<
divided as above deferibed, and the dividing fcale on
the index, which moves round the limb of the protrac¬
tor on a conical centre, gives every minute of a de¬
gree. That part of the index beyond the limb has a
fteel point fixed at the end, in a dirt ft line with tlm
centre of the protraftor, and whole ufe is to pri^fc off
the propofed angles.
Fig. 3. is another circular protrafto’, a little differ-^
ently conftrufted from the former. The central point
is formed by the interfeftion of two lines crofting each
other at right angles, which are cut on a piece of glafs.
The limb is divided into degrees and half degrees, ha¬
ving an index with a vernier graduated to count to a
fingie minute, and is fumiftied with a^tooth and pinion,
by means of which the index is moved round by turn¬
ing a fmall nut. It has two pointers, one at each end
of the index, furnkhed with fprings for keeping them
fufpended while they are bringing to any angle > and
HEDTTC TTO.1ST.
u m:
J'/<r/?/ Sr//fy>.'
\
PRO [46
being brought, applying a finger to the top of the
pointer, and prefling it down, pricks off the angle.
There is this advantage in having two pointers, that
all'-the bearings round a circuit may be laid or pricked
off, although the index traverfes but one-half of the pra-
trador.
Another circular protrador, different from either of
the former, is reprefented at fig. 4. The centre is alfo
formed by the interfedion of two lines at right angles
to each other, which are cut on glafs, that all parallax
may thereby be avoided. The index is moved round
by a tooth and pinion. The limb is divided into de¬
grees and half degrees, and fubdivided to every minute
by the vernier. The pointer may be fet at any conve¬
nient diflance from the centre, as the focket which
carries it moves upon the bar BC, and is fixed thereto
by the nut D, at right angles to the bar BC, and
moveable with it. There is another bar EF : On this
bar different fcales of equal parts are placed ; fo that by
moving a fquare againft the inner edge thereof, angles
may be transferred to any diftance within the limits,
from the centre containing the fame number of degrees
marked out by the index.
It would indeed be fuperfluous to defcribe any more
of thefe circular protractors, efpecially as the little al¬
terations in them depend very much upon the fancy of
the artift. Suffice it however to fay, that we have
feen others ftill differently conftruCted, one of which
we {hall briefly defcribe. The divilions upon the
limb of this inftrument are fimilar to thofe already Jl1e*
fcribed 5 but the index is a ftraight bar contin,';'c| to
fome confiderable dillance each way beyond -'ne> bmb
of the inltrument, and has a vernier to ^°'y miuutes
as ufual; a mark upon one of the edges '■ the index, al¬
ways coincides with the centre of tb mflrument. Iu-
ilead, therefore, of pricking dqv*1 angle as in the
former, part of the line con**'5110^ the angle may be
drawn, which, although r*er'1^Ps not fo accurate as a
point, is more confpicuo^ and the line is eafily com¬
pleted upon removal Pr°tra£tor. The common
dimenfions of the-ircldar Part of thei* mftruments is
from fix to ten ,lCaes diameter ; and they are made of
brpRO'^BERANCE’ in Anatomy, is any eminence,
whetb* natund or preternatural, that proje&s or ad-
v es out beyond the reft.
jPROVEDITOR, an officer in feveral parts of Italy,
particularly at Venice, who has the diredlion of matters
relating to policy.
PROVENCE, a province or government of France,
bounded by Dauphine on the north, by Piedmont on
the eaft, bv the Mediterranean on the fouth, and by
the river Rhone, which feparates it from Languedoc,
on the weft : it is about 100 miles long, and near as
many broad.
PROVEND, or Provender, originally fignified a
kind of veffel containing the meafure of corn daily gi¬
ven to a horfe, or other beaft of labour, for his fubfift
ence ; but is now generally ufed to fignify the food
for cattle ; whatever it is.
PROVERB, according to Camden, is a concife,
witty, and wife fpeech, grounded upon experience,
and for the moft part containing fome ufeful inftruc-
tion.
Book of PROVERBS, a canonical book of the Old
i ] PRO
Teftanient, containing a part of the proverbs of Solo- Proverb,
mon the .fon of David king of Ifrael. The firft 24 |,rovl^fcl:c<7
chapters are acknowledged to be the genuine work of
that prince j the next five chapter^ are a colledfion of fe¬
veral of his proverbs made by order of King Hezekiah ;
and the two laft feem to have been added, though be¬
longing to different and unknown authors, Agur the
fon of Jakeh, and King Lemuel.
In this excellent book are contained rules for the
conduft of all conditions of life ; for kings, courtiers,
mafters, fervants, fathers, mothers, children, &.c. j
PROVIDENCE, the fuperintendence and care Definition,
which God exercifes over creation. 2
That there exifts a divine providence which attends Belief of a
to the affairs of this world, and directs their courfe, hasPr®vltlenc®
been a received opinion among the human race in every uraver^d“
country and in every period of hiftory. Every altar
that is erefted, every prayer and every facrifice that is
offered up, affords a proof of this belief. So fully have
men been convinced of the fincerity of each other’s faith
upon this fubje£f, that in one form, that of an appeal to-
the Divine Ruler of the. world, by the folemnity of an
oath, they have introduced it both into the moft ordi¬
nary and the moft important bufinefs of life. 3
This univerfal conviftion of men of all degrees ofExiftence
knowledge, from the moft; profound pbilofopher to the ^ Pr0V1*
rud^ft barbarian, is probably to be traced to fome Pri-
moeval tradition, never totally effaced from any nation on feienti-
under heaven. The truth itfelf, however, is fufceptible fic princi-
of the moft complete proof from principles of fcience.Plcs*
If the world had a beginning, it may obvioufly have an
end, and can be continued in exiftenCe only by the con-
ftant energy of that power by which it was at firft crea¬
ted. He therefore who acknowledges a creation and
denies a providence, involves himfelf in this palpable
contradiction—“ that a fyftem, which of itfelf had not
an original and momentary exiftence, may yet of itfelf
have a perpetual exiftence ; or that a being which can¬
not of itfelf exift for a fecond of time, may yet, of it¬
felf, exift for thoufands of years!” Or ftiould we be fo
complaifant, as for a moment to fuppofe, with certain
theifts, ancient and modern, that the j?iatter of the uni-
verfe is felf-exiftent and eternal, and that the power of
God was exerted, not in creating fubftances, but in re¬
ducing the original matter from a ftate of chaos into
that beautiful order in which we fee it arranged j the
conftant energy of providence muft ftill be admitted as
neceflary to preferve the forms and to continue the mo¬
tions which were originally impreffed upon the chaotic
mafs. From late experiments it appears extremely
doubtful whether any two atoms of the moft folid body
be in aClual contaCl ; and that they are not «//in contaCt
is certain. (See Metaphysics, N° 176. and Optics,
N°45, p. 185.). Yet it requires a very confiderabie de¬
gree of force to carry to a greater diftance from one
another the parts of a ftone or of a bar of iron. By
what power then are thefe parts kept contiguous ? It
cannot be by their own ; becaufe nothing can aCt where
it is not prefent, and becaufe our beft philofopby has '
long taught us that the atoms of matter are effentjally
inaCfive. Again, it requires a very great degree of
force to bring two bodies, however fmall, into apparent
contaft (fee Optics, ubifupra); and therefore it follows
that they muft be kept afunder by fome foreign power.
Every attempt to folve thefe phenomena by the inter-
ventiaa
P Pv O
[ 462 ]
PRO
Providence, vention of a fubtle fluid is vain j for the queftion recurs,
  —' v/hat keeps the parts of the fluid itfelf contiguous, and
yet feparated from each other ?
The cohefion therefore of the parts of matter, and
that which is called their repulfive power, demonftrate,
through the whole fyftem, the immediate energy of
fomething which is not matter, and by which every bo¬
dy fmall and great is preferved in its proper form. It
has been elfewhere ftiown (fee Metaphysics, Part II.
chap. 5. and Motion, N° 19, 20.), that the various
motions which are regularly carried on through the uni-
verfe, by W'hich animals and vegetables grow and decay,
and by which we have day and night, fummer and win¬
ter, cannot be accounted for by any laws of mere me-
chanifm, but neceffarily imply the conftant agency of
fomething which is itfelf diftinft from matter. But
the forms of bodies are preferved, and their natural mo¬
tions carried on, for purpofes obvioufly planned by Wif-
dom. The power therefore which effecls thefe things
muft be combined with intelligence : but power and in¬
telligence preserving the order of the univerfe conftitute
all that is meant by a general providence j which is
therefore as certainly adminiftered as the fan daily rifes
and fets, or as bodies are kept folid by what is termed
cohefion and repulfion.
Reafoning Abftrafted and metaphyfical as this reafoning may
of the Bra- appear, it is by no means peculiar to the philofopheis of
mins of Europe. Its force has been felt from time iromemo-
Himloftan. rjaj Bramins of Hindoftan, who, as Sir William
* Ajiatic Jones informs us *, “ being unable to form a diftindl idea
Refearches, 0f brute matter independent of mind, or to conceive
vo^ that the work of fupreme goodnefs was left a moment
to itfelf, imagine that the Deity is ever prefent to his
work, not in fubftance but in fpirit and in energy.”
Gn this rational and fublime conception they have in¬
deed built numberlefs abfurd fuperftitions j but their
holding the opinion itfelf, (hows that they believe in the
reality of providence upon philofophical principles : and
what truth is there on which the mind of man has not
ingrafted marks of its own weaknefs ?
Few nations, however, except the ancient Greeks,
have had philofophers equally fubtile with the Bramins
of India ; and therefore though all mankind have in ge¬
neral agreed in the belief of a fuperintending Providence,
they have in different ages and countries admitted that
truth upon different kinds of evidence, and formed very
different notions concerning the mode in which the Di-
vine fuperintendence is exerted.
Idea of pro- While focieties are ftill in a rude and unpolifhed date,
vidence in w’hile individuals poffefs little fecurity and little leifure
rude ages. £or tbe exerti0n of their rational powers, every impor¬
tant or Angular appearance in nature becomes an objedl
of wonder or of terror. In this ftate of ignorance, men
fee not the univerfe as it is, a great colleftion of connect¬
ed parts, all contributing to form one grand and beautiful
fyftem. Every appearance Teems to ftand alone 5 they
know that it muft have a caufe, but what that caiife is
they are ignorant. The phenomena exhibited by nature
are fo complicated and fo various, that it never occurs
to them that it is poftible for one Being to govern the
whole. Hence arofe the different fyftems of polytheifm
that have appeared in the world. Nature w7as divided
into different regions, and a particular invifible power
was afligned to each department : one conduced the
flaming chariot of the fun, another wielded the terrible
thunderbolt, and others were employed in diffufing Providenct
plenty, and introducing the ufeful arts among men. w-'y-—
Thus, although the various fyftems of polytheifm in
general acknowledged one Supreme Ruler, the father of
gods and men, yet they at the fame time peopled not
only the regions above, the air and the heavens, but
they alfo filled the ocean and the land, every grove, and
every mountain, with aftive but invifible natures. Ha¬
ving arifen from the fame caufes, thefe fyftems of poly¬
theifm, which are fo many hypothefes concerning Divine
providence, are all extremely fimilar \ and we have a
very favourable fpecimen of them in the elegant my¬
thology of Greece and Rome, which gave to every re¬
gion of nature a guardian genius, and taught men in the
deep receffes of the foreft, or in the W'indings of the ma-
jeftic flood, to exped the prefence of proteCling and
friendly powers. See Polytheism. g j
Notwithftanding this univerfal reception, in fome The doc-
form or other, of the doCtrine of a divine providence, trine has
it has in every age met with fome opponents. The1,a(1 0PP°'
moft ancient of thefe were Democritus and Leucippus, ft
They denied the exiftence of a Deity—afferted that all ry age.
things were mechanically neceffary, and that thought
and fenfe were only modifications of matter. This is
atheifm in the ftricleft fenfe, and the only form of it
that has ever been confidently fupported. Epicurus
followed upon the fame principles*, but he rendered the
fyftem altogether abfurd, by confefling the freedom of
♦he human will. To avoid the imputation of atheifm,
ht afferted the exiftence of God *, but declared that he
refi(M above the heavens, and interfered not in human
affairs. f)ne Gf bJs maxims was, that “ the bleffed and
immortal -t-qng neither hath any employment himfelf,
nor troubles h-rffelf with others.” Maximus Tyrius* * ]\jax,
juftly obferves, jjjjg js rat]ier a defcription of aTyr.Dif-
Sardanapalus than 01 a And fome of the mo-fert; 29* ,
ralifts f of antiquity reu„r,]ie(j^ t])at tjiey knew many t
men among themfelves policy 0£ a£Bve and generous j/andie
minds, whofe characters they vque(j more highly than Natvra
that of Epicurus’s god. Some ot .he ancients alfo ap_ Decrvm,
pear to have entertained the followftrange notion :iib< 11,
They acknowledged the exiftence of . Suprfme anci 0f
many inferior deities j but at the fame i.ie^ £
pofed that there is a certain fate which ru’, over ^
and is fuperior to the gods themfelves. See ^
in Mythology.
The providence exerted by the Author of nati_0
over his works is ufually divided into two branches : a
general, referring to the management of the univerfe at
large *, and a particular providence, chiefly regarding
particular men, ■ _ 7
Upon the fir ft of thefe, in The Religion of Nature de- General
lineated, the queftion is ftated fomewhat in the follow-providence
ing manner : The world may be faid to be governed,
or at leaft cannot be faid to flu&uate fortuitoufly, if
there are laws or rules by which natural caufes a£f if
the feveral phenomena in it fucceed regularly, and in
general the conftitution of things is preferved *, if there
are rules obferved in the produftion of herbs, trees, and
the like *, if the feveral kinds of animals are furnifhed
with faculties proper to determine their aftions in the
different ftations which they hold in the general econo¬
my of the world *, and laftly, if rational beings are ta¬
ken care of in fuch a manner as will at laft agree beft
with reafon. By the providence of God we ought to
underftand
PRO [ 463 ] PRO
evidence- underftand his governing the world hy fuch laws as thefe
■—"v now mentioned : fo that if there are fuch, there muft be
8 a Divine providence.
; it re- With regard to inanimate objeEls, the cafe agrees pre-
nateob" cIfely the above fuppofxtion. The whole of that
univerfe which we fee around us is one magnificent and
well regulated machine. The world that we inhabit is
a large globe, which, conducted by an invifible power,
flies with a rapidity of which we have no conception,
through an extent of fpace which fets at defiance every
power of fancy to embody it into any diftinft image.
A large flaming orb Hands immoveable in the heavens j
around which this, and other worlds of different magni¬
tudes, perform their perpetual revolutions. Hence arife
the expe&ed returns of day and night, and the regular
diverfity of feafons. Upon thefe great operations a
thoufand other circumftances depend. Hence, for ex¬
ample, the vapours afeend from the ocean, meet above
in clouds, and after being condenfed, defeend in fhowers
to cover the earth with fertility and beauty. And
thefe appearances are permanent and regular. During
every age fince men have been placed upon the earth,
this aftonifhing machine continued fteadily to perform
its complicated operations. Nothing is left to chance.
The fmalleft bodies are not lefs regular than the largeft,
and obferve continually the fame rules of attraction, re-
pulfion, &c. The apparent variations of nature pro¬
ceed only from different circumftances and combinations
of things, aCting all the while under their ancient laws.
We ourfelves can calculate the effeCts of the laws of
gravitation and of motion. We can render them fub-
fervient to our own purpofes, with entire certainty of
fuccefs if we only adhere to the rules eftablilhed by na-
9 ture, that is to fay, by providence.
jetable?, Vegetables alfo live and flourifh according to preferi-
bed methods. Each fort is produced from its proper
feed ; has the fame texture of fibres, is at all times
nourifhed by the fame kind of juices, digefted and pre¬
pared by the fame veffels. Trees and ftirubs receive
annually their peculiar liveries, and bear their proper
fruits: fo regular are they in thislaft refpeCt, that every
fpecies may be faid to have its profeffion or trade ap¬
pointed to it, by which it furniflies a certain portion of
manufacture, or of food, to fupply the wants of animals:
being created for the purpofe of confumption, all ve¬
getables produce great quantities of feed to fupply the
neceffary wafte. Here too, then, there is evidently a
regulation by which the feveral orders are preferved, and
the ends of them anfwered according to their firft efta-
10 blifhment.
mals, With regard to animals, they too, in ftruCture of their
form, are fubjeCt to laws fimilar to thofe which govern
the vegetable world. In the fentient part of their con-
ftitution they are no lefs fubjeCt to rule. The lion is al¬
ways fierce, the fox is crafty, and the hare is timid.
Every fpecies retains from age to age its appointed place
and charaCler in the great family of nature. T. he
various tribes are made and placed in fuch a manner
as to find proper means of fupport and defence. Beafts,
birds, fifties, and infeCts, are all pofftffed of organs
and faculties adapted to their refpeCtive circumftances,
and opportunities of finding their proper food and
n prey.
liman. Man is fubjeCt to the ordinary laws which other ma¬
terial and animal fubftances ®bey j but he is left more
at large in the determination of his aftions. Yet even Providence,
here things do not fluctuate at random. Individuals do ' 1 v
indeed rife and perifti according to fixed rules, and na¬
tions themfelves have only a temporary endurance.
But the fpecies advances with a fteady progrefs to in¬
tellectual improvement. This progrefs is often inter¬
rupted 5 but it appears not to be lefs fure at the long-
run than even the mechanical laws which govern the
material part of our conftitution. Amidft the convui-
lion of ftates and the ruin of empires, the ufeful arts,
when once invented, are never loft. Thefe, in better
times, render fubfiftence eafy, and give leifure for reflec¬
tion and ftudy to a greater number of individuals.
Tyre and Sidon have paffed away, Athens itfelf has be¬
come the prey of barbarians, and the profperity of
ancient Egypt is departed, perhaps for ever j but the
fhip, the plough, and the loom, remain, and have been
perpetually improving. Thus every new convulfion of
fociety does lefs mifehief than the laft ; and it is hoped
that by the afliftance of printing the moft polifhed arts
and the moft refined {peculations have now become im¬
mortal.
The world is not then left in a ftate of confufion :
it is reduced into order, and methodifed for ages to
come ; the feveral fpecies of beings having their offices
and provinces afligned them. Plants, animals, men,
and nations, are in a ftate of continual change 5 but fuc-
ceffors are appointed to relieve them, and to carry on
the fcheme of Providence. 12
But the great difficulty is, how to account for that Difficulty
providence which is called particular: For rational be-of account¬
ings, and free agents, are capable of doing and deferving S ^or Par_
well or ill; and the fafety or danger, that happinefs or
unhappinefs of a man here, muft depend upon many
things that feem fcarcely capable of being determined
by Providence. Befides himfelf and his own conduct,
he depends upon the conduct of other men; whofe
aftions, as we naturally fuppofe, cannot, confidently
with their free will, be controuled for the advantage of
another individual. The aftions of numbers of men
proceeding upon their private freedom, with different
degrees of ability, as they crofs and impede, or direftly
oppofe each other, muft produce very different effefts
upon men of different charafters, and thus in a ftrange
manner embarrafs and entangle the general plan. And
as to the courfe of nature, it may juftly be alked, is the
force of gravitation to be fufpended till a good man
pafs by an infirm building ? (See Prayer). Add to
this, that fome circumftances appear abfolutely irrecon-
cileable. The wind which carries one into port drives
another back to fea \ and the rains that are juft fuffi-
cient upon the hills may drown the inhabitants of the
valleys. In ftiort, may we expeft miracles ? or can
there be a particular Providence that forefees and pre¬
pares for the feveral cafes of individuals, without force
frequently committed upon the law's of nature and the
freedom of intelligent agents ?
In whatever way it is brought about, there is little No
doubt that fomething of this kind mujl take place. For argument
as the Deity does direft, as already mentioned, the great againft its
and general progrefs of things in this world, he muft
alfo manage thofe of lefs importance. Nations are
compofed of individuals. The progrefs of individuals
is the progrefs of the nation, and the greateft events
ufually depend upon the hiftory and the moft trifling
aftions.
p p
Providence
x4 .
The Deity
may eafily
forefee
the actions
of men;
15
and may
thence fit
them for
their fitua'
tions in
life.
16
The poffi-
bility of
this exem¬
plified.
actions of private perfons.
ceive how the fuperintendence and management of all
this can be brought about. But as the ways and the
thoughts of the Omnipotent Spirit whofe influence per¬
vades, and rules, and animates nature, referable not the
limited operations of men, we can only form conjec¬
tures concerning the means by which his government is
conduced.
I. In the firfl: place, then, it is not impoflible that the
Deity Ihould forefee the future aftions of intelligent be¬
ings. Many of thefe aftions depend upon the mecha-
nifm of the material world, which wras formed by himfelf,
and muft be entirely known to him. Many men among
ourfelves poffefs much iagacity in difeerning the future
a&ions of others, from attending to their known charac¬
ters, and the circumftances in which they are placed.
If fuperior natures do exift, and minds more perfett than
the human, they muft poffefs this penetration in a more
eminent degree in proportion to the excellence of their
intelle&ual powers. But if this difeernment be in God
proportionable to his nature, as in lower beings it is
proportionable to theirs, it then becomes altogether
unlimited, and the future a&ions of free agents are at
once unlocked and expofed to his view. Add to this,
that the Author of nature is well acquainted with
the creatures that he has made ; he knows the me-
ebanifm of our bodies, the nature and extent of our
underftandings, and all the circumftances by which we
are furrounded. With all thefe advantages, it is making
no great ftretch to fuppofe him capable of difeerning
the line of condufl which we will purfue ; and. this
even fetting afide the infinity of his nature, to which a
thoufand years are as one day, and fuppofing him to
reafon from probabilities in the imperfefl manner that
we do.
2. There is no impoflibility at leaft, that men, whofe
characters and a&ions are thus foreknown, may be in¬
troduced into the world in fuch times and places, as
that their adls and behaviour may not only coincide
with the general plan of things, but may alfo anfwer
many private cafes. The celeftial bodies are fo placed
that their jarring attractions make out a fplendid fyftem.
Why then may there not be in the Divine mind fome-
thing like a projection of the future hiftory of mankind,
as well as of the motions of the heavenly bodies ? And
why ftiould it not be thought poffible for men, as well
as for them, by fome fecret law, or rather by the ma¬
nagement of an unfeen powrer, to be brought into their
places in fuch a manner as that, by the free ufe of.their
faculties, the conjunctions and oppofitions of their in-
terefts and inclinations, the natural influence of their
different degrees of talents, power, and wealth, they
may confpire to make out the great fcheme of human
affairs ? There is no abfurdity in this fuppofition : it is
not beyond the power of an almighty and perfeCt Be¬
ing *, and it is worthy of him. Let us take from the
Jewifh hiftory, as mo'ft generally known, an example of
what may be fuppofed to happen daily. It was the
intention of providence to place David the fon of Jeffe
upon the throne of the Hebrews. The country is in¬
vaded by a foreign enemy : the hoftile armies meet, and
lie encamped upon oppofite mountains. A man comes
forth from the army of the invaders, as was extremely
common in thofe, times, and defies the Hebrew hoft to
fend forth a champion to meet him in fingle combat.
17
O ’ [ 464 ] . p 11 0
The difficulty is to con- Terrified by the gigantic bulk and mighty force of Go- Provident*
* " liah, no man would rifk the unequal confliCl. David, ~
who was too young to carry arms, had been fent to the
camp with provifions for his brothers, and heard the
challenge. In defence of his flock he had killed fome
beafts of prey in the wildernefs, and he was an excellent
markfman with the fling. He thought it might pro¬
bably be as eafy to kill a man as a wild beaft •, at all
events, he knew that a ftone well direCted would prove
no lefs fatal to a giant than to a dwarf: he therefore
refolved to try his Ikill 5 and he tried it with fuccefs.
Here no man’s free will was interrupted, and no miracle
was accomplifhed : Yet by this train of circumftances
thus brought together, a foundation was laid for the fu¬
ture fortunes of the fon of Jeffe, for the greatnefs of
his country, and for accompliftiing the purpofes of Pro¬
vidence. According to Seneca, “ Hoc dico, fulmina
non mitti a Jove, fed fie omnia difpofita, ut ea etiam
quee ab illo non fiunt, tamen fineratione non fiunt ; qute
illius eft.—Nam etfi Jupiter ilia nunc non facit, fecit ut
fierent.”—1 faij, that the lightning co?nes not direBly
from the hand of Jove, but things are properly dfpofed
for the indiredl execution of his will; for he aits not im¬
mediately, but by the intervention of means.
3. Laftly, it is not impofible xniav] things may Secret in-
be accomplilhed by fecret influence, upon the human
mind, either by the Deity himfelf, or.by the intervention ^ j™
of agents poffeffed of powers fuperior to thofe which fromjm.
belong to us. “ For inftance, if the cafe Ihould require poffible.
that a particular man be delivered from fome threaten¬
ing ruin, or from fome misfortune, which would certain¬
ly be fal him if he flrould go fuch a way at fuch a time,
as he intended : upon this occafion fome new reafons
may be prefented to his mind why he ftiould not go at
all, or not then, or not by that road; or he may forget
to go. Or, if he is to be delivered from fome danger¬
ous enemy, either fome new turn given to his thoughts
may divert him from going where the enemy will be,
or the enemy may be after the fame manner diverted
from coming where he fliall be, or his refentment may
be qualified; or fome proper method of defence may be
fuggefted to the perfon in danger. After the fame man¬
ner advantages and fucceffes may be conferred on the
deferving; as, on the other fide, men, by way of puniih-
ment for their crimes, may incur mifehiefs and calami¬
ties. Thefe things, and fuch as thefe (fays Mr Wollaf- _ _ I
ton*), maybe. For fince the motions and a£lions of
men, which depend upon their wills, do alfo depend feli^llek
upon their judgments, as thefe again do. upon the prefent ^ 5.
appearances of things in their minds j if a new profpe£f
of things can be any way produced, the lights by which
they are feen altered, new forces and dire&ions impreffed
upon the fpirits, paffions exalted or abated, the power of
judging enlivened or debilitated, or the attention taken off
without any fufpenfion or alteration of the Handing
laws of nature,—then, without that, new volitions, de-
fions, meafures, or a ceffation of thinking, may alfo be
produced ; and thus many things prevented that other-
wife would be, and many brought about that would not.
That there may poffibly be fuch infpirations of new
thoughts and councils (continues our author), may
perhaps appear farther from this, that Ave frequently
find thoughts arifing in our heads, into which Ave are
led by no difeourfe, nothing we read, no clue of reafon-
g, but they furprife and come upon us from we knoAV
ms.
PRO
rrjvidence. j10t what quarter. If they proceeded from the mobility
of fpirits draggling out of order, and fortuitous affe&ions
of the brain, or were they of the nature of dreams,
why are they not as wild, incoherent, and extravagant
as they are ?” Is it not much more reafonable to ima¬
gine that they come by the order and direction of an
all-feeing and all-gracious God, who continually watches
over us, and difpofes every thing in and about us for the
good of ourfelves or others ? not to fpeak of the agree-
ablenefs of this notion to the opinions of the bed and
wifed men in all ages {a). “ If this, then, be the cafe,
as it feems to be, that men’s minds are fufceptible of
fuch injinuations and imprejjions, as frequently, by ways
unknown, do aff'eft them, and give them an inclination
towards this or that ; how many things (alks our au¬
thor) may be brought to pafs by thefe means without
fixing and rejixing the laws of nature, any more than
they are unfixed when one man alters the opinion of
another by throwing in his way a book proper for that
tS purpofe ?” , 0 , . , , , . .
^.nd may All this may be effected either by the immediate in-
je effected terpofition of God himfelf, or by that of beings invijible,
py beings anj jn nature fuperior to us, who aft as the miniders
if or°by providence. That there are fuch beings we can
ih’e Deity, hardly doubt, as it is in the highed degree improbable
that fuch imperfeft beings as men are at the top of the
fcale of created exidence. And fince we ourfelves, by
the ufe of our limited powers, do often alter the courfe
of things within our fphere from what they would be
if left to the ordinary laws of motion and gravitation,
without being faid to alter thofe laws ; why may not fu¬
perior beings do the fame as indruments of divine pro¬
vidence ? This idea of the intervention of fuperior na¬
tures is beautifully illudrated by Thomfon in the follow¬
ing paffage:
Thefe are the haunts of meditation, thefe
The fcenes where ancient bards th’ infpiring breath,
Ecdatic, felt; and from this world retir’d,
Convers’d with angels and immortal forms,
On gracious errands bent: to fave the fall
Of virtue druggling on the brink of vice ;
In waking whifpers, and repeated dreams,
To hint pure thought, and warn the favour’d foul
For future trials fated to prepare.
We agree, however, with Mr Wolladon, in thinking
the power of thefe beings not fo large as to alter or fuf-
pend the general laws of nature (fee Miracle) j for
the world is not like a bungling piece of elock-work,
which requires to be often fet backwards or forwards.
We are likewife perfeftly fatisfied, that they cannot
change their condition, to ape us or inferior beings ;
and confequently we are not apt hadily to credit dories
of portents, &c. fuch as cannot be true, unlefs the nature
of things and their manner of exidence were occafional-
ly reverfed. Yet as men may be fo placed as to become,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
PRO
even by the free exercife of their own powers, injlrumentsProvid^rre.
of God’s particular providence to other men j fo may v
we well fuppofe that thefe higher beings may be lo
dijlributed through the univerfe, and fubjeft to fuch an
economy, unknown to us, as may render them alfo in¬
druments of the fame providence \ and that they may,
in proportion to their greater abilities, be capable, con-
fiftently with the laws of nature, of induencing human
affairs in proper places. 19
We diall next proceed to date fome of the chief ob- Objection*
jeftions W'hich in ancient or modern times have been ^.^eo‘loc"
brought againd the opinion, that the world is govern- proYidence
ed by a Divine providence. 23
1. The fird of thefe is this, that the fydem of naturefrom the
contains many imperfeftions whicli it ought not to do if imp^riec-
it be the work of a perfeftly wife and good Being. To^°^so l"
avoid the force of this objeftion, fome modern writers *
have deferted the ground of fupreme and abfolute good-
nefs, which the ancient theifts always occupied, and have
afferted that the divine perfeftion confids in unlimited
power and uncontrouled fupremacy of will j that confe¬
quently the Deity does not always that which is bed, but
merely what he himfelf pleafes j and that for no other
reafon but becaufe he wills to do fo. But this is no bet¬
ter than atheifm itfelf. For it is of np importance to us
whether the univerfe is governed by blind fate or chance,
that is to fay, by nothing at all; or whether it is go¬
verned by an arbitrary fovereign.will that is. direfted by
chance, or at lead by no principle of beneficence. 2r
The true anfwer to this objeftion is, that no created anfwered,
fydem can have every perfeftion, becaufe it mud neceffa-
rily be deditute of felf-exidence and independence •, and
therefore if being deditute of fome perfeftions be bet¬
ter than nothing, it was worthy of infinite powfer and
perfeft: goodnefs to create fuch beings. In our prefent
date, we mortals dand upon too low ground to take a
commanding view of the whole frame of things. We
can only reafon concerning what is unknown from the
little that is within our reach. In that little, we can
fee that wifdom and goodnefs reign ; that nature al¬
ways aims to produce perfeftion j that many falutary
effefts refult even from the thunder and the dorm : and
we doubt not that a view of the whole drufture of the
univerfe would afford an additional triumph to the good¬
nefs and Ikill of its great Architeft.
We fee a regular afcent in the fcale of beings from
mere lifelefs matter up to man j and the probability is,
that the fcale continues to afcend as far above man in
perfeftion as created beings can poffibly be raifed.—
The foie purpofe of God in creating the world mud
have been to produce happinefs : but this would be mod
effeftually done by creating, in the fird place, as many
of the mod perfeft clafs of beings as the fydem could
contain ; and afterwards other claffes lefs and lefs per¬
feft, till the whole univerfe diould be completely
full. We do not pofitively affert fuch a fcheme of
creation,
3 N Where
[ 46s 1
(a) That fuch was the general belief of the Greeks in the days of Homer, is plain from that poet’s condantly
introducing his deities into the narrative of his poems, and telling us that Minerva, or fome other god, altered the
minds of his heroes. “ By this,” fays Plutarch, “ the poet does not mean to make God defray the will of man,
but only move him to will: nor does he miraculoufly produce tho appetites themfelves in men, but only caufes
fuch imaginations as are capable of exciting them.”
P R O
/
[ 466 ] PRO
Where all muft fall, or not coherent be j
And all that rifes, rife in due degree,
was actually in the divine Archite&’s intention •, but
that it is poflible, is fufficiently obvious. No man will
pretend to fay, that this earth could afford a comfort¬
able fubfiftence to a greater number of the human race,
were all the inferior animals annihilated, than it could
at prefent, fwanning as every element is with life.—
Suppole then, that as many men had been placed at
jirlt upon the earth as it could poffibly lupport, and
that matters had been fo conftituted, as that the num¬
ber Ihould never have been either increafed or diminith-
ed j we beg leave to afk, whether, fince there would have
been evidently room for inferior animals, it would have
been moil worthy of infinite goodnefs to leave the whole
globe to men, or to introduce into it different orders of
lefs perfect beings, which, while they could not incom¬
mode this principal inhabitant, would each find plea-
fure in its own exiftence ? To this queflion different
anfwers cannot furely be given. Let the reader then
extend his view, and confider the univerfe, which, how¬
ever vaft, cannot be pofitively infinite, as one fyftem as
much united as the feveral parts of this globe •, let him
fuppofe that there were at fi^lf created as many of the
higheft order of beings as it could have contained had
creation there flopt j. let him remember that happinefs
in many different degrees is valuable ;—and he will not
furely think it any imputation on the goodnefs of God
that "there are in the univerfe many beings far from per-
feftion. The moft imperfeft of thefe are by themielves
better than nothing j and they all contribute to make
up a fyftem which, confidered as a whole, we have
every reafon to believe to be as perfect as any thing not
felf-exiftent can poflibly be.
2. If the world is conduced by a benevolent provi¬
dence, how came evil to be introduced into it ? 1 his
queftion has perplexed mankind in all ages. The an-
fcion of evil, cjent Perfians refolved it, by afferting the exiftence of
two gods, Oromafdes the author of good, and Arima-
nius the author of evil. From them the Chriftian he¬
retics called Manichees borrowed their doftrine of two
oppofite co-eternal principles. Both the Platonifts and
Stoics afcribed the origin of evil to the perverfenefs or
imperfe&ion of matter, which they thought the Deity
could not alter : and Pythagoras imagined a ftate of
pre-exiftence, in which the fouls of men had committed
offences, for which they are here fuffering the punifli-
ment. But thefe hypothefes are, fome of them impious,
and all unfatisfaftory.
nfwerecl Taking the expreflion in its moft extenfive fenfe, the
'1 ' e e ' eviis to which the human race are expofed may be re¬
duced to pain, uneafinefs, difappointment of appetites, and
death ; of which not one could have been wholly pre¬
vented without occafioning greater evils,inconfiftentwith
the perfedf goodnefs of the Creator. As long as we
have folid bodies capable of motion, fupported by food,
fubjett to the influence of the atmofphere, and divifible,
they muft neceffarily be liable to diffolution or death :
But if a man could fuffer death, or have his limbs bro¬
ken, without feeling pain, the human race had been long
ago extin61. A fever is a ftate of the body in which
the fluids are in great diforder. Felt we no uneafmefs
from that diforder, we ftiould have no inducement to
pay the proper attention to our ftate, and Ihould cer¬
Providence.
Objedtion
from the
introduc-
tainly die unawares, without fufpedling ourfelves to be Providei)c«|
in danger ; whereas, under the prefent adminiftration '"“■"V***
of divine providence, the pain and licknefs of the difeafe
compel us to have recourfe to the remedies proper for
reftoring us to foundnefs and to health. Of the unea-
fineffes to which we are liable, and which are not the
effedl of immediate pain, the greateft has been fometimes
faid to arife from the apprehenfion of death, which
conftantly flares us in the face, and frequently embitters
all our pleafures even in the hour of perfedl health.—
But this dread of death is implanted in our breafts for
the very beft of purpofes. Had we no horror at the
apprehenfion of death, we fliould be apt, whenever any
misfortune befel us, to quit this world raflrly, and rufh
unprepared into the prefence of our Judge : but the
horror which attends our reflexions on our own diffo¬
lution, arifing not from any apprehenfions of the pain of
dying, but from our anxiety concerning our future ftate
of exiftence, tends ftrongly to make us add, while we are.
here, in fuch a manner as to enfure our happinefs here¬
after. Add to this, that the fear of death is the great-
eft fupport of human laws. We every day fee perfons
breaking through all the regulations of fociety and
good life, notwithftanding they know death to be the
ceriain confequence, and feel all the horrors of it that
are natural to man : and therefore Avere death divefted
of thefe horrors, how infignificant would capital punifh-
ments be as guardians of the laAv, and how infecure
would individuals be in civil fociety ?
With regard to the unavoidable misfortunes and an¬
xieties of our prefent ftate, fo far from being truly hurt¬
ful in themfelves, they are proofs of divine beneficence.
When we fee men difpleafed with their fituation, when
we hear them complain of the difficulties, the miferies,.
and the cares of life, of the hardfhips which they have
undergone, and the labours which ftill lie before them :
inftead of accounting them unfortunate, avc ought to
regard them as aXive beings, placed in the only fitua¬
tion that is fit for the improvement of their nature.
That difcontent, thefe reftlefs Avifhes to improve their
condition, are fo many fure indications that their facul¬
ties Avill not languiih. They Avho are in the leaft de¬
gree accuftomed to obferve the human charaXer, knoAV
Avell the influence Avhich pleafure and repofe have in en¬
feebling every manly principle, and how capable they
are of attaching us even to a fordid and diflionourable
exiftence.
Happy indeed it is for the human race, that the
number of thofe men is fmall Avhom providence has-
placed in fituations in Avhich perfonal aXivity is unne-
ceffary. By far the greater number are compelled to
exert themfelves, to mix and to contend with their equals,
in the race of fortune and of honour. It is thus that,
our poAvers are called forth, and that our nature reaches-
its higheft perfeXion. It is even perhaps a general
truth, that they who have ftruggled with the greateft
variety of hardibips, as they ahvays acquire the higheft.
energy of charaXer, fo if they have retained their in¬
tegrity, and have not funk entirely in the conteft, fel-
dom fail to fpend their remaining days refpeXable and.
happy, fuperior to paflion, and fecured from folly by the
poffeflion of a wifdom dearly earned. _ r24,
But the benefits of phyfical evils have been fet in
ftill (Longer light by a great mafter of moral wifdom,^aufeof
Avho Avas himfelf fubjeX to many of thofe evils. I hat moraj good.
man
P Pv O [ 46
ovidence. man Is a moral agent, fent into this world to acquire
--'■Y-—' habits of virtue and piety to fit him for a better ftate,
is a truth to which no confiftent theift will for a mo¬
ment refufe his aiTent. But almoft all the moral good
which is left among us, is the apparent effedt of phyfical
evil.
rinfon's “ Goodnefs is divided by divines into fobernefs, righ-
ller, N° teoufnefs, and godlinefs. Let it be examined how each
p- 0f thefe duties would be pradlifed if there were no phy¬
fical evil to enforce it.
“ Sobriety or temperance is nothing but the forbear¬
ance of pleafure } and if pleafure was not followed by
pain, who would forbear it ? We fee every hour tbofe
in whom the defire of prefent indulgence overpowers all
fenfe of part, and all forefight of future mifery. In a
remiflion of the gout, the drunkard returns to his wine,
and the glutton to his feaft ; and if neither difeafe nor
poverty were felt or dreaded, every one would fink
down in idle fenfuality, without any care of others, or
of himfelf. To eat and drink, and lie down to deep,
would be the whole bufinefs of mankind.
“ Righteoufnefs, or the fydem of focial duty, may be
fubdivided into juftice and charity. Of jultice, one of
the heathen fages has (hown, with great acutenefs, that
it was impreffed upon mankind only by the inconveni¬
ences which injuftice had produced. 1 In the firlt
ages (fays he) men a£ted without any rule but the im-
pulfe of defire ; they praftifed injuftice upon others, and
fuffered it from others in their turn j but in time it was
difcovered, that the pain of fuffering wrong was greater
than the pleafure of doing it; and mankind, by a general
compaa, fubmitted to the reftraint of lav/s, and refigned
the pleafure to efcape the pain.1
“ Of charity, it is fuperfluous to obferve, that it could
have no place if there were no want $ for of a virtue
which could not be pra&ifed, the omiflion could not
be culpable. Evil is not only the occafional but the
efficient caufe of charity; we are incited to the relief
of mifery by the confcioufnefs that we have the fame
nature with the fufferer; that we are in danger of the
fame diftrefles, and may feme time implore the fame
affiftance.
“ Godlinefs or piety is elevation of the mind towards
the Supreme Being, and extenfion of the thoughts to
another life. The other life is future, and the Supreme
Being is invifible. None would have recourfe to an
invifible power, but that all other fubjefls had eluded
their hopes. None would fix their attention upon the
future, but that they are difeontented with the prefent.
If the fenfes were feafted with perpetual pleafure, they
'would always keep the mind in fubjedlion. Reafon
has no authority over us but by its power to warn us
againft evil.
“ In childhood, while our minds are yet unoccupied,
religion is imprefled upon them ; and the firft years 01
almoft all who have been well educated are pafled in a
regular difeharge of the duties of piety : But as vve
advance fsrward into the crowds of life, innumerable
delights folicit our inclinations, and innumerable cares
diftradt our attention. The time of youth is paffed in
moify frolics } manhood is led on from hope to hope,
and from projedt to projedt} the diffolutenefs of plea¬
fure, the inebriation of fuccefs, the ardour of expedta-
tion, and the vehemence of competition, chain down
the mind alike to the prefent feene: nor is it remem-
7 ] PRO
bered how foon this mill of trifles muft be fcattered, Provider ^
and the bubbles that float upon the rivulet of life be ‘-“"“v
loft for ever in the gulf of eternity. To this confide-
ration fcarce any man is awakened but by fome preffing
and refiftlefs evil; the death of thofe from whom he de¬
rived his pleafures, or to whom he deftined his pof-
feffions, fome difeafe which ftiows him the vanity of
all external acquifitions, or the gloom of age which
intercepts his profpedls of long enjoyment, forces
him to fix his hopes upon another ftate ; and when
he has contended with the tempefts of life till his
ftrength fails him, he flies at laft to the ffielter of re¬
ligion.
« That mifery does not make all virtuous, experience
too certainly informs us •, but it is no lefs certain, that
of what virtue there is* mifery produces far the greater .
part. Phyfical evil may be therefore endured with pa¬
tience, fince it is the caufe of moral good ; and patience
itfelf is one virtue by which we are prepared for that
ftate in which evil ffiall be no more.” 25
The calamities and the hardlhips of our prefent ftate, Obje&ions
then, are fo far from being real evils, of which provi-from the
dence ought to be accufed, that in every point of view
in which we can confider them, they afford the furelp^
proofs of the wifdom of its adminiftration, and of its
goodnefs to man.
The moft ferious difficulty lies in accounting for the
permiffion of moral evil or guilt, in a fyftem governed
by infinite benevolence and wifdom. Thofe who in a
confiftent manner hold the doftrine of the abfolute ne-
ceffity of human actions in its full extent, and acknow¬
ledge all its confequences, find it eafy to elude this diffi¬
culty. They very fairly deny the exiftence of any fuch
thing as moral evil in the abftraft ; and affert, that what
we call a crime, is nothing more than an attion which
we always regard with a painful fenfation : that thefe
apparent evils endure only for a time; and that all will
at laft terminate in the perfe&ion and happinefsof every
intelligent being. 2<J
Upon the fyftem of liberty, the ffiorteft anfwer feems arifwerecl.
to be this : that fome things are abfolutely impoffible,
not from any weaknefs in the Deity, but becaufe they
infer abfurdity or contradiction. Thus it is impoffible
for twice two to be any thing elfe than four; and thus
it is impoffible for Omnipotence itfelf to confer felf-
approbation upon an intelligent being who has never
deferved it; that is to fay, it is impoffible for a man of
fenfe to be pleafed with himlelf for having done a cer¬
tain a&ion, while he himfelf is confcious that he never
did that aflion. But felf-approbation conftitutes the
higheft, the moft unmingled, and permanent felicity, of
which our nature is capable. It is not in the power
of Omfiipotence itfelf, then, to beftow the higheft and
moft permanent felicity of our nature ; it muft be earned
and deferved before it can be obtained. In the fame
nanner good defert, virtue or merit, cannot be confer-
•ed; they muft be acquired. To enable us to acquire
hefe, we muft be expofed to difficulties, and muft fuf-
er in a certain degree. If thefe difficulties had no in-
luence upon our condu£l and feelings, if they expofed
is to no real danger, no fabric of merit and of felf-
ipprobation could be reared upon them. All that the
Supreme Being could do for us, was to confer fuch an
iriginal conftitution and charatter as would enable us
;o do well if we Ihould exert onr utmoft powers. The
sj N 2 univerfo
PRO
[ 468 ]
PRO
Providence, univerfe is not ruled by favour, but by juftice. Com-
  v ' plete felicity muft be purchafed. Guilt is an abufe of
our freedom, a doing ill where we could have done
well, and is entirely the work of man. Heaven could
not avoid permitting its exillence, and expofing us to
danger ; for temptation is neceflary to virtue, and vir¬
tue is the perfection of our nature, our glory, and our
happinefs.
The permiffion of moral evil has been fo ably ac¬
counted for by Simplicius, a Pagan writer, and there¬
fore not biafled by any partiality to the Jewilh or Chri-
ftian Scriptures, that we cannot deny ourfelves the plea-
fure of laying his reafoning before our readers. He
afks *, “ Whether God may be called the author of fin,
Com. in E, becaufe he permits the foul to ufe her liberty ? and
picl. p. iS6,an{\Vers the queftion thus :
?7
By Simpli¬
cius.
Simp lie*
1S7. ed. «< iqe who fays that God Ihould not permit the exer-
Salmnf. cjpe 0£ jts freec|om to the foul, muft affirm one of thefe
two things ; either that the foul, though by nature ca¬
pable of indifferently choofing good or evil, ftiould yet
be conftantly prevented from choofing evil ; or elfe that
it Ihould have been made of fuch a nature as to have
no power of choofing evil.
“ The former affertion (continues he) is irrational
and abfurd j for what kind of liberty would that be in
which there ftiould be no freedom of choice ? and what
choice could there be, if the mind were conftantly re-
ftrained to one fide of every alternative ? With refpeCl
to the fecond affertion, it is to be obferved (fays he),
that no evil is in itfelf defirable, or can be chofen as
evil. But if this power of determining itfelf either
way In any given cafe muft be taken from the foul, it
muft either be as fomething not good, or as fome great
evil. But whoever faith fo, does not confider how many
things there are which, though accounted good and de¬
firable, are yet never put in competition with this free¬
dom of will: for without it we ftiould be on a level with
the brutes ; and there is no perfon who would rather be
a brute than a man. If God then ftiows his goodnefs
in giving to inferior beings fuch perfeClions as are far
below this, is it incongruous to the divine nature and
goodnefs to give man a felf-determining powTer over his
aftions, and to permit him the free exercife of that
power ? Had God, to prevent man’s fin, taken away the
liberty of his Avill, he Avould likewife have deftroyed
the foundation of all virtue, and the very nature of man j
for there could be no virtue were there not a poffibility
of vice 5 and man’s nature, had it continued rational,
Avould have been divine, becaufe impeccable. There¬
fore (continues he), though avc attribute to God, as its
author, this felf-determining porver, Avhich is foneceffary
In the order of the univerfe j we have no reafon to at¬
tribute to him that evil Avhich comes by the abufe of li¬
berty : For God doth not caufe that averfion from good
which is in the foul Avhen it fins ; he only gave to the
foul fuch a poAver as might turn itlelf to evil, out of
which he produces much good, which, without fuch
a power, could not have been produced by Omnipotence
itfelf.” So confonant to the do£trine of our feriptures
is the reafoning of this opponent of the writings of
Mofes ! For ejl et ab hojle doceri.
The laft obje£Hon to the belief of a divine providence
arifes from the apparent confufion of human affairs, that
all things happen alike to all, that bad men are profpe-
rous, and that a total Avant of juftice appears to attend
the divine adminiftrations. Even the beft men have atProvid
times been fliaken by this confideration.—But there are
many reafons for rendering this Avorld a mixed feene : it
would become unfit for a ftate of trial and of education
to virtue Avere it otherAvife.
It has been ftioAvn already, that phyfical evil is the anfwem
parent of moral good ; and therefore it would be abfurd
to expeft that the virtuous ftiould be entirely exempt¬
ed from that evil. For the occafional profperity of the
Avicked, many reafons have been affigned even by thofe
Avho, in their difquifitions, Avere not guided by that re¬
velation Avhich has brought to light life and immorta¬
lity. “ God (fays Plutarch) fpares the Avicked, that he^y p?^
may fet to mankind an example of forebearance, andtarch.
teach them not to revenge their injuries too haftily on
each other. He fpares fome wicked men from early
puniftiment, in order to make them inftruments of his
juftice in puniftiing others. And he fpares all for a
time, that they may have leifure for repentance ; for
men (fays the fame excellent moralift) look at nothing
further, in the punilhments Avhich they inflidl, than to
fatisfy their revenge and malice, and therefore they pur-
fue thofe Avho have offended them Avith the utmoft rage
and eagernefs j Avhereas God, aiming at the cure of thofe
who are not utterly incurable, gives them
18
Objection
from the
apparent
confufion
of human
affairs,
“ time to be converted.”
But this objection receives the beft folution from the
doftrine of the immortality of the human fouL
• And fee
’Tis come, the glorious morn ! the fecond birth
Of heav’n and earth ! arvakening nature hears
The new creating word, and ftarts to life,
In every height’ned form, from pain and death
For e\’cr free. The great eternalfcheme,
Involving all, and in a perfefl whole
Uniting, as the profpeft Avider fpreads,
To reafon’s eye refin’d clears up apace.
Ye vainly Avife ! Ye blind prefumptuous ! uoav,.
Confounded in the dull, adore that PoavV
And Wifdom oft arraign’d 5 fee notv the caufe,.
Why unaffuming worth in fecret liv’d
And died neglefted : Avhy the good man’s fbare
In life Avas gall and bitternefs of foul :
Why the lone Avidow and her orphans pin’d
In ftarving folitude •, Avhile luxury,
In palaces, lay {training her Ioav thought,
To form unreal Avants : Avhy heav’n-born truth,
And moderation fair, Avore the red marks
Of fuperftition’s fcourge ; Avhy licenc’d pain,
That cruel fpoiler, that embofom’d foe,
Imbitter’d all our blifs. Ye good diftreft !
Ye noble feAv ! who here unbending Hand
Beneath life’s preffure, yet bear up a Avhile,
And what your bounded vieAV, Avhich only faw
A little part, deem’d evil, is no more :
The ftorms of wintry time will quickly pafs,
And one unbounded fpring encircle all.
Thomson’s Winter.
PROFIDENCE-Plantation, a colony of New England,
which, with Rhode-iftand, formerly conftituted a charter
government. Its chief toAvn is Newport.
PROVIDENCE, one of the leaft of the Bahama iflands
in the American ocean, but the beft of thofe planted
and fortified by the Englifti. It is feated on the eaft
fids
P
Theimmt
tality oftj
foul thefcj
anfwer t
this objeil
tion.
Providence
11 a
Provolt.
P R
fide of the gulf of Florida.
25-
O [ 469
W. Long. 7*7. 35. N. Lat.
Provoft
PROVINCE, in Roman antiquity, a country of con-
fiderable extent, which, upon being entirely reduced
under the Roman dominion, was new-modelled accord¬
ing to the pleafure of the conquerors, and fubjected to
the command of annual governors fent from Rome •, be¬
ing commonly obliged to pay fuch taxes and contribu¬
tions as the fenate thought fit to demand.
Of thefe countries, that part of France next the Alps
was one, and ftill retains the name Provence.
Nicod derives the word a procul vivendo, “ living
afar off j” but it is better deduced from pro and vinco,
“ I overcome.”
Province, in Geography, a divifion of a kingdom or
Hate, comprifing feveral cities, towns, &c. all under the
fame government, and ufually diftinguifhed by the ex¬
tent either of the civil or ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion.
The church diftinguilhes its provinces by archbifhop-
rics 5 in which fenfe, England is divided into two pro¬
vinces, Canterbury and York.
The United Provinces are fcven provinces of the Ne¬
therlands, who, revolting from the Spanilh dominion,
made a perpetual alliance, offenfive and defenfive, at
Utrecht, anno 1579. See UNITED Provinces.
PROVINCIAL, fomething relating to a province.
It alfo denotes in Rornilh countries, a perfon who has
the direction of the feveral convents of a province.
PROVISIONS, in a military fenfe, implies all
manner of eatables, food or provender, ufed in an army,
both for man and beaft.
PROVOST of a city or town, is the chief munici¬
pal magiftrate in feveral trading cities, particularly
Edinburgh, Paris, &c. being much the fame with
mayor in other places. He prefides in city-courts, and
together with the bailies, who are his deputies, deter¬
mines in all differences that arife among citizens.
The provoft of Edinburgh is called lord, and the fame
title is claimed by the provoft of Glafgow. The former
calls yearly conventions of the royal boroughs to Edin¬
burgh by his miflives, and is, ex ojficio, prefident to the
convention when met.
Provost, or Prevol Royal, a fort of inferior judge
formerly eftablifhod throughout France, to take cogni¬
zance of all civil, perfonal, real, and mixed caufes, a-
mong the people only.
Grand PROVOST of France, or of the Houfehold, had
jurifdiftion in the king’s houfe, and over the officers
therein •, looked to the policy thereof, the regulation of
provifions, &c.
Grand PROVOST of the Conflable, a judge who ma¬
nages proceffes againft the foldiers in the army who have
committed any crime.
He has four lieutenants diftributed throughout the
army, called provojls of the artny, and particular pro-
voils in the feveral regiments.
Provost Marjhal of an Army, is an officer appoint¬
ed to feize and iecure deferters, and all other crimi¬
nals. He is to hinder foldiers from pillaging, to in-
di£l: offenders, and fee the fentence paffed on them ex¬
ecuted. He alfo regulates the weights and meafures,
and the price of provifions* &c. in the army. For
the difcharge of his office, he has a lieutenant, a clerk,
and a troop of marffial-men on horfeback* as alfo an ex¬
ecutioner.
] P R It
There is alfo a provoft-marfhal in the navy, who has
charge over prifoners, &c. Prunella.
The French alfo had a provoft-general of the ma-
rines, whofe duty it was to profecute the marines when
guilty of any crime, and to make report thereof to the
council of war befides a marine provoft in every vef-
fel, who was a kind of gaoler, and took the prifoners
into his care, and kept the veffel clean.
PROVOSTS of the Mar foals, were a kind of lieute¬
nants of the marffials of France ; of thefe there were
180 feats in France ; their chief jurifdiftion regarded
highwaymen, footpads, houfe-breakers, &c.
PROVOST of the Mint, a particular judge inftituted
for the apprehending and profecuting of falfe coiners.
Provost,, or Prevot, in the king’s ftables •, his office
is to attend at court, and hold the king’s ftirrup when
he mounts his horfe. There are four provofts of this
kind, each of whom attends in his turn, monthly.
PROW, denotes the head or fore-part of a ffiip, par¬
ticularly in a galley $ being that which is oppofite to
the poop or ftern.
PROXIMITY, denotes the relation of nearnefs, ei¬
ther in refpe£t of place, blood, or alliance.
PRUDENCE, in ethics, may be defined an ability
of judging what is beft, in the choice both of ends and
means. According to the definition of the Roman mo-
ralift, DeOjfciis, lib. i. cap. 43. prudence is the know¬
ledge of what is to be defired or avoided. According¬
ly, he makes prudentia (De Legibus, lib. i.) to be a con-
traftion of providentia, or forefight. Plato (De Legibus,
lib.iii.) calls this the leading virtue j and Juvenal, Sat.x.
obferves,
Nulfutn numen abejl JiJit prudentia.
The idea of prudence includes £t)€«A<«, or due conful-
tation •, that is, concerning fuch things as demand con-
fultation in a right manner, and for a competent time,,
that the refolution taken up may be neither too preci¬
pitate nor too flow ; and or a faculty of dilcern-
ing proper means when they occur : and to the perfec¬
tion of prudence, thefe three things are farther required,
viz. or a natural fagacity •, prefence of
mind, or a ready turn of thought ; and iftmiyx, or ex¬
perience. The extremities of prudence are craft or
cunning on the one hand, which is the purfuit of an ill
end by direft and proper though not honeft means •, and
folly on the other, which is either a miftake, both as
to the end and means, or profecuting a good end by fo¬
reign and improper means. Grove’s Moral Philofophy,
vol. ii. chap. ii.
PRUDENTIUS, or Aurelius Prudentius Cle¬
mens, a famous Chriflian poet, under the reign of Theo-
dofius the Great, who was born in Spain in the year
348. He fir ft followed the profeffion of an advocate,
was afterwards a judge, then a foldier, and at length
had an honourable employment at. court. We have a
great number of his poems, which, from the choice of
his fubjefl, may be ttxmrlChrifian poems; but the
ftyle is barbarous, and very Afferent from the purity of
the Auguftan age. The moft efteemed editions of Pru-
dentius’s works are that of Amfterdam, in 1667, with
Heinfius’s Notes, and that of Paris in 1687, in ufum
Delphini.
PRUNELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs'? and in the natural method ranking
’ under
P R U [ 470 ] P R U
Prunella under the 12th order, Holoracece. See Botany In-
|| xicx *
Prwung. ^ PRUNES, are plums dried in the funflrine, or in
an oven.
PRUNING, in Gardening and Agriculture, is the
lopping oft' the fuperfluous branches of trees, in order to
make them bear better fruit, grow higher, or appear
more regular.
Pruning, though an operation of very general ufe, is
neverthelefs rightly underftood by few j nor is it to be
learned by rote, but requires a ftrift obfervation of the
different manners of growth of the feveral forts of fruit-
trees ; the proper method of doing which cannot be
known without carefully obferving how each kind is
naturally difpofed to produce its fruit : for f tine do this
on the fame year’s wood, as vines ; others, for the moft
part, upon the former year’s wood, as peaches, necta¬
rines, &c. 5 and others upon fpurs which are produced
upon wood of three, four, &c. to fifteen or twenty years
old, as pears, plums, cherries, &c. Therefore, in order
to the right management of fruit-trees, provifion fliould
always be made to have a fufficient quantity of bearing
wood in every part of the trees ; and at the fame time
there Ihould.not be a fupertluity of ufelefs branches,
which would exhauft the ftrength of the trees, and caufe
them to decay in a few years.
The reafons for pruning of fruit-trees, are, I. To
preferve them longer in a vigorous bearing-ftate; 2. To
render them more beautiful j and, 3 To caufe the fruit
to be larger and better tafted.
The general inftruCtions for pruning are as follow.
The greateft care ought to be taken of fruit-trees in the
fpring, when they are in vigorous growth ; which is the
only proper feafon for procuring a quantity of good
wood in the different parts of the tree, and for difpla-
cing all ufelefs branches as foon as they are produced, in
order that the vigour of the tree may be entirely diftri-
buted to fuch branches only as are defigned to remain.
For this reafon trees ought not to be neglefted in April
and May, when their {hoots are produced : however,
thofe branches which are intended for bearing the fuc-
ceeding year (hould not be ftiortened during the time of
their growth, becaufe this would caufe them to produce
two lateral {hoots from the eyes below the place where
they were flopped, which would draw much of the
ftrength from the buds of the firft {hoot : and if the
two lateral {hoots are not entirely cut away at the win¬
ter-pruning, they will prove injurious to the tree. This
is to be chiefly underftood of ftone-fruit and grapes ; but
pears and apples, being much harder, fuffer not fo much,
though it is a great difadvantage to thofe alfo to be
thus managed. It muft likewife be remarked, that
peaches, neftarines, apricots, cherries, and plums, are
always in the greateft vigour when they are leaft maim¬
ed by the knife ; for where large branches are taken
off, they are fubjeft to gum and decay. It is therefore
the moft prudent method to rub off all ufelefs buds when
they are firft produced, ani to pinch others, where new
{hoots are wanted to fuppty the vacancies of the wallj
by which management they may be fo ordered as to
want but little of the knife in winter-pruning. The
management of pears and apples is much the fame with
thefe trees in fummer ; but in winter they muft be very
differently pruned : for as peaches and ne&arines, for
2
the moft part, produce their fruit upon the former year’s
wood, and muft therefore have their branches ftiortened
according to their ftrength, in order to produce new
{hoots forthefucceeding year ; fo, on the contrary, pears,
apples, plums, and cherries, producing their fruit upon
fpurs, which come out of the wood of five, fix, and feven
years old, {hould not be fhortened, becaufe thereby thofe
buds which were naturally difpofed to form thefe fpurs,
would produce wood branches $ by which means the
trees would be filled with wood, but would never pro¬
duce much fruit. The branches of ftandard-trees ftiould
never be {hortened unlefs where they are very luxuriant,
and, by growing n regularly on one fide of the trees, at-
traft the greateft part of the fap, by which means the
other parts art either unfurniftied with branches, or are
rendered veiy we : k *, in which cafe the branch fhould
be ftiortened down as low as is neceffary, in order to ob¬
tain more branches to fill up the hollow of the tree :
but this is onlv to be underftood of pears and apples,
which will produce {hoots from wood of three, four, or
more years old •, whereas moft forts of ftone-fruit will
gum and decay after Inch amputations : whenever this
happens to ftone-fruit, it fliould be remedied by flopping
or pinching thofe {hoots in the fpring, before they have
obtained too much vigour, which will caufe them to
pufli out fide-branches; but this muft be done with cau¬
tion. You muft alfo cut out all dead or decaying
branches, which caufe their heads to look ragged, and
alfo. attract noxious particles from the air : in doing of
this, you {hould cut them clofe down to the place where
they were produced, otherwife that part of the branch
which is left will alfo decay, and prove equally hurtful
to the reft of the tree *, for it feldom happens, when a
branch begins to decay, that it does not die quite down
to the place where it was produced, and if permitted to
remain long uncut, often infeffs fome of the other parts
of the tree. If the branches cut off are large, it will be
very proper, after having Imoothed the cut part exadtly
even with a knife, chiffel, or hatchet, to put on a plafter
of grafting clay, which will prevent the wet from foak-
ing into the tree at the wounded part. All fuch branches
as run acrofs each other, and occafion a confufion in the
head of the tree, {hould be cut off; and as there are fre¬
quently young vigorous ftioots on old trees, which rife
from the old branches near the trunk, and grow upright
into the head, thefe {hould be carefully cut out every
year, left, by being permitted to grow, they fill the tree
Prunkjp,
too full of wood.
As to the pruning of foreft-trees, if they be large, it
is beft not to prune them at all; yet, if there be an ab-
folute neceflity, avoid taking off large boughs as much
as poflible. And, I. If the bough be fmall, cut it
fmooth, clofe and Hoping. 2. If the branch be large,
and the tree old, cut it off at three or four feet from the
Item. 3. If the tree grow crooked, cut it off at the
crook, Hoping upward, and nurfe up one of the moft pro-
mifing {hoots for a new ftem. 4. If the tree grow top-
heavy, its head muft be lightened, and that by thinning
the boughs that grow out of the main branches. But
if you would have them fpring, rub off the buds, and
{hroud up the fide-ftioots. 5. If the fide-bough ftill
break out, and the top be able to fuftain itfelf, give the
boughs that put forth in fpring a pruning after Midfum-
mer, cutting them clofe.
P K U T 471 ] P K U
Frutilng It has been obferved, that trees are fubjeft to gum
II and decay, in confequence of pruning 5 to prevent thefe
Prufias. injurious effefts, a remedy has been propofed by Mr
^' v Bucknall, which on trial, it is faid, has been fuccefsful.
By this method the branches to be removed are to be
cut clofe to the place of feparation from the trunk,
fmoothed Avell with a knife, and the wound is to be
fmeared over with medicated tar, laid on with a
painter’s brulh. The following is the compofition of
this medicated tar. One quarter of an ounce of corro-
five fublimate reduced to fine powder, by beating it
with a wooden hammer, is introduced into a three pint
earthen pipkin, with about a glafsful of gin or other
fpirit." The mixture is to be well ftirred till the fubli¬
mate is diffolved. The pipkin is then gradually filled
with vegetable or common tar, and conftantly ftirred,
till the mixture be blended together as intimately as
poffible •, and this quantity will at any time be fufficient
for 200 trees. To prevent danger, let the corrofive
fublimate be mixed with the tar as quickly as poflible
after it is purchafed *, for being of a very poifonous na¬
ture to all animals, it (hould not be fuffered to lie about
a houfe, for fear of michief to fome part of the fa¬
mily.
By applying this compofition, Mr Bucknall can,
without the leaft danger, ufe the pruning hook on all
forts of trees, much more freely than by the ufe of any
article hitherto recommended. The following remarks
by the author on ^pruning in general, feem worthy of
notice, and we give them in his own words. “ I give
no attention (fays he) to fruit branches, and wood bran¬
ches ; but beg/once for all, that no branch ihall ever
be Ihortened, unlefs for the figure of the tree, and then
conftantly taken off clofe to the feparation, by which
means the wound foon heals. The more the range of
the branches ihoots circularly, a little inclining upwards,
the more equally will the fap be diftributed, and the
better will the tree bear *, for, from that circumftance,
the fap is more evenly impelled to evfcry part. Do not
let the ranges of branches be too near each other ; forj
remember all the fruit and the leaves ftiould have their
full (hare of the fan ; and where it fuits, let the middle
of the tree be free from wood, fo that no branch ihall
ever crofs another, but all the extreme ends point up¬
wards.
PRUNUS, a genus of plants belonging to the icof-
andria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 36th order, Pomacece. See Botany Index.
PRUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated at
Mount Olympus in Myfia, built by Prufias, who waged
Avar with Croefus, (Strabo) *, with Cyrus, (Stephanus) j
both cotemporary princes. Now called Burfa or Prufa,
capital of Bithynia, in Afia Minor. E. Long. 29. 5.
N. Lat. 39. 22.
PRUSIAS, the name of feveral kings of Bithynia.
Prusias, a town of Bithynia, anciently called Cios,
from a cognominal river, and giving name to the Sinus
Cianus of the Propontis ; rebuilt by Prufias the fun of
Zela, after having been deftroyed by Philip the fon of. r/ ia' 1
Demetrius : it flood on the Sinus Cianus, at the foot of
Mount Arganthonius. This is the Prufias who harbour¬
ed Hannibal after the defeat of Antiochus.—Of this
place was Afclepiades, furnamed Prujicus, the famous
phyfician.
PRUSSIA, a modern, but defervedly celebrated^ee Map of
kingdom of Europe, whole monarch, along with Pruflia
Proper, poffeffes alfo the elettorate of Brandenburg, and states.
fome other territories of confiderable extent. The di- plate
ftrift properly called Prnjfia is of great extent, and di-ccccxxxiv.
vided into the Ducal and Regal Pruflia, the latter be¬
longing to the republic of Poland till the late partition
of the Polilh territories. Both together are of greats
extent j being bounded on the north by the Baltic, on
the fouth by Poland and the duchy of Mazovia, on the
weft by Pomerania, and on the eaft by Lithuania and j
Samogitia. The name is by fome thought to be deri- Etymolo-
ved from the BoruJJi, a tribe of the Sarmatians, who, gy of the
migrating from the foot of the Riphaean mountains,mme*
were tempted by the beauty and fertility of the coun¬
try to fettle there. Others think that the name of this
country is properly Porujfia ; Po in the language of the
natives fignifying near, and PoruJ/ia fignifying near Ruf-
Jia. To the latter etymology we find the king of Pruflia
himfelf aflenting in the treatife intitled Memoirs of the
Houfe of Brandenburg. However, it muft be owned,
that thefe or any other etymologies of the word are very
uncertain, and we find nothing like it mentioned by hi-
ftorians before the tenth century. 2
The ancient ftate of Pruffia is almoft entirely un-Extreme
known. However, the people are faid to have been ^arbarity
very favage and barbarous 5 living upon raw flefh, and
drinking the blood of horfes at their feafts, according ^;tants<
to Stella, even to intoxication (a). Nay, fo extreme¬
ly favage were this people, that they were even unac¬
quainted with the method of conftrudling huts, and took
up their dwelling in caves and cavities of rocks and trees,
where they protefted themfelves and children from the
inclemencies of the weather. Among fuch a people it
is vain to expeft that any tranfadlions would be record¬
ed, or indeed that any thing worthy of being recorded
would be tranfacled. We (hall therefore begin our hi-
ftory of Pruflia with the time when the Teutonic knights
firft got footing in the country. (See TEUTONIC
Knights'). 3
On the expulfion of the Chriftians from the Holy Teutonic
Land by Saladin, a fettlement was given to the Teu-knigllts
tonic knights in Pruflia by Conrade duke of Mazovia, |.irl^et.
the competitor of Boleflaus V. for the crown of Poland, court-
Their firft refidence in this country was Culm 5 to which try.
territory they were confined by the conditions of the do¬
nation, excepting what they could conquer from their
pagan neighbours, all which the emperor granted to
them in perpetuity.
Encouraged by this grant, the knights conquered the
greateft
(a) This author does not mention any particular method by which they communicated an inebriating quality to
the blood of animals. Pbflibly, however, the vital fluid may have a property of this kind, though unknoAyn in our
days where fuch barbarous cuftoms are difufed. Drunkennefs from drinking blood is frequently mentioned iii
Scripture, but whether literally or metaphorically muft be decided by the learned.
‘Pruflia.
4
Sxpelied.
Hiftory of
Brandon-
burg.
* N° 27,
&c.
-
P R U [ 472 1 P R U
greateft part of tlie country which now goes by the name
of Prujjia; and, not content with this, became very
troublefome to Poland, infomuch that the monarchs of
that kingdom were fometimes obliged to carry on dan¬
gerous and bloody wars with them-, for an account ot
which we refer to the article Poland, N° 61, 67, &c.
The Teutonic order continued in Pruffia till the year
1531. Their lall grand-mafter was Albert marquis of
Brandenburg, and nephew to Sigifmund 1. king of Po¬
land. He was preferred to this dignity in hopes that
his affinity to Sigifmund might procure a reflitution of
fome of the places which had been taken from the order
during the former unluccefsful wars with Poland 5 but
in this the fraternity were difappointed. Albert, how¬
ever, was fo far from endeavouring to obtain any favour
from his uncle by fair means, that he refufed to do ho¬
mage to him, and immediately began to make prepara¬
tions for throw'ing off his dependence altogether, and
recovering the whole of Pruffia and Pomerania by force
of arms. In this he was fu far from fucceeding, that,
being foiled in every attempt, he was forced to re-
fign the dignity of grand-maller 5 in recompenfe for
which, his uncle bellowed on him that part of Pruffia
now called Ducal, in quality of a fecular duke. It was
now the intereft of the houfe of Brandenburg to affilt in
the expulfion of the fraternity ; and accordingly, be¬
ing at laft driven out of Pruffia and Pomerania, they
transferred their chapter to Mariendal in Franconia *, but
in that and other provinces of the empire where they
fettled, little more than the name of the order, once fo
famous, now remains.
The other moft confiderable part of his Pruffian ma-
jelty’s dominions is the eleftorate of Brandenburg.
Like other parts of Germany, it was anciently pof-
feffed by barbarians, of whom no hidory can be given.
Thefe were fubdued by Charlemagne, as is related un-
.der the article France * •, but being on every occalion
ready to revolt, in 927 Henry the Fowler eftablilhed
margraves, or governors of the frontiers, to keep the
barbarians in awe. The firlt margrave of Brandenburg
was Sigefroy, brother-in-law to the above-mentioned
emperor •, under whofe adminiftration the bilhoprics of
Brandenburg and Havelberg were eftablilhed by Otho I.
From this Sigefroy, to the fucceffion of the houfe of
Hohenzollern, from whom the prefent ele&or is defcend-
. ed, there are reckoned eight different families, who
have been margraves of Brandenburg j namely, the fa¬
mily of the Saxons, of Walbeck, Staden, Plenck, An¬
halt, Bavaria, Luxemburg, and Mifnia. The margraves
of the four firft races had continual wars with the Van¬
dals and other barbarous people •, nor could their ravages
be Hopped till the reign of Albert furnamed tfic Bear^
•'the firft prince of the houfe of Anhalt. He was made
margrave by the emperor Conrad III. and afterwards
raifed to the dignity of eledtor by Frederic Barbaroffa,
about the year 1100. Some years afterwards the
king of the Vandals dying without iffue, left the
Middle Marche by his laft will to the eleftor, who was
befides poffeffed of the Old Marche, Upper Saxony, the
country of Anhalt, and part of Luface. In 1332 this
line became extinft, and the ele&orate devolved to the
empire. It was then given by the emperor Louis of
Bavaria to his fon Louis, who was the firft of the fixth
-lace. Louis the Roman fucceeded his brother j and
as he alfo died without children, he was fucceeded by LuCk
Otho, his third brother, who fold the deflorate to the '-—V''-
emperor Charles IV. of the houfe of Luxemburg, for
200,000.florins of gold. Charles IV. gave the Marche
to his fon Winceflaus, to whom Sigifmund fucceeded.
This eleffor, being embarraffed in hiscircumftances,
fold the New Marche to the knights of the Teutonic
order. .Ioffe fucceeded Sigifmund ; but afpiring to the
empire, fold the deflorate-to William duke of Mif¬
nia ; who, after he had poffeffed it for one year, fold
it again to the emperor Sigifmund. In 1417, Fre¬
deric VI. burgrave of Nuremberg, received the invefti-
ture of the country of Brandenburg at the diet of Con-
ftance from the hands of the emperor Sigifmund 5 who,
two years before, had conferred upon him the dignity
of deft or, and arch-chamberlain of the Holy Roman
empire.
This prince, the firfl: of the family of Hohenzol¬
lern, found himfelf pofl'effed of the Old and Middle
Marche, but the dukes of Pomerania had ufurped the
Marche Ukraine. Againft them, therefore, the deftor
immediately declared war, and foon recovered the
province. As the New Marche ftill continued in the
hands of the Teutonic knights, to whom it had been
fold as we have already mentioned, the eleflor, to
make up for this, took poffeflion of Saxony, which at
that time happened to be vacant by the death of Al¬
bert the laft deflor of the Anhalt line. But the em¬
peror, not approving of this Hep, gave the inveftiture
of Saxony to the duke of Mifnia •, upon which Frede¬
ric voluntarily defifted from his acquifitions. This
deflor made a divifion of his poffeffions By will. His
eldeft fon was deprived of his right on account of his
having too clofely applied himfelf to fearch for the
philofopher’s Hone 5 fo he left him only Voigtland.
The deflorate was given to his fecond fon Frederic }
Albert, furnamed Achilles, had the duchies of Franco¬
nia ; and Frederic, furnamed the ¥at, had the Old
Marche *, but by his death it returned to the deflorate
of Brandenburg.
Frederic I. was fucceeded by his fon, called alfo
Frederic, and furnamed Iron-tooth on account of his
ftrength. He might with as great reafon have been
furnamed the Magnanimous, fince he refufed two
crowns, viz that of Bohemia, which was offered him
by the pope, and the kingdom of Poland to which he
was invited by the people 5 but Frederic declared he
would not accept of it unlefs Cafimir brother to La-
diflaus the late king refufed it. Thefe inftances of
magnanimity had fuch an effefl on the neighbouring
people, that the ftates of Lower Lufatia made a vo¬
luntary furrender of their country to him. But as Lu¬
fatia was a fief of Bohemia, the king of that country
immediately made war on the eleflor, in order to reco¬
ver it. However, he was fo far from being fuccefs-
ful, that, by a treaty of peace concluded in 1462, he
was obliged to yield the perpetual fovereignty of Cor-
bus, Peits, Sommerfeld, and fome other places, to the
eleflor. Frederic then, having redeemed the New
Marche from the Teutonic order for the fum of 100,000
florins, and ftill further enlarged his dominions, refign- ^
ed the fovereignty in 1469 to his brother Albert, fur-Elicits of
named Achilles. Alber.t
Albert was 57 years old when his brother refigned™^^
the
P K U [ 473 ] p 11 u
Pruflia. the eleflorate to him. Moft of his exploits, for \rhich
he had the furname of Achilles, had been performed
while he was burgrave of Nuremberg. He declared
war again ft Lewis duke of Bavaria, and defeated and
took him prifoner. He gained eight battles againft
the Nurembergers, who had rebelled and contefted
his rights to the burgraviate. In one of thefe he fought
fingly againft 16 men, till his people came up to his
affiftance. He made himfelf mafter of the town of
Grieffenburg in the fame manner that Alexander the
Great took the capital of the Oxydracae, by leaping
from the top of the walls into the town, where he de¬
fended himfelf fingly againft the inhabitants till his
men forced the gates and refcued him. The confidence
which the emperor Frederic III.' placed in him, gain¬
ed him the direftion of almoll the whole empire. He
commanded the Imperial armies againft Lewis the
Rich duke of Bavaria •, and againft Charles the Bold
duke of Burgundy, who had laid fiege to Nuis, but
concluded a peace at the interpofition of Albert. He
gained the prize at 17 tournaments, and was never dif-
^ mounted.
■'ruflia and All thefe exploits, however, had been performed be-
3randen- fore Albert obtained the electorate. From that time
mrgumt- we meet wJth no very important tranfa61ions till the
year 1594, when John Sigifmund of Brandenburg, ha¬
ving married Anne the only daughter of Albert duke
of Pruffia, this united that duchy to the electorate, to
which it has continued to be united ever fince •, and ob¬
tained pretenfions to the countries of Juliers, Berg,
Cleves, Marck, Ravenfburg, and Ravenltein, to the
8 fucceffion of which Anne was heirefs.
Inform- Sigifmund died in 1619, and was fucceeded by his
ate reign fon George William *, during whofe government the
* ^ electorate fuffered the molt miferable calamities. At
Villithis time it was that the war commenced between the
Proteflants and Catholics, which lafted 30 years. The
former, although leagued together, were on the point
of being utterly deftroyed by the Imperialifts under
the command of Count Tilly and Wallenftein, when
Gultavus Adolphus of Sweden turned the fcale in their
favour, and threatened the Catholic party with utter
(See .ysee-deftrudlion *. But by his death at the battle of Lut-
en> zen, the fortune of war was once more changed. At
lafl, however, peace was concluded with the empe¬
ror •, and, in 1640, the ele6lor died, leaving his do¬
minions to his fon Frederic William, furnamed the
9 Great.
teign of This young prince, though only 20 years of age
Villiam ^ t^ie t*me his acceflion, applied himfelf with the
he Great utrno^ diligence to repair the Ioffes and devaftations
occafioned by the dreadful wars which had preceded.
He received the invefliture of Pruffia perfonally from
the king of Poland, on condition of paying 100,000
florins annually, and not making truce or peace with
the enemies of that crown. His envoy likewife recei¬
ved the inveftiture of the eleftorate from the emperor
Ferdinand III. The ele£lor then thought of recover¬
ing his provinces from thofe who had ufurped them.
He concluded a truce for 20 years with the Swedes,
who evacuated the greateft part of his eftates. He
likewife paid 140,000 crowns to the Swedifh garri-
fons, which ftill poffeffed fome of his towns} and he
concluded a treaty with the Heffians, who delivered up
Vql* XVII. Part II,
a part of the duchy of Cleves ; and obtained of the Hoi- Pruffia.
landers the evacuation of fome other cities.
In the mean time, the powers of Europe began to
be weary of a war which had continued for luch a
length of time with fuch unrelenting fury. The cities
of Ofnaburg and Munfter being chofen as the molt
proper places for negociation, the conferences were
opened in the year 1645 ; but, by reafon ot the mul¬
tiplicity of bufinefs, they were not concluded till two
years after. France, which had efpoufed the interefts
of Sweden, demanded that Pomerania fhould be ceded
to that kingdom as an indemnification for the expences
which the war had colt Guftavus Adolphus and his
fucceffors. Although the empire and the eledlor refu¬
ted to give up Pomerania, it was at laft agreed to give
up to the Swedes Hither Pomerania, with the hies of
Rugen and Wollin, alfo fome cities ; in return for
which ceffion, the bilhnprics of Halberlladt, Minden,
and Camin, were fecularized in favour of the ele&or,
of which he was put in poffeffion, together with the
lordlhips of Hochenfiein and Richenltein, with the ro
reverfion of the archbiffiopric of Magdeburg. Thus was Treaty of
the treaty of Weftphalia concluded in 1648, and which Weftphaha
ferves as a balls to all the poffeffions and rights of the^01ic u e
German princes. The eledtor then concluded a new
treaty with the Swedes, for the regulation of limits,
and for the acquittal of fome debts, of which Sweden
would only pay a fourth ; and next year the ele£f»rate,
Pomerania, and the duchies of Cleves? were evacuated
by the Swedes. u
Notwithllanding all thefe treaties,- however, theTheelec-
Swedes foon after invaded Pomerania, but were en-tor [ucceeds
tirely defeated by the eledlor near the town of Fehr-
bellin. Three thoufand were left dead on the fpot,
among whom were a great number of officers ; and a
great many were taken prifoners. The eledlor then
purfued his victory, gained many advantages over the
Swedes, and deprived them of the cities of Stralfund
and Gripfwald. On this the Swedes, hoping to
oblige the elector to evacuate Pomerania, which he
had almoft totally fubdued, invaded Pruffia, from Li¬
vonia, with 16,000 men ; and advancing into the-
country, they burned the fuburbs of Memel, and took
the cities of Tilfe and Inlterburg. The ele£Ior, to
oppofe the invaders, left Berlin on the 10th of Ja¬
nuary 1679, at the head of 9000 men. The Swedes
retired at his approach, and were greatly haraffed by
the troops on their march. So fuccefsful indeed was
the eleftor on this occafion, that the Swedes loll: al-
molt one half of their army killed or taken prifoners.
At lalt, having croffed the bay of Frifeh-haff and.
Courland on the ice, he arrived on the 19th of January,
with his infantry, within three miles of Tilfe, where
the Swedes had their head-quarters. The fame day,
his general, Trefenfeldt, defeated two regiments of
the enemy near Splitter •, and the Swedes who were
in Tilfe abandoned that place, and retired towards
Courland. They were purfued by General Gortz,
and entirely defeated with fuch {laughter, that fcarce j3
3000 of them returned to Livonia. Yet, notwithlland- Is obliged
ing all thefe viftories, the eleftor, being preffed onJ° conclude,
the other fide by the vi&orious generals of France,
M. Turenne and the prince of Conde, was obliged to W
make peace with the Swedes. The conditions were,
3 O that..
*3
A ftrange
embafiy
from the
cham of
Tartary.
P It U [
•Vriiffiii. that the treaty of Weftphalia (liould fei-ve for a
   ' to the peace •, that the eleftor (hould have the proper¬
ty of the cuftoms in all the ports of Further Pomera-
> j^a, with the cities of Camin, Gartz, Grieffenburg,
and Wildenbruck : on his part, he confented to give up
to the Swedes all that he had conquered from them,
and to give no afliftance to the king of Denmark, up¬
on condition that France delivered up to him his pro¬
vinces in Weftphalia, and paid him 300,000 ducats,
as an indemnification for the damages done by the
French to his ftates. This treaty was ftyled the peace
of St Germain. . '
With the treaty of St Germain terminated the mi¬
litary exploits of Frederic William, who paffed the laft
years of his adminiftration in peace. His great ft03”*
ties had rendered him refpe&ed by all Europe, and had
even been heard of in Tartary. He received an embaffy
from Murad Geray, cham of the lartars, courting his
friendftiip. The barbarian arabaffador appeared in fuch
tattered clothes as fcarce covered his nakednefs, fo that
thev were obliged to furnifti him with other clothes be¬
fore he could appear at court. His interpreter had a
wooden nofe and no ears. In 1684, Frederic received
into his dominions great numbers of Proteftants who fled
out of France from the perfecutions of Louis XIV. after
he had revoked the edift of Nantz. _ Twenty thoufand
of them are faid to have fettled at this time m the elec¬
torate, where they introduced new arts and manufac¬
tures, that were of the utmoft benefit to the country.
By this, however, he difobliged Louis XIV. for which
reafon he concluded an alliance with the emperor and
having furniflied him with 8000 troops againft the I urks^
in Hungary, the emperor yielded to him the circle of
Schwibus in Silefia, as an equivalent for all his rights in
that province.
FredericIII In 1688, the elector Frederic William died, and was
Obtains the fucceeded by his fon Frederic III. This prince was re¬
title of markably fond of (how and ceremony, which, during the
king of courfe of his government, involved him in much expence.
Prutha. Tbe regal dignity feemed to be the greateft objea of his
ambition. To obtain this, he joined wdth the emperor in
the alliance againft France, in which he was engaged
by William III. king of Britain. He alfo yielded up
the circle of Schwibus, which had been given to his
predeceffor; and, in 1700, obtained from the emperor
that dignity which he had fo earneftly defired. I he
terms on which it was obtained were, 1. That Frederic
fhould never feparate from the empire thofe provinces of
his dominions which depended on it. 2. lhat he ftiould
not, in the emperor’s prefence, demand any other marks
of honour than thofe which he had hitherto enjoyed.
3. That his Imperial majefty, when he wrote to him,
fhould only give him the title of Royal Dile£lton.
4. That neverthelefs the rainifters which he had at
Vienna fhould be treated like thofe of other crowned
heads. 5. That the ele&or ftiould maintain 6000 men
in Italy at his own expence, in cafe the emperor {hould
be obliged to make war on account of the fucceflion
of the houfe of Bourbon to the crown of Spain. 6.
That thofe troops ftiould continue there as long as the
■war lafted.
Thus was the kingdom of Pruflia eftablifhed tnrough
the friendftiip of the emperor, with whom Frederic I.
do called as being the firft king of Pruflia, continued all
bis life in ftrifit alliance. Indeed he was a pacific
474 ] P R U
bafis prince 5 and though contemptible in his perfon, .and Pmffia.
incapable of achieving great things, had this merit, y—
that he always preferved his dominions in peace, and
thus confulted the true intercft of his fubjefts much
more than thofe monarchs who have dazzled the eyes
of the world by their military exploits. He was indeed
vain, and fond of ftiow, as we have already obferved •,
but had a good heart, and is faid never to have vio¬
lated his conjugal vow ; though it does not appear that
he was greatly beloved by his royal conforts (of whom
he had three) on that or any other account.
Frederic I. died in the beginning of 1713, and was Frede5ric j.
fucceeded by Frederic William. He was in almoft0fpruffia
every thing the reverfe of his father. His difpofitions a martial
were altogether martial; fo that he applied himfelf en-Prince-
tirely to the augmentation of his army, and perfe&ing
them in their exercife, by which means they became the
moft expert foldiers in Europe. His foible was an am¬
bition of having his army compofed of men above the
ordinary fize j but as thefe could not be procured, he
compofed a regiment of the tailed men he could find ;
and as his officers made no fcruple of picking up fuch
men wherever they could find them for his majefty’s
ufe, the neighbouring ftates were frequently offended,
and a war was often likely to enfue even from this ridi¬
culous caufe. However, his Pruffian majefty was ne¬
ver engaged in any martial enterprife of confequence :
but having put hrs army on the moft refpeftable foot¬
ing of any in the world, and filled his coffers, for he
was of a very faving difpofition, he put it in the power
of his fon to perform thofe exploits which have been
matter of aftoniftiment to all Europe. . I(j
It was in this king’s reign that Pruflia firft perceived be
her natural enemy and rival to be the houfe of Auftria, tween
and not France as had been formerly fuppofed. Hence Pruffia and
frequent bickerings took place between thefe two powers, ‘ u r11,
for which the perfecution of the Proteftants by fome of
the Catholic ftates of the empire afforded a pretence ;
and though a war never actually took place, yet it was
eafy to fee that both were mortal enemies to each other.
But when Frederic William died in 1740, this enmity |
broke out in full force. The emprefs queen was then
left in a very difagreeable fituation, as has been obferv- ^
ed under the article Britain, N° 4*®» &c. Of this pre(jerici[’
Frederic III. took the advantage to do himfelf juftice, asfeizesSile.
he faid, with regard to Silefia, of which his anceftors fia.
had been unjuftly deprived. This province he feized at
that time : but it coft him dear j for the emprefs, hav¬
ing at laft overcome all difficulties, formed againft: him
the moft terrible combination that ever was known in
Europe.
The treaty was hardly concluded with the king of
Pruffia, by which ffie reluctantly yielded up the province
of Silefia, and with it a clear revenue of 8oo,0001. a-year,
before fhe entered into another with tbe court of Peterf- ^
burg, which was concluded May 22. 174^* -I ^reaty> Combirw-
as far as it was made public, was only of a defenfive na- tion aga«(-
turej but fix fecret and feparate articles were added to him.
it. By one of thefe it was provided, that in cafe his
Pruflian majefty {hould attack the emprefs queen, or the
emprefs of Ruffia, or even the republic of Poland, it
{hould be confidered as a breach cf the treaty of Dres¬
den, by which Silefia was given up. It was alfo fti-
pulated, that, notwithftanding that treaty (which in¬
deed had been diftated by the king of Pruflia. himfelt),
the
P R U [ 475 ] P R U
Pruflia. the right of the emprefs-queen to Silefia ftill conti-
■—v ' nued, and for the recovery of that province the con-
trafting powers fhould mutually furnifh an army of
60,000 men. To this treaty, called the treaty of Pe-
lerjburg, the king of Poland was invited 4o accede;
but he, being in a manner in the power of the king
of PruiTia, did not think proper to fign it : however,
he verbally acceded to it in fuch a manner, that the
other parties were fully convinced of his defign to co¬
operate with all their meafures ; and in confideration
of this intention, it was agreed that he Ihould have
a (hare in the partition of the king of Pruflia’s do¬
minions, in cafe of a fuccefsful event of their enter-
prifes.
In confequence of thefe machinations, every art was
ufed to render the king of Pruffia perfonally odious to
the emprefs of Ruflia ; the queen of Hungary made
vaft preparations in Bohemia and Moravia ; and the
king of Poland, under pretence of a military amufement,
drew' together l6,oco men, with whom he occupied a
flrong poll at Pirna. The queen of Hungary, ftill
further to ftrengthen herfelf, concluded a treaty with
the court of France at Verfailles, dated May 1. 1756.
But in the mean time, the king of PruiTia having un-
derftood by his emiflaries what was going forward, re-
folved to be beforehand with his enemies, and at leall
jeinvades to keep the war out of his own country ; and therefore
•axony, entered Saxony with a considerable army. At firft he
affefled only to demand a free paflage for his troops,
and an obfervance of the neutrality profefled by the
king of Poland ; but, having good reafons to doubt
this neutrality, he demanded, as a preliminary, that
thefe Saxon troops Should immediately quite the ftrong
port they occupied, and difperfe themfelves. This de¬
mand was refufed ; on which his Pruftian majefty
blockaded the Saxon camp at Pirna, refolving to re¬
duce it by famine, Since its ftrong Situation- rendered an
attack very dangerous. At that time there were in Bo¬
hemia two Saxon armies, one under the command of
M. Brown, and the other under M. Picolomini. To
keep thefe in awe, the king had fent M. Schwerin
with an army into Bohemia from the country of
Glatz, and M. Keith had penetrated into the fame
kingdom on the Side of Mifnia. But ftill the king of
PruSfia did not entirely confide in thefe difpofitions j
20 and therefore fearing left M. Brown might afford fome
nd takes aftiftance to the Saxons, he joined his forces under
5,oooSax-Keith, and on December 1. attacked and defeated the
isprifon- _AuqrJan general, fo that the latter found it impoffible
to relieve the Saxons, who, after a vain attempt to re¬
tire from their port, were all taken prifoners. The
king of Poland quitted his dominions in Germany,
and the Pruffians took up their winter quarters in
Saxony. Here they feized on the revenwes, levied ex--
orbitant contributions, and obliged the country to fur-
nifh them with recruits. The king of PruSfia at this-
time made himfelf mafter of the archives of Drefden,
by which means he procured the originals of thofe
21 pieces above mentioned, which, when produced to the
«is pro- world, gave a full proof of the combination that had
cuted in been formed againft him, and confequently juftified the
eAulic meafures he,had taken for his own defence.
Ho the** f°oner had the king entered Saxony, in the man-
m of the ner already related, than a procels was commenced
Jpire. againft him. in the emperor’s Aulic council, and before
the diet of the empire, where he was foon condemned Pruffia.
for contumacy, and put to the ban of the empire.— -'" v ir 1
The various circles of the empire were ordered to fur-
nifti their contingents of men and money to put this
fentence in execution; but thefe came in fo Slowly,
that, had it not been for the afliftance of the French>
under the prince de Soubife, the army would pro¬
bably have never been in a condition to aft. Thepro(jig;()US
Auftrians, in the mean time, made great preparations^prepara-
and raifed 100,000 men in Bohemia, whom they com- tions a-
mitted to the care of Prince Charles of Lorrain, alTifted£a“!^
by M. Brown. The Czarina fent a body of 60,000
men under M. Apraxin, to invade the Ducal PruSfia;
whilft a ftrong fleet was equipped in the Baltic, in
order to co-operate with that army. The king of
Sweden alfo acceded to the confederacy, in hopes of
recovering the poffefiions in Pomerania which his an¬
cestors had enjoyed ; and the duke of Mecklenburg
took the fame party, promising to join the Swedifti
army with 6000 men as foon as it Should be ne-
ceffary. On the king of PruSfia’s fide appeared no¬
body excepting an army of between 30,000 and 40,000
Hanoverians commanded by the duke of Cumber¬
land } and thele were outnumbered and forced to yield ,
to a Superior army of French commanded by- M. .
d’Etrees.
■*3
In the mean time, his PruSfian majefty, finding He invades
that he muft depend for afliftance folely on his own Bohemia,
abilities, refolved to make the belt ufe of his time.ant* tQtahy
Accordingly, in the fpring 1757, his armies poured6
to Bohemia from two different quarters, while thearmy.
king himfelf prepared to enter it from a third. M.
Schwerin entered from Silefia •, the prince of Bevern
from Lufatia, where he defeated an army of 28^000
Auftrians that oppofed his paffage. . As the intentions
of the king himfelf were not known, the Auftrians de¬
tached a body of 20,000 men from their main army to
obferve his motions. This was no Sooner done than
the king cut off all communication between the detach¬
ment and the main body ; and having joined his two >
generals with incredible celerity, he engaged the Au-
ftrians near Prague, totally defeated them, took their
camp, military cheft, and cannon-, but loft thje.brave
General Schwerin, who was killed at the age of 82,-.
with a colonel’s Standard in his hand. On the Auftrian
fide, M; Brown was wounded, and died in a Short
time, though it is fuppofed more from the chagrin he
ftiffered, than from the dangerous nature of the wound
itfelf.
About 40,000 of the Auftrian army took refuge'inBcfiegcs
Prague, while the reft Sled different ways. The city and botn-
was inftantly dnvefted by the king, and all Succours were^ar(ls
cut off. The great number of troops which it contain-rra£ue*
ed rendered an attack unadvifable, but feemed to render
the reduftion of it by famine inevitable; however, the
king, to accomplish his- purpofe the more fpeedily, pre¬
pared to bombard the town. On the 29th of May,
after a moft dreadful ftorm of thunder and lightning,
four batteries began to play on the city. From thefe
were thrown, every 24 hours, 288 bombs, befides a vaft
number of red-bat balls, fo that »t was foon on fire in
every quarter. The garrifon made a vigorous defence,
and one well-condufted fally; but had the misfortune
to be repulfed with greatlofs. The magiftrates, buroh-
ers, and clergy, feeing their city on the point of being
3 P 2 reduced d
P IV u
[ 476 ]
P R U
Frufiia.
25
Count
Daun takes
the com¬
mand of
thp Au-
ftrian ar¬
my.
26
Defeats the
Pruffians at
Colin.
27
Siege of
Prague
jailed.
9 See B-ri
tain, Is0
441.
Berlin laid
under con.
tnbution.
reduced to an heap of rubbifti, fupplicatcd the command¬
er in the moil earneft manner to capitulate j but lie vfas
deaf to their intreaties, and drove 12,000 of the molt
ufelefs mouths out of town, who were quickly driven in
again by the Pruflians.
° Thus the affairs of the emprefs queen fecmed ver¬
ging to deftru&ion, when Leopold count Daun took
upon him the command of the remains of M. Brown s
army. This general had arrived within a few miles of
Prague the day after the great battle. He immedi¬
ately collefted the fcattered fugitives with the greatelf
diligence, and retired with them to a ftrong port in
the neighbourhood, from whence he gave the troops
in Prague hopes of a fpeedy relief. It was now the
king of Pruffia’s bufinefs, either to have attempted to
make himfelf mailer of the city by one defperate effort,
or entirely to have abandoned the enterprife, and
driven Count Daun from his poll before his troops had
recovered from the terror of their late defeat ; but, by
attempting to do both, he rendered himfelf incapable
«f doing either. Though the army of Count Daun
already amounted to 60,000 men, and though they
were ftrongly entrenched, and defended by a vaft train
of artillery, his majefly thought proper to lend no
more than 32,000 men. This body made the ardu¬
ous attempt on the 18th of June; but though they
did all that human courage and conduft could do, and
though the king bimfelf at laft charged at the head ot
his cavalry, the Pruffians were driven out of the field
with great lofs. This engagement was named t/ie battle
of Cohn,
The firft confequence of the battle of Colin tvas,
that the king of Pruffia was obliged to raife the fiege
of Prague ; foon after which, he was obliged to quit
Bohemia, and take refuge in Saxony. The Auftrians
haraffed him as much as poffible; but, notwithiland-
ing their great fuperiority, their armies wefe not in a
condition to make any decifive attempt upon him, as
the frontiers of Saxony abounded with fituations eafily
defended. In the mean time the Ruffians, w'ho had
hitherto been very dilatory in their motions, began to
exert themfelves, and entered Ducal Pruflia, under M.
Apraxin and Fermor, where they committed innu¬
merable cruelties and exceffes. A large body of
Auftrians entered Silefia, and penetrated as far as
Breflau. Then they made a turn backwards, and be-
fieged Schweidnitz. Another body entered Lufatia,
and made themfelves mafters of Zittau. An army of
22.000 Swedes entered Pruftian Pomerania, took the
towns of Anclam and Demmcin, and laid the whole
country under contribution. The French, too, being
freed from all reftraint by the capitulation of the duke
of Cumberland at Clofter Seven*, made their way in¬
to Halbertftadt and the Old Marche of Brandenburg,
firft exa&ing contributions, and then plundering the
towns. The army of the empire, being reinforced by
that of the prince de Soubife, after many delays, was
on full march to enter Saxony, which left the Au¬
ftrians at liberty to exert the greateft part of their
force in the reduBion of Silefia. General Haddick
penetrated through Lufatia, paffed by the Pruflian ar¬
mies, and fuddenly appeared before the gates of Ber¬
lin, which city he laid under contribution. He re¬
tired on the approach of a body of Pruffians ; vet he
ftill found means to keep fuch a poft as interrupted the
king’s communication with Silefia. The deftruftion Prufu?..
ot the king or Pruflia therefore now feemed inevitable. » -
Every exertion which he had made, though brave
and well conducted, had been unfuecelsful. His general
Lehwald, who oppoied the Ruflians, had orders to
attack them at all events. He obeyed his orders;
and with 30,000 men attacked 60,000 of the enemy
ftrongiy entrenched at a place calnd bi or kitten. 1 he ,‘]Tian g
Pruilians behaved vuth the greateft valour; but after neral de.
having killed five times more of the enemy than they'eatcdby
themfelves loft, they were obliged to retire, though^etRuf*
more formidable after their defeat than the Ruffians “ "
after their victory. The king, in the mean time, ex¬
erted himfelt on every fide, and his enemies fled every¬
where before him ; but whilft he purfued one body,
another gained upon him in fome other part, and the
winter came on faff, while his ftrength decayed, and
that of his adverfaries feemed to increafe on every
quarter.
The Pruflian monarch, however, though diftrefled,
did not abandon himfelf to defpair, or lufe that won*
derful prefence of mind which has io etninently diftin-
guiflied him in all his military enterprifes. He indu-
ifrioufly delayed a decifive aftion till the approach of|
winter ; but at laft, after various movements, on No-gHjnsa
vember 5. 1757, be met at Rofbach with the united great vie-I
army of his enemies commanded by the prince of Saxe^y^ 1
Hilburghaufen and the prince de Soubife. 'I he allied L
army amounted to 50,000 men complete ; but moft of
the troops of the Circles were new raifed, and many
of them not well affe&td to the caufe. The Pruf¬
fians did not exceed 25,000 men ; but they were fu-
perior to any troops in the world, and were infpired,
by the prefence of their king, with the moft enthufi-
aitic valour. The Auftrians were defeated with the
lofs of 3000 killed, eight generals, 250 officers of dif¬
ferent ranks, and 6000 private foldiers, taken prifoners,
while night alone prevented the total deftru&ion of the
army.
By this battle the king was fet free on one fide;
but this only gave him an opportunity of renewing
his labours on another. T he Auftrians had a great
force, and now began to make a proportionable pro-
grefs in Silefia. After a fiege of 16 days, they had re¬
duced the ftrong fortrefs of Schweidnitz, and obliged
the Pruflian garrifon of 4000 men to furrender pri- 3I
foners of war. Hearing then of the vi£tory at Rof-Schweid-
bach, and that the king of Pruflia was in full march
to relieve Silefia, they refolved to attack the prince
of Bevern in his ftrong camp under the walls of Bref¬
lau. They attacked the prince’s army on November
22d ; but their attack was fuftained with the greateft ^
refolution. The daughter of the Auftrians was pro-Battle wit
digious. A great part of the enemy had retired from the pnr.ee
the field of battle, and the reft were preparing to retire,Be'ein
when all at once the Pruffian generals took the fame, re¬
folution. Their army had fuffered much in the engage¬
ment, and they became apprehenlive of a total defeat
in cafe their intrenchments fbould be forced in any
part; for which reafon they quitted their ftrong poft,
and retired behind the Oder. Two days after, the
prince of Bevern, going to reconnoitre-without efcort*
attended only by a groom, was taken prifoner by an
advanced party of Croats, a fmall body of whom had
croffed the Oder.
On
P R U
[ 477 1
P R U
■ver their
Iberty.
35
Count
Daun de¬
feated by
the kin£
of Pruffia
Pruifia. On this tlie town of Breflau immediately furrendered ;
where, as well as at Schweidnitz, the Auftrians found
33 great quantities of provifions, ammunition, and money,
ken by the Silefia was on the point of falling into their hands,
Auftrians. and the Pruflian affairs were going into the utmolt di-
ftraftion, when the king himfelf by a molt rapid march
pafled through Thuringia, Mifnia, and Lufatia, in
fpite of the utrnoit efforts of the generals Haddick and
Marlhal, who were placed there to oppofe him *, and,
entering Silefia on the 2d of December, joined the
prince of Bevern’s corps, who repaffed the Oder to
meet him. The garrifon of Schweidnitz, who, as we
have already obferved, had been made prifoners of war,
alio joined the king’s army unexpectedly , and their
prefence contributed not a little, notwithftanding the
fmallnefs of their number, to raife the fpirits of the
Ganlion of whole army. They had fubmitted to the capitulation
Schweid- with the greatefl: reluctance *, but as the Auftrians
siitz reco- were conducing them to prifon, they happened to re¬
ceive intelligence of the victory at Rolbach : on which
they immediately role on the efcort that conducted
them, and entirely difperfed it ; and afterwards march¬
ed in fuch a direction as they thought might moft
readily lead them to their king, they accidentally fell
in with his army.
His Pruftian majefty now approached Breflau j on
which the Auftrians, confiding in their fuperiority,
(for they exceeded 70,000, while the Pruflians fcarce
amounted to 36,000), abandoned their ftrong camp,
at Leuthen. the fame which the prince of Bevern had formerly oc¬
cupied, ^nd advanced to give him battle. The king
did not intend by any means to difappoint them, but
advanced on his part with the greatefl; celerity. The
two armies met on December 5th, near the village of
Leuthen. Count Daun made the beft difpofitions pof-
fible. The ground occupied by his army was a plain,
with fmall eminences in fome parts. Thefe eminences
they furrounded with artillery ; and as the ground was
alfo interfperfed with thickets, they fought to turn
thefe likewife to their advantage. On their right and
left were hills, on which they planted batteries of can¬
non. The ground in their front was interfeCled by
many caufeways; and to make the whole more imprac¬
ticable, the Auftrians had felled a great number of
trees, and fcattered them in the way. It was almoft
impoflible at the beginning of the engagement for the
Pruflian cavalry to aft, on account of thefe impedi¬
ments ; but, by a judicious difpofition made by the king
himfelf, all difficulties were overcome. His majefty had
placed four battalions behind the cavalry of his right
wing ; forefeeing that General Nadafti, who was pla¬
ced on the enemy’s left with a corps de referve, defign-
ed to attack hirn in flank. It happened as he had fore-
feen : that general’s cavalry attacked the Pruffian right
wing with great fury ; but he was received with fuch a
fevere fire from the four battalions, that he was obli¬
ged to retire in diforder. The king’s flank then, well
covered and fupported, was enabled to aft with fuch
order and vigour as repulfed the enemy. The Auftrian
artillery was alfp filenced by that of the Pruffians j
however, the Auftrians continued to make a gallant re-
fiftance during the whole battle. After having been
once thrown into diforder, they rallied all their forces
about Leuthen, which was defended on every fide by
entrenchments and redoubts. The Pruffians attacked
Pruflla.
36
them with the utmoft impetuofity, and at laft became
mailers of the poll j on which the enemy fled on all
fides, and a total rout enfued. In this battle the Au¬
ftrians loft 6000 killed on the fpot, 15,000 taken pri¬
foners, and upwards of 200 pieces of cannon.
The confequences of this viftory were very great. Breflau re-
Breflau was immediately inverted, and furrendered onta^en'
December 29th j the garrifon, amounting to 13,000
men, were made prifoners of war. The blockade of
Schweidnitz was formed as clofely as the feafon of the
year would permit j while detached Pruffian parties
overran the whole country of Silefia, and reduced every
place of le(s importance. The Ruffians, who had ra¬
vaged and deftroyed the country in fuch. a manner that
they could not fubfiit in it, thought proper to retire
out of the Pruffian dominions altogether. Thus Ge-Swedes
neral Lehvvald was left at liberty to aft againft the driven out
Swedes; and them he quickly drove out of Pruffian t,omera*
Pomerania, the whole of which country he not onlym:l‘
recovered, but alfo fome part of Svvedifh Pomerania.
Thus the duchy of Mecklenburg being left quite ex-
pofed, the king took ample vengeance on it by exact¬
ing the moft fevere contributions of men and money.
To complete this monarch’s good fortune alfo, the
French, who had retired after the battle of Rolbach,
were now oppofed by the Hanoverians under Prince
Ferdinand, who kept them To well employed, that, du¬
ring the reft of the war, the king of Pruffia had no more
trouble from them. See Britain, N° 442. 38
The beginning of the year 1758 was favourable to Schweid-
the arms of his Pruffian majefty. On the ad of Aprilnitz ret,a*
he commenced his operations againft Schw'eidnitz, and^61^
puihed the fiege fo vigoroufty, that the place furren¬
dered in 13 days. He then dilpofed his forces in
fuch a manner as might beft guard his dominions
againft his numerous enemies. For this purpofe Count
Dohna commanded a body of troops on the fide of Po¬
merania ; another confiderable body was polled be¬
tween Wohlau and Glogau, in order to cover Silefia
from the Ruffians, in cafe they ffiould make their in¬
road that way. An army, in a little time after, was
formed in Saxony, commanded by the king’s brother
Prince Henry. This army confifted of 30 battalions
and 45 fquadrons, and was defigned to make head
againft the army of the empire ; which, by great ef¬
forts made during the winter, and the junction of a
large body of Auftrians, was again in a condition to
aft. Between all thefe armies a ready communication
was kept up by a proper choice of ports. After the
reduftion of Schweidnitz, the king having made a ftiow
of invading Bohemia, fuddenly burft into Moravia,
where in a Ihort time he made himfelf mailer of the
whole country, and on the 27th of May laid fiege to
Olmutz the capital. Of this M. Daun was no foonerxbekhig
informed, than he took his route td»Moravia through bifieges
Bohemia: and though he was not in a condition to('jmut2
rilk a battle, nor indeed would have done fo unlefs he
had had a very confidCrable advantage ; yet, by placing'
himfelf in a ftrong fituation where he could not be at¬
tacked, by hara’ffing the king’s troops and cutting off
their convovs, he at laft obljged him to abandon the en-
terprife. The king, however, who frequently owed a
good part of his fuccefs to the impenetrable fecrecy
with which be covered a'll his defigns, gave not the
leaft hint of his intention to raife the fiege of Olmutz.
On
Pi'ufn a.
4©
The Ruf-
ftans be-
iif.ge Cu-
ftrin.
4* ,
35ut are de
feated at
ZoradorfF.
P R U L
On the contrary, the very day before the fiege was
^ raifed, the firing' continued as brifti as ever j but in the
night (July I.) the whole army took the road to Bo¬
hemia in two columns, and gained an entire march up¬
on the Auflrians. Thus, notwithftanding the utmoft
efforts of his enemies, the Pruflian army reached Bo¬
hemia with very little moleftation. Here^ he feized
upon a large magazine at Lieutomiffel; defeated fume
corps of Auftrians who had attempted to interrupt his
progrefs; and arrived at Konigfgratz, of which he took
pofftffion, after driving from it yooo Auftrians who
were intrenched there. T his city and feveral other
diftricls he laid under contribution : but foon after en¬
tered Silefia, and marched with the utmoft rapidity to
encounter the Ruffians, who had at that time united
their forces under generals Brown and Fermor, entered
the New Marche of Brandenburg, and laid fiege to
Cuftrin. ,
The king arrived at this city at a very critical period.
The Ruffians had laid fiege to it on the 15^ Au-
guft ; and though they were not well {killed in mana¬
ging artillery, yet, by furious and unremitting dil-
charges at random, they threw in fuch a number of
bombs and red-hot balls, that the town was {bon on
fire in every quarter,. Some of the wretched inhabi¬
tants were burned ; others buried in the ruins of their
houfes, or killed by the balls which fell like hail in the
ftreets ; while many of the furvivors abandoned their
habitations, and fled out of the town on that fide where
it was not invefted. The governor did every thing for
the defence of the place 5 but as the walls were built
after the old manner, it was impoflible that the town
could have made a defence for any length of time,
efpecially as the principal magazine of the befieged
had been blown up. Ihe avenger of all thefe injuries,
however, vras now at hand. The king came in fight
of the Ruffians on the 25th of Auguft, after a march
of 56 days, and beheld the country everywhere defo-
lated, and the villages in flames by the depredations
of his cruel enemy, who had raifed the fiege at his ap¬
proach, and retired towards a neighbouring village na¬
med Tiorndorjf. At nine o’clock in the morning, a moft
terrible fire of cannon and mortars poured deftruftion on
the right wing of the Ruffian army for two hours wilh-
eut intermiflion. The {laughter was fuch as might
have been expefted ; but the Ruffians kept their ground
with aftonifhing refolution, new regiments ftill prefling
forward to fupply the places of thofe that fell. When
the firft line had fired away all their charges, they ruffl¬
ed forward on the Pruflians with their bayonets *, and
all at once thefe brave troops, though encouraged by
the prefence of their king, gave way and fled before an
enemy already half defeated. The Ruffian generals
.ought now to have attacked with their cavalry the dif-
ordered infantry of their enemies, which would have
completed the defeat, and in all probability given the
finiffiing ftroke to the king of Pruflia’s affairs. This
opportunity, however, they loft : but the king was not
fo negligent ■, for, by a very rapid and mafterly mo¬
tion, he brought all the cavalry of his right wing to
the centre, and falling op the Ruffian foot uncovered
by their horfe, and even difordered by their own fuc-
cefs, they puftied them back with moft miferable {laugh¬
ter, at the fame time that the repulfed battalions of in¬
fantry, returning from the charge, and exafperated at
478 ] p it u
their late difgrace, rendered the viftory no longer Pmffia.
doubtful. The Ruftians were now thrown into the
moft dreadful confufion. The wind blew the duft and
fmuke into their faces, fo tliat they could not diftinguith
friends from foes; they fired on each other, plundered
their own baggage which flood between the lines, and
intoxicated themfelves with brandy : the ranks fell in
upon one another j and, being thus crammed together
into a narrow fpace, the fire of the Pruffians had a full
and dreadful effea, while their enemies kept up only a
fcattered and ineft'e&ual fire, generally quite over their
heads. Yet even in this difmal fituation the Ruffians
did not fly but fuffered themfelves to be ftaughtered
till feven at night, when their generals having caufed
an attack to be made on the Pruffian right wing, the
attention of the enemy was orawn to that quarter, and
they had time to retire a little from the field of battle
to recover their order.
In this engagement, which was called the battle of^
Zorndorff, the‘Ruffians loft 21,529 men, while that of
the Pruflians did not exceed 2000. A yaft train of ar¬
tillery was taken, together with the military cheft, and
many officers of high rank. The confequence was, that
the Ruffian army retreated as far as Landfperg on the
frontiers of Poland, and the king was left at liberty to
march with his ufual expedition to the relief of Ptince
Henry in Saxony. 42
The prince Avas at this time forely preffed by M. Operations
Daun. As foon as the king had left Bohemia in the ot Count
manner already related, M..Daun, confideying that it Daun>
would have been to no purpofe to follow him, refolved
to turn his arms towards Saxony. I owards that coun¬
try, therefore, he took his route through Lufatia, by
Zittau, Gorlitz, and Bautzen. On the 3d of Septem¬
ber he invefted the ftrong fortrefs of Sonneftein ; which
unaccountably furrendered, after a Tingle day’s refift-
ance, to one of his generals named Macguire. He then
began to favour the operations of General Laudohn,
who had advanced through the Lower Lufatia to the
confines of Brandenburg •, and, by drawing the atten¬
tion of the Pruffian forces which were left in Silefia to
the northward of that duchy, he facilitated the pio-
grefs of the generals Harfch and De Ville in the fouth-
ern parts. He then propofed that Prince Henry ffiould
be attacked by the army of the empire, while that of
the Auftrians ffiould pafs the Elbe, and, falling at the
fame time on the Pruffians, fecond the attack of the
Imperialifts, and cut off the retreat of their enemies 43
from Drefden. The fudden appearance of the king of rendered
Pruffia, however, put.an end to his plan ; General Lau-abortive by
dohn abandoned all hisconquefts in Lower Lufatia, and pru^a“
retired towards M. Daun, while that general himfelf
retired from the neighbourhood of Drefden as far as-
Zittau. The army of the empire only kept its ground;
poffeffing itfelf of the ftrong poll at Pirna, formerly,
mentioned, but did not undertake any thing. As for
the Swedes, who had direded their motions by thofe
of the Ruffians, they no fooner heard of the vidory of
Zorndorff, than they retreated with much more expedi¬
tion than they had advanced.
Thus the king of Pruflia’s affairs feemed to be pretty
well retrieved, when by one fatal piece of negligence he
was brought to the verge of ruin. M. Daun had pof-
fefled himfelf of an advantageous camp at Stolphen, by
which he nrefmed a communication with the array
of
:hen.
P R U [ 4
Pruffia. of the empire. On the other hand, the king of Pruflia,
' having taken poiTeflion of an important poll at Baut¬
zen, extended his right wing to the viilage of Hoch-
kirchen, by which he preferved a communication with
his brother Prince Henry, protected Brandenburg, and
was better fituated than he could be anywhere elfe for
throwing fuccours into Silefia. The two armies kept a
watchful eye on the motions of each other ; and as the
principal aim of M. Daun was to cut off the king’s
communication with Silefia, and of the king to cut off
M. Daun’scommunication with Bohemia, a battle feera-
ed inevitable, though great danger feemed to await that
44 party who fliould begin the attack.
Who is fur- In this critical potlure of affairs, the Auftrian gene-
prifed and rai formeci a defign of attacking the Pruffian camp in
Hochkir ^ what manner he came to furprife fuch
a vigilant enemy has never been accounted for ; but
that fuch a furprife was a&ually accomplifhed on the
14th of Offober, is certain. In the dead of the pre¬
ceding night, the Auftrian army began to march in
three columns towards the camp of the king of Pruflia :
and though the night was exceedingly dark, and they
had a confiderable way to go, they all arrived at the
fame time, in fafety, without being difcovered, and
without the leaft confufion ; and at five in the morn-
ing began a regular and well-condu&ed attack. The
Pruftians were in a moment thrown into confuficfn \
Marftial Keith, one of their beft generals, received two
mufket-balls, and fell dead on the fpot. Prince Francis
of Brunfwick had his head fhot off by a cannon-ball as
he was mounting his horfe ; and every thing feemed to
announce the total .deftru&ion of the army. Still, how¬
ever, the king preferved his wonderful prefence of mind,
which indeed he never appears to have loft on any oc-
cafion. He ordered feme detachments from his left to
fupport his right wing \ but the moment that thefe or¬
ders were received, the left itfelf was furioufty attack¬
ed. General Ketzow, who commanded in that quar¬
ter, repulfed the Auftrians with difficulty, and was not
able to afford any confiderable affiftance to the right •,
which alone was obliged to luftain the weight of the
grand attack. The Auftrians, in the beginning of the
engagement, had driven the Pruftians out of the vil¬
lage of Hochkirchen ; and as the fate of the day de¬
pended on the poffeflion of that poft, the hotteft dif-
pute was there. The Pruftians made three bloody and
unfuccefsful attacks on the village ; on the fourth they
carried it; but the Auftrians continually pouring in frefh
troops, at laft drove them out with prodigious flaughter
on all fides. The king then ordered a retreat, which
was conduced in good order, without being purfued ;
however, this bloody adlion coft him 7000 men, toge¬
ther with a great number of cannon. The Auftrians
computed their own lofs at 5000.
His Pruflian majefty, having thus happily efcaped
fuch imminent danger, took every poflible meafure to
prevent the enemy from gaining any confiderable ad¬
vantage from his defeat. Perceiving that the only ad¬
vantage they wifhed to derive from it was to cover the
operations of their armies in Silefia, and that he had
now nothing to fear on the fide of Saxony, he largely
reinforced his own army from that of Prince Henry,
and haftened into Silefia, in order to raife the fiege of
Neifs, which had been completely inverted on the 4th
of O&ober. On the 24th of that month, therefore, he
Pruffm.
79 ] P R U
quitted his camp, and, making a great compafs, to
avoid obrtru&ions from the enemy, arrived in the plains '
of Gorlitz. A body of the Auftrians had in vain at¬
tempted to fecure this poft before him, and fome who
arrived after him were defeated with the lofs of 800
men. From this place the king purfued his march with
the utmoft diligence •, but was followed by General
Laudohn, at the head of 24,000 men, who conftantiy
hung on his rear, and harafled his army. The king,-
however, knowing the importance of his expedition^
continued his march without interruption, and fuft'ered
his antagonift to obtain many little advantages without
moleftation. Daun, however, not content with the op-
pofition given by Laudohn, fent a large body of horfe
and foot by another route to reinforce the generals Karfcla
and De Ville, who had formed the fiege of Neifs and
the blockade of Cofel, while he himfelf paffed the .Elbe,
and advanced towards Drefden.
All thefe precautions, however, were of little avail.
The generals Karfch and De Ville, notwithftanding their
x reinforcement, no fooner heard of the king of Pruflia’s
approach, than they raifed the fiege of both places, and
retired, leaving behind them a confiderable quantity of
military ftores. The end of the Pruffian monarch’s march
being thus accomplilhed, he inftantly returned by the
fame way he came, and haftened to the relief of Sax¬
ony, the capital of which (Drefden) was in great dan¬
ger from Marffial Daun. The place was but indiffe¬
rently fortified, and garrifoned only by 12,000 men ;
fo that it could not promife to hold out long againft a
numerous and wrell-appointed army. It was betides
commanded by a large fuburb, of which, if once the
enemy got poffeffion, all defence of the city muff then
be vain. For this reafon M. Schmettau, the Pruffian Suburbs of
governor, determined to fet thefe fuburbs on fire, which Drefclen
was aflually done November 10th, with an incredible burnt:,
lofs to the inhabitants, as in the fuburbs were carried on
moft of thofe valuable manufa&ures which render the
city of Drefden remarkable. This difappointed the dc-
figns of M. Daun ; but, though the adlion was agree¬
able to the laws of war, and had been executed with all
the caution and humanity of which fuch an action was
capable, yet the Auftrians exclaimed againft: it as a piece
of the muft unprovoked and wanton cruelty recorded in
hiftory. _
After the king of Pruffia had approached Drefden, all Saxony op,
the Auftrian armies retired into Bohemia, where they prefled by
took up their winter-quarters, as the king of Pruffia^16 king
did in Saxony. This unhappy country he laid he would
now confi^ler as his own by right of conqueft. But in-
ftead of treating the conquered people as his lawful
fubjedls, he oppreffed them in all poffible ways, by le¬
vying the moft feverc and exorbitant contributions,
furrounding the exchange with foldiers, and confining
the merchants in narrow lodgings on draw-beds, till
they drew upon their correfpondents for fuch fums as he
wanted.
In 1759, as early as the 23d of February, the Pruf-
fians commenced their military operations. General
Woberfow marched with a body of troops into Poland,
where he deftroyed feveral very large magazines be¬
longing to the Ruffians, and returned into Silefia
without any lofs on the 18th of April. In the mean
, time, by fome movements of the king of Pruffia him¬
felf, the greateft part of the Auftrian troops had been
drawn
Prince
Henry,
Hulfen.
P R U [
Pr.iiTHi. drawn towards the frontiers of Silefia. Prince Henry
^immediately took advantage of this opening, and on
47. ^ie j rth of April entered Bohemia rvith his army di-
hwadedaby vided into two columns. One commanded by him-
felf marched towards Peterfwade •, the othei, under
General Hulfen, paffed by the towns^ of Pafberg arid
Commottau. That commanded by Prince Henry mm-
felf penetrated as far as Lobofchutz and Leitmentzj
the enemy dying everywhere before them, and burn¬
ing or abandoning the vali magazines which they had
amaffed in thefe parts. The body under General Hul-
4S fen had a more aaive employment. A ftrong pals at
A body of Pafber^ was defended by a conliderable body of Aul-
Auftnans tr;ans> General Hulfen, having condufted his cavalry
gISS 7 by another way in fuch a manner as to fall direftly on
their rear, attacked them in front with his. infantry,
drove them out of their intrenchments, and totally de¬
feated them with the lofs of a great number killed, and
2000 taken prifoners, while that of the Pruffians did
not exceed 70 in killed and wounded. After this ex¬
ploit they returned into Saxony, with hoftages for the
contributions which they had largely exa6ted during
the courfe of their expedition.
Some other fuecelfes obtained by Prince Henry clear¬
ed the country of Franconia of his enemies; but now
the approach of the Ruffians feemed once more to bring
the affairs of the king of Pruffia to a crifis. Notwuth-
ftanding the deftru&ion of their magazines, they had
continued to advance into Silelia, where they were op-
pofed by Count Dohna *, but as the troops he had with
him were very far inferior to his enemies, he found it
impoffible to do more, at leaft with any appearance of
fuccefs, than to obferve their motions and harafs them
on their march. But this was fo difpleafing to the
king, that he difgraced his general, and appointed We-
del^to fucceed him, with orders to attack the Ruffians
at all events. To enable him, however, in fome mea-
fure to comply with this defperate order, he fent him
fome reinforcements, which brought his army up to
near 30,000. With thefe, on the 23d of July 1759*
General Wedel attacked 70,000 Ruffians ported in the
moft advantageous manner at Zulichau, and defended
ji by a numerous artillery. Though the Pruffians marcb-
ftefeated at on t0 certain deftrudrtion and difgrace, they fuftained
Zulichau. tjie attac^ for a long time with unparalleled refolution.
At laft, however, they gave way, and were obliged to
retire with the lofs of 4700 killed or taken prifoners,
and 3000 wounded.
The confequences of this vi&ory were, that the Ruf-
trans take pians penetrated into the king’s territories, and took
Frankfort poAeffi011 the towns of Croflen and Frankfort on the
Oder, which made it abfolutely neceflary for the king
to come in perfon to oppofe them. Accordingly, on
the 41b of Auguft, he joined Wedel with a confiderable
body of forces, having left the greateft part of his army
in Saxony under Prince Henry. But as Marfhal Daun
had fent a body of 12,000 horfe and 8000 foot under
General Laudohn to the affiftance of the Ruffians, the
king ftill found himfelf unable to fight them •, as, with
this and fome other reinforcements, their army now
amounted to upwards of 90,000. He therefore re¬
called General Finck, whom he had fent into Saxony
with 9000 men ; but with all his reinforcements, it
was found impoffible to augment his army to 50,000
sompletp. His fituation, however, was now fo critical
49
Pruffians
5°
The Ruf-
on the
Oder.
480 ] P It U
that a battle was unavoidable; and therefore, on the Prnflu.
12th of Augurt, with this inferiority of number, the
king attacked his enemies llrongly intrenched, and de¬
fended by a prodigious number of cannon. In this ac¬
tion, his principal effort was againll the left wing of the
Ruffian army. He began the attack, according to cu-
ftom, with a heavy cannonade ; which having produced
the defired effetf, he attacked that wing with feveral sr
battalions difpofed in columns. The Ruffian intrench-King of
ments were forced with great flaughter, and 72 pieces
of cannon were taken. But ftill there was a defile to
be paffed, and feveral redoubts which covered the vil-fians at
lage of Cunnerfdorf to be maftered. Thefe were attack- l unneif-
ed with the fame refolulion, and taken one after another. dorf»
The enemy made another ftand at the village, and en¬
deavoured to preferve their ground there by pulhing
forward feveral battalions of horfe and foot: but this
alfo proved unfuccefsful; they were driven from port
to port quite to the laft redoubts. For upwards of fix
hours the Pruffians were fuccefsful, and everywhere
broke the enemy with prodigious flaughter ; drove
them from almoft all the ground they had occupied be¬
fore the battle, took more than half their artillery, and
fcarce any thing feemed wanting to make the vidtory
complete. In thefe circumftances, the king wrote the
following billet to the queen : “ Madam, we have
beat the Ruffians from their intrenchments. In two
hours exped to hear of a glorious vidory.” Of this
vidory, however, he deprived himfelf, by an exceffive
eagernefs for conqueft. The enemy, defeated almoft
in every quarter, found their left wing, {battered as it
was, to be more entire than any other part of their
army. Count Soltikoff, the Ruffian general, therefore,
affembled the remains of his right wing, and, gathering
as many as he could from his centre, reinforced the left,
and made a ftand at a redoubt which had been ere&ed
on an advantageous eminence in a place called the Jews
burying-ground. All the king’s generals are faid to
have been of opinion that he ought to allow the Ruf¬
fians the peaceable poffeffion of this poft. I heir army
had already fuffered fo much, that it Avould have beer*
impoffible for them to have attempted any entefprife
of confequence after the battle ; but their artillery was
ftill numerous, the poft very ftrong, and the Pruffian
troops greatly fatigued. Thefe reafons for a few mo- .
ments had fome weight with the king ; but the natu¬
ral impetuofity of his temper getting the better of-
his reafon, he led on his wearied troops again and
again ; till at laft, when their ftrength was in a man¬
ner totally exhaufted, they w'ere attacked and utterly
routed by the Auftrian and Ruffian cavalry, the former-
of which had hitherto remained quite inactive, and
were therefore quite freffi, and irrefiftible by the en¬
feebled Pruffians. The night, and the prudent ufe
of fome eminences, prevented the total deftruttion of
the army ; however, their lofs amounted to 20,000
men killed and wounded. The king, when he found
the victory totally loft, fent another Fillet to the queen,
expreffed in the following manner : “ Remove from
Berlin with the royal family ; let
carried to Potfdam ; the town may
with the enemy.”
Immediately after this defeat, the king fet himfelf
about repairing his Ioffes with the utmoft diligence. In
a few days every thing was again put in order in his
camp*
the archives be
make conditions
Pruffia.
General
Finck with
: 2,000
Pruffians
furrenders
to the A.u-
ilrians.
oefperate
ituation of
he king of
Pruffia.
r r u [48
camp. He replaced his artillery from Berlin ; recalled
General Klielt with 5000 men from Pomerania; de¬
tached 6000 from his own army to the defence of Saxo¬
ny j and with the remainder put himfelf between the
Ruffians and Great Glogau, covering that city which
had been the chief object of their defigns ; and in ffiort,
notwithftanding their vi&ory, obliged them to return
to Poland without accomplilhing any thing befides the
carnage at Cunnerfdorff.
The misfortunes of the Pruffian monarch, however,
were not at an end. Prince Henry, indeed, by a moft
extraordinary and well-condudted march, entered Sax¬
ony, which was now totally overrun by the armies of
the enemy. At the fame time, ftrong detachments ha- .
ving been fent into that country under generals Finck
and Wunfch, the whole was in a Ihort time recovered
except Drefden. Towards this place Marlhal Daun
retired, and in all probability would foon have been
obliged to leave Saxony entirely. But the king’s im¬
patience could not be fatisfied without cutting off his
retreat, and forcing him to a battle ; for which purpofe
he fent General Finck with upwards of 12,000 men
according to the Pruffian account, but 20,coo accord¬
ing to the Auftrians, to feize fome paffes through which
M. Daun could only take his route towards Bohemia.
This commiffion was executed with great exaftnefs j
but the Pruffian general, having probably advanced too
far into thefe defiles, and negle&ed to preferve a com¬
munication with the main army, gave his enemy an op¬
portunity of furrounding him, and at laft forcing him
and his whole army to furrender prifoners of war. This
difafter was foon after followed by another. General
Durceke was polled at the right of the Elbe, oppofite
to Meffen ; but on the approach of a large body of Au¬
ftrians, they prepared to retreat over the river into a
place where they hoped to be more fecure. But having
been obliged by an hard froft to withdraw their bridge
of boats, a thaw fupervened, when they attempted to
lay a bridge of pontoons, fo that they were again obli¬
ged to have recourfe to their boats. In this fituation,
their rear-guard was attacked with great fury by the
Aultrians, and all the foldiers who compofed it killed
or taken. The lofs of the Pruffians on this occalion
was computed at 3000 men.
The year 1760 Ihowed the Pruffian monarch in a more
dangerous fituation than he had ever yet experienced.
Indeed his affairs now feemed to be altogether defperate.
His Ioffes were not to be meafured by the number of
the killed or prifoners, but by armies dellroyed or ta¬
ken. Forty generals had died or been killed in his fer-
vice fince the beginning of Oflober 1756, exclufive of
thofe who were wounded or taken prifoners. This of
itfelf would have been an irreparable lofs, had not the
very wars which dellroyed thefe furnifhed others equal.
]y capable of filling their places. But another deficien- .
cy, which could not be remedied, Hill remained.—The
king had, by his indefatigable indullry and exertions,
fupplied all the deficiencies of men in his armies, but
they were not the fame men as before. The hardy ve¬
terans, with whom he had originally taken the field,
were now no more, and their places were fupplied by
others who had neither the fame experience nor difci-
pline ; fo that now he was obliged to fupply this defi¬
ciency by his own genius and heroifm.
But whatever abilities the Pruflian monarch might
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Pruffia.
54
1 1 P R U
poffefs, and though he undoubtedly exerted them to the
utmoft, it feemed only to be contending again!! fate,
and his enemies gained Hill greater and greater advan¬
tages. General Laudshn, with whom none but the Pruffians
king himfelf feems to have been able to cope, by a le-^e|^^at
ries of artful movements, drew into a difadvantageous1,1111 1U
fituation M. Fouquet, one of the Pruffian generals,
with a llrong body of forces. Perceiving it impoffible
for them to efcape, Laudohn then made a violent at¬
tack on their entrenchments in the dead of the night
of June 23d. The Pruffians made a gallant defence,
but at lalt were all killed or taken prifoners except
about 300. Of the Pruffians were killed 4000, and
7000 taken prifoners $ 58 pieces of cannon, and a great
number of colours, were alfo loll. The vidtory, how¬
ever, was dear bought j for the Aullrians loft above
12,coo men in killed and wounded ; whom, however,
they could better fpare than the Pruffians, on account
of their numbers.—This adtion was called the battle of .
Ldndfhut.
Baron Laudohn failed not to improve this vidtory Glatz ta-
to the utmoll. He inltantly turned back from Land-ken by the
Ihut, and fell upon the city of Glatz $ which he took AuftrianSi
in a very Ihort time, with the garrifon who defended
it, confitling of 2000 men. In this place were found
101 pieces of brafs cannon, with immenfe quantities
of provifions and military ftores. From thence he
marched again!! Brellau, and immediately invelted it.
But, in the mean time, the king ef Pruffia, tvhofe mo¬
tions had been all this time counteradled by M, Daun
in Saxony, marched with his ufual rapidity towards
Silefia. By this means he drew M. Daun out of Sax¬
ony j and indeed the Aullrian general ufed fuch ex¬
pedition, that he gained two full days on the king.
This was no fooner known to his Pruffian majelly,
than he returned with the fame expedition that he ^
had advanced, and fat down before Drefden. Of Drefden be-
this M. Daun foon received intelligence, and returned fieged, but
alfo. In the mean time, however, the buildings ofw*t*lout
the city were terribly lhattered by the king’s cannon ^
and bombs which continually played on it. His en- prufiia.
deavours, however, proved ineffcftual to reduce it
before the arrival of M. Daun. The fiege had
been begun on the 13th of July, and on the 19th
M. Daun appeared within a league of Drefden. The
Pruffians then redoubled their efforts. They had that
day received reinforcements of heavy cannon and mor¬
tars, with which they battered the place inctffantly.
The cathedral church, New Square, feveral principal
ftreets and fome palaces, and the noble manufactory
of porcelain, were entirely dellroyed. The fiege was
continued till the 22d ; but, on the night of the 21ft,
M. Daun had thrown 16 battalions into the city ^
which rendered it impoffible for the king to continue
longer before it with any profpedl of fuccefs. He
therefore raifed the fiege, and retired without molelta-
tion, though there were three confiderable armies of
the enemy in the neighbourhood. Brellau was fiercely
bombarded by Laudohn, but the approach of Prince
Henry obliged him to defill from his enterprife on the
5th of Augult.
But, in the mean time, the fortune of the king feem¬
ed likely to be terminated by one fatal llroke. Find¬
ing it impoffible for him to carry on a defenfive war,
he marched towards Silefia with fuch aftonifliing ra-
3 P Pidity»
P R U
[ 482 ]
P R U
Pruflia.
57
Three Au-
Itrian ge
againft
him.
pidity, that before the middle of Auguft he had ad¬
vanced 200 miles, leaving Marfhal Daun with his army
far behind him. This expedition he undertook in
^ order to engage General Laudohn before he could
nerais join have time to effect a juntflion with Daun and Lacy,
their forces anoll3er Auftrian general j which triple union feemed
to threaten him with unavoidable dellru&ion at once.
This, however, he found it impoflible to prevent: and
the three armies, when joined, formed a mod tre¬
mendous line of encampments, extending no lefs than
30 Englilh mjles; at the fame time that every one of
their pods was drong, and the communication be¬
tween them eafy. The king was drongly encamped
at Lignitz ; and for feveral days employed all his mi¬
litary ikill in attempting to induce one of the bodies
to detach itfelf from the red, or to attack them at
fome difadvantage j but without effedt. At lad, the
Auftrian generals, having maturely weighed all circum-
ftances, refolved to attack the king’s camp, itfelf,
drong as it was; and Marlhal Daun, remembering the
advantage he had gained at Hochkirchen by an at¬
tack in the night-time, refolved to follow the fame
plan now. The plan therefore was laid in the follow¬
ing manner. I he whole army, as foon as it fhould
begin to grow dark, was to march from their feveral
~ to fuch fituations as were marked out for each
they were to ftrike their tents, but yet to keep
pod
corps
up the fires in
beat the tattoo
their camps, and to have the drums
as ufual, by which means they had
a probability of furprifing the enemy; or if not, they
judged it abfolutely impoflible for him to efcape them,
though he ftiould be ever fo much on his guard.. In
what manner the king of Pruflia became acquainted
with this plan, is not known. His friends attributed
it to his own penetration and knowledge of the flra-
tagems of war ; the Audrians, to intelligence given
him by deferters. But, in whatever way he became ac¬
quainted with this defign, it is certain that he took
the mod: effe&ual methods of preventing it. As the
Auftrian plan was to furround his camp, and this
could not be done without the divifion of their army
which he had fo long defired, he refolved to intercept
one of the parties; and if that ftiould be difabled from
a£ling, he could then more eafily deal with the other
two. Therefore, in the very evening calculated for
the decifive attack on his camp, he quitted it with
the utmoft privacy, and took an advantageous poft
on the road through which General Laudohn was to
pafs. The nature of this poft was fuch, that at the
fame time that it flopped the progrefs of Laudohn in
front, Daun would lie under great difficulties if he
ftiould attempt his rear ; at the fame time that, for his
further fecurity, the king {Lengthened the rear with
feveral batteries. As foon as his army was drawn up,
he divided it 5 leaving his right on the ground where
it had been formed, to obferve Marlhal Daun, and to
maintain that poft •, whilft with his left he turned in or¬
der to fall on the corps under General Laudohn. In
the mean time, that commander, ignorant of the fate
which was awaiting him, advanced with the utmoft ex¬
pedition towards the place which had been affigned him,
in order to {hare in the glory of deftroying the Pruf-
fian monarch; when, at three in the morning, on the
15th of Auguft, a thick fog which covered the ground,
fuddenly clearing up, difcovered, like the opening of
a great fcene, the dreadful front of the Pruflian army Pruffia,
regularly embattled, and advantageoully polled. Lau- •v—J
dohn, though furprifed, made the beft difpofitions that H j>8
circumllances would admit of, and an obftinate engage-5
ment enfued ; in which, however, he was at laft obliged f.audohn,
to yield to the fuperior {kill of his adverfary, with the and mtimi
lofs of 10,000 killed, wounded, and prifoners, 82 pieces ^at*s the
of cannon, and 23 pair ot colours.
The victory, though complete, gave but a partial re¬
lief to the king of Pruffia. The moft eflential fervice
it did was the preventing of the Ruffians from joining
thofe enemies which he already had. Count Czerni-
chew had been advancing with 24,000 men, and had
even pafled the Oder 5 but was fo intimidated by this
news, that he inftantly repaffed that river on the fame
bridges which he had lately built, even though M. Daun
fent him a ftrong body of troops in order to encourage
him to advance. Soon after this battle, the king join¬
ed his brother Prince Henry at New Marche, and
marched againft Daun, who had begun to form the
blockade of Schweidnitz 5 fell upon a corps under Gene¬
ral Beck, made two battalions of Croats prifoners, and
difperfed the reft, which obliged the enemy to abandon
the enterprife they had juft undertaken. About the
fame time, General Hulfen gained a confiderable advan¬
tage over the Imperialarmy in Saxony, with very trifling
lofs on his part, by which he effeftually prevented them
from cutting off his communication with the city of Tor-
gau.
By thefe fucceffes the affairs of his Pruflian majefty
feemed to revive : but there was no end of his enemies.
The late manoeuvres had drawn him fo far into Silefia,
that his communication with Brandenburg was almoft
wholly cut off. The Ruffian army, which after it had
repaffed the Oder began to move out of Silefia, fent
forward a powerful detachment under Count Czerni-
chew towards the marche of Brandenburg. A body
of 15,000 Auftrians, under the generals Lacy and
Brentano, and the whole united body of Auftrians and
Imperialifts which added in Saxony, began their march
in concert with the Ruffians, and propofed to unite at
the gates of Berlin. Thefe armies amounted to
40,000 men. To oppofe this formidable power, Ge¬
neral Hulfen called to his afliftance General Werner,
who had been fent with a body of troops into Pome¬
rania ; but, after being joined by him, their united for¬
ces were found not to exceed 15,000 or 16,000 men.
Tq attempt a defence of the capital with this force Avould
have been little Ihort of madnefs: and therefore thefe
commanders were obliged to leave Berlin to 5
which indeed, confidering the barbarity of the Ruffians ken by the
and the animofity of the Auftrians, feemed to be a Auftrians
dreadful one. However, by the powerful mediation3nd Ruf=
of feveral foreign minifters, the town obtained termsfians’
which were not altogether intolerable; but the maga¬
zines, arfenals, and founderies were deftroyed, and an
immenfe quantity of military ftores feized, with a num¬
ber of cannon and other arms. The city was firft obli¬
ged to pay 800,000 guilders, after which a contribution
of 1,900,000 crowns was laid on: yet, notwithftanding
this, many violences were committed, and the king’s
palace was plundered and the furniture abufed in a fcan-
dalous manner.
The combined armies ftaid in Berlin only four daysj
dreading the fevere vengeance of the king of Pruffia,
who
P R U r 483 1 P R U
ftuUia. who they heard was advancing towards that place with
'great expedition. But fo great were the embarrafs-
'Extreme ments which now attended that monarch, that it feem-
iimbarraff- ed almoft beyond human power to retrieve his affairs,
went of The Imperialifts, on their return from Berlin, having
Peking. no army to oppofe them, made themfelves matters of
Leipfic, Torgau, Meiffen, and Wirtemberg •, in which
laft city they found the grand magazine of the Pruffians
immenfely itored with provifions, ammunition, &c.
M. Stainville alfo, with a detachment from Broglio
the French general’s army, laid the city and duchy of
Halberftadt under contribution. In Eaftern Pomera¬
nia, the Ruffians had befieged Colberg by fea and land.
In the Western Pomerania, the Swedes advanced with
great celerity, hoping to {hare in the plunder of Berlin.
In Silefia, the king no fooner began his march to the
northward, than Laudohn advanced, and laid fiege to
the important fortrefs of Cofel; and, to complete this
diftrefs and embarraffment, the king himfelf was at¬
tended at every ftep by Count Daun with a fuperior
army well prepared to take every advantage.
In this defperate fituation the king, being joined by
his generals Hulfen and Prince Eugene of Wirtemberg
with the corps under their command, advanced up the
Elbe, while M. Daun fell back to cover Leipfic and
Torgau, but the latter finding that the Pruffians direc¬
ted their march towards the Elbe, encamped within
reach of Torgau ; one part of his army extending to the
Elbe, by which he was covered on that fide, whilfl on
the other he was covered by hills and woods, fo that
it was impoffible to choofe a more advantageous fituation.
The Pruffian army did not amount to 50,000 men,
whilft that of the Auftrians exceeded 86,000 : yet
fuch were the unfortunate circumftances of the king,
that he was obliged to fight under all thefe difadvanta-
ges *, and therefore he caufed his army to be informed,
that he was now to lead them to a moft defpertite at¬
tempt, that his affairs required it, and that he was de¬
termined to conquer or die. His foldiers unanimoufly
61 declared that they would die with him.
Ie defeats The 3d of November 1760 was the day on which
Jaunat *mPortant was decided. The king divided
orgau. k’3 f°rces into three columns. General Hulfen was to
take poll with one in a wood that lay on the left of
the Auftrian army, and had orders not to move until he
found the reft of the Pruffians engaged. General Zie-
then was to charge on the right •, and the great attack
in front was to be conduced by the king in perfon.
His forces were difpofed in fuch a manner, that either
his right or left tnuft take the enemy in rear and clofe
them in, fo as to difable them from undertaking any
thing againft the part where he intended to effe£t his
principal attack. On the other hand, M. Daun per¬
ceiving the king to be ferious in his defign of fighting,
to prevent confufion, fent all his baggage over the Elbe,
acrofs which he threw three bridges in cafe a retreat
fhould be neceffary. At the fame time he caufed Tor¬
gau to be evacuated ; and then, extending his firft line
to a village called Xinne on the left, he ftretched it to
another called Crofwit'Z on the right; fupporting the
right of his fecond line upon the Elbe. In this difpofi-
tion he was found, when, about two o’clock in the after¬
noon, the king began his attack. He was received by
the fire of 200 pieces of cannon, which were difpofed
along the Auftrian front. The Pruffians wrere thrice led
on to the attack; but were every time repulfed and PruilL.
broken with terrible {laughter. The king at length
commanded a frefh body ot cavalry to advance, which
at firft compelled the Auftiians to retire 5 but new
reinforcements continually coming in, this cavalry was
in its turn obliged to fall back, and the Pruffians main¬
tained themfelves with extreme difficulty, until Gene¬
ral Ziethen, with the right wing, attacked the enemy
in the rear, repulfed them, and poffefTed himfelf of
fome eminences which commanded the whole Auftrian
army. Encouraged by this fuccefs, the Pruffian in¬
fantry once more advanced, maftered feveral of the
enemy’s intrenchments, and made way for a new attack
of their cavalry, which broke in with irrefiftible fury
on the Aurtrians, and threw feveral bodies of them
into irreparable diforder. It was now about 9 o’clock,
and of confequence both armies were involved in thick
darknefs j yet the fire continued without intermiffion,
and the battalions with a blind rage difcharged at
one another without diftinguiffiing friend . from foe.
M. Daun received a dangerous wround in the thigh,
and w'as carried from the field, which probably haften-
ed the defeat of his troops. The command then de¬
volved on Count O’Donnel 5 who, finding the greateft
part of his troops in diforder, the night advanced, and
the enemy poffelTed of fome eminences which com¬
manded his camp, and from which it was in vain to
think of driving them, ordered a retreat, which was
conduced with wonderful order and exa&nefs ; none
were loft in paffing the bridges, and by far the greater
part of their artillery was preferved. The lofs of the
Pruffians was eftimated at 10,000 killed and wounded,
and 3000 taken prifoners. That of the Auftrians in
killed and wounded is not known; but 8000 were
taken prifoners, with 216 officers, among whem were
four generals. ^
The confequence of the vi&ory of Torgau was, that All Sax-
the king recovered all Saxony except Drefden; and in01^ exc«pt
the mean time General Werner having marched into^1^'611
Pomerania, the Ruffians raifed the fiege of Colberg, reC°Vered'
and retired into Poland, without having effetfed any
thing further than wafting the open country. WWner
then flew to the affiftance of Weftern Pomerania, where
he defeated a body of Swedes, and at laft drove them
totally out of the country. General Laudohn too ab¬
ruptly raifed the blockade of Cofel j and afterwards,
abandoning Landffiut, he retired into the Auftrian Si¬
lefia, leaving the Pruffian part entirely in quiet. M.
Daun placed one part of his army in Drefden, and the
other in fome ftrong polls which lie to the fouth and
weft of it, by which he commanded the Elbe, and pre¬
ferved his communication with Bohemia. The army of
the empire retired into Franconia, and placed its head¬
quarters at Bamberg.
1 hough thefe fucceffes had, to appearance, retrieved
the king’s affairs in fome meafure, yet his ftrength
feemed now to be wholly exhaufted 5 and in the cam¬
paign of 1761, he made no fuch vigorous efforts as he
had formerly done. The Ruffians, dividing themfelves
into two bodies, invaded Silefia and Pomerania. In
the former country they laid fiege to Breflau, and in the
latter to Colberg. Tottleben alfo, who had command¬
ed the Ruffian armies, was now removed op a fufpicion
that he had correfponded with the king of Pruffia, and
General Romanzow put in his place j by which it was
3 P 2 expedted
P R U
[
Pruflla.
^3
Scliweid-
nitz and
Colberg re
taken.
expend that the Ruffian operations would be more brifk
this year than formerly. . 0 , „ • j
The kinS continued ftrongly encamped near Schweid-
nitz *. where he was fo clofely watched by generals Daun
and Laudohn, that he could attempt nothing. How¬
ever he defeated the defigns of the Ruffians agamft Ure-
flau, by fending General Platen to deftroy their maga¬
zines ; which he accompliffied with great fuccefs, at the
fame time cutting off a body of 4000 of their troops.
But this only brought the more fure deftruaion upon
Colberg ; to which place that body of Ruffians imme¬
diately marched, cruelly wafting the country as they
went along. The king of Pruffia could do nothing but
fend detachments of fmall parties, which though they
could not oppofe their enemies in the field, yet he ho¬
ped, by cutting off the convoys of the enemy, might
diftrefs them to fuch a degree as to oblige them to
abandon the fiege, or at leaft protraft it till the feverity
of the winter ffiould render it nnpoffible for them to
carry on their operations. Thus he weakened his own
army fo much, that it was found requifite to draw
4000 men out of Schweidnitz in order to reinforce it ;
and no fooner was this done, than General Laudohn
fuddenly attacked and took that fortrefs by a coup de
Colberg- made a brave defence *, but the troops
Pruifia.
67
*4 ,
Emprefs of
Raffia dies.
<?5
Peace be¬
tween Raf¬
fia, Swe¬
den, and
Pruffia.
66
Succcffes
of the king
of Pruffia.
main, v-uiucig    . . , £
fent to its relief being totally unable to cope with the
Ruffian army, confiding of 50,000 men, it was obliged
to furrender on the 3d of December •, and thus the
fate of the Pruffian monarch feemed to be decided, and
almoft every part of his dominions lay open to the inva¬
ders. .
In the mid ft of thefe gloomy appearances the em¬
prefs of Ruffia, the king’s moft inveterate and inflex¬
ible enemy, died on the 2d of January 1762. Her fuc-
ceffor, Peter III. inftead of being the king’s enemy,
was his moft fanguine friend. As early as the 23d of
February, in a memorial delivered to the minifters of
the allied courts, he declared, that, “ in order to the
eftabliftiment of peace, he was ready to facnfice all the
conquefts made in this war by the arms of Ruffia, in
hopes that the allied courts will on their parts equally
prefer the reftoration of peace and tranquillity, to the
advantages which they might exped from the continu¬
ance of the war, but which they cannot obtain but by
a continuance of the effufion of human blood. ——This
addrefs was not fo well reliftied by the allies: however,
they were very willing to make peace, provided it was
for their own intereft •, but they recommended to his
attention fidelity to treaties, which conftitutes a no lefs
valuable part of the royal charafter, than humanity and
difintereftednefs. This anfwer made no impreffion on
the czar ^ a fufpenfion of hoftilities took place on the
16th of March, which was followed by a treaty of alli¬
ance on the 5th of May. In this treaty the czar ftipu-
lated nothing in favour of hL former confederates •, on
the contrary, he agreed to join his troops to thofe of
the king of Pruffia, in order to aft againft them. Swe¬
den, which had for a long time afted under the direc¬
tion of Ruffian counfels, now followed the example of
her miftrefs, and concluded a peace with Pruffia on the
22d of May. .
It is not to be fuppofed that the king of Pruffia
would remain long inactive after fuch an unexpected
turn in his favour. His arms were now everywhere
attended with fuccefs. Prince Henry drove the Impe-
4*4 1 P R U
rialifts from fonie important polls in Saxony, by which
he fecured all that part which the Pruffians poffeffed j
and though the Auftrians frequently attempted to re¬
cover thefe polls, they were conftantly repulfed with
great {laughter. The king was not joined by his new
allies till the latter end of June j after which he drove
M. Daun before him to the extremity of Silefia, leaving
the town of Schweidnitz entirely uncovered, and which
the king immediately prepared to inveft. In the mean
time, different detachments of Pruffians, fome on the
fide of Saxony, and others on that of Silefia, penetrated
deep into Bohemia, laid many parts of the country un¬
der contribution, and fpread an univerfal alarm. A con-
fiderable body of Ruffian irregulars alfo made *n irrup¬
tion into Bohemia, where they praftifed on the Aultn-
ans the fame cruelties which they had long been accul-
tomed to praCtife on the Pruffians.
But while the king was thus making the beft ufe of An™,.,
his time, he was all at once threatened with a fatal re- ^ ^
verfe of fortune by a new revolution in hullia. ihe
emperor was depofed, and his depofition was foon after
followed by his death. The emprefs, who fucceeded
him fufpefted that her hulband had been milled by the
counfels of his Pruffian majefty, againft whom there¬
fore, (he entertained a mortal enmity. She could not,
however, in the very beginning of her reign, undertake
again a war of fo much importance as that which had
been iuft concluded. She therefore declared her inten¬
tion of obferving the peace concluded by the late em¬
peror ; but, at the fame time, of recalling her armies
from Silefia, Pruffia, and Pomerania; which indeed the
unfettled ftate of the kingdom now made in fome degree
neceffary. At the fame time a difeovery was made
with regard to the king of Pruffia hunfeJf, which turn¬
ed the fcale greatly in his favour. The Ruffian fenate,
flaming with refentment againft this monarch, and
againft their late unfortunate fovereign ; and the em¬
prefs, full of fufpicion that the conduft of the latter
might have been influenced by the councils of the for¬
mer, fearched eagerly among!! the papers of the late
emperor for an elucidation or proofs of this point.
They found indeed many letters from the Pruffian mo¬
narch, but in a ftrain abfolutely different from what
they had expefted. The king had,, as far as prudence
would permit, kept a referve and diftance with regard
to the too raffi advances of this unhappy ally ; and,, m
particular, counfelled him to undertake nothing againlt
the emprefs his confort. The hearing of thefe letters
read is faid to have had fuch an effea upon the emprels,
that Ihe burft into tears, and expreffed her gratitude
towards the Pruffian monarch in the warmeft terms.
Still however, the Ruffian army was ordered to leparate
from the Pruffians; but all the important places which
the former had taken during the whole war were faith¬
fully reftored.
The king, finding that the Ruffians were no more to
take an aftive part in his favour, refolved to profit by
their appearance in his camp *, and, therefore, the^very
day after the order for their return had arrived, he.at¬
tacked the Auflrian army, and drove their right wing
from fome eminences and villages where they were ad-
vantageoufly polled ; by which means he entirely cut
off their communication with Schweidnitz,. lo that no¬
thing could be attempted for its relief. Prince Henry
kept them in continual alarms for Bohemia ; and a
P R U
Pruffia.
68
General
Laudohn
utterly de¬
feated.
great part of their attention, and no fmall part of their
forces, were engaged on that fide. Marthal Daun, now
finding himfelf rendered almoft incapable of underta¬
king any thing, detached General Laudohn, with a
force very much fuperior, to attack the prince of Be-
vern, and drive him from the advantageous poll he oc¬
cupied. But the prince defended himfelf with fuch re-
folution, that all the efforts of Laudohn could not fuc-
ceed before the king had time to come to his affiftance.
The Auftrians, being then put between two fires, were
routed and purfued with terrible (laughter } after which,
the king met with no more difturbance in his prepara¬
tions for the fiege, and the trenches were opened on
the 18th of July. Marfhal Daun made no attempts
to relieve the place •, but the garrifon being very ftrong,
it held out for near two months from the opening of
the trenches. It is faid that the attack was conduced,
and the defence made, by two engineers who had writ¬
ten on the fubjeft of the attack and defence of forti¬
fied places •, and they were now praftically engaged to
prove the fuperiority of their fyftems. At laft, how¬
ever, the garrifon, to the number of 8000 men, furren-
dered prifoners of war *, and the whole body, except
nine, were foon after drowned at the mouth of the Ci¬
der, on their paffage to their intended confinement in
Konigfberg.
The king of Pruflia, now become mafter of Schweid-
nitz, turned his attention towarcb Saxony, where he
confiderably reinforced his brother’s army, and made
preparations for laying fiege to Drefden. In this coun¬
try the Auftrians had lately met with fome fuccefs, and
driven Prince Henry as far back as Freyberg; but on
the 29th of O&ober, they were attacked by the Pruf-
fian army thus reinforced, and totally routed. Great
numbers were (lain, and near 6000 taken prifoners.
This vi&ory proved decifive : and the emprefs-queen,
finding herfelf deferted by all her allies, was glad to
conclude a treaty, the fubftance of which was, that a
mutual reftitution and oblivion fhould take place, and
both parties fit down at the end of the war in the fame
fituation in which they began it. This treaty is called
the peace of Hubertjburg.
The war was no fooner concluded than the king of
Pruflia turned his attention to domeftic policy, and the
recovery of his dominions from thofe innumerable ca¬
lamities which had befallen them during the war. He
immediately diftributed lands to his difbanded foldiers,
and gave them the horfes of his artillery to affift them
in their cultivation. By his wife and prudent manage¬
ment, the horrors of war were foon forgotten j and the
country was quickly in as flourifiling a ftate as ever.
Notwithftanding this pacific difpofition, however, the
king never flackened his endeavours for the defence of
his country, by keeping a refpeflable army on foot $
which might be able to aft on the leaft emergency.
In the year 1778, a new difference with the houfe of
Auftria took place, concerning the duchy of Bavaria.
But though the mod enormous warlike preparations
memorable0 were made on both fides, and immenfe armies brought
event. into the field, nothing of confequence was effefted.
What little advantage there was, feems to have been
on the Pruflian fide, fince they made themfelves mafters
of feveral towns, and kept the war in the enemy’s coun¬
try. However, the emperor afted with fo much caution,
and fhowed fe much (kill in a defenfive war, that all the
Pruflia.
[ 485 ] P R U
manoeuvres of his Pruflian majefty could gain no mate*
rial advantage 5 as, on the other hand, his adverfary was
too wife to venture an engagement. A peace therefore
was very foon concluded, and fince that time the hiftory
of Pruflia, during the remainder of the great Frederic’s
reign, affords no remarkable event which we have not
mentioned in the life of that hero, and in the article # _
Poland. He left his crown to his nephew, whofe Die gieat
charafter was not then much developed ; and it was ea' ^ceeded
fily feen that a new kingdom, which hadrifen fuddenlyby his ne_
to fuch unexampled power and greatnefs as to excite the phew,
jealoufy or apprehenfion of all its neighbours, would
require great abilities to preferve it from difmember-
ment.
71
69
Hie total
defeat of
the Auftri.
ans at
Freyberg
produces a
peace.
, 7°
A new war
commen¬
ces, but
produces no
  7*
The late king had indeed bequeathed the moft effec- State of the
tual fecurities to his fucceffor for the prefervation of
his dominions, that human wifdom could provide or ^'new
vife j by leaving him a full treafury, the fineft army inking,
tire world, and a people enthufiaftically attached to his
memory and government. The new monarch, with
thefe advantages, was not wanting to himfelf. The
late king’s predileftion for the French language and
French literature were not grateful to his fubjefts.
The prefent fovereign began his reign with declaring
in council, “ Germans we are, and Germans I mean we
fhall continue j” giving direftions, at the fame time, that
their native language (hould refume its natural rank and
ftation, from which for near half a century it had been
degraded by the French.' This was a very popular
meafure, and it was followed by another ftill more fo.
Obferving that he had marked with great concern the
progrefs of impiety and profanenefs on the one hand,,
and of enthufiafm on the other, he declared, that he
would not have his fubjefts corrupted either by fanatics
or atheifts, and ftriftly prohibited all publications tend¬
ing to excite a contempt or indifference for religion.
Such, on his immediate acceflion to the throne, was
the pacific conduft of the monarch, which endeared
him to his fubjefts, and commanded the approbation
of all good men. An opportunity foon occurred, in pje
which he was thought to have difplayed fuch talents in the ftadt-
negociation and in military arrangements, as proclaim-holder a-
ed him in every refpeft a worthy fucceffor of his uncle.
The ftates of Holland, who had long been jealous ofHouan(ja
the power of the ftadtholder, and inclined to a republi¬
can government without any permanent chief, had gain¬
ed fuch an afcendency in the ftates general, that in 1786
and 1787 they in effeft divefted the Prince of Orange
of all his prerogatives, (fee UNITED Provinces'). They
proceeded even to the feizure and imprifonment of the
princefs, fifter to the king of Pruflia •, and depending
upon fupport from France, treated with infolence every
power connefted with them in Europe. The court of
Berlin did not witnefs thefe proceedings without indig-t
nation $ and the king formed his plan for reftoring the
power of the ftadtholder with fuch fecrecy and prudence,
that perhaps nothing could furpafs it but the bravery
and military (kill of the duke of Brunfwick, by whom it
was carried into execution. In the fhort fpace of one
month, that accomplilhed general led 18,000 Pruflians
to Amfterdam, and reftored the juft prerogatives of the
prince of Orange.
The affairs of Pruflia during the early period of the
French revolution, and the aftive but unfuccefsful part
which that monarch took againft it, are interwoven with
th^
P R U [ 486 ] P R U
Ptaffia. the hiftorical details of that period under the articles
France and Britain, to which we refer our readers.
For a number of years he adled the prudent part of
{landing clear of hoftilities as much as poffible ; and
when he did at laft interfere, we find little in his con-
duft which is intitled to the praife either of confiflency
or honour. Indeed it may perhaps be admitted, that on
many occafions he afted rather from neceffity than
choice ; and finding that a conteft with France was
both abfurd and ruinous, he chofe to facrifice a lefs evil
to a greater good. Whether by confent or compulfion
is not certainly known, the king of Pruffia ceded to
France the duchies of Cleves and Berg, March 1806,
which were to be governed by Prince Murat, the bro¬
ther-in-law of Bonaparte, under the title of Joachim,
duke of Cleves and Berg.
The king of Pruffia likewife took pofleffion of the
Hanoverian dates 30th October 1806, at the time ivhen
Great Britain had no reafon to apprehend any fuch
myfterious condudl from that quarter. He entered into
a fecret treaty with France for the purpofe of {hutting
the northern ports 5 a meafure which gave fuch offence
to this country,* that the Britifli minifier thought proper
to take his leave of Berlin. At one period he came to a
final determination to make no feparate treaty with the
French government, and propofed a treaty of peace and
alliance between his court and that of Britain. To
give this as much effedl as poflible, the Pruflian princes
of the blood began to raife volunteer regiments in Po¬
land and Silefia, the loyalty of the peafantry in thefe
countries far exceeding the moft fanguine expectations.
So low, however, were the king of Pruffia’s finances
at the time of Lord Hutchinfon’s arrival at Memel,
March 1807, that his lordfhip found it neceflfary to ad¬
vance 8o,oool. for the 'fupport of his family and domef-
tic houfehold. This being intimated to the Britifli mi-
iiiflers, his majefty recommended it to parliament to en¬
able him to implement the agreement. Yet not long
after this period he actually entered into a treaty of
peace with the emperor of France, by virtue of which
his territories wTere fo dreadfully mutilated, as to leave
him little more of a fovereign than the name. He was
required to renounce the whdle of his dominions fitua-
ted between the Rhine and the Elbe ; the circle of Ro-
thus in Lower Lufatia; all the provinces which former¬
ly conftituted part of the kingdom of Poland ; the city
of Dantzic; and he was laid under the neceffity of {hut¬
ting all the ports and harbours of his whole dominions
againft the trade and navigation of Great Britain. Not
above 18 months prior to this treaty, the king of Pruf¬
fia might have been faid to hold the fate of Europe in
his hands ; but by means of it he was reduced to the
very lowed: rank among the powers of Europe. Had
he taken a decided part againd France before the battle
of Auderlitz, he might have been able to fecure the
independence of Europe j but, having fuffered this au-
fpicious moment to pafs unimproved, the confequences
were exaClly fuch as might have been predicted, with¬
out any pretenfions to uncommon fagacity.
The king, of Pruflia being thus degraded by means of
his own imprudence and want of found policy, endea¬
voured to eafe the burdens of his remaining fubjeCts by
reducing his civil and military edablifhments.' The
army was reduced to 24,000 men, and General Kno-
blesdorf was fent to Paris to procure a diminution of the
contributions exaCted from him, or to crave that pay- Pniflh.
ments might be accepted of by inftalments ; and, in the
mean time, the troops belonging to France were not to
be withdrawn from the impoveriftied kingdom of Pruf¬
fia. Every decree ifllied in Holland againft the com¬
merce of Great Britain, this humbled monarch was ob¬
liged to adopt, and to order the publication of them in
every part of his mutilated dominions. This ftate of in-
fignificance may be expeCled to continue as it is, till
fuch a revolution takes place in the fentiments of the
moft powerful European monarchs as {hall induce them
to throw off the tyrannical yoke of Bonaparte, and op-
pofe to him a force which all his military ftrength {hall
not be able to refift ; and annihilate his power and in¬
fluence in Europe. The united forces of Ruflia, Pruf¬
fia, and Auftria, feconded 'by the operations of the tri¬
umphant navy of Great Britain, might find it poffible
to accompliftr this ; and furely it is not only the caufe of
Europe, but of humanity at large, and calls for the in¬
terference of eWery empire and kingdom capable of af¬
fording any effeftive aid.
The total lofs fuftained by the king of Pruflia in con-
iequence of the peace of Tilfit, has been eftimated at
10,000 fquare miles in extent, containing a population
of more than 4,000,000;—a lofs which muft be very
ferioufly felt, but which at one period, we believe, he
had it in his powrer to have prevented j and it is very
uncertain if ever the time {hall arrive when it will be
in his power to redeehi it.
The air of Pruffia is wholefome, and the foil fruitful Air, foil,
m grain •, affording, befides, plenty of pitcoal and other an<? P°P”7
fuel. The rivers and lakes are w^ell ftored with fifti j p^uffia
and amber is found on its coaft towards the Baltic.
The principal rivers are the Viftula, Bregel, Memel,
the Paffarge, and the Elbe ; all of which frequently do
damage by their inundations.
The inhabitants of this country were, by Dr Bufching,
computed at 635,998 perfons capable of bearing arms j
and by another German author, at 450,000. Since the
year 1719 it is computed that about 34,000 colonifts
have removed hither from France, Switzerland, and
Crermany; of which number one half were Saltzburgh-
ers. Thefe emigrants have built 400 fmall villages,
11 towns, 50 new churches, and founded 1000 village-
fchools. The maimers of the people differ but little
from thofe of the Germans. The eftablifhed religions
are thofe of Luther and Calvin, but chiefly the former j
though almoft-all other fe&s are tolerated. 75
The late king of Pruflia, by the afliftance of an ex-^ommerc®
cellent police, brought the commerce and manufadures^^"11'
of this country to a very flourilhing ftate, which during
his life were daily improving. The manufadures of
Pruflia confift in glafs, iron-work, paper, gunpowder,
copper and brafs-mills, manufadures of cloth, camblet,
linen, filk, gold and filver lace, {lockings, and other ar¬
ticles. The inhabitants export variety of naval ftores,
amber, lint-feed and hemp-feed, oat-meal, fifli, mead,
tallow, and caviar ; and it is faid that 500 {hips are
loaded with thofe commodities every year, chiefly from
Konirglberg. ^
His Pruflian majefty is abfolute through all his do-Conftiu-
minions ; but the late king was too wife to opprefs histi°n"
fubjeds, though he availed himfelf to the full of his
power. The government of this kingdom is by a re¬
gency of four chancellors of ftate, viz. 1. The great-ma-
fter |
PRY T 487 ] PSA
Pruffia fter; 2. The great-burgrave j 3. The great-chancellor j
II and, 4. The great-marlhal. There are alfo feme other
, Pnrme. counc|js^ an(j ^ bailiwicks. The ftate» confift, I. Of
counfellors of ftate j 2. Of deputies from the nobility j
and, 3. From the commons. Befides thefe inftitutions,
the late king ere&ed a board for commerce and navi-
77 gatio.n-
Revenues. His Pruflian majefty, by means of the happy fitua-
tion of his country, its inland navigation, and the ex¬
cellent regulations of his predeceffor, derives an amazing
revenue from this country, which, about a century and
a half ago, was the feat of boors and barbarifm. It is
faid, that amber alone brings him in 26,000 dollars an¬
nually. His other revenues arife from his demefnes, his
duties of cuftoms and tolls, and the fublidies yearly
granted by the feveral dates but the exaft fum is not
known, though we may conclude that it is very confi-
^3 derable, from the immenfe charges of the late war.
Military The military regulations introduced by the late king
ftrength. bad a wonderfully quick operation in forming his troops
and recruiting his armies. Every regiment has a par¬
ticular diftrift affigned it, where the young men proper
for bearing’arms are regiftered ; and when occafion of¬
fers, they join their regiment, and being incorporated
with veterans they foon become well difeiplined troops.
The Prudian army, in the time of peace, confifts of
175,000 of the bed difeiplined troops in the tvorld j
and during the lad war, that force was augmented to
300,000 men.
As the Pruffian army formerly depended chiedy upon
the cantons of the different regiments for their recruit¬
ing, it mud differ in proportion with the lofs of territory
a diminution of at lead 80,000 men, and be thus redu¬
ced to 170,000, which was nearly its drength as far back
as the year 177 2. We are informed that it is to be dill
farther reduced to 150,000 regular troops, the whole of
them to be natives of the country, one-third of whom are
to do duty for one year, fo that every man will have a
furlough of two years in time of peace, and be in adlual
fervice every third year. Beddes this regular army, a
militia is to be organized of 380,000 men, who are to
do garrifon duty in time of war, which will enable the
whole 150,000 regular troops to take the field againd
any enemy, when necedity requires it.
Royal The royal arms of Prufiia are argent, an eagle dif¬
arms, 8tc. played fable, crowned, or, for Pruffia : azure, the Im¬
perial feeptre, or, for Courland : argent, an eagle dif-
played, gules, with femicircular wreaths, for the mar-
quifate of Brandenburg : to thefe are added the refpec-
tive arms of the feveral provinces fubjeft to the Pruffian
crown.
There are two orders of knighthood ; the fird, that
of the Black Eagle, indituted by Frederic I. on the
day of his coronation at Koningfberg, with this motto,
Suum cuique. The fovereign is always grand-mader 5
and the number of knights, exclufive of the royal fami--
ly, is limited to 30. Next to this is the order of Me¬
rit, indituted by his late majedy j the motto is, Pour le
merite.
PRUSSIAN blue. See Prussiate of iron, Che¬
mistry Index.
PRUSSIC acid. See Chemistry Index.
PRYNNE, William, an Engliffi lawyer, much
didinguiffied in the civil commotions under Charles I.
was born at Swainfwick in Somerfetdiire in 1600. His
Z
Hi/lriomajtix, written againd dage-plays in 1632, con- Prynne
taining fome redeftions that offended the court, he was ] H
ffintenced by the dar-chamber to pay a fine -ot 5000I. * zarn
to dand in the pillory, to lofe his ears, and to perpe- ^ ■
tual imprifonment. During his confinement, he wrote
feveral more books ; particularly, in 1637, one entitled
News from Ipfwich, which redefting feverely on the
biffiops, he was again fentenced by the dar-chamber to
another fine of 5000I. to lofe the remainder of his ears
in the pillory, to be branded on both cheeks with S. L.
for feditious libeller, and to be perpetually imprifoned
in Caernarvon cadle. Nothing but cutting off his hands
could have prevented Prynne from writing : he wrote
dill 5 and in 1640, being fet at liberty by the houfe of
commons, he entered London in a k\nd of triumph,
was elefted into parliament for Newport in Cornwall,
and oppofed the bilhops with great vigour, being the
chief manager of Archbiffiop Laud’s trial. In the long
parliament he was zealous in the Preffiyterian caufe $
but when the Independents gained the afcendency, he
oppofed them warmly, and promoted an agreement
with the king. When the army garbled the houfe
and refufed him entrance, he became a bitter enemy to
them and their leader Cromwell, and attacked them with
his pen fo feverely, that he was again imprifoned : but
he pleaded the liberty of the fubjeft fo fuccefsfully,
that he was enlarged, to write more controverfial books.
Being redored to his feat after Cromwell’s death, with
the other feeluded members, he affided in promoting
the redoration, and was appointed keeper of the Tower
records ; a place excellently well calculated for him,
and where he was very ufeful by the colleftions he pub^
liffied from them. He prefented 40 volumes of his
works, in folio and 410, to Lincoln’s-inn library, of
which fociety he was a member j and, dying in 1669,
was buried under the chapel.
PRYTANES, in Grecian antiquity, were the pre-
fidents of the fenate, whofe authority confided chicdy
in affembling the fenate j which, for the mod part, was
done once every day.
The fenate confided of 500, 50 fenators being elefted
out of each tribe : after which, lots were cad to de¬
termine in what order the fenators of each tribe ffiould
prefide; which they did by turns-, and during their pre-
fidentdvip were called prytanps. However, all the 50
prytanes of the tribes did not govern at once, but one
at a time, viz. for feven days •, and after 35 days, ano¬
ther tribe came into play, and prefided for other five
weeks *, and fo of the red.
PSALM, a divine fong or hymn 5 but ebiefiy appro¬
priated to the 150 Pfalms of David, a canonical book
of the Old Tedament.
Mod of the pfalms have a particular title, fignifying
either the name of the author, the perfon who was to
fet it to mufie or fing it, the indrument that was to be
ufed, or the fubjeft and occafion of it. Some have ima¬
gined that David was the foie author of the Book of
Pfalms; but the titles of many of them prove the con¬
trary, as pfalm xix. which appears to have been written
by Mofes. Many of the pfalms are inferibed with the
names Korah, Jeduthun, &e. from the perfons who were
to fing them.
PSALMANAZAR, George, the fiftitious name
of a pretended Formofan, a perfon of learning and in¬
genuity. He was born in France, and educated in a
free.
PSA C
free-fcW, and afterwards in a college of Jefuits, m
an archiepifcopal city, the name of which, as hkewife
’ thofe of his birth-place, and of his parents, are unknown.
Upon leaving the college, he was recommended as a
tutor to a young gentleman j but foon fell into a mean
rambling life, which involved him m difappointments
and misfortunes. His firft pretence was that of being a
fufferer for religion. He procured a certificate that he
-was of Iri(h extraftion, that he left that country lor the
fake of the Catholic faith, and was going on a pilgri¬
mage to Rome. Being unable to purchafe a pilgrim s
garb, and obferving one in a chapel, dedicated to a mi¬
raculous faint, which had been fet up as a monument
of gratitude by fome wandering pilgrims, he contrived
to take both the ftaff and cloak away ; and, being thus
accoutred, begged his way in fluent Latin, accotting
only clergymen or perfons of figure j whom he found io
generous'and credulous, that, before he had gone 20
miles, he might eafily have faved money, and put him-
felf in a much better drefs : but as foon as he had got
what he thought was fufficient, he begged no more j
but viewed every thing worth feeing, and then retired
to fome inn, where he fpent his money as freely as he
had obtained it. Having heard the Jefuits fpeak much
of China and Japan, he ftarted the wild fcheme, when
he was in Germany, of paffing for a native of the
ifland of Formofa j and what he wanted in knowledge,
he fupplied by a pregnant invention.- He formed a
new chara&er and language on grammatical principles,
which, like other oriental languages, he wrote from
right to left with great readinefsj and. planned a new
religion, and a divifion of the year into 20 months,
with other novelties, to credit his pretenfions. He was
now a Japanefe convert to Chriftianity, travelling for
inftru&ion with an appearance more wretched than
even that of common beggars. He then entered as a
foldier in the Dutch fervice: but, ftill defirous of pafling
for a Japanefe, he altered his plan to that of being an
unconverted heathen; and at Sluys, Brigadier Lauder,
a Scots colonel, introduced him to the chaplain, who,
with the view of recommending himfelf to the bithop of
London, refolved to carry him over to England. .At
Rotterdam, fome perfons having put fhrewd queftions
to him, that carried the air of doubt, he took one
more whimfical ftep, which was to live upon raw flelh,
roots, and herbs; which ftrange food he thought
would remove all fcruples. The bilhop of London pa¬
tronized him with credulous humanity; and Pfalma-
nazar found a large circle of friends, who extolled him
as a prodigy. Yet were there fome who entertained a
juft opinion of him, particularly the Drs Halley, Mead,
and Woodward; but their endeavours to expofe him as
a cheat only made others think the better of him, efpe-
cially as thofe gentlemen were fuppofed to be unfriendly
to revelation. But in this inftance at leaft, eafinefs
ef belief was no great evidence of penetration. He
was employed to tranflate the church-catechifm into
the Formofan language, which was examined, approved,
and laid up as a valuable MS.; and the author, after
writing his well-known Hiftoi'y of Formofa, was reward¬
ed and fent to Oxford to ftudy what he liked, while
his patrons and opponents were learnedly difputing at
London on the merits of his work. The learned
^members of the univerfity were no better agreed in
their opinions than thofe at London ; but at length
488 ] PSA
the fceptics triumphed. Some abfurdities were difca- Pfalmima.
vered in his hiftory, of fuch a nature as to diferedit z|‘r
the whole narration, and faved him the trouble of an
open declaration of his impofture ; which however he  v—J,
owned at length to his private friends. For the remain¬
der of his life, his learning and ingenuity enabled him to
procure a comfortable fupport by his pen : he was con¬
cerned in feveral works of credit, particularly The Uni-
verfal HJlory. He lived irreproachably for many years,
and died in 1763.
PSALMIST, in the church of Rome, one of the
leffer ecclefiaftical orders ; the fame with what among
us is called clerk, precentor, ox finger.
PSALMODY, the art or a<ft of finging pfalms. See
Psalm.
Pfalmody was always efteemed a ccmfiderable part of
devotion, and ufually performed in the Handing pofture :
and as to the manner of pronunciation, the plain fong
was fometimes ufed, being a gentle inflexion of the voice,
not much different from reading, like the chant in ca¬
thedrals; at other times more artificial compofitions were
ufed, like our anthems.
As to the perfons concerned in finging, fometimes a
fingle perfon fung alone ; fometimes the whole alfembly
• • 1 . . 1  I L w.. m o 4-1-.^ 1-*-* t rrr»Ti^r*ol
joined together, which was the moft ancient and general
praflice. At other times, the pfalms were fung alter¬
nately, the congregation dividing themfelves into two
parts, and finging verfe about, in their turns. There
was alfo a fourth way of finging pretty common in the
fourth century, which was, when a fingle perfon began
the verfe, and the people joined with him in the clofe :
this was often ufed for variety, in the fame fervice with
alternate pfalmody.
The ufe of mufical inftrumenti in the finging of
pfalms, feem to be as ancient as pfalmody itfelf; the
firft pfalm we read of being fung to the timbrel, viz.
that of Mofes and Miriam, after the deliverance of the
Ifraelites from Egypt; and afterwards, mufical inftru-
ments were in conftant ufe in the temple of Jerufalem,
See Organ.
PSALTER, the fame with the book of pfalms. See
the article Psalm.
Among the religious in the Popifti countries, the
term pfalter is alfo given to a large chaplet or rofary,
confifting of 150 beads, according to the number of
pfalms in the pfalter.
PSALTERY, a mufical inftrument, much in ufe
among the ancient Hebrews, who called it nehel.
We know little or nothing of the precife form of the
ancient pfaltery. Fhat now in ufe is a flat inftrument,
in form of a trapezium or triangle truncated at top : it
is ftrung with 13 wire-chords, let to unifon or oftave,
and mounted on two bridges, on the two fides : it is
ftruck with a pleftrum, or little iron rod, and fometime*
with a crooked ftick. Its cheft or body refembles that
of a fpinet.
PSAMMETICUS, or Psammitichus, a renown¬
ed conqueror, who fubduing 11 other petty kings of
Egypt, became the founder of the kingdom of Egypt,
about 670 B. C. He is memorable likewife for taking
the city of Azot, after a fiege of 29 years ; and for
difcovering the fources of the river Nile. See Egypt,
N° 10. . ,
PSATYRIANS, a fe£t of Arlans, who, m. the
council of Antioch, held in the year 360, maintained
that
P S E [489] P S E
ipf^j-rians that the Son was not like the Father as «to will j that
11 he was taken from nothing, or made of nothing j and
Pieudo. jn generation was not to be diflinguiflied from
creation.
^'nfidd's PSELLUS, Michaej., a learned Chriftian of the
flfton’of nth century, was, by birth, a Conftantinopolitan of
'hilofophy- confular rank, and dourilbed under the emperor Ccm-
llantine Monomachus. His genius and induitry raifed
him far above the level of his cotemporaries ; and the
female hi dorian Anna Comnena fpeaks of him as one
who had been more indebted for his attainments to hts
own excellent talent than to the inftru&ions of his pre¬
ceptors; adding, that having made himfelf mailer of all
the wiidotn of the Greeks and the Chaldeans;, he was
juitly efteemed the mod learned man of the age. Thus
furnidied, he became the chief indru&or of the Con-
ftantinopolitan youth. He was at the fame time the
companion and the preceptor of the emperor, who was
fo captivated by the dudies and amufements in which
Pfellus engaged him, that, according to Zonaras, he ne¬
glected the concerns of the empire. The Byzantine
hidorians complain, that the emperor, deluded by the
head of the philofophers (the title with which Pfelhis
■was honoured), lod the world. Meeting, towards the
clofe of this life, with fome difappointrneot, Pfellus re¬
tired into a monaftery, and foon afterwards died ; tire
time of his death js uncertain. Hi,s wor,ks, which have
been much celebrated, are. Commentaries upon Arido-
tle’s Logic and Phyfies.; a Compendium of Quqdipns
and Anfwers; and an Explanation of the Chaldean Ora¬
cles. The two latter works prove him to have been
converfant, not only with Grecian, but with Oriental,
philofophy.
PSEUDO, from a Greek term ufed in the
compodtion of many words to denote fn/feor fpurious: as
the pfeudo-acacia, or badard acacia ; pfeudo-fumaria, or
badard-fumitory * pfeudo-ruta, or badard-rue, See.
We alio fay, a pfeudo-apodle or falfe apodle j a pfeudo-
prophet, or falfe prophet, &c.
PsEUDO-C/una. See SMiLAX.
PsEUDO-G.alena, ox Black-Jack. See ZlKC, Ol<ES of,
Mineralogy Index.
PsEUDO-Tinea, in Natural Hifion/, the name of a very
remarkable fpecies of infeft deferibed by M. Reaumur,
approaching to the nature of the tinea, or clothes moth,
while in the worm-date, but not making themfelves
coats of the fubdance of leaves, cloth, &c. though they
form a fort of cafes,for their defence againil a very ter¬
rible enemy.
Thefe creatures ace of the caterpillar kind, and have,
in the manner qf many of thefe infefts, 16 legs. They
feed on wax, and for; food enter the bee-hives ; where
they boldly engage the bees, and are nob to be prevent¬
ed by them from feeding, though at the expence of their
habitations and the cells of their refervoirs of honey :
fo that it is no uncommon thing for a fwarm of bees to
be forced to change their place of habitation, and make
new combs elfewhere; leaving the old ones to this con¬
temptible vifior, whom they know not how to drive out
or difpoffefs.
Virgil and Aridotle, and all the authors who have
Written on bees, have complained of this dedrudlive
animal. It never eats the honey, but feeds only on the
wax; attacking principally thofe waxy cells where the
female bee depofits her eggs for the futtire progeny.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
The bees, who are a match for mod other creatures loet.uo,
by means of their dings, would eafily deftroy thele 1 "
weak creatures, were it not for the impervious armour . ^ .. f
.they are covered with. They form themfelves a coat
of armour of a double matter. The fird, which imme¬
diately covers the body, is of a kind of filk of their own
fpinning ; and the outer covering over this is of the
bees-wax : this is laid confiderably thick ; and the crea¬
ture, juft thrufting out its head to feed, goes on devour¬
ing the cells undidurbed, while a whole army of the
inhabitants are in vain buzr-ing about him, and attempt¬
ing to .pierce him with .their dings. jHe never forfakes
his covering, but lengthens and enlarges it as he goes ;
and gnawing down the Titles of the cells in his march,
without ftaying to eat them one by one, the havock and.
deftrudlion he occadons are fcarcely to be conceived.
When the time of the change of this creature approaches,
it contracts its body within its double covering, and
there changes into the nymph ftate ; whence, after a
proper time, it comes forth inform of a moth, with gra¬
nulated horns and a crooked probofcis.
The bees have cunning enough to know their de¬
ftrutdive enemy in this new form ; and as this is a weak
and defencelefs ftate, they attack and deftroy all the
moths of this fpecies they meet with. They feldom
are fo fortunate, however, as to kill the whole race as
foon as produced ; and if only one efeapes, it is able to
lay a foundation of revenge for the death of its brethren.
All the dies of the moth kind lay a vaft number of
eggs, and this is behind hand with none of them in that-
particular: the young ones produced from the eggs of
one furvivipg female of this fpecies are fufficient to de¬
ftroy many honey-combs ; ray, many hives of them.
The moth produced by this caterpillar flies but little ;
yet it is very nimble in avoiding danger, by running,
which It does with great fwiftnefs.
There is a fpecies of thefe pfeudo-tineae, or wax-eating
cate.rpillat ■*, which infeft the lubterrancous hives of
wpfps and other creatures which make wax : the man¬
ner of living, feeding, and defending themfelyes from
their enemies, is the lame in all the fpecies. Thefe laft,
if they are .at any time ditlrefled for food, will eat their
own dung; the wax having palled almoft unaltered-
through their bodies, and being ftill wax, and capable
of aftording them more noyirilhment on a fecund digef-
tion. Thefe fpecies, though they naturally live on this
foft food, yet if by ^ny accident they meet with harder
only, they know how to live upon it ; and can eat a way
into the covers and leaves of books, and make themfelves
cafes and coverings of the fragments of thefe. fubftances.
The accurate authorf of thefe obfervations deferibes al- ^ ? ^
fo a kjnd of fjeudo-tinea which feeds on wool, and ano-
ther that eats leather; both making tbemleves houfesrv nfin-
alfo of the materials they feed on. feCls.
There is alfo another kind very deftruciive to corn :
thefe make themfelves a covering by fattening together
a great number of the grains, and there living and eat¬
ing in fecret. All .thefe creatures, whatever be their
food or habitation, finally become plia(eTue, or moths ;
and may be diltinguilhed, even in this ftate, from the
other fpecies, by having granulated horns of a remark¬
able ftrufture, and all of them a probofeis, or trunk,
more or lefs iqcurvated.
PSEUDONYM US, among critics, an author who
publilhes a book under a falfe or feigned name; asrryp-
3 tony tints
Pfeudony-
mus
II
Pfylli.
P S Y [ 49° 1
toni/mciu is given to him who publiflies one under a dif- Egypt j
guifed name, and anonymous to him who publifhes with¬
out any name at all.
PSIDIUM, the Guava ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the icofandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 19th order, Hefperidect. See Bo¬
tany Index.
A decoftion of the roots of guava is employed with
fuccefs in dyfenteries : a bath of a decodfion of the
leaves is faid to cure the itch and other cutaneous erup¬
tions. Guayava, or guava, is diftinguifhed from the co¬
lour of the pulp into two fpecies, the white and the red;
and, from the figure of the fruit, into the round and the
pear-falhioned or perfumed guava. The latter has a
thicker rind and a more delicate tafte than the other.
The fruit is about the bignefs of a large tennis ball the
rind or Ikin generally of a rulfet llained with red. I he
pulp within the thick rind is of an agreeable flavour, and
interfperfed with a number of fmall white feeds. Ihe
rind, when ftew’ed, is eaten with milk, and preferred to
any other ftewed fruit. From the fame part is made
marmalade*, and from the whole fruit is prepared the
fineft jelly in the world. The fruit is very aftringent,
and nearly of the fame quality with the pomegranate.
The feeds are fo hard as to refift the effefis of the fto-
machs of animals; fo that, when voided with the excre¬
ments, they take root, germinate, and produce thriving
trees. Whole meadows in the Weft Indies are cover¬
ed with guavas, which have been propagated in this
manner.
PSITTACUS, or Parrot, a genus of birds belong¬
ing to the order of 'Piece. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
PSOAS, in Anatomy. See there, Table of the Muf-
cles.
PSOPHIA, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of Gallince. See Ornithology Index.
PSORALEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 32d order, Papilionacece. See Botany Index.
PSYCHOTRI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Ste/latce. See Botany Index.
PSYLLI, (Strabo, Ptolemy) : a people in the fouth
of Cyrenaica, fo called from King Pfyllus, (Agathar-
gides, quoted by Pliny) : almoft all overwhelmed by
fand driven by a fouth wind (Herodotus). They had
fomething in their bodies fatal to ferpents, and their
very fmell proved a charm againft them, according to
Pliny, Lucan, &c.
Though we may juftly look upon it as fabulous,
that thefe people had any thing in their bodies differ¬
ent from others ; it is, however, certain that there are
in Egypt at this day fome perfons who have a me¬
thod of handling the moft poifonous ferpents without
any hurt. Of thefe Mr Halfelquift gives the following
account:
iL They take the moft poifonous vipers with their
bare hands, play with them, put them in their bo-
foais, and ufe a great many more tricks with them,
as I have often feen. I have frequently feen them
handle thofe that were three or four feet long, and of
the moft horrid fort. I inquired and examined whe¬
ther they had cut out the vipers poifonous teeth ; but
I have with my own eyes feen they do not. We may
therefore conclude, that there are to this day Pfylli in
P S Y
but what art they ufe is not eafily known.
Pf)lli.
Some people are very fuperftitious, and the generality
believe this to be done by fome fupernatural art which
they obtain from invifible beings. I do not know whe¬
ther their power is to be aferibed to good or evil *, but
I am perfuaded that thofe who undertake it ufe many
fuperftitions.
“ The art of fafeinating ferpents is a fecret amongft.
the Egyptians. It is worthy the endeavours of all natu-
ralifts, and the attention of every traveller, to learn fome¬
thing decifive as to this affair. How ancient this art
is among the Africans, may be concluded from the an¬
cient Marii and Pfylli, who were from Africa, and daily
fhowed proofs of it at Rome. It is very remarkable
that this ftiould be kept a fecret for more than 2000
years, being known only to a few, when we have feen
how many other fecrets have within that time been re¬
vealed. The circumftances relating to the fafeination
of ferpents in Egypt, related to me, were principally,
I. That the art is only known to certain families, who
propagate it to their offspring. 2. The perfon who
knows how to fafeinate ferpents, never meddles with
other poifonous animals, fuch as fcorpions, lizards,
&c. There are different perfons who know how to
fafeinate thefe animals; and they again never meddle
with ferpents. 3. Thofe that fafeinate ferpents, eat
them both raw and boiled, and even make broth of
them, which they eat very commonly amongft them ;
but in particular, they eat fuch a difh when they go
out to catch them. I have been told, that ferpents
fried or boiled are frequently eaten by the Arabians both
in Egypt and Arabia, though they know not how to
fafeinate them, but catch them either alive or dead.
4. After they have eaten their foup, they procure a blef-
ling from their fcheik (prieft or lawyer), who ufes fome
fuperftitious ceremonies^and, amongft others, fpits on
them feveral times with certain geftures. This man¬
ner of getting a blefling from the prieft is pure fuperfli-
tion, and certainly cannot in the leaft help to fafeinate
ferpents; but they believe, or will at leaft perfuade o-
thers, that the power of fafeinating ferpents depends
upon this circumftance.”
Notwithftanding this teftimony of Hafftlquift, the
ftory of the incantation of ferpents, though frequently
alluded to in Scripture, has been generally treated as
a fable. It is, however, affirmed as a certain truth,
both by Mr Bruce and M. Savary. “ There is no
doubt (fays the former of thefe travellers) of its reali¬
ty. The Scriptures are full of it. All that have been
in Egypt have feen as many different inftances as they
nhofe. Some have doubted that it was a trick ; and
that the animals thus handled had been firft trained,
and then deprived of their power of hurting; and fond
of the difeovery, they have refted themfelves upon it,
without experiment, in the face of all antiquity. But
I will not hefitate to aver, that I have feen at Cairo
(and this mav be feen daily without any trouble or ex¬
pence), a man who came from the catacombs, where
the pits of the mummy birds are kept, who has taken a
ceraftes with his naked hand from a number of others
lying at the bottom of a tub, has put it upon his bare
head, covered it with the common red cap he wears,
then taken it out, put it in his breaft, and tied it about
his neck like a necklace ; after which it has been, ap¬
plied to a henj and bit itj which died in a few minutes;
andj
P S Y [ 49! J
and, to complete the experiment, the man has taken it This writer tells us
J by the neck, and beginning at his tail, has ate it as one
would do a carrot or flock of celery, without any feem-
ing repugnance.
“ We know from hiflory, that where any country has
been remarkably infefted with ferpents, there the people
have been fcreened by this fecret.
“ To leave ancient hiflory, I can myfelf vouch, that
-all the black people in the kingdom of Sennaar, whe¬
ther Funge or Nuba, are perfectly armed againft the
bite of either fcorpion or viper. They take the cera-
ftes in their hands at all times, put them in their bofoms,
and throw them to one another as children do apples or
balls, without having irritated them by this ufage fo
much as to bite. The Arabs have not this fecret na¬
turally, but from their infancy they acquire an exemp¬
tion from the mortal confequences attending the bite
of thefe animals, by chewing a certain root, and wafli-
ing themfelves (it is not anointing) with an infufion of
certain plants in water.”
From this account we fliould be apt to think, that
thefe vipers really would not bite any who were thus
armed againft their poifon ; efpecially as he adds, that
he “ conftantly obferved, that the viper, however live¬
ly before, upon being feized by any of thefe barbarians,
Teemed as if taken with ficknefs and feeblenefs, frequent¬
ly (hut his eyes, and never turned his mouth towards the
arm of the perfon who held him.” Yet in another
place, fpeaking of the activity of the ceraftes, he fays,
“ I faw one of them at Cairo, in the houfe of Julian
and Rofa, crawl up the fide of a box in which there
were many, and there lie ftill, as if hiding himfelf, till
one of the people who brought them to us came near
him ; and though in a very difadvantageous pofture,
flicking as it were perpendicularly to the fide of the box,
he leaped near the diftance of three feet, and faftened
between the man’s forefinger and thumb, fo as to bring
the blood. The fellow ftiowed no figns of either pain
or fear, and even kept him with us full four hu urs, with¬
out his applying any fort of remedy, or feeming inclined
to do fo.”
It is difficult to fee how thefe two accounts can be
reconciled. If thofe who catch vipers are in danger of
being bit by them after they arecatched, certainly they
muft be fo before, and then the whole relation becomes
contradi&ory. Our author tells us, that thefe feats
were performed for a feafon, by thofe who were artifi¬
cially armed againft the viper’s poifon, as well as thofs
who had the exemption naturally; but though put in
pofleffion of the drugs, he never had the courage to
make the experiment. That he (hould have made fuch
a dreadful experiment on himfelf no perfon in his fenfes
would expeft j but It is indeed very furprifing, that he
did not attempt by means of thefe medicines to arm
feme of the brute creatures, of the lives of which he was
fufficiently prodigal, againft the effetfls of that deadly
poifon by which fo many of them perilhed. As fur¬
prifing it is, that he did not try what effe& the root or
its deco&ion would have upon the ferpents themfelves j
or that, though he fays he had a fmall quantity of this
extraordinary root by him, he gave neither drawing nor
defcription of it.
Though it is impoffible to reconcile the particulars
of this account to one another, the general fad: of the
incantation is confirmed by the teftimcny of M. Savary.
P T E
that he faw at the feaft of Sidi
Ibrahim, a troop of people, feemingly poffefled, with
naked arms and a fierce look, holding in their hands
enormous ferpents, which twined round their body, and
endeavoured to efcape. Thefe Pfylli, grafping them
ftrongly by the neck, avoided the bite j and notwiih-
ftanding their biffing, tore them with their teeth, and
ate them alive, while the blood ftreamed from their
mouth.
PTARMIGAN. See Tetrad, Ornithology In¬
dex.
PTELEA, Shrub-trefoil 5 a genus of plants be¬
longing to the tetrandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful.
See Botany Index.
PTEUIS, a genus of plants belonging to the order
of Alices, and to the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany
Index. The. frudifications are in lines under the mar¬
gin. There are 19 fpecies ; the moft remarkable is the
aquilina, or common female fern. The root of this is
vifcid, naufeous, and bitterilh ; and like all the reft of
the fern tribe, has a fait, mucilaginous tafle. It creeps
under the ground in fome rich foils to the depth of
five or fix feet, and is very difficult to be deftroyed.
Frequent mowing in pafture grounds, plentiful dung¬
ing in arable lands, but, above all, pouring urine up¬
on it, are the moft approved methods of killing it. It
has, however, many good qualities to counterbalance
the few bad ones. Fern cut while green, 'and left to.
rot upon the ground, is a good improver of land ; for
its afhes, if burnt, will yield the double quantity of
fait that moft other vegetables will. Fern is alfo an.
excellent manure for potatoes 5 for if buried beneath
their roots, it never fails to produce a good crop. 
Its aftringency is fo great, that it is ufed in many places
abroad in dreffing and preparing kid and chamois lea¬
ther. In feveral places in the north, the inhabitants
mow it green, and, burning it to alhes, make thofe.
allies up into balls, with a little water, which they dry
in the fun, and make ufe of them to wafti their linen
with inftead of foap. In many of the Weftern Hies the
people gain a very confiderable profit from the fale of
the alhes to foap and glafs makers. In Glen Elg in
Invernefslhire, and other places, the people thatch their
houfes with the ftalks of this fern, and fallen them down
with ropes made either of birk-bark or heath. Some¬
times they ufe the whole plant for the fame purpofe,
but that does not make .fo durable a covering. Swine
are fond of the roots, efpecially if boiled in their walh.
In fome parts of Normandy we read that the poor have
been reduced to the miferable neceffity of mixing them
with their bread. And in Siberia, and fome other north¬
ern countries, the inhabitants brew them in their ale,
mixing one-third of the roots to two-thirds of malt.
The ancients ufed the root of this fern, and the whole
plant, in deco&ions and diet-drinks, in chronic diforders
of all kinds, arifmg from obftrudlions of the vifeera and
the fpleen. Some of the moderns have given it a high
charadler in the fame intentions, but it is rarely ufed in
the prefent pra&ice. The country people, however,
ftill continue to retain fome of its ancient ufes j for they
give the powder of it to deftroy worms, and look upon
a bed of the green plant as a fovereign cure for the ric¬
kets in children.
PTEROCARPUS, a genus of plants belonging te
3 QL 2 t h e
p T O
I 492 3
PUB
Bterocar-
pus
II .
PtoWnipjs.
the diadelphia cla&j and in the natural method ranking
under the 3 2d order, Papilionacc#. See BoTASY In¬
dex. There are four fpeeks, viz. 1. Draw; 2. Ecajla-
phylium; 3. Lumitus; and, 4. Hantaiinus. This lad rs
by tome referred to the genus Sanhtlum. It 4s called
red founders; and the wood is brought from the Taft
Indies, in large billets, of a compel tenlure, a dull red
ahnoft blackiih colour on the outiide, and a deep bright¬
er red within. This wood has no manifeft fmell, and
little or no tafte. It has been commended as a mild
aftringent, and a corroborant of the nervous fyftem-y
but thefe are qualities that belong only to the yellow
fort. . .
The principal ufe of red faunders is as a colouring
drug • with which intention it is employed in feme for-
MWiice, particularly in the tinOura lavenduhe compoflki.
It communicates a deep red to reflified fpirit, but gives
jro tinge to aqueous liquorsy a fmall quantity of the itfin,
extratled by means of fpirit, tinges a large one of freftl
fpirit of an elegant blood-red. There is Scarcely any
oil, that of lavender excepted, to which it communi¬
cates its colour. Geoffrey and others take notice, that
the Brazil woods are femetimes fubftit'uted for red laun¬
ders 5 and the college of Bruffels are in doubt whether
all that is fold among them for faunders be not really a-
wood of that kind. According to the account which
they have given, their faunders is certainly the Brazil
wood; the diftinguifhing charafter obwhich is, that it
imparts its colour to water. ^
PTEIIOCOCEUS, is a fpecies of plant belonging to
the genus Calligonum. See Calligonum, BoTAXY
Index. . ,
PTERONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
inonodelphia clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 37th order, Columniferee. See Botany In¬
dex.
PTINUS, a genus of infers belonging to the order
of coleoptera. See Entomology Index,
PTISAN, is properly barley decorticated, or de¬
prived of its hulls, by beating in a mortar, as was Abe
ancient pra&ice; though the cooling potion obtained
by boiling fuch barley in water, and afterwards fw.eet-
cning the liquor with liquorice-rooty is what at prefent
goes by the name of ptifan; and to render it laxative,
feme add a little fena or other ingredient of the lame in¬
tention.
PTOLEMAIC Syflem of AJlronomy, is that in¬
vented by Claudius Ptolemaeus. See Ptolemy, Clau¬
dius,
PTOLEMAIS, in Ancient Geography; the port of
Arfinoe, fituated on the weft branch of the Nile, which
concurs to form the ifland called Nomos lleracleotes^ to
the feuth of the vertex of the Delta,
Ptolemais, (Strabo)', the largeft and moft confi-
derable town of the Thebais, or Higher Egypt, and in
nothing ihort of Memphis; governed in the manner of
a*-Greek republic; fituated on the weft fide of the Nile,
almoft oppofite to Coptos. This town, which was built
by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is now known by the name
of Ptolotneta, The walls and gates are {till entire, and
there are a vaft number of Greek inferiptions, but only
a.few columns of the portico remaifi. Ihere is like-
wife an Ionic temple done in the moft ancient manner
of executing that order, of which Mr Bruce took a
drawing; which is preferved in the king’s collection.
Another, of Cyrcnaica, anciently calk'd Rarce. A Ptolomais
third of the Troglodytica, furnamtd Epitheras, from
the chace of wild bealts, as elephants; lying in the ^ ..
fame parallel with Meroe (Strabo); on the Arabian
gulf (Pliny); 4820 tiadiato the feuth of Berenice. A
fourth, of Galilee,, anciently called' Ac a, or Aeon; made
a Roman colony under the emperor Claudius (Pliny).
A fifth of Pamphylia*; fituated near the river Melas, on
the borders of Cilicia Afpera.
PTOLEMY Soter, or login, king of Egypt, a
renowned warrior, and an excellent prince : he ettabii til¬
ed an academy at Alexandria, and was himlelf a man
of letters. Died 284 B. C. aged 92.
PTOLEMY Philaddphus, his fecund fen, fuoeetded
him to the exclufion-of Ptolemy Ceraunus. He was re¬
nowned as a conqueror, but more revered for his great
virtues and political abilities. He eftabliihed and aug¬
mented the famous Alexandrian library, which had been
begun by his father. He greatly increafed the com¬
merce of Egypt, and granted confiderable privileges to
the Jews, from whom he obtained a. copy of the Old
Teftament, which he caufedto be tranflated into Greek,
and depofited in hk library. This is feppofcd to have
been the verfion called the Septuttgin!, Pie died 246
years B. C. aged 64.
Ptolem.y Ceraunus, the elder brother, fled to Se-
ieucus king of Macedon, who received him ho (pit ably y
in return for which he affuflinated him, and ufurped his
crown. He then invited Arfinoe, who was his widow
and hk own After, to (hare the government with him ;
but as feon as he got her in his power, he murdered her
and her children. Pie was at length defeated, killed,
and torn limb from limb by the Gauls, 279 B. C.
Ptolemy, Claudius, a celebrated mathematician and'
aftrologer, was born at Pelufium, and furnamed by the
Greeks’ Mojl Divine and Mof Wife. He flourifned at
Alexandria, in the fecond century, under thu reigns of
Adrian and Marcus Aurelius^ about the 1138th year be¬
fore the Chriftian era. There are ftill extant his Geo¬
graphy, and feveral learned works on aftmnomy. The
principal of which are, 1. The Almageft; 2. Dr Judi-
ciis Ajtrologicis; 3. Plunifphcerium. Mis fyftem of the
world was for many years adopted by the philofophers
and aftronomers.; but the learned have rejected it for
the fyftem of Copernicus. See Astronomy*, N° j6;
PTYALISM, in Medicine,, a falivation, or frequent
and copious difeharge of faliva. The- word is Greek, r
formed from srrv**, “ to fpit.”
PUBERTY, denotes the age at which the perfen is
capable of procreating or begetting children. See
Man.
Puberty, in Law, is fixed at the age of 12 in
females, and 14 in males; after which they are reck*
oned to be fit for marriage. But as to. crimes and
puniftiments, the age of puberty is fixed at 14 in both
PUBES, in Anatomy, denotes the middlo part of the
hypogaftric region in men or women, lying between the
two inguina or groins.
Seclion of the Pv&ES. See MIDWIFERY and *SI-
GAULTIAN Operation. .
Pubes, in Botany, the hair or down on the leaves o-
feme plants. See Hair.
PUBLICAN, among the Romans; one who farmed,
tbe and public revenue pUBLiCATlON,
Ifublicutaon
11
PafR'ndntft.
P U F [ 493 1 PUG
PUBLICATION, the art of making a thing known of the public law, which in Germany coirffils of tlie Puffendcm
to the world j, the fame with promulgation. v. knowledge of the rights of the empire over the princes pUgt,t<
PUBLIUS SyRus, a Syrian mimic poet, who flou- and Bates of which it is compofed, and thofe of the
riihed about 44 years before Chrift. H* was original- princes and Bates with refpeft to each other.. But
ly a flave fold to a.Roman patrician, called Domitiui', though, he ufed his utmofljefforts to diBinguiih himfelf,
who brought him up with great attention, aud gave, he deipifed thofe pompous titles which are lb much
him his freedom when of age. He gained the eB’eem of fought for at uni.verfities, and never would take the de-
the molt powerful men at Rome, and reckoned Julius gree of doctor. He accepted the place of governor to the
Caefar among his patrons. He foon eclipfed the poet fon of M. Coyet, a Swedilh nobleman, who was then
Laberius, whofe burlefopie compofitions were in general ambalfador from Sweden to the court of Denmark. For'
effeem. There remains of Publius a collection of mo- this purpofe he w7ent to Copenhagen, but continued not
ral fentences, written in iambics, and placed in alpha- long at eafe there *, for the war being renewed fome
betical order. time after between Denmark and Sweden, he was feiz-
OaK PUCERQN, a name given by naturaliBs to a ed with the whole family of the ambaffador. During
very remarkable ipecies of animal of the pueeron kind, his confinement,, wrinch laBed eight months, as he had
They bury themfelees in the clefts of the oak and fome no books, and was allowed to fee no perfon, he amufed
other trees, and getting into the crevices,where the bark himfelf by meditating on what he read in Grotius’s trea-
is a little feparated from the wood, they there live at tife De Jure Belli et Pads, and the political writings of
eafe, and feed to their fill, without being expofed to their Mr Hobbes. Out of thefe he drew up a Biort fyflem,
common enemies. They are larger than the other pu- to which he added fume thoughts of his own, and pub-
cerons, the winged ones being nearly, as large as a com- lifhed it at the Hague in r66o, under the title of E/e-
xnon houfe fly • and thofe without wings are alfo larger menta Jurifprud'eiUiee UmverfiHs. I his recommended
than any other IpecLes of the fame genus. The wing- him to the eleftor Palatine, who invited him to the uni-
ed ones are black, and the others of 5r coffee colour, verfity of Heidelberg, where he founded in his favour a
Their trunk is twice the length of their bodies, and, profefforBiip of the law of nature and nations, which was
when walking, it is carried Braig’ht along the belly, trail- the firff of that kind tftablifhed in Germany. PufFen-
ing behind it with the point up. When the creature dorf remained at Heidelberg till 1673? when Charles
has a mind to fuck a part of the tree that is juff before XL of Sweden gave him an invitation to be profeffor oi
it, it draws up and Ihortens the trunk, till it brings it the law of nature and nations at Lunden ; which place
to a proper length and dire<ffion $ but when it fucks in the eleftor Palatine relu&antly allowed him to accept,
the common way,, it crawls upon the inner furfaceof the He went thither the fame year 5 and after that time his
bark, and the turned up end of the trunk, which re- reputation greatly increafed. Some years after, the king
fern hies a tail, fixes itfelf againft the wood that is be- of Sweden lent for him to Stockholm, and made him
hind it, or contiguous toils back, and fucks there. The his hifforiographer, and one of his counfellors. In 168S,
extremity of this trunk holds fo faff by the wood, that the elector of Brandenburg obtained the confent of his
when it is pulled a-way, it frequently* brings a final! S.wedilh majefly, that he fhould come to Berlin, in or-
piece of tire wood away with it. dep to write the hiftory of the ele&cr William the
The ants are as fond of thefe as of the other fpecies Great •, and in 1694 made hjm a baron. But he died
of pucerons-, and that for the fame reafon, not feeding that fame year of an inflammation in his feet, occafion-
upon them, but on their dung, which is a liquid mat- ed by cutting his nails; having attained his grand cli-
ter of a fweet taBe, and is the natural juice of the tree, madferic. Of his works, which are numerous, the fol-
very little altered. Thefe creatures are the furefl guides lowing are the principal : 1. A 1 reatife on the Law of
where to find this-fpecies of pucer.on fur if we at any Nature and Nations, written in German; of which
time fee a number of thefe crawling up an oak to a cer- there is an Englifh tranflation with Barbeyrac’s Notes,
tain part, and there creeping into the clefts of tire bark, 2. An Introdu&ion to the Hi Bor y yf the Principal*'
we may be affured that in that place there are quanti- States* which at prefent fubfiB in Europe ; written in
ties of thefe oak pucerons. The ants are fo extremely German; which has been alfo tranflated into EngliBi.
fond of the juices of the tree, when prepared fur them 3. The HiBory of Sweden, from GuBavus Affolphus’s ■
by palling through the body of this animal, that when expedition into Germany to the abdication of Oueen
the puceron has a drop not yet evacuated, but hanging- ChriBina. 4. 1 he HiBory of Charles GuBavus, two
only in part out at the paffage, an ant will often leize volumes folio, See.
on it there. PUFFIN. See-Afca, Ornfthoi.ogy Index.
Pucerons, Vlnc-freilers, or Plant-lice. See Aphisve PUGET, Peter Paul, one of the greatefl painters
PUDENDA, the parts of generation in both fexes. and fculptors France ever produced, though but little-
See Anatomy, N° 107 and ic8v noticed by their own writers, was born at Marfeilles
PUERILITY, in difeourfe, is defined by Longinus in 1623. In his youth he wras the difciple of Roman,
to be a thought which, by being too far fetched, be- an. able fculpto*'; and then went to Italy, where he
comes flat and infipid. Puerility, he adds, is the com-v Budied painting and architefture. In painting he fo
mon fault of thofe who affeft to fay nothing but* what is well imitated the manner of Peter de Cortona, that this -
brilliant and extraordinary. painter defired tt» fee him, and entered into a friend-
PUFFENDORF, Samue-l DE, was born in 1631 * Blip with him. In 1657, a datigerous djforder obliged
at Fleh, a little village in Mifnia, a province in Upper him to renounce the pencil, and devote himfelf to fculp-
Saxony ; and was fon of Elias Puffendorf, minifler of ture ; and his reputation caufing him to be invited to
that plage. After having made great progrefs in the Paris, he enjoyed a penfion of 1 200 crowns, as fculp-
fcjcnccs at Lgipfic, he turned his thoughts to the Budv tor and director of the works relating to veffels and
5., : * galleys. .
PUL
t 494 ]
PUL
Ha rout's
Genera of
Infecls,
P- 330. Scc.
galleys. He died at Marfeilles in 1695, and has left a
number of admirable ftatues behind him both in France
and Italy.
PUGIL, in Materia Mcdica, fuch a quantity of
flowers, feeds, or the like, as may be taken up between
the thumb and two fore-fingers. It is reckoned the
eighth part of the manipulus or handful.
"PULEGIUM, or PENNT-Roya/. See MENTHA.,
Botany Index.
PULEX, the Flea, in ZooJogyy a genus of infedls
belonging to the order of aptera. See Entomology
Index.
By keeping fleas in a glafs tube corked up at both
ends, but fo as to admit frefli air, their adlions and man¬
ners may be obferved. They are thus feen to lay their
eggs, not all at once, but ten or twelve in a day, for fe-
veral days fuceeflively ; which eggs will be afterwards
found to hatch fucceflively in the fame order. The flea
may eafily be differed in a drop of water; and by this
means the ftomach and bowels, with their periftaltic
motion, may be difcovered very plainly, as alfo their teftes
and penis, with the veins and arteries, though minute
beyond all conception. Mr Leuwenhoek affirms alfo,
that he has feen innumerable animalcules, fliaped like
ferpents, in the femen mafculinum of a flea. This blood-
thirfty infeft, which fattens at the expence of the human
fpecies, prefers the more delicate fkin of women ; but
preys neither upon epileptic perfons, nor upon the dead
or dyings It loves to neftle in the fur of dogs, cats, and
rats. The nefts of river-fwallows are fometimes plenti¬
fully ftored with them.
Fleas are apterous \ walk but little, but leap to a
height equal to 200 times that of their own body.
This amazing motion is performed by means of the ela-
flicity of their feet, the articulations of which are fo
many fprings. Thus it eludes, with furprifing agility,
the purfuit of the perfon on whom it riots. Among the
memorabilia of fleas, one, they fay, has been feen to
draw a fmall filver piece of ordnance to which it was
faftened, the firing of the gun nowife daunting its intre¬
pidity. The owner carried it about in a little box lin¬
ed with velvet, every noW and then placing it on her
-arm to let it feed ; but winter put an end to the being
of this martial flea. Another flea that became flave to
an Englifhman, had, for its daily and eafy talk, to drag
its golden chain and padlock, of the weight of one
grain. A third flea ferved as a thill-horfe to an Eng-
liih artift, who had made an ivory coach and fix, that
carried a coachman and his dog between his legs, a po-
ftillion, two footmen, and four infide riders. At Surat
fleas, bugs, and other voracious vermin, are in fo great
veneration, that they have an hofpital endowed, where
every night a poor fellow, for hire, fuffers himfelf to be
preyed upon. He is faftened naked on a bed, when the
feaft begins at his expence. In Turkey there is a fimi-
lar foundatioh for decayed dogs ; an inftitution lefs ri¬
diculous than the other. Mercurial ointment, brim-
ftone, a fumigation with the leaves of pennyroyal, or
frefh-gathered leaves of that plant fewed up in a bag,
and laid in the bed, are remedies pointed out as deftruc-
tive of fleas.
PlJLEX Arboreus, in Natural Hi/iory, the name given
by Mr Reaumur to a very large genus of fmall animals.
They are a kind of half-winged creatures : they have
granulated antennae 5 and fome of them, in their moft
1
perfedl ftate, haVe complete wings. Thefe are diftin-
guiflied from the others by the name of mufca-pulex, or
the wingedpulex. See Coccus, Entomology Index. ^
PuLEX Aquations auEiarum (monoculus pulex of Lin¬
naeus) is a fpecies of the genus MONOCULUS 5 which fee,
under Entomology Index.
PULEX-Eaters, a name given by naturalifts to a fort
of worms frequently found on the leaves of trees, where
they devour the animals called pulices arborei.
Of thefe there are feveral fpecies, which owe their
origin to the eggs of different creatures; for there are
none of them in their ultimate Itate in this their time
of feeding. According to the different animals whofe
eggs they are hatched from, thefe are of different form
and ftrudlure. Some are hexapodes, or endued with fix
feet 5 thefe belong to the beetle-tribe, and finally change
into beetles like the parent animal from whofe eggs
they fprung. Others have no legs, and are produced
from the eggs of flies of various kinds. And, finally,
others are genuine caterpillars, though fmall j but thefe
are the moft rare of all.
The two general kinds are the hexapodes, or beetle-
worms ; and the apodes, or fly-worms. The fly which
gives origin to the laft of thefe is a four-winged one j
and takes care always to depofit her eggs in a place
where there are plenty of the pulices, ufually on the
flalk or young branches of a tree in the midfi: of large
families of them. The worm, as foon as hatched, finds
itfelf in the midft of abundance of food, preying at
pleafure on thefe animals, which are W’holly defence-
lefs. The ftalks of the elder and woodbine are fre¬
quently found covered over with thefe pulices; and
among them there may ufually be found one or more
of thefe deftroyers feeding at will, fucking in the juices
from their bodies, and then throwing away the dry
fkins. Befides the worms of this four-winged fly, there
is one of a two-winged wafp-fly, very deftru&ive of thefe
animals.
PULLEY, in Mechanics^ one of the five mechanical
powers. See Mechanics.
PULMO, the Lungs, in Anatomy. See Anatomy
Index.
PULMONARIA, Lungwort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See
Botany Index.
PULO, the name of feveral Afiatic iflands, in the
Indian ocean, the principal of which only, it is faid, is
inhabited. It is denominated
PuLO-Condore, an ifland about 13 miles long and three
broad, which was vifited by Lord Macartney on his way
to China. It has convenient anchoring places during
either monfoon. Here his lordihip’s fquadron came to
anchor on the 17th of May. The bay is formed by four
fmall iflands approaching fo near to each other, as to
exhibit the appearance of meeting together in different
points. They all feem to be the rude fragments of pri¬
mitive mountains, which have been detached from the
great continent in the lapfe of ages. Condore lies in
8° 40' North Lat. and 105° 55' E. Long.
The Englifh at one period had a fettlement here, but
being driven from it by fome Malay foldiers in their
pay, probably for fome unjuffifiable treatment, no Eu¬
ropeans, it is faid, have refided in it ever fince. When
a party went on ftiore from Lord Macartney’s fquadron,
1 they
Plllf x
Pulo
PUL [ 495 ] PUL
Polo they were welcomed by the natives with much urbanity
II of manners, and conducted to the houfe of their chief.
Pulpitum.^ 'pjjgjj. drefs confifted chiefly of blue cotton garments
~ ^ hanging loofely about them *, and their flat faces and no-
fes feemed to denote that they were defccnded from the
Chinefe. A miflionary being of the party, could not
underftand their language as they fpoke it; but as foon
as committed to writing it was perfeftly intelligible to
him. This led to the conclufion, that the inhabitants
of Pulo-Condore were originally Cochin Chinefe, who
fled from their own country in confequence of their at¬
tachment to one of its fovereigns who had been dethro¬
ned by a number of his own fubje&s.
Here the fquadron was to purchafe provifions, and the
people promifed to have the propofed quantity in readi-
nefs, if poflible, at the appointed time. Next morning,
a party of pleafure went from the Hindoftan to a fmall
ifland near Pulo-Condore •, but being apprehenfive of
an approaching ilorm, they made towards the (hip with
all convenient fpeed. The weather again becoming fa¬
vourable, they fet off for the ifland again, and were
aftonilhed, on their arrival, to find it wholly abandoned.
In the principal cabin a letter was found, written in the
Chinefe language, exprefling their terror at the arrival
of fuch great fliips and powerful perfons 5 not being able
to fatisfy their demands as to catfle and other provifions,
the poor inhabitants of Pulo-Condore having fcarcely
any to fupply, they therefore fled to preferve their lives j
declared themfelves to be few in number, and very poor,
but honeft j and concluded with requefting the great
'people to have pity on them, as they had left their all
behind, and earneftly implored them not to burn their
cabins.
The generous Englifh left them an intimation that
they called merely for refrelhment on fair and equitable
terms, without harbouring againft them any evil de-
figns. They claimed a connexion to a civilized nation,
aftuated by principles of humanity, by which they were
prohibited from plundering or doing injury to others,
who might have the misfortune to be fewer or weaker
than themfelves. No doubt the poor terrified inhabi¬
tants would be agreeably furprifed to find, on their re¬
turn, not only that all their tents were in perfect fafety,
but that nothing was either diflurbed or removed, and a
fmall prefent left to their chief in the principal dwelling.
PULO-Lingen, another ifland of the clufter mention¬
ed above, is of fome extent, though inferior in fize to
Pulo-Condore. It is chiefly remarkable for a mountain
in its centre, terminating in a fork like Parnaffus, but
denominated by mariners the ajfes ears. The people of
Lord Macartney’s fquadron were conftantly difcovering
new iflands, many of which were clothed with verdure ;
fome had lofty trees growing upon them ; others were
nothing but naked rocks, the refort of innumerable
birds, and whitened with their dung.
PULO Penang. See Prince of Wales's IJland.
PULP, in Pharmacy, the fleftiy and fucculent parts
of fruits extracted by infufion or boiling, and palled
through a fieve.
PULPIT, an elevated place in a church, whence
fermons are delivered. The French give the fame name
to a reading defk.
PULPITUM, in the Grecian and Roman theatres,
was a place where the players performed their parts. It
was lower than the fcena, and higher than the orcheflra.
It nearly anfwered to what we call the ftage, as diflin- Pulpitum,
guilhed from the pit and galleries. Pulpitum was alfo ^ull"e‘
a moveable delk or pulpit, from which difputants pro- ' '"¥
nounced their differtations, and authors recited their
works.
PULSE, in the animal economy, denotes the beat¬
ing or throbbing of the heart and arteries.
No do&rine has been involved in more difficulties
than that of pulfes j fince, in giving a phyfiological ac¬
count of them, phyficians have efpoufed quite oppofite
fentiments ; whilft fome doubt whether the pulfe is ow¬
ing to the fyftole or diaftole; as alfo, whether the mo¬
tion of the heart and arteries is one and the fame, for a
moment of time.
With regard to motion, the pulfes are reckoned only
four ; great and little, quick and flow. When quick-
nefs and greatnefs are joined together, it becomes vio¬
lent *, and when it is little and flow it is called a weak
pulfe. They are alfo faid to be frequent and rare, equal
and unequal; but thefe are not the effential affeftions
of motion. Frequency and quicknefs are often con¬
founded with each other. A pulfe is faid to be hard
or [oft, with regard to the artery, according as it is
tenfe, renitent, and hard, or flaccid, foft, and lax : for
the difpofition of the arteries contributes greatly to the
change of the pulfe; wherefore it fometimes happens,
that the pulfe in both arms is not alike, which is very
common in a hemiplexy. Add to thefe a canvulfive
pulfe, which does not proceed from the blood, but
from the date of the artery ; and is known by a tre¬
mulous fubfultory motion, and the artery feems to be
drawn upwards : this, in acute fevers, is the fign of
death ; and is faid to be the pulfe in dying perfons,
which is likewife generally unequal and intermitting.
A great pulfe (hows a more copious afflux of the blood
to the heart, and from thence into the arteries : a little
pulfe the contrary.
The pulfes of perfons differ according to the large-
nefs of the heart and veffels, the quantity and tempe-
ries of the blood, the elaftic force of the canals; as al¬
fo with regard to the fex, age, feafon, air, motion, food,
fleep, watchings, and paflions of the mind. The pulfe
is larger and more quick in men than in women ; in
the bilious and fanguineo-bilious, than in the phlegma¬
tic and melancholic. Thofe who are lean, with tenfe
fibres, and large vefiels, have a greater and a ftronger
pulfe, than thofe that are obefe, with lax fibres and
fmall vefiels $ whence they are more healthy, robuft,
and apt for labour. In children, the pulfe is quick and
foft $ in adults greater and more violent. In the old,
it is commonly great, hard, and flow. Labour, mo¬
tion, and exercife of the body, increafe the circulation
of the blood, the excretions, and particularly refpira-
tion *, reft renders the circulation flow and weak *, in-
tenfe fpeaking increafes the circulation, and confequent-
ly renders the pulfe large and quick. In watching, the
pulfe is more evident ; in fleep, more flow and languid.
After drinking hot things, fuch as coffee and tea, or
hot bath-waters, as well as after meals, the pulfe vi¬
brates more quick. But nothing produces a greater
change in the pulfe than affe&ions of the mind : in
terror, it is unequal, fmall, and contracted : in joy, fre¬
quent and great *, in anger, quick and hard ; in fadnefs,
flow, fmall, deep, and weak j and in intenfe ftudy, lan¬
guid and weak. With regard to the air, when, after the
predominancy
PUL
t
Pulfe, predomirvaftcy of a weft or foutb wind, vt-becomes north
Pulttney. ^ ca^t ,|ie pUpfc ;s ftronger and larger 5 as alfo when
v ’ the quicksilver Ttfes in the barometer. But when the
«tmo%hore is donfe, 'humid, rainy, with a long fouth
wind j as alfo where the life is fedentary, the. fletrp
long, and the fen ion autumnal, the piftfe is languid.and
fmall, and the perfpiration dedreafed. In May it is
great, and fometimes violent j in the middle of fummer,
quick but weak •, in the autumn, flow, foft, and weak j
in the winter, hard and great. A draftic purge and an
emetic render the pulfe hard, -quick, and Weak, with
lofs of iftrength } chalybeates, and the bark, render, it
great and robuft, and the complexion lively ; volatiles
amplify and increafe the pulfe; acids and nitrous re-
tnedies refrigerate the body, and appeafe the pulfe }
opiates and the like render it Small and weak, and
decreafe the elafticity of the folids ; and poifons render
-it fmall, contra&ed, and hard. When the quantity of
the blood is too great, bleeding raifes the pulie..
:Puls>E, is alfo ufed for the ftroke with which any
medium is affe&ed by the motion of light, found, &c.
•through it.
Sir ifaac Newton demonftrates, that the velocitms of
-rttoe pulfes in an -elaftic fluid medium (whofe elaftierty is
proportionable to its denfity) are in a ratio compounded
of half the ratio of the •elatftic force direftly, and half
the ratio of the denfity inverfely ", fo that in a medium
whofe elafticity is equal to its denfity, all pulfes svill be
'equally fwift.
Pulse, in Botany, a term applied to all thofe grains
or feeds which are gathered with the hand ; in contra-
diftinftion to corn, &C. which are reaped, or mowed :
or, It is the feed of the leguminous kind of plants, as
beans, vetches, &c. j but is by fome ufed for artichokes,
safparagus, &c.
PULTENEY, William, the famous oppofer of Sir
Robert Walpole in parliament, and afterward earl of
Bath, was descended from one of the molt ancient fa-
hrilies in the kingdom, and was born in 1682. Being
Well qualified in fortune, be early procured a feat in the
houfe of commons, and diftinguilhed himfelf as a warm
partifan againft Queen Anne’s mini (try *, whofe-errors
he had fagacity to detect, and fpirited eloquence to ex-
pofe. When King George I. came to the throne, Mr
Pulteney was made fecretary at war, and form after
cofferer to the king’s houfehold ; but the good under-
Itanding between this gentleman and Sir Robert Wal¬
pole, who then a6ted as prime minifter, was interrupted
in 1725, on a fufpicion that Walpole was defirous of
extending the limits of prerogative, and of promoting
the interefts of Hanover, -to the prejudice of thole of
Britain. His oppofition to Sir Robert was indeed car¬
ried to fuch indiferiminat-e lengths,'that fome have been
of opinion be often afted againft meafures beneficial to
the public, merely from perfonal motives. It would be
imprafticable here to trace his parliamentary conduct:
fo it tnuft fuffice to obferve in general, that he became
fo obnoxious to the crown, that in 1731 the king called
for the council-book, and with his own hand ft ruck out
his name from the lift of privy-couniellors j a proceed-
496 ] P U M
ing that only ferved to inflame his Tefentment and in- Pultens;
■oreafe his popularity. Thus be ft ill continued to at- 11
tack the minifter with a feverity of .eloquence and far-_
cafm that worfted every antagonift ; fo that Sir Robert
was heard to declare, he dreaded that man’s tongue
more than another man’s fvvord. At length, when
Walpole found the place of prime minifter no longer
tenable, and refigned in 1741, among other promotions
Mr Pulteney relumed his place in the privy-council,
and was created earl of Bath $ a title purchased at tire
expence of that popularity which afterward he naturally
enough afFe&ed to contemn. In 1760, toward the clofe
of the war, he publifhed A Letter to Ituo iGneat Men,
Tecommending proper articles to be infilled on in a treaty
of peace; which, though the writer was then unknown,
was greatly applauded, and went through feveral im-
preflions. He died in 1764 •, and as his only fon died
before him, tire title became extinft.
PULVERIZATION, the art rtf pulverizing, or
reducing a dry body into a fine powder j which is per¬
formed in friable bodies by pounding or beating them
tn a mortar, &c.but to pulverise malleable ones,
other methods rouft Be taken. To pulverize lead, or
tin,'the method is this: Rub a round wooden box all
over the infide with chalk ; pour a little of the melted
metal nimbly into the box ; when {hutting the lid, and
fhaking the box brilkly, the-metal will be reduced to
powder.
PUMEX, the Pumice-stone. See Mineralogy
Index.
Pumice-ftone is ufed in fome mechanical arts *, as
for rubbing and fmoething the furface of metals, wood,
pafteboard, and ftor.e ■, for which it is well fitted by
reafon of its hatfli and brittle texture ; thus fcouring
and carrying off the little inequalities from the fur-
faces jaft mentioned.
PUMICE-STONE. See MINERALOGY Index.
PUMP, an -hydraulic machine for raifing water by
means of the preffure of the atmofpbere. . r
It would be an entertaining and not an unin ft rue-Of the in-
live piece of information to learn the progreffive llepsventl0n ol
by which the-ingenuity of man has invented the various
methods of raifing water. A pump muft be confidered
as the laft ftep of this progrefs. Common as it is, and
overlooked even by the curious, it is a Very abftrufe and
refined invention. Nothing like it has been found in
any of the rude nations whom the reftlefs fpirit of the
Europeans has difeovered, either in the new continent
of America, or the iflands of the Pacific ocean. . Nay,
it was-unknown in the cultivated empire of China at
the time of our arrival there by fea •, and it is ftill a ra¬
rity every where in Afia, in places unfrequented by the
Europeans. It does not appear to have been known to
the Greeks and Romans in early times •, and perhaps it
came from Alexandria, where phyfieal and mathemati¬
cal feience was much cultivated by the Greek fchool un¬
der the protection of the Ptolemies. The performances
of Ctefibius and Hero are fpoken of by Pliny and Vitru¬
vius as curious novelties (a). It is perhaps.not difficult
to trace the fteps by which thofe mechanicians were led
t6
(a) In the early Greek writings, it does not appear that the words ivr\6$, xvTtetv, u'nXut, Sec. ivere ufed toex-
prefs any thing like what we call a pump. In all thefe paffages the words either exprefs generally the drawmgoi
P U M
t 497 ]
T U M
Plate
ceccxLix.
fig. i.
2
Ctefibius’s
pump.
Pump, to the invention. The Egyptian wheel tras a common
machine all over Alia, and is Hill in ufe in the remoteft
corners, and was brought by the Saracens into Spain,
where it is ftill very common under its ancient name
noria. The Danilh miflionaries found in a remote
village in the kingdom of Siam the immediate ofF-fpring
of the noria (^Lctires Edifiantes et Curieafes'). It was a
wheel turned by an afs, and carrying round, not a firing
of earthen pots, but a liring of wifps of hay, which it
drew through a wooden trunk. This rude chain-pump
was in frequent ufe for watering the rice fields. It is
highly probable that it is of great antiquity, although
we do not recoiled its being mentioned by any of the
(Treek or Roman writers. The Arabs and Indians
were nothing lefs than innovators $ and we may fuppofe
with great fafety, that what arts we now find among
them they pofleffed in very remote periods. Now the
ftep from this to the pump is but fhort, though it is
nice and refined ; and the forcing pump of Ctefibius is
the eafiefl and moft natural,
Let AB (fig. i.) be the furface of the wrater in the
well, and D the height where it is to be delivered. Let
DC be a long wooden trunk, reaching as deep under
water as poffible. Let the rope EF be fitted with its
knot of hay F. When it is drawn up through the
trunk, it will bring up along with it all the water lying
between C and A, which will begin to run out by the
fpout D as foon as the knot gets to G, as far below D
as C is below A. All this is very obvious j and it re¬
quired but little refledion to be affured, that if F was
let down again, or pulhed down, by a rod inftead of a
rope, it would again perform the fame office. Here is
a very fimple pump. And if it was ever put in prac¬
tice, it behoved to fhow the fupporting power of the at-
mofphere, becaufe the water would not only be lifted
by the knot, blit would even follow it. The imper-
fedion of this pump behoved to appear at firft fight,
and to fuggeft its remedy. By pufhing down the knot
F, which we fhall henceforth call the pifton, all the
force expended in lifting up the water between A and
G is thrown aw'ay, becaufe it is again let dowTn. A
valve G, at the bottom would prevent this. But then
there muft be a paflage made for the water by a lateral
Fig. 2. tube KBD (fig. 2.). And if this be alfo furnifhed with
a valve H, to prevent its lofing the water, we have the
pump of Ctefibius, as fketched in fig. 2. The valve is
the great refinement: but perhaps even this had made
its appearance before in the noria. For, in the more
perfed kinds of thefe machines, the pots have a flop
or valve in their bottom, which hangs open while the
pot defeends with its mouth downwards, and then allows
it to fill readily in the ciftern : whereas, without the
valve, it would occafion a double load to the wheel. If
wre fuppofe that the valve had made its appearance fo
Vol. XVII. Part II.
early, it is not improbable that the common pump Puttif.
fketched in fig. 3. was as old as that of Ctefibius. In v ’
this place we (hall firft give a fhort defeription of the|ri^'
chief varieties of thefe engines, confidering them in their
fimpleft form, and we fhall explain in very general terms
their mode of operation. We fhall then give a concife
and popular theory of their operation, furniftiing princi¬
ples to dired us in their conftrudion ; and we fhall con¬
clude with the defeription of a few peculiarities which
may contribute to their improvement or perfed ion.
There are but two forts of pumps which effentially
differ j and all the varieties that we fee are only modi¬
fications of thefe. One of thefe original pumps has a
folid pifton j the other has a pifton with a perforation
and a valve. We ufually call the firft a FORCING PUMP,
and the fecond a lifting or sucking pump. ,
Fig. 2. is a fkctch of the forcing pump in its moft Forcing
fimple form and fituation. It confifts of a hollow cylin-pump de*
der AC called the WORKING barrel, open at bothlcribed*
ends, and having a valve G at the bottom, opening up-*lg‘
wards. This cylinder is filled by a folid pifton EF, co¬
vered externally with leather or tow, by which means it
fits the box of the cylinder exadly, and allows no water
to efcape by its fides. There is a pipe KHD, which com¬
municates laterally with this cylinder, and has a valve at
fome convenient place H, as near as poffible to its junc¬
tion with the cylinder. This valve alfo opens upwards.
This pipe, ufually called the rising PIPE, or MAIN,
terminates at the place D, where the water muft be
delivered. 4
Now fuppofe this apparatus fet into the water, fo Its mode of
that the upper end of the cylinder may be under or even0Perat,‘on*
with the furface of the water AB 5 the water will open
the valve G, and after filling the barrel and lateral
pipe, will alfo open the valve H, and at laft ftand at an
equal height within and without. Now let the pifton
be put in at the top of the working barrel, and thrufl
down to K. It will pufh the water before it. This
\vill fhut the valve G, and the water will make its way-
through the valve H, and fill a part B £ of the riling
pipe, equal to the internal capacity of the working bar¬
rel. When this downward motion of the pifton ceafes,
the valve H will fall down by its own weight and fhut
this paffage. Now let the pifton be drawn up again :
The valve H hinders the water in the rifing pipe from
returning into the working barrel. But now the valve
G is opened by the preffure of the external water, and
the water enters and fills the cylinder as the pifton riles.
When the pifton has got to the top, let it be thrufl;
down again : The valve G will again be fhut, and the
water will be forced through the paflage at H, and rife
along the main, pufhing before it the water already
there, and will now have its furface at L. Repeating
this operation, the water muft at laft arrive at D, how-
3 R ever
water, or, more particularly, the drawing it with a bucket or fomething fimilar. ’AvtAoj, which is the primitive,
is a drain, fink, or receptacle for colletting fcattered water, either for ufe, or to get rid of it; hence it came to
figtiify the fink or well of a fhip', and iurteiv was fynonymous with our verb “ to bale the boat.” (Odyjf. O.
476 M. 411. Eurip. Hecuba, 1025). ’AvtX<«» is the vejjel or bucket with which water is drawn. sAvrA»« is the
fervice (generally a punifhment) of drawing water. °AitXuv, “ to draw water with a buckethence the force
of Ariftotle’s expreffion {Oecon. I.) r&» yfipw avrXuv tovt Wi. See even the late authority of the New Tefta-
ment, John ii. 8.; iv. 7. 11. Here •cnXrtpx is evidently fomething which the woman brought along with her $
probably a bucket and rope.
P U M [ 498 J P U M
Pump, ever remote, ami the next ftroke would raife it to e ;
fy that during tlie next rile of the pifton the water in
eD will be running off by the fpout.
The effect is the fame whatever be the pofition
of the working barrel, provided only that it be under
water. It may lie horizontally or (loping, or it may
be with its mouth and pifton rod undermoft. It is ftill
the fame forcing pump, and operates in the fame man¬
ner and by the fame means, viz. the preffure of the fur¬
rounding water.
The external force which muft be applied to produce
this effeft is oppofed by the preffure exerted by the wa¬
ter on the oppofite face of the pifton. It is evident,
from the common laws of hydroftatics, that this oppo-
ling preffure is equal to the weight of a pillar of water,
having the face of the pifton for its bafe, and the per¬
pendicular height </ A of the place of delivery above
the furface of the water AB in the cifternfor its height.
The form and dimenfions of the riling pipe are indifter-
ent in this refpeft, becaufe heavy fluids prefsonly in the
proportion of their perpendicular height. Obferve that
it is not r/F, but d A, which meafures this preffure,
which the moving force muft balance and furmount.
The whole preffure on the under furface Ff of the pi¬
fton is indeed equal to the weight of the pillar dY;
but part of this is balanced by the water KYf a. It in¬
deed the water does not get into the upper part of the
working barred, this compenfation does not obtain.
While we draw up the pifton,this preffure is removed,be¬
caufe all communication is cut off by the valve H, which
now bears the whole preffure of the water in the main.
Nay, the afcent of the pifton is even aflifted by the pref¬
fure of the furrounding water. It is only during the defcent
of the pifton therefore that the external force is neceffary.
Obferve that the meafure now given of the external
force is only what is neceffary for balancing the preffure
of the water in the riling pipe. But in order that the
pump may perform work, it rauft furmount this preffure,
and caufe the water to iffue at D with fuch a velocity
that the required quantity of water may be delivered in
a given time. This requires force, even although there
were no oppoftng preffure ; which would be the cafe if
the main were horizontal. The water fills it, but it is
at reft. In order that a gallon, for inftance, may be
delivered in a feeond, the whole water in the horizontal
main muft be put in motion with a certain velocity.
This requires force. We muft therefore always dirtin-
guilh between the date of equilibrium and the (late of
actual working. It is the equilibrium only that we con-
fider at prefent j and no more is neceffary for under-
ftanding the operation of the different fpecies of pumps.
The other force is of much more intricate inveftigation,
5 and will be confidered by itfelf.
Lifting The fimpleft form and fituation of the lifting pump
pump. Js reprefented by the (ketch fig. 3. The pump is im-
merfed in the ciftern till both the valve G and pifton F
are under the furface AB of the furrounding water. By
this means the water enters the pump, opening both
6 valves, and finallv Hands on a level within and without.
Its mode of Now draw up the pifton to the furface A. It muft
operating, jjp^ Up water which is above it (becaufe the valve in
the pifton remains (hut bv its own weight) ; fo that its
furface will now be at «, A « being made equal to AF.
In the mean time, the pre ffure of the furrounding water
forces it into the working barrel, through the valve G j
and the barrel is now filled with water. Now, let the Pump,
pifton be puffed down again ; the valve G immediately v——y~“
(huts by its own weight, and in oppofition to the endea¬
vours which the water in the barrel makes to efcape this
way. This attempt to comprefs the water in the barrel
caufes it to open the valve F in the pifton ; or rather,
this valve yields to our endeavour to pufti the pifton
down through the water in the working barrel. By
this means w'e get the pifton to the bottom of the bar¬
rel ; and it has now above it the whole pillar of water
reaching to the height a. Drawing up the pifton to
the furface A a feeond time, muft lift this double co¬
lumn along with it, and its furface now will be at b.
The pifton may again be thruft down through the water
in the barrel, and again drawn up to the furface j which
■will raife the water to c. Another repetition will raife
it to d; and it will now (how itfelf at the intended
place of delivery. Another repetition will raife it to e ;
and while the pifton is now defending to make another
ftroke, the water in e d will be running off through the
fnout Dj and thus a ftream will be produced, in feme
degree continual, but very unequal. This is inconveni¬
ent in many cafes : thus, in a pump for domeftic ufes,
fiich a hobbling ftream would make it very troublefome
to fill a bucket. It is therefore ufual to terminate the
main by a ciftern LMNO, and to make the fpout (mall.
Bv this means the water brought up by the luccefiive
ftrokes of the pifton rifts to fuch a height in this ciftern,
as to produce an efflux by the fpout nearly equable.
The fmaller we make the fpout D the more equable
will be the ftream ; for when the pifton brings up more
W'ater than can be difcharged during its defcent, fome
of it remains in the ciftern. This, added to the fupply
of next ftroke, makes the w-ater rife higher in the cittern
than it did by the preceding ftroke. This will caufe
the efflux to be quicker during the defcent of the pifton,
but perhaps not yet fufficiently quick to difcharge the
whole fupply. It therefore rifes higher next ftroke j
and at laft it rifes fo high, that the increafed velocity of
efflux makes the difcharge precifely balance the fupply.
Now, the quantity fupplied in each ftroke is the fame,
and occupies the fame room in the ciftern at top *, and
the furface will fink the fame number of inches during
the defcent of the pifton, whether that furface has been
high or low at the beginning. But becaufe the veloci¬
ties of the efflux are as the fquare roots of the heights of
the water above the fpout, it is evident that a fink of
two or three inches will make a fmaller change in the
velocity of efflux when this height and velocity are
great. This feems but a trifling obfervation ; but it ferves
to illuftrate a thing to be confidered afterwards, which
is important and abftrufe, but perfedlly fimilar to this.
It is evident, that the force neceffary for this opera¬
tion muft be equal to the weight of the pillar of water
c/A a D, if the pipe- be perpendicular. If the pump be
(landing aflope, the preffure which is to be balanced is
dill equal to the weight of a pillar of water of this per¬
pendicular height, and having the furface of the pifton
for its bafe.
Such is the fimpleft, and, we may add, by far the
bed, form of the forcing and lifting pumps 5 but it is
not the moft ufual. Circumftances of convenience, eco¬
nomy, and more frequently of fancy and habit, have
caufed the pump-makers to deviate greatly from this
form. It is not ufual to have the working barrel in
the.
Pump-
Effect of
jriving the
jjifton a
bnger
ftroke
P U M [ 499 ] P U M
this, efpecially in deep wells, makes it of plate is preffed up by the contiguous water with a force
inconveni¬
ent and un-
neceffary.
9
Effedl of
the weight
@t the wa¬
ter and
preiTure of
the atmo¬
sphere.
the water j
difficult accefs for repairs, and requires long pifton rods.
This would not do in a forcing pump, becaufe they
would bend.
We have fuppofed, in our account of the lifting pump,
that the rife of the pifton always terminated at the lur-
face of the water in the cittern, '['his we did in order
that the barrel might always be filled by the preffure of
the furrounding water. But let us fuppofe that the rite
of the pidon does not end here, and that it is gradually
drawn up to the very top : it is plain that the prefiure
of the atmofphere is by this means taken off from the
water in the pipe (fee Pneumatics), while it remains
preffing on the water of the ciftern. It will therefore
eaufe the water to follow the pifton as it rifes through
the pipe, and it will raife it in this way 33 feet at a me¬
dium. If, therefore, the fpout D is not more than 33
feet above the furface of the water in the cittern, the
pipe will be full of water when the pitton is at D. Let
it be pufiled down to the bottom ; the water will remain
in the pipe, becaufe the valve G will ihut: and thus
we may give the pifton a flroke of any length not ex¬
ceeding 33 feet. If we raife it higher than this, the
water will not follow •, but it will remain in the pipe,
to be lifted by the pifton, after it has been puftied down
through it to the bottom.
But it is not neceflfary, and would be very inconve¬
nient, to give the pifton fo long a ftroke. The great
ufe of a pump is to render effectual the reciprocation
of a ftiort ft rake which we can command, while fucb a
long ftroke is generally out of our power. Suppofe
that the pifton is puihed down only to b ; it will then
have a column ^incumbent on it, and it will lift this
column when again drawn up. And this operation may
be repeated like the former, when the pifton was always
under water ; for the preffure of the atraofphere will al¬
ways caufe the water to follow the pifton to the height
of 33 feet.
Nor is it neceffary that the fixed valve G be placed
at the lower orifice of the pipe, nor even under water.
For, while things are in the ftate now deferibed, the
pifton drawn up to /, and the whole pipe full of wa¬
ter •, if we fuppofe another valve placed at b above the
furface of the ciftern, this valve can do no harm. Now
let the pifton defcend, both valves G and b will ftmt.
G may now be removed, and the water will remain fup-
ported in the fpace £G by the air ; and now the alter¬
nate motions of the pifton will produce the fame effect
as before.
We found in the former cafe that the nifton was car¬
rying a load equal to the weight of a pillar of water of
the height AD, becaufe the furrounding water could
only fupport it at its own level. Let us fee what change
is produced by the affiftance of the preffure of the at¬
mofphere. Let the under furface of the pifton be at b;
when the pifton was at/J 33 feet above the furface of
the ciftern, the water was raifed to that height by the
preffure of the atmofphere. Suppofe a partition made
at b by a thin plate, and all the water above it taken
away. Now pierce a hole in this plate. The preffure
of the atmofphere was able to carry the whole column
f a. Part of this column is now removed, and the re¬
mainder is not a balance for the air’s preffure. This
will therefore caufe the water to fpout up through this
hole and rife to f Therefore the under furface of this
Punvp.
equal to the weight of that pillar of water which it tor- v
merly fupported; that is, with a torce equal to the
weight of the pillar fb. Now the under furfaee of the
pifton, when at £, is in the fame fituation. It is preffeft
upwards by the water below it, with a force equal to the
weight of the column fb: But it is preffed downwards
by the whole preffure of the atmofphere, which prtfies
on all bodies \ that is, with the weight of the pillar fa.
On the whole, therefore, it is preffed downwards by a
force equal to the difference of the weights of the pillars
fa and fb; that is, by a force equal to the weight of
the pillar b a.
It may be conceived better perhaps in this way.
When the pifton was under the furface of the water in
the ciftern, it was equally preffed on both fides, both by
the water and atmofphere. The atmofphere exerted its
preffure on it by the intervention of the water j which
being, to all fenfe, a perfect fluid, propagates every ex¬
ternal preffure undiminithed. When the pifton is drawn
up above the furface of the pit-water, the atmofphere
continues to prefs on its upper furface with its whole
weight, through the intervention of the water which
lies above it •, and its preffure muft therefore be added
to that of the incumbent water. It alfo continues to
prefs on the under furface of the pifton by the interven¬
tion of the water; that is, it preffes this water to the
pifton. But, in doing this, it carries the w'eight of
this water which it is prefling on the pifton. The pref¬
fure on the pifton therefore is only the excefs of the
whole preffure of the atmofphere above the weight of
the column of water which it is fupporting. There¬
fore the difference of atmofpheric preffure on the upper
and under furfaces of the pifton is precifely equal to the
weight of the column of water fupported in the pipe by
the air. It is not, however, the individual weight of
this column that loads the pifton ; it is the part of the
preffure of the atmoiphereon its upper furfaee, which is
not balanced by its preffure on the under furface.
In attempting, therefore, to draw up the pifton, we
have to furmount this unbalanced part of the preffure of
the atmofphere, and alfo the weight of the water
which lies above the pifton, and muft be lifted by it:
and thus the whole oppofing preffure is the fame as be¬
fore, namely, the w'eight of the whole vertical pillar
reaching from the furface of the wrater in the ciftern to
the place of delivery. Part of this weight is immediate¬
ly carried by the preffure of the atmofphere ; but, in
lieu of it, there is an equal part of this preffure of the
atmofphere abftrafted from the under furface of the
pifton, while its upper furface fuftains its whole preflure. ioi
So far, then, thefe two ftates of the pump agree.— •''thfv dr-
But they differ exceedingly in their mode of operation jcumftances
and there are fome circumftances not very obvious which **
muft be attended to, in order that the pump may deli- taae t0’
vrr any water at the fpout D. This requires, therefore,
a ferious examination.
Let the fixed value G (fig. 4.) be fuppofed at the Fig. 4.
furface of the ciftern water. Let M ?/z be the lowed,
and N n the higheft, pofitions of the pifton, and let
HA~// be the height of a column of water equiponde¬
rant with the atmofphere.
When the pump is filled, not with water, but with
air, and the pifton is in its lovveft pofition, and all in
equilibrio, the internal air has the fame denfity and
3 R 2 elafticity
P U M [ 500 ] P U M
The fpace MA c /«, there- ftroke muft be fuch that the reflangle MN X AH may
Pump.. elafticity with the external
—y-*—1 forej contains air of the common denfity and elaiticity.
Thefe may be meafured by h\ or the weight of a co¬
lumn of water whofe height is h. Now, let the pilton
be drawn up to N n. The air which occupied the fpace
MA « w now occupies the fpace NA 0 «, and its denfity
is now ntU-’ Its elafticity is now diminifhed, be-
NA a n
ing proportionable to its denfity (fee Pneumatics), and
no longer balances the preffure of the atmofphere. The
valve G will therefore be forced up by the water, which
will rife to fome height SA. Now let the pifton again
defeend to M m. It cannot do this with its valve (hut j
for when it comes down fir far as to reduce the air again
to its common denfity, it is not yet at M, becaufe the
fpace below it has been diminifhed by the water which
got into the pipe, and is retained there by the valve G.
The pifton valve, therefore, opens by the air which we
thus attempt to comprefs, and the fuperfluous air
efcapes. When the pifton has got to M, the air is
again of the common denfity, and occupies the fpace
MS r m. Now draw the pifton up to N. The air will
expand into the fpace NS s n, and its denfity will be re¬
duced to -vrr—and its elafticity will no longer ba-
Nb j « 0
lance the preflure of the atmofphere, and more water
will enter, and it will rife higher. This will go on
continually. But it may happen that the water will
never rife fo high as to reach the pifton, even though
not 33 feet above the water in the ciftern : For the fuc-
oeflive diminutions of denfity and elafticity are a feries
of quantities that decreafe geometrically, and therefore
will have a limit. Let us fee what determines this li¬
mit.
At whatever height the water ftands in the lower
part of the pipe, the weight of the column of water
S A a s, together with the remaining elafticity of the air
above it, exadlly balances the preflure of the atmofphere
(fee Pneumatics, N° 108.). Now the elafticity of the
• • 1 r xTm • -i 1 MS j m rr,,
air m the Ipace NS r « is equal to // Xttt; • I here-
Nb r «
fore, in the cafe where the limit obtains, and the water
rifes no farther, we muft have ^^AS-L/z or,
NS s n
becaufe the column is of the fame diameter throughout,
MS MS
ASand —AS, =rHS, and NS :
MS=HA : HS, and NS—MS : NS = HA — HS :
HA, or NM : NSrr AS : AH, and NM X AH=NS
X AS. 1 herefore, if AN, the diftance of the pifton
in its higheft pofition from the water in the ciftern, and
NM the length of its ftroke, be given, there is a cer¬
tain determined height AS to which the water can be
raifed by the preflure of the air : For AH is a conftant
quantity ; and therefore when MN is given, the rec¬
tangle ASxSN is given. If this height AS be lefs
than that of the pifton in its loweft pofition, the pump
will raife no water, although AN may be lefs than AH.
Yet the fame pump will raife water very effedlually, if
it be firft of all filled with water ; and we have feen
profeflional engineers much puzzled by this capricious
failure of their pumps. A little knowledge of the prin-
eiples would have prevented their difappointment.
To infure the delivery of water by the pump, the
Pump,.
be greater than any redlangle that can be made of the
parts of AN, that is, greater than the fquare of half., ,IIf
AN. Or, if the length of the ftroke be already fixed fu^g^j
by other circumftances, which is a common cafe, we delivery]]
muft make AN fo ftiort that the fquare of its half, mea- water, j
fured in feet, ftiall be lefs than 33 times the ftroke of
the pifton.
Suppofe that the fixed valve, inftead of being at the
furface of the water in the ciftern, is at S, or anywhere
between S and A, the performance of the pump will
be the fame as before : But if it be placed anywhere
above S, it will be very different. Let it be at T. It
is plain that when the pifton is pufhed down from N to
M, the valve at T prevents any air from getting down ;
and therefore, when the pifton is drawn up again, the
air contained in the fpace MT t m will expand into the
MT
fpace NT t n, and its denfity will be -cvt-.v This is lefs
NT
MS
12
es nc
than ■■■■•, which expreffes the denfity of the air which
J\
was left in the fpace TS j f by the former operations.—
The air, therefore, in TS s t will alfo expand, will open
the valve, and now the water will rife above S. The
proportion of NS to NT may be evidently fuch that the
water will even get above the valve T. This diminifties
the fpace NT t n ; and therefore, when the pifton has
been pufhed down to M, and again drawn up to N, the
air will be ftill more rarefied, and the water will rife ftill
higher. The foregoing reafoning, however, is fufficient
to ftiow that there may ftill be a height which the wa¬
ter will not pafs, and that this height depends on the
proportion between the ftroke of the pifton and its dif¬
tance from the water in the ciftern. We need not give
the determination, becaufe it will come in afterwards in
combination with other circumftances. It is enough
that the reader fees the phyfical caufes of this limitation :
And, laftly, we fee plainly that the utmoft fecurity will
be given for the performance of the pump, when the
fixed valve is fo placed that the pifton, when in its low-
eft pofition, (hall come into contadft with it. In thisy ^
cafe, the rarefaftion of the air will be the completeft eafily kep!
poftible j and, if there were no fpace left between the air-tight
pifton and valve, and all were perfectly air-tight, the
rarefaction would be complete, and the valve might be
any thing lefs than 33 feet from the furface of the water
in the ciftern.
But this perfeCl contact and tightnefs is unattainable $
and though the pump may be full of water, its conti¬
nual downward preffure caufes it to filtrate fiowly
through every crevice, and the air enters through every
pore, and even difengages itfelf from the water, with
which a confiderable portion had been chemically com¬
bined. The pump by this means lofes water, and it'
requires feveral ftrokes of brilk working to fill it again :
and if the leathers have become dry, fo much admiffion
may be given to the air, that the pump will not fill it¬
felf with water by any working. It is then neceffary to
pour water into it, which {huts up thefe paffages, and
foon fets all to rights again. For thefe reafons, it is al¬
ways prudent to place the fixed valve as low as other
circumftances will permit, and to make the pifton rod
of fucb a length, that when it is at the bottom of its
jdroke it fttall be almoft in contact with the valve. When
Pump.
13
Defcrip
P U M [5°
we are not limited by other circumflances, it is evident
' that the beit poflible form is to have both the pifton and
the fixed valve under the furface of the water of the cif-
tern. In this fituation they are always wet and air¬
tight. The chief objection is, that by this difpofition
they are not eafily come at when needing repair. This
is a material objection in deep mines. In fuch fituations,
therefore, we muft make the belt compenfation of differ¬
ent circumflances that we can. It is ufual to place the
fixed valve at a moderate diflance from the furface of
the water, and to have a hole in the fide of the pipe, by
which it may be got out. This is carefully fhut up by
e plate firmly fcrewed on, with leather or cement be¬
tween the parts. This is called the clack door. It
would, in every cafe, be very proper to have a fixed
valve in the lower end of the pipe. I his would com¬
bine all advantages. Being always tight, the pipe Avould
retain the water, and it would leave to the valve above
it its full effect of increafing the rarefaction. A fimilar
hole is made in the working barrel, a little above the
highefl pofition of the pifton. When this needs repair,
it can be got at through this hole, without the immenfe
trouble of drawing up the whole rods.
Thus we have conducted the reader ftep by ftep, from
the fimpleft form of the pump to that which long expe¬
rience has at laft feleCted as the molt generally conve¬
nient. This we fhall now defcribe in fome detail.
The Sucking Pump confifts of two pipes DC CD,
Fump.
tion of the B A AB (fig. 5.) •, of which the former is called the Bar-
fucking'
pump.
% S'
rel, or the Working Barrel, and the other is called the
SuBion-pipe, and is commonly of a fmaller diameter.—
Thefe are joined by means of flanches E, F, pierced
with holes to receive fcrewed bolts. A ring of lea¬
ther, or of lead, covered with a proper cement, is put
between them j which, being ftrongly compreffed by
the fcrew-bolts, renders the joint perfeCtly air-tight.—
The lower end A of the fuCtion-pipe is commonly fpread
out a little to facilitate the entry of the water, and fre¬
quently has a grating acrofs at A A to keep out filth or
gravel. This is immerged in the Handing water YZ.
The working barrel is cylindrical, as evenly and fmooth-
ly bored as poflible, that the pifton may fill it exaCtly
through its whole length, and move along it with as
little friCtion as may be confiftent with air-tightnefs.
The pifton is a fort of truncated cone OPKL, gene¬
rally made of wood not made to flip, fuch as elm or
beech. The fmall end of it is cut off at the fides, fo
as to form a fort of arch OOP, by which it is faften-
ed to the iron rod or fpear. It is exhibited in different
Fig. G. and pofitions in figures 6, 7* which will give a more di-
], ftinCt notion of it than any defeription. 1 he two ends
of the conical part may be hooped with brafs. This
cone has its larger end furrounded with a ring or band
of ftrong leather faftened with nails, or by a copper
hoop, which is driven on it at the fmaller end. This
band fhould reach to fome diftance beyond the bafe of
the cone ; the farther the better : and the whole muft
be of -uniform thicknefs all round, fo as to fuffer equal
14 compreffion between the cone and the working barrel.
Neceffity of The feam or joint of the two ends of this band muft
iieii not** ke made very clofe, but not fewed or ftitched together,
properly at-This would occafion bumps or inequalities, which would
tended to. fpoil its tightnefs*, and no harm can refult from the want
of it, becaufe the two edges will be fqueezed clofe to¬
gether by the compreflion in the barrel. It is by no.
3.
*5
1 ] P U M
means neceffary that this compreffion be great. This (
is a verv detrimental error of the pump-makers. It
occafions enormous friCtion, and deftroys the very pur-
pofe which they have in view, viz. rendering the pifton
air-tight; for it caufes the leather fo wear through very
foon at the edge of the cone, and it alfo wears the
working barrel. This very foon becomes wide in that
part which is continually pafl'ed over by the pifton, while
the mouth remains of its original diameter, and it be¬
comes impoflible to thruft in a pifton which fhall com¬
pletely fill the worn part. Now, a very moderate pref- An eaTy
fure is fufficient for rendering the pump perlfftly tight,
and a piece of glove leather would be fufficient for this ptimps
purpofe, if loofe or detached from the folid cone for^jght.
fuppofe fuch a loofe and flexible, but impervious, band
of leather put round the pitlon, and put into the barrel $
and let it even be fuppofed that the cone does not com-
prefs it in the fmalleft degree to its internal furface.—
Pour a little water carefully into the infide of this fort
of cup or diffi j it will caufe it to fwell out a little,
and apply itfelf clofe to the barrel all round, and even
adjuft itfelf to all its inequalities. Let us fuppofe it to
touch the barrel in a ring of an ir^h broad all round.
We can eafily compute the force with which it is pref-
fed. It is half the weight of a ring of water an inch
deep and an inch broad. This is a trifle, and the fric¬
tion occafioned by it not worth regarding ; yet this
trifling preffure is fufficient to make the paffage per¬
fectly impervious, even by the molt enormous preffure
of a high column of incumbent water : for let this
preffure be ever fo great, the preffure by which the lea¬
ther adheres to the barrel always exceeds it, becaufe the
incumbent fluid has no preponderating power by which
it can force its way between them, and it mult infinuate
itfelf precifely fo far, that its preffure on the infide of
the leather ffiall itill exceed, and only exceed, the pref¬
fure by which it endeavours to infinuate itfelf; and thus
the pilton becomes perfectly tight with the fmalleft pof-
fible friCtion. This reafoning is perhaps too refined for
the uninftruCted artift, and probably will not perfuade l6
him. To fuch we would recommend an examination Proved to
of the piftons and valves contrived and executed by that be prafti-
artift, whofe {kill far furpaffes our highelt conceptions,^b^om
the all-wife Creator of this world. The valves which fraem^ 1
{hut up the paffages of the veins, and this in places
where an extravafation would be followed by inflant
death, are cups of thin membrane which adhere to
the fides of the channel about half way round, and
are detached in the reft of their circumference. When
the blood comes in the oppofite direction, it pulhes the
membrane afide, and has a paffage perfectly free. But
a ftagnation of motion allows the tone of the mufcular
(perhaps) membrane, to reftore it to its natural ftiape,and
the leaft motion in the oppofite direction caufes it inftant-
ly to clap clofe to the fides of the vein, and then no
preffure whatever can force a paffage. We (hall recur
to this again, when defcribing the various contrivances ^
of valves, &c. What we have faid is enough for fup-Beftform .
porting our directions for conftruCting a tight pifton. of a pifton j
But we recommended thick and ftrong leather, whilereco™-
our prefent reafoning feems to render thin leather pre-men<ie(l'
ferable. If the leather be thin, and the folid pifton in
any part does not prefs it gently to the barrel, there
will be in this part an unbalanced preffure of the incum¬
bent column of water, which would inftantly burft even
a .
P U M
[ 5°2 3
P U M
Piitnp.
1$
Further de-
fcription of
the fuck¬
ing-pump.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
*9
Its mode
of opera¬
tion.
a flrong leather bag ; but when the folid pifton, cover¬
ed with leather, exactly fills the barrel, and is even pref-
fed a little to it, there is no fuch rilk ; and now that
part of the leather band which reaches beyond the folid
pifton performs its office in the completeft manner. We
do not hefitate, therefore, to-recommend this form of a
pifton, which is the moft common and fimple of all, as
preferable, when well executed, to any of thofe more
artificial, and frequently very ingenious, conftmftions,
which we have met with in the works of the firft engi¬
neers. To proceed, then, with our defeription of the
fucking-pump.
At the joining of the working barrel with the fue-
tion-pipe there is a hole H, covered with a valve open¬
ing upwards. This hole H is either made in a plate
which makes a part of the fusion-pipe, being caft along
with it, or it is made in a feparate plate. This laft: is
the moft convenient, being eafily removed and replaced.
Different views are given of this valve in figs. 8, 9, 10.
The diameter EF (fig. 10.) of this plate is the fame
with that of the flanehes, and it has holes correfpond-
ing to them, through which their bolts pafs which keep
all together. A ring of thick leather NKL is applied
to this plate, having a part cut out between N and L,
to make room for another piece of ftrong leather NR
(fig. 9.) which compofes the valve. The circular part
of this valve is broader than the hole in the middle of
fig. 10. but not quite fo broad as to fill up the infide
of the ring of leather OQP of this fig. which is the
fame with GKI of fig. 10. The middle of this leather
valve is ftrengthened by two brafs (not iron) plates, the
uppermoft of which is feen at R of fig. 9.: the one on
its underfide is a little fmaller than the hole in the valve-
plate, that it may go freely in; and the upper plate R is
larger than this hole, that it may comprefs the leather
to its brim all round. It is evident, that when this plate
with its leathers is put between the joint flanches, and
all is ferewed together, the tail of leather N of fig. 9.
will be compreffed between the plates, and form a hinge,
on which the valve can turn, riling and falling. There
is a fimilar valve faftened to the upper fide, or broadeft
bafe of the pifton. This defeription ferves for both valves,
and in general for moft valves which are to be found in
any parts of a pump.
The reader will now underftand, without any repeti¬
tion, the procefs of the whole operation of a fucking-
pump. The pifton rarefies the air in the working bar¬
rel, and that in the fu&ion-pipe expands through the
valve into the barrel; and, being no longer a balance
for the atmofpheric preffure, the water riles into the fuc-
tion-pipe ; another ftroke of the pifton produces a fimi¬
lar effect, and the water rifes farther, but by a fmaller
ftep than by the preceding ftroke : by repeating the
ftrokes of the pifton, the water gets into the barrel ; and
when the pifton is now pulhed down through it, it gets
above the pifton, and mult now be lifted up to any
height. The fu6tion-pipe is commonly of fmaller fize
than the working barrel, for the fake of economy. It
is not neceffary that it be fo wide ; but it may be, and
often is, made too fmall. It ffiotild be of fuch a fize,
that the preffure of the atmofphere may be able to fill
the barrel with water as fall as the pifton rifes. If a
void is left below the pifton, it is evident that the pi¬
fton mull be carrying the whole weight of the atmo¬
fphere, befides the water which is lying above it. Nay,
if the pipe be only fo wide, that the barrels ILall fill
precifely as fall as the pifton rifes, it mult fuftain all '
this preffure. The fudtion-pipe fhould be wider than
this, that all the preffure of the atraofphere which ex¬
ceeds the weight of the pillar in the iuclion-pipe may
be employed in preffing it on the under lurface of the
pifton, and thus diminifli the load. It cannot be made
too wide ; and too ftrict an economy in this refpedft may
very fenfibly diminith the performance of the pump,
and more than defeat its own purpole. This is moft
likely when the fiuftion-pipe is long, becaufe there the
length of the pillar of water nearly balances the air’s
preffure, and leaves very little accelerating force ; fo
that water will rife but (lowly even in the wideft pipe^
All thefe things will be made the fubje&s of computa¬
tion afterwards.
It is plain that there will be limitations to the rife of
the water in the fu£fion-pipe, fimilar to what we tound
when the whole pump was an uniform cylinder. Let a
be the height of the fixed valve above the water in the
ciftern : let B and b be the (paces in cubic meafure be¬
tween this valve and the pifton in its higheft and loweft
pofitions, and therefore exprefs the bulkaof the air which
may occupy thefe (paces : let y be the diftance between
the fixed valve and the water in the fu£tion-pipe, when
it has attained its greateft height by the rarefaction of
the air above it : let h be the height of a column of
water in equilibrio, with the whole preffure of the at¬
mofphere, and therefore having its weight in equilibrio
with the elafticity of common air; and let x be the
height of the column whofe weight balances the elafti-
eity of the air in the fuCtion-pipe, when rarefied as much
as it can be by the aCtion of the pifton, the water (land¬
ing at the height a—y.
Then, beeaufe this elafticity, together with the
column a—// in the fuftion-pipe, mull balance the
whole preffure of the atmofphere, (fee PNEUMATICS,
N° 108.), we muft have h—x-^-a—y, and y—a-\-
x—Ji.
When the pifton was in its loweft pofition, the bulk
of the air between it and the fixed valve was b. Sup-
pofe the valve kept (hut, and the pifton raifed to its
higheft pofition, the bulk will be B, and its denfity
and its elafticity, or the height of the column whofe
B
weight will balance it, will be h If the air in the
fu£h'on-pipe be denfer than this, and confequently more
elaftic, it will lift the valve, and feme will come in ;
therefore, when the pump has rarefied the air as much
as it can, fo that none does, in faCl, come in, the ela¬
fticity of the'1 air in the fudfion-pipe mujl be the fame.
Therefore x ~ h -5-.
B
We had yxz a x — h. Therefore y ~ a h
—h, =04
b—B
B
Therefore when
//, ~ ci-
TS—b
B
B —b
B
h.
k is lefs than a.
B
the water
But when
B
fixed valve, y becoming negative.
Pump.
will flop before it reaches the fixed valve.
a is lefs than —^— h, the water will get above the
But
P U M
[ 5
Pump.
20 .
The fame
pump is
uieii ui an
inverted
pofition ;
Fig. n.
Bat It docs not follow that the water will reach the
} pifton, that is, will rife fo high that the pilton will pafs
through it in its defcent. Things now come into the
condition of a pump of uniform dimenfkms from top to
bottom and this point will be determined by what was
faid when treating of fuch a pump.
There is another form of the fucking-pump which is
much ufed in great water works, and is of equal effi¬
cacy with the one now defcribed. It is indeed the
fame pump in an inverted pontion. It is reprefented
in fig. ii. where ABCD is the working barrel, im-
merfed, with its mouth downwards, in the water of the
eillern. It is joined by means of Handles to the riling
pipe or MAIN.
This ufually confifts of two parts. The firft, BEFC,
is bent to one fide, that it may give room for the iron
frame TXYV, which carries the rod NO of the piilon
M, attached to the traverfes RS, TOV of this frame.
The other part, EGHF, is ufually of a lefs diameter,
and is continued to the place of delivery. The pifton
frame XTVY hangs by the rod Z, at the arm of a lever
or working beam, not brought into the figure. The
pifton is-perforated like the former, and is furrounded
like it with a band of leather in form of a taper-difti.
It has a valve K on its broad or upper bafe, opening
when prefled from below. The upper end of the work¬
ing barrel is pierced with a hole, covered with a valve
1, alfo opening upwards.
Now fuppofe this apparatus immerfed into the ci-
ftern till the water is above it, as marked by the line
2, 3, and the pifton drawn up till it touch the end of
the barrel. When the pifton is allowed to defcend by its
own weight, the water rifes up through its valve K,
and fills the barrel. If the pifton be now drawn up bv
the moving power of the machinery with which it is
connefled, the valve K ftiuts, and the pifton pufties the
water before it through the valve 1 into the main pipe
EFGH. When the pifton is again let down, the
valve I ftmts by its own weight and the preflure of the
water incumbent on it, and the barrel is again filled by
the water of the ciftern. Drawing up the pifton pufties
this water into the main pipe, &e. and then the water
is at length delivered at the place required.
This pump is ufually called the lifting pump ; perhaps
the fimpleft of all in its principle and operation.—
It needs no farther explanation : and we proceed to de¬
fer! be
The Forcing Pump, reprefented in fig. 12. It
confifts of a working barrel ABCD, a fuftion-pipe
CDEF, and a main or riling pipe. This laft is ufually
in three joints. The firft GHKI may be confidered as
making part of the working barrel, and is commonly
call in one piece with it. The fecond IKLM is join¬
ed to it by flanches, and forms the elbow which this
pipe muft generally have. The third LNOM is pro¬
perly the beginning of the main, and is continued to
the place of delivery. At the joint IK there is a
hanging valve or clack S ; and there is a valve R on the
top of the fufBon-pipe.
The pifton PQTV is folid, and is faftened to a flout
iron rod which goes through if, and is fixed by a key
drawn through its end. The body of the pifton is a
lort of double cone, widening from the middle to each
end, and is covered with two bands of very ftrong lea¬
ther, ^fitted to it in the manner already deferibed.
03 ] P U M
The operation of this pump is abundantly fimple. Pump.
When the pifton is thrull into the pump, it pufties the ~ vi
air before it through the valve S, for the valve R re-its j^e of
mains fliut by its own iveight. When it has reached operation,
near the bottom, and is drawn up again, the air which
filled the ftnall fpace between the pifton and the valve
S now expands into the barrel j for as foon as the air
begins to expand, it ceafes to balance the preffure of
the atmofphere, which therefore ftiuts the valve S. By
the expanfion of the air in the barrel the equilibrium at
the valve R is deftroyed, and the air in the fuflion pipe
lifts the valve, and expands into the barrel •, confequent-
ly it ceafes to be a balance for the preflure of the atmo¬
fphere, and the water is forced into the fu£!ion-pipe.
Pufhing the pifton down again forces the air in the bar¬
rel through the valve S, the valve R in the mean time
Abutting. When the pillun is again drawn up, S ihuts,
R opens, the air in the fudtion-pipe dilates anew, and the
water riles higher in it. Repeating thefe operations, the
water gets at laft into the working barrel, and is forced
into the main by puftiing down the pifton, and is puftied
along to the place of delivery. 24
The operation of this pump is therefore two-fold, F two-fold,
fucking and forcing. In the firft operation, the fame
force muft be employed as in the fucking-pump, name¬
ly, a force equal to the weight of a column of water
having the fed ion of the pifton for its bafe, and the
height of the pifton above the water in the ciftern for
its height. It is for the fake of this part of the opera¬
tion that the upper cone is added to the pifton. The
air and water would pafs by the fides of the lower cone
while the pifton is drawn up ; but the leather of the
upper cone applies to the furface of the barrel, and pre¬
vents this. The fpace contained between the barrel
and the valve S is a great obftrudion to this part of
the operation, becaufe this air cannot be rarefied to a
very great degree. For this reafon, the fudion-pipe of
a forcing-pump muft not be made long. It is not-in¬
deed neceffary ; for by placing the pump a few feet lower,
the water will rife into it without difficulty, and the
labour of fudion is as much diminiftied as that of itn-
pulfion is increased. However, an intelligent artift:
will always endeavour to make this fpace between the
valve S and the lovveft place of the pifton as fmall as
poffible.
The power employed in forcing muft evidently fur-
mount the preffure of the whole water in the riling
pipe, and (independent of what is neceffary for giving
the water the required velocity, fo that the proper
quantity per hour may be delivered), the pifton has to
with ft and a force equal to the weight of a column of
water having the fedion of the pifton for its bafe, and
the perpendicular altitude of the place of delivery above
the lower furface of the pifton for its height. It is
quite indifferent in this refped what is the diameter of
the riling pipe •, becaufe the preffure on the pifton de¬
pends on the altitude of the water only, independent
of its quantity. We lhall even fee that a fmall riling
pipe will require a greater force to convey the water
along it to any given height or diftance.
When we would employ a pump to raife water in
a crooked pipe, or in any pipe of moderate dimenfions,
this form of pump, or fomething equivalent, muft be •
ufed. In bringing up great quantities of water from
mines, the common fucking-pump is generally employ-
ed, ,
P U M
[ S°+ 1
P U M
Pump.
25 ,
Meafure of
the quanti¬
fy of water
delivered
by any
pump.
s6
The opera¬
tion of
pumps not
equable ;
27
•and the
mode of
making
■them fo.
Fig. 13.
e<3, as really the belt of them all; but it is the molt ex-
penfive, becaufe it requires the pipe to be perpendicular,
ftraight, and of great dimenfions, that it may contain
the pifton rods. But this is impra&icable when the pipe
is crooked.
If the forcing pump, conftrudled in the manner now
defcribed, be employed, we cannot ufe forcers with long
rods. Thefe would bend when pufbed down by their
further extremity. In this cafe, it is ufual to employ
only a fliort and ftiff rod, and to hang it by a chain,
and load it with a weight fuperior to the weight of wa¬
ter to be raifed by it. The machinery therefore is em¬
ployed, not in forcing the water along the rifing-pipe,
but in raifing the weight which is to produce this efteci
by its fubfequent defcent.
In this cafe, it would be much better to employ the _
lifting-pump of fig. 11. For as the load on the forcers
mull be greater than the refiftances which it mull fur-
mount, the force exerted by the machine mud in like
manner be greater than this load. This double excefs
would be avoided by ufing the lifting-pump.
It will readily occur to the reader that the quantity
of water delivered by any pump will be in the joint pro¬
portion of the furface ot bafe of the pifton and its veloci¬
ty : for this meafures the capacity of that part of the
working barrel which the pifton paffes over. The velo¬
city of the water in the conduit pipe, and in its paffage
through every valve, will be greater or lefs than the ve¬
locity of the pifton, in the fame proportion that the area
of the pifton or working barrel is greater or lefs than the
area of the conduit or valve. For whatever quantity of
water paffes through any feftion of the working barrel
in a fecond, the fame quantity muft go through any one
of thefe paflages* This enables us to modify the velocity
of the water as we pleafe : we. can increafe it to any de¬
gree at the place of delivery by diminilhing the aperture
through which it paffes, provided we apply fufficient
force to the pifton.
It is evident that the operation of a pump is by Harts,
and that the water in the main remains at reft, prefling
on the valve during the time that the pifton is withdrawn
from the bottom of the working barrel. It is in moft
calcs defirable to have this motion equable, and in feme
cafes it is abfolutely neceffary. Thus, in the engine for
extinguilhing fires, the fpout of water going by jerks
could" never be direfted with a certain aim, and half of
the water would be loft by the way 5 becaufe a body at
reft cannot in an inftant be put in rapid motion, and the
firft portion of every jerk of water would have but a
fmall velocity. A very ingenious contrivance has been
fallen upon for obviating this inconvenience, and pro¬
curing a ftream nearly equable. We have not been able
to difeover the author. At any convenient part of the
rifing-pipe beyond the valve S there is annexed a capa¬
cious veflel VZ (fig. 13.-N0 1. and 2.) clofe a-top, and
of great ftrength. When the water is forced along this
pipe, part of it gets into this veffel, keeping the air con¬
fined above it, and it fills it to fuch a height V, that the
elafticity of the confined air balances a column reaching
to T, we Ihall fuppofe, in the rifing-pipe. The next
ftroke of the pifton fends forward more water, which
would fill the rifing-pipe to feme height above T. But
the preffure of this additional column caufes fome more
of it to go into the air veffel, and comprefs its air fo
much more that its elafticity now balances a longer co¬
lumn. Every fucceeding ftroke of the pifton produces a Pussp.
like effeft. The water riles higher in the main pipe, butv—■
fome more of it goes into the air veffel. At laft the wa¬
ter appears at the place of delivery and the air in the
air veffel is now fo much comprefled that its elafticity
balances the preffure of the whole column. The next
ftroke of the pifton fends forward fome more water. If
the diameter of the orifice of the main be fufficient to
let the water flow out with a velocity equal to that of
the pifton, it will fo flow out, rifing no higher, and pro¬
ducing no fenfible addition to the compreffion in the
air veffel. But if the orifice of the main be contract¬
ed to half its dimenfions, the water fent forward by
the pifton cannot flow out in the time of the ftroke
without a greater velocity, and therefore a greater
force. Part of it, therefore, goes into the air veffel,
and increafes the compreffiom When the pifton has
ended its ftroke, and no more water comes forward,
the compreffion of the air in the air veffel being great¬
er than what was fufficient to balance the preffure of
the water in the main pipe, now forces out fome of
the water which is lying below it. This cannot return
towards the pump, becaufe the valve S is now ftiut.
It therefore goes forward along the main, and produces
an efflux during the time of the pifton’s rifing in or¬
der to make another ftroke. In order that this efflux
may be very equable, the air veffd muft be very large.
If it be fmall, the quantity of water that is difeharged
by it during thfc return of the pifton makes fo great a
portion of its capacity, that the elafticity of the confined
air is too much diminilhed by this enlargement of its
bulk, and the rate of efflux muft diminifli accordingly.
The capacity of the air veffel ftiould be fo great that
the change of bulk of the compreffed air during the in-
aCIion of the pifton may be inconfiderable. It muft
therefore be very ftrong*
It is pretty indifferent in what way this air veffel is
conne&ed with the rifing-pipe. It may join it lateral¬
ly, as in fig. 13. N° I. and the main pipe go on with¬
out interruption \ or it may be made to furround an
interruption of the main pipe, as in fig. 13. N° 2. It
may alfo be in any part of the main pipe. If the foie
effeft intended by it is to produce an equable jet, as in
ornamental water-works, it may be near the end of the
main. This will require much lefs ftrength, becaufe
there remains but a ffiort column of water to comprefs
the air in it. But it is, on the whole, more advanta¬
geous to place it as near the pump as poffible, that it
may produce an equable motion in the whole main pipe.
This is of confiderable advantage : when a column of
water feveral hundred feet long is at reft in the main
pipe, and the pifton at one end of it put at once into
motion, even with a moderate velocity, the ftrain on
the pipe would be very great. Indeed if it were poffible
to put the pifton inftantaneoufly into motion with a finite
velocity, the ftrain on the pipe, tending to burft it, 2g
would be next to infinite. But this feems impoffible in The defu!
nature ; all changes of motion which we ohferve are gra- tory mo-
dual, becaufe all impelling bodies have fome elafticity
or foftnefs by which they yield to compreffion. And, ^
in the way in which piftons are commonly moved, viz.
by cranks, or fomething analogous to them, the motion
\ivery fenjibly gradual. But ftill the air veffel tends to
make the motion along the main pipe lefs defultory, and,
therefore diminilhes thofe ftrains which would really take
,|>lac«
P U M
[ 5°5 ]
P U M
29
Corredled
3»
But on a
Pump, place in the main-pipe. It a£ls like the fprings of a
--v—•' travelling-carriage, whofe jolts are incomparably lefs
than thofe of a cart $ and by this means really enables a
given force to propel a greater quantity of water in the
fame time.
We may here by the way obferve, that the attempts
of mechanicians to corredl this unequal motion of the
pifton-rod are mifplaced, and if it could be done, would
greatly hurt a pump. One of the beft methods of pro¬
ducing thiseffeft is to make the pifton-rod confift of two
parallel bars, having teeth in the fides which front each
other. Let a toothed wheel be placed between them,
having only the half of its circumference furnifhed with
teeth. It is evident, without any farther defcription,
that if this wheel be turned uniformly round its axis, the
pifton-rod will be moved uniformly Up and down with¬
out intermiflion. This has often been put in prafiice j
but the machine always went by jolts, and feldom lafted
a few days. Unlkilled mechanicians attributed this to
defeat in the execution : but the fault is effential, and
lies in the principle.
The machine could not perform one ftroke, if the
wrongprin-mover did not flacken a little, or the different parts
of the machine did not yield by bending or by compref-
fion ; arid no ftrength of materials could withftand the
violence of the ftrains at every reciprocation of the mo¬
tion. This is chiefly experienced in great works which
are put in motion by a water-wheel, or fome other
equal power exerted on the mafs of matter of which
the machine confifts. The water-wheel being of great
weight, moves with confiderable. fteadinefs or unifor¬
mity ; and when an additional refiftance is oppofed to
it by the beginning of a new ftroke of the pifton, its
great quantity of motion is but little affe&ed by this
addition, and it proceeds very little retarded ; and the
machine muft either yield a little by bending and com-
preflion, or go to pieces, which is the common event.
Cranks are free from this inconvenience, becaufe they
accelerate the pifton gradually, and bring it gradually
to reft, while the ivater-wheel moves round with almoft
perfeft uniformity. The only inconvenience (and it
may be confiderable) attending this flow motion of the
pifton at the beginning of its ftroke is, that the valves
do not fliut with rapidity, fo that fome water gets back
through them. But when they are properly formed and
3I loaded, this is but trifling.
Theleequa- We muft not imagine, that becaufe the ftream pro-
ble pumps ducej by the afliftance of an air-barrel is almoft per-
teiververyequable, and becaufe as much water runs out du-
water than nng the returning ot the pifton as during its active
the others, ftroke, it therefore doubles the quantity of water. No
more water can run out than what is fent forward by
the pifton during its effe£Hve ftroke. The continued
ftream is produced only by preventing the whole of
this ivater from being difcharged during this time, and
by providing a propelling force to aft during the pifton’s
return. Nor does it enable the moving force of-the pi¬
fton to produce a double effedl: : for the compreflion
Avhich is produced in the air-veflel, more than Avhat is
necefiary for merely balancing the quiefcent column of
Avater, reafts on the pifton, refifting its compreflion juft
as much as the column of Avater Avould do which pro¬
duces a velocity equal to that of the efflux. Thus if the
Avater is made to fpout Avith the velocity of eight feet per
fecund, this Avould require an additional column of one
Vol. XVII. Part II.
foot high, and this Avould juft balance the compreflion Pump,
in the air-veflel, which maintains this velocity during 1 v "**'
the non-a<El:ion of the pifton. It is, hoAvever, a matter
of fa£t, that a pump furnifhed with an air-veflel delivers
a little more Avater than it Avould do without it. But
the difference depends on the combination of many very
diftimilar circumftances, Avhich it is extremely difficult
to bring into calculation. Some of thefe Avill be men¬
tioned afterAvards.
To defcribe, or even to enumerate, the immenfe va¬
riety of combinations of thefe three Ample pumps Avould
fill a volume. We {hall feleft a few, which are more
deferving of notice. y,
I. The common fucking-pump may, by a fmall ad- The fuck-
dition, be converted into a lifting pump, fitted for pro-ing-pump
polling the water to any diftance, and with any vclo-
Fig. 14. is a fucking pump, Avhofe Avorking-barrel p/g. j^,
ACDB has a lateral pipe AEGHF connected Avith it
clofe to the top. This terminates in a main or rifing
pipe IK, furnifhed nr not Avith a valve L. The top
of the barrel is ftmt up by a ftrong plate MN, having a
IioIIoav neck terminating in a fmall fianch. The pifton
rod QR paffes through this neckj and is nicely turned
and poliftieds A number of rings of leather are put
over the rod, and ftrongly compreffed round it by an¬
other flahch and feveral fcrewed bolts, as is reprefented
at Of*. By this contrivance the rod is clofely grafped
by the leathers, but may be eafily drawn up and doAvn,
Avhile all paffage of air or Avater is effeflually pre¬
vented.
The pifton S is perforated, and furnifhed Avith a
valve opening upAvards. There is alfb a valve T on
the top of the fuftion-pipe YX ; and it Avill be of ad¬
vantage, though not abfolutely neceffary, to put a valve
L at the bottom of the rifing pipe. Noav fuppofe the
pifton at the bottom of the Avorking-barrel. Wfien it
is draAvn up, it tends to comprefs the air above it, bo-
caufe the valve in the pifton remains (hut by its own
Aveight. The air therefore is driven through the valve
L into the rifing pipe, and efcapes. In the mean time,
the air Avhich occupied the fmall fpace betAveen the pi¬
fton and the valve T expands into the upper part of
the working-barrel; and its elafticity is fo much dimi-
niftied thereby, that the atmofphere preffes the Avater of
the ciftern into the fuiftion-pipe, where it Avill rife till
an equilibrium is again produced. The next doAvn-
ward ftroke of the pifton alloAvs the air, which had
come from the fu£Hon-pipe into the barrel during the
afeent of the pifton, to get through its valve. Upon
draAving up the pifton, this air is alfo draAvn off through
the rifing pipe. Repeating this procefs brings the Ava¬
ter at laft into the working-barrel, and it is then driven
along the rifing-pipe by the pifton. ,, '
This is one of the beft forms of a pump. The ra-Advantage'
refaflion may be Very perfe£t, becauie the pifton can t'1*’c°r--
be brought fo near to the bottom of the Avorking-Vei^or‘*
barrel: and, for forcing Avater in oppofition to great
preffutes, it appears preferable to the common forcing-
pump ; becaufe in that the pifton rods are compreffed
and expofed to bending, Avhich greatly hurts the pump
by wearing the pifton and barrel on one fide. This
foon renders it lefs tight, and much water {quirts out
by the fides of the pifton. But in this pump the piftoi;
rod is ahvays drawn or pulled, which keeps it ftraight j
3 S an4
Pump.
34
Equable
by combi-
aations.
p U M [
and rods exert a much greater force in oppolition to a
pull than in oppofition to compreffion. The collar of
leather round the pifton-rods is found by experience to
need very little repairs, and is very impervious to water.
The whole is very acceffible for repairs; and in this re-
fpeft much preferable to the common pump in deep
mines, where every fault of the pifton obliges us to
draw up fome hundred feet of piflon-rods. By this
addition, too, any common pump for the fervice of a
houfe is converted into an engine for extinguilhing fire,
or may be made to convey the water to every part of
the houfe ; and this without hurting or obftrufting its
common ufes. All that is neceflfary is to have a large
cock on the upper part of the working barrel oppo-
fite to the lateral pipe in this figure. This cock ferves
for a fpout when the pump is ufed for common pur-
pofes: and the merely (hutting this cock converts the
whole into an engine for extinguilhing fire or for fup--
plying diftant places with water. It is fcarcely necef-
fary to add, that for thefe fervices it will be proper to
conned! an air-veffel with fome convenient part of the
rifing pipe, in order that the current of the water may
be continual.
We have frequently fpoken of the advantages of a
ftreams pro-continued current in the main pipe. In all great W'orks
duced m a confiderable degree of uniformity is produced by the
giear works manner Q£ (Jjfpofing the adlions of the different pumps j
for it is very rarely that a machine works but one
pump. In order to maintain fome uniformity in the
refiftance, that it may not all be oppofed at once to the
moving power, with intervals of total inadlion, which
would produce a very hobbling motion, it is ufual to
diftribute the work into portions, which fucceed alter¬
nately ; and thus both diminiffi the drain, and give
greater uniformity of adlion, and frequently enable a
natural power which we can command, to perform a
piece of work, which would be impoffible if the whols
refiftance were oppofed at once. Ins all pump ma¬
chines therefore, we are obvioufly diredled to condrud!
them fo that they may give motion to at lead two
pumps, which work alternately. By this means a much
greater uniformity of current is produced in the main
pipe. It will be rendered dill more uniform if four are
employed, fucceeding each other at the interval of one
quarter of the time of a complete droke.
But ingenious men have attempted the fame thing
with a tingle pump, and many different eondrudlions
this purpofe have been propofed and executed.
The thing is not of much importance, or of great re-
fearch. We lhall content ourfelves therefore with the
defcription of one that appears to us the mod perfeft,
both in refped! of fimplicity and effedl.
II. It confids of a working-barrel AB (fig. 15.)'
clofe at both ends. The pidon C is folid, and the rod
OP paffes through a collar of leathers in the plate,
which clofes the upper end of the working-barrel This
barrel communicates laterally with two pipes H, Kj the
communications m and n being as near to the top and
bottom of the barrel as poflible. Adjoining to the
paffage m are two valves F and G opening upwards.
Similar valves accompany the paffage n. The two pipes
H and K unite in a larger rifing pipe L. They are all
reprefented as in the fame plane j but the upper ends
mud he bent backwards, to give room for the motion
«f the pidon-rod OP.
Pump.
35
A Angle
pump t or
this purpofe for
.deicnbed
Tig. 15.
506 1 P U M
Suppofe the pidon clofe to the entry of the lateral
pipe », and that it is drawn up: it compreffes the air ^
above it, and drives it through the valve G, where it
efcapes along the rifing pipe j at the fame time it
rarefies the air in the fpaee below it. Therefore the
weight of the atmofphere diuts the valve E, and caufes
the water of the cidern to rife through the valve
and fill the lower part of the pump. When the pidon
is puthed down again, this water is fird driven through
the valve E, becaufe D immediately {huts; and then
mod of the air which was in this part of the pump at
the beginning goes up through it, fome of the water
coming back in its dead. In the mean time, the air
which remained in the upper part of the pump after the
afeent of the pidon is rarefied by its defeent; becaufe
the valve G Ihuts as foon as the pidon begins to de-
feend, the valve F opens, the air in this luftion pipe
F y expands into the barrel, and the water rifes in¬
to the pipes by the preffure of the atmofphere. The
next rife of the pidon mud bring more water into the
lower part of the barrel, and mud drive a little more
air through the valve G, namely, part of that which
had come out of the fuftion-pipe F/; and the next
defeent of the pidon mud drive more water into the
rifing pipe FI, and along with it mod if not all of the
air which remained below the pidon, and mud rarefy
dill more the air remaining above the pidon •, and more
water will come in through the pipe Fy and get into
the barrel. It is evident, that a few repetitions will at
lad fill the barrel on both tides of the pidon with water.
When this is accomplidied, there is no difficulty in per¬
ceiving how, at every rife of the pidon, the water of
the cidern will come in by the valve D, and the water
in the upper part of the. barrel will be driven through
the valve G ; and, in every defeent of the pidon, the
water of the cidern will come into the barrel by the
valve F, and the water below the pidon will be driven
through the valve E : and thus there will be a continu¬
al influx into the barrel through the valves D and F,
and a continual difeharge along the rifing pipe L through
ike valves E and G. ^
This machine is, to be fure, equivalent to two forcing It g tquiva.
pumps, although it has but one barrel and one pidon ; lent to two
but it lias no fort of fuperiority. It is not even more forcing-
economical in mod cafes*, becaufe tve apprehend thatl,UIDPs*
the additional workmanffiip will fully compenfate for
the barrel and pidon that is faVed. There is indeed a
faving in the red of the machinery, becaufe one lever
produces both motions. We cannot therefore fay that
it is inferior to two pumps; and we acknowledge that
there is fome ingenuity in the contrivance.
We recommend to our readers the perufal of Bell- Authors re-
dor’s ArchiteBure Hydraulique, where is to be found a com mend-
great variety of combinations and forms of the Ample ed.
pumps $ but we mud caution them with refpeft to his
theories, which in this article are extremely defedHve.
Alfo in Leupold’s Theatrum Machinaruvi Hydraulica-
rum, there is a prodigious variety of all kinds of pumps,
many of them very lingular and ingenious, and many
which have particular advantages, which may fuit local
circumdances, and give them a preference. But it
would be improper to fwell a work of this kind with fo
many peculiarities; and a perfon who makes himfelf
mader of the principles delivered here in fufficient de¬
tail, can be at no lofs to fuit a pump to his particular
views*.
P U M [ 507 1 P U M
Pamp. views, or to judge of the merit of fuch as may be pro-
pofed to him.
We muft now take notice of fome very confiderable
and important varieties in the form and contrivance of
the eflential parts of a pump.
■he forcing III. The forcing pump is fometimes of a very differ-
unp diffe-cnt; form from that already defcribed. Inftead of a
•ntly c]on* piilon, which applies itfelf to the infide of the barrel,
Opiate and ^‘des up and down in it, there is a long cylinder
CCCCL. POQ^ (fig. 16.) nicely turned and polilhed on the out-
lC* fide, and of a diameter fomewhat lefs than the infide of
the barrel. This cylinder (called a plunger) Hides
through a collar of leathers on the top of the working-
barrel, and is conftrufted as follows. The top of the
barrel terminates in a fianch ab, pierced with four holes
for receiving fcrew-bolts. There are two rings of me¬
tal, c d, ef of the fame diameter, and having holes cor-
refponding to thofe in the flanch. Four rings of foft
leather, of the fame fize, and fimilarly pierced with
holes, are well foaked in a mixture of oil, tallow, and a
little rofin. Two of thefe leather rings are laid on the
pump flanch, and one of the metal rings above them.
The plunger is then thruft down through them, by
which it turns their inner edges dowmvards. The other
two rings are then flipped on at the top of the plun¬
ger, and the fecond metal ring is put over them, and
then the whole are Aid down to the metal ring. By
this the inner edges of the laft leather rings are turned
upwards. The three metal rings are now forced to¬
gether by the ferewed bolts } and thus the leathern
rings are ftrongly comprefied between them, and made
to grafp the plunger fo clofely that no preflure can
force the water through between. The upper metal
ring juft; allows the plunger to pafs through it, but
without any play *, fo that the turned-up edges of the
leathern rings do not come up between the plunger and
the upper metal ring, but are lodged in a little conical
taper, which is given to the inner edge of the upper
plate, its hole being wider below than above. It is on
this trifling circumftance that the great tightnefs of the
collar depends. To prevent the leathers from (hrinking
by drought, there is ufually a little ciftern formed
round the head of the pump, and kept full of water.
The plunger is either forced down by a rod from a
working beam, or bv a fet of metal-weights laid on it,
as is reprefen ted in t he figure.
s mode of It is hardly necefiary to be particular in explaining
aeration, the operation of this pump. When the plunger is at
the bottom of the barrel, touching the fixed valve M
with its lower extremity, it almoft completely fills it.
That it may do it completely, there is fometimes a fmall
pipe RSZ branching out from the top of the barrel,
and fitted w'ith a cock at S. Water is admitted till the
barrel is completely filled, and the cock is then fhut.
Now when the plunger is drawn up, the valve N in the
rifing pipe muft remain ftiut by the preflure of the at-
mofphere, and a void muft be made in the barrel. There¬
fore the valve M on the top of the fumftion-pipe muft
be opened by the elafticity of the air in this pipe, and
the air muft expand into the barrel-, and being no longer
£ balance for the atmofphere, the water in the ciftern
muft be forced into the fun£tion-pipe, and rife in it to a
certain height. When the plunger defcends, it muft
drive the water through the valve N (for the valve M
will immediately ftmt)r and along with it moft of the
air which had come into the barrel. And as this air Pump,
occupied the upper part of the barrel, part of it will re-
main when the plunger has reached the bottom ; but
a ftroke or two will expel it all, and then every fucceed-
ing ftroke of the defcending pifton will drive the tvater
along the rifing pipe, and every afcent of the plunger
will be followed by the water from the ciftern.
The advantage propofed by this form of pifton is
that it may be more accurately made and polilhed than
the infide of a working barrel, and it is of much eafier
repair. Yet we do not find that it is much ufed, al¬
though an invention of the 17th century (we think by
Sir Samuel Morland), and much praifed by the writers
on thefe fubje&s.
It is eafy to fee that the fucking-pump may be vari-Suck^g_
ed in the fame w'ay. Suppofe this plunger to be open pump fimi--
both at top and bottom, but the bottom filled with a larly va-
valve opening upward. When this is puflied to the“e^-
bottom of the barrel, the air which it tends to com-
prefs lifts the valve (the lateral pipe FIK being taken
away and the pafiage Ihut up), and efcapes through the
plunger. When it is drawn up, it makes the fame ra*
refaftion as the folid plunger, becaufe the valve at O
fkuts, and the water will come up from the ciftern as in
the former cafe. If the plunger be now thruft down
again, the valve M {huts, the valve O is forced open,
and the plunger is filled with water. This will be lifted
by it during its next afcent ; and when it is pufhed
down again, the Avater which filled it muft now be pufh¬
ed out, and will flow over its fides into the ciftern at the
head of the barrel. Inftead of making the valve at the
bottom of the pifton, it may be made at the top 5 but
this difpofition is much inferior, becaufe it cannot rare¬
fy the air in the barrel one half. This is evident 5 for
the capacity of the barrel and plunger together cannot
be twice the capacity of the barrel. ^
IV. It may be made after a ftill different form, as Another
reprefented in fig. 17. Here the fu<ftion-pipe CO ^orm °* the
comes up through a ciftern KMNL deeper or longer ^uc^ing-
than the intended ftroke of the pifton, and has a valve
C at top. The pifton, or what a<fts in lieu of it, is a i
tube AHGB, open at both ends, and of a diameter
fomewhat larger than that of the fu£lion-pipe. The
interval between them is filled up at HG by a ring or
belt of foft leather, which is fattened to the outer tube-,
and moves up and down with it, Aiding along the
fmoothly poliftied furface of the fusion-pipe with very
little fri&ion. There is a valve I on the top of this
pifton, opening upwards. Water is poured into the
outer ciftern.
The outer cylinder or pifton being drawn up from ami its
the bottom, there is a great rarefaction of the air which motie “f
was between them, and the atmofphere preffes the wa-0^eratl0^^,
ter up through the fu£tion-pipe to a certain height j
for the valve I keeps ftiut by the preffure of the atmo¬
fphere and its own weight. Pufhing down the pifton
caufes the air, which had expanded from the fuCtion-
pipe into the pifton, to efcape through the valve I ;
drawifig it up a fecond time, allows the atmofphere to
prefs more water into the fuCHon-pipe, to fill it, and al-
fo part of the pifton. When this is puflied down again,
the water which had come through the valve C is now
forced out through the valve I into the cittern KMNL,
and now the whole is full of water. When, therefore,
the piften is drawrt up, the water follows, and fills it, if
P U ■ M
C S°8 ]
P U M
43
The pifton
cylinder
44
Pumps
witnout
fndlion
not of im
Tump, not 3^ feet above the tvater in the ciftern j and when it
-—v-—- is pufhed down again, the water which filled the pifton
is all thrown out into the ciftern ; and after this it deli¬
vers its full contents of water every ftroke. the water
in the cittern KMNL effectually prevents the entry of
any air between the two pipes*, fo that a very moderate
compreffion of the belt of foft leather at the mouth of
the pifton cylinder is fufficient to make all perfectly
tight.
It might be made differently. The ring of leather
might be faftened round the top of the inner cylinder
differently at and flirfe on the infide of the pifton cylinder ;
formed. ^ the firft form is molt eafily executed. Mufchen-
broeck has given a figure of this pump in his large
fyftem of natural philofophy, and fpeaks very highly of
its performance. But we do not fee any advantage
which it poffefles over the common fucking-pump. He
indeed fays that it is without friCtion, and makes no
mention of the ring of leather between the two cy¬
linders. Such a pump will raife water extremely well
to a fmall height, and it feems to have been a model
only which he had examined : But if the fudion-pipe is
long, it will by no means do without the leather *, for
on drawing up the pifton, the water of the upper ciftern
will rife between the pipes, and fill the pifton, and none
will come up through the luftion-pipe.
We may take this opportunity of obferving, that the
many ingenious contrivances of pumps without friClion
are of little importance in great works *, becaufe the
portant ufe. friCUon which is completely fufficient to prevent all
efcape of water in a well-conftruCted pump is but a
very trifling part of the whole force. In the-great
pumps which are ufed in mines, and are worked by
a fleam-engine, it is very ufual to make the piftons and
valves without any leather whatever. The working bar¬
rel is bored truly cylindrical, and the pifton is made of
metal of a fize that will juft pafs along it without flick¬
ing. When this is drawn up with the velocity compe¬
tent to a properly loaded machine, the quantity of wa¬
ter which efcapes round the pifton is infignificant. The
pifton is made without leathers, not to avoid friClion,
which is alfo infignificant in fuch works *, but to avoid
the neceffity of frequently drawing it up for repairs
through fuch a length of pipes.
Example V. If. a pump abfolutely without friClion be wanted,
Ut a Ample t]ie following feems preferable for fimplicity and per-
formance to any we have feen, when made ufe of in
proper fituations. Let NO (fig. 18.) be the furface
of the wrater in the pit, and K the place of delivery.
The pit muft be as deep in water as from K to NO.
ABCD is a wooden trunk, round or fquare, open at
both ends, and having a valve P at the bottom. The
top of this trunk mull be on a level with K, and has a
fmall ciftern EADF. It alfo communicates laterally
with a rifing pipe GHK, furnifhed with a valve at H
opening upwards. LM is a beam of timber fo fitted
to the trunk as to fill it without flicking, and is of at
leaf! equal length. It hangs by a chain from a work*
ing beam, and is loaded on the top with weights ex¬
ceeding that of the column of water which it difplaces.
Now fuppofe this beam allowed to defcend from the
pofition in which it is drawn in the figure y the wa¬
ter muft rife all around it, in the crevice which is be¬
tween it and the trunk, and alfo in the rifing pipe j be-
eaufe the valve P fhuts, and H opens $ fo that when the
Pump.
out fnc
xion.
Fis;. 18.
4*
plunger has got to the bottom, the water will ftand at
the level of K. When the plunger is again drawn up '
to the top by the aClion of the moving power, the wa¬
ter finks again in the trunk, but not in the rifing pipe,
becaufe it is flopped by the valve H. Then allowing
the plunger to defcend again, the water muft agtiin rile
in the trunk to the level of K, and it muft now flow
out at K ; and the quantity difcharged will be equal to
the part of the beam below the furface of the pit-
water, deduCling the quantity which fills the fra all fpace
between the beam and the trunk. This quantity may
be reduced almoft to nothing *, for if the infide of the
trunk and the outfide of the beam be made tapering,
the beam may be let down till they exaCtly fit j and as
this may be done in fquare work, a good workman can
make it exceedingly accurate. But in this cafe, the
lower half of the beam and trunk muft not taper : and
this part of the trunk muft be of fufficient width round
the beam to allow free paffage into the rifing pipe.
Or, which is better, the rifing pipe muft branch off
from the bottom of the trunk. A difcharge may be
made from the ciftern EADF, fo that as little water as
poffible may defcend along the trunk when the pifton is
raifed.
One great excellence of this pump is, that it is per-Its excel,
feftly free from all the deficiencies which in commonlen^“*re
pumps refult from want of being air-tight. Another eT‘
is, that the quantity of water raifed is precifely equal
to the power expended ; for any want of accuracy in
the work, while it occafions a diminution of the quan¬
tity of water difcharged, makes an equal diminution in
the weight which is neceffary for pufliing down the
plunger. We have feen a machine confiiling of two
fuch pumps fufpended from the arms of a long beam,
the upper fide of which was formed into a walk with
a rail on each fide. A man flood on one end till it
got to the bottom, and then walked foberly up to
the other end, the inclination being about twenty-
five degrees at firft:, but gradually diminiftied as he went
along, and changed the load of the beam. By this
means he made the other end go to the bottom, and fo
on alternately, with the eafieft of all exertions, and
what we are moft fitted for by our ftru£lure. With this
machine, a very feeble old man, weighing no pounds,
raifed 7 cubic feet of water 1feet high in a minute,
and continued working 8 or 10 hours every day. A
flout young man, weighing nearly 135 pounds, raifed
8-f to the fame height, and when he carried 30 pounds,
conveniently flung about him, he raifed 9^ feet to this
height, working 10 hours a-day without fatiguing
himfelf. This exceeds Defagulier’s maximum of a
hogftiead of water 10 feet high in a minute, in the pro- ^
portion of 9 to 7 nearly. It is limited to very mode- but it is li.
rate heights j but in fueh fituations it is very effe£lual. mited.
It was the contrivance of an untaught labouring man,
poffeffed of uncommon mechanical genius. We ftiall
have oecafion to mention, with refpeft, fome other con¬
trivances of the fame perfon, in the article WatER-
Wbrks. 48
VI. The moft ingenious contrivance of a pump with- Hafkin’s
out friction is that of Mr Halkins, defcribed by Defagu-PUI.UP
liers, and called by him the Quicksilver Pump. Itslcnbed*
conftruftion and mode of operation are pretty compli¬
cated } but the following preliminary obfervations will,
we hope, render it abundantly plain.
Let-
P U M
[ 509 ]
P U M
Pump.
Fig. 19*
49
Its mode
of opera¬
tion.
Let il tnk (fig. 19.) be a cylindrical iron pipe, about
fix feet long, open at top. Let eg hf be another cy¬
linder, conne&ed with it at the bottom, and of fmaller
diameter. It may either be folid, or, if hollow, it
muft be clofe at ton. Let n c d b be a tnird iron
cylinder, of an intermediate diameter, fo that it may
move up and down between the other two without
touching either, but with as little interval as pofiible.
Let this middle cylinder communicate, by means of the
pipe AB, with the upright pipe F£, having valves C
and D (both opening upwards) adjoining to the pipe
of communication. Suppofe the outer cylinder fuf-
pended by chains from the end of a working beam, and
let mercury be poured into the interval between the
three cylinders till it fills the fpace to 0 p, about ^ of
their height. Alfo fuppofe that the lower end of the
pipe FE is imraerfed into a cittern of water, and that
the valve D is lefs than 33 feet above the furface of this
water.
Now fuppofe a perforation made fomewhere in the
pipe AB, and a communication made with an air-pump.
When the air-pump is worked, the air contained in CE,
in AB, and in the fpace between the inner and middle
cylinders, is rarefied, and is abttrafted by the air-pump ;
for the valve D immediately ihuts. The preffure of
the atmofphere will caufe the water to rife in the pipe
CE, and will caufe the mercury to rife between the
inner and middle cylinders, and fink betrveen the outer
and middle cylinders. Let us fuppofe mercury *2
times heavier than water : Then for every foot that
the water rifes in EC, the level between the outfide and
infide mercury will vary an inch", and if we fuppofe
DE to be 30 feet, then if we can rarefy the air fo as to
raife the water to D, the outfide mercury will be de-
preflfed to q, r, and the infide mercury will have rifen to
s, t, sq and tr, being about 30 inches. In this ftate of
things, the water will run over by the pipe BA, and
every thing will remain nearly in this pofition. 1 he
columns of water and mercury balance each other, and
balance the preiTure of the atmofphere.
While things are in this ttate of equilibrium, if we
allow the cylinders to defeend a little, the water will
rife in the pipe FE, which we may now confider as a
fu£tion-pipe •, for by this motion the capacity of the
whole is enlarged, and therefore the preffure of the at¬
mofphere will ftitl keep it full, and the fituation of the
mercury will again be fuch that all {hall be in equilibrio.
It will be a little lower in the infide fpace and higher
in the outfide.
Taking this view of things, we fee clearly how the
water is ilipported by the atmofphere at a very confi-
derable height. The apparatus is analogous to a fy-
phon which has one leg filled with water and the other
with mercury. But it u'as not neceffary to employ an
air-pump to fill it. Suppofe it again empty, and all
the valves (hut by their own weight. Let the cylinders
defeend a little. The capacity of the fpaces below the
valve D is enlarged, and therefore the included air is
rarefied, and fome of the air in the pipe CE mutt dir-
fufe itfelf into the fpace quitted by the inner cylinder.
Therefore the atmofphere will prefs fome water up the
pipe FE, and fome mercury into the inner fpace be¬
tween the cylinders. When the cylinders are raifed
again, the air which came from the pipe CE would re¬
turn into it again, but is prevented by the valve C.—
Pump,
Raifing the cylinders to their former height would eom-
prefs this air j it therefore lifts the valve D, and efcapes.
Another depreflion of the cylinders will have a fimilar
effedt. The water will rife higher in EC, and the mer¬
cury in the inner fpace j and then, after repeated ftrokes,
the water will pafs the valve C, and fill the whole ap¬
paratus, as the air-pump had eaufed it to do before.—
The pofition of the cylinders, when things are in this
fituation, is reprefented in fig. 20. the outer and inner Fig. 20.
cylinders in their loweft pofition having defeended about
30 inches. The mercury in the outer fpace Hands
at q, r, a little above the middle of the cylinders, and
the mercury in the inner fpace is near the top t s of the
inner cylinder. Now let the cylinders be drawn up.
The water above the mercury cannot get back again
through the valve C, which (huts by its own weight.
We therefore attempt to comprefs it ; but the mercury
yields, and defeends in the inner fpace, and rifes in
the outer, till both are quickly on a level, about the
height vv. If we continue to raife the cylinders, the
compreflion forces out more mercury, and it now {lands
lower in the inner than in the outer fpace. But that
there may be fomething to balance this inequality ol
the mercurial columns, the water goes through the
valve D, and the equilibrium is reftored when the
height of the water in the pipe ED above the lurface
of the internal mercury is 12 times the difference of
the mercurial columns (on the former fuppofition of
fpecific gravity). If the quantity of water is fuch as
to rife two feet in the pipe ED, the mercury in the
outer fpace will be two inches higher than that in the
inner fpace. Another depreflion of the cylinders will
again enlarge the fpace within the apparatus, the mer ¬
cury will take the pofition of fig. 19* an<^ more water
will come in. Raifing the cylinders will fend this
water four feet up the pipe ED, and the mercury will
be four inches higher in the inner than in the outer
fpace. Repeating this operation, the water will be
raifed ftill higher in DE ; and this will go on till the
mercury in the outer fpace reaches the top of the cy¬
linder ; and this is the limit of the performance. The
dimenfions with which we fet out will enable the ma¬
chine to raife the water about 30 feet in the pipe ED;
which, added to the 30 feet of CF, makes the whole
height above the pit-water 60 feet. By making the
cylinders longer, we increafe the height of FD. This
machine mutt be worked with great attention, and hut
flowly ; for at the beginning of the forcing ftroke the
mercury very rapidly finks in the inner fpace and rifes
in the outer, and will dafh out and be lott. To pre¬
vent this as much as pofiible, the outer cylinder termi¬
nates in a fort of cup or dhh, and the inner cylinder
ttiould be tapered a-top. 50
The machine is exceedingly ingenious and refined ; Ingenuity
and there is no doubt but that its performance will ex-tfivance""
ceed that of any other pump which raifes the water tOgreat^
the fame height, becaufe friclion is completely avoided,
and there can be no want of tightnefs of the pitton.— 51
But this is all its advantage; and from what has been hut the ad-
obferved, it is but trifling. The expence would be enor-™^®
mous ; for with whatever care the cylinders are made, n in^-
the interval between the inner and outer cylinders muft
contain a very great quantity of mercury. The middle
cylinder muft be made of iron plate, and muft be without
a feam, for the mercury would, diffolve every folder. For
fuch
P U M
[ S'o }
P U M
Pump.
5Z .
Defcription
of another
pump with¬
out fric-
F:'g. 21.
53
Its mode
of opera¬
tion, See.
fiich reafons, it has never come into general ufe. But
it would have been unpardonable to have omitted the
defcription of an invention which is fo original and in¬
genious •, and there are fome occafions where it may be
of great ufe, as in nice experiments for illuftrating the
theory of hydraulics, it would give the fined piftons for
meafuring the preffures of water in pipes, &c. It is
on precifely the fame principle that the cylinder bel¬
lows, defcribed in the article Pneumatics, are con-
llrufled.
We beg leave to conclude this part of the fubjefl
with the defeription of a pump without friction, which
'may be conftrufted in a variety of ways by any common
carpenter, without the aftiftance of the pump-maker or
plumber, and will be very eft'ebtive for raifing a great
quantity of water to fmall heights, as in draining
marfhes, marl-pits, quarries, &c. or even for the fervice
of a houfe.
VII. ABCD (fig. 21.) is a fquare trunk of carpen¬
ter’s work, open at both ends, and having a little ci-
ftern and fpout at top. Near the bottom there is a
partition made of board, perforated with a hole E,
and covered with a clack. /£//reprefents a long cy¬
lindrical bag or pudding, made of leather or of double
canvas, with a fold of thin leather fuch as Iheep {kin be¬
tween the canvas bags. This is firmly nailed to the
board E with foft leather between. The upper end of
this bag is fixed on a round board, having a hole and
valve F. This board may be turned in the lathe with
a groove round its edge, and the bag faftened to it by
a cord bound tight round it. The fork of the pifton-
rod FG is firmly fixed into this board j the bag is kept
diftended by a number of wooden hoops or rings of
jlrong wire ff ff, ff &c. put into it at a few inches
diltance from each other. It will be proper to connect
thefe hoops before putting them in, by three or four
cords from top to bottom, which will keep them at
their proper diftances. Thus will the bag have the
form of a barber’s bellows powder-puff. The diflance
between the hoops fhould be about twice the breadth of
the rim of the wooden ring to which the upper valve
and pifton-rod are fixed.
Now let this trunk be immerfed in the water. It is
evident that if the bag be ftretched from the compref-
fed form which its own weight will give it by drawing
up the pifton-rod, its capacity will be enlarged, the
valve F wull be {hut by its own weight, the air in the
bag will be rarefied, and the atmofphere will prefs the
water into the bag. When the rod is thruft down
again, this water will come out by the valve F, and
fill part of the trunk. A repetition of the operation wull
have a fimilar effedl j the trunk will be filled, and the
water will at laft be difcharged by the fpout.
Here is a pump without friftion, and perfe&ly tight.
For the leather between the folds of canvas renders the
bag impervious both to air and water. And the can¬
vas has very confiderable ftrength. We know from
experience that a bag of fix inches diameter, made of
fail-cloth N° 3. with a ftieep {kin between, will bear a
column of 15 feet of water, and ftand fix hours work
per day for a month without failure, and that the pump
is confiderably fuperior in effeft to a common pump
of the fame dimenfions. We muft only obferve, that the
length of the bag muft be three tiims the intended
length of the ftroke 3 fo that when the pifton-rod is in
its higheft pufition, the angles or ridges of the bag may Pump,
be pretty acute. If the bag be more ftretched than —y—
this, the force which muft be exerted by the labourer
becomes much greater than the weight of the column
of water which he is raifing. If the pump be laid
aflope, which is very ufual in thefe occafional and hafty
drawings, it is neceffary to make a guide for the pifton-
rod within the trunk, that the bag may play up and
down wuthout rubbing on the fides, which would quick¬
ly wear it out.
Tire experienced reader will fee that this pump is
very like that of Goffet and Dela Deuille, defcribed by
Belidor, vol. ii. p. 1 20. and moft writers on hydraulics.
It would be ftill more like it, if the bag were on the
under fide of the partition E, and a valve placed farther
down the trunk. But we think that our form is great¬
ly preferable in point of ftrength. When in the other
fituation, the column of water lifted by the pifton
tends to burjl the bag, and this with a great force, as
the intelligent reader well knows. But in the form re¬
commended here, the bag is compreJJ'ed, and the ftrain
on each part may be made much lefs than that which
tends to burft a bag of fix inches diameter. The nearer
the rings are placed to each other the fmaller will the
ftrain be.
The fame bag-pifton may be employed for a forcing
pump, by placing it below the partition, and inverting
the valve 3 and it will then be equally ftrong, becaufe
the refiftance in this cafe too will aft by compreflion.
We now come naturally to the confideration of the
different forms which may be given to the piftons and
valves of a pump. A good deal of what we have been
defcribing already is reducible to this head 3 but, having
a more general appearance, changing as it w'ere the
whole form and ftrufture of the pump, it was not im¬
proper to keep thefe things together.
The great defideratum in a pifton is, that it be asp;fl.01iS
tight as poffible, and have as little friftion as is confiftent fhouldhave
with this indifpenfable quality. We have already faid, hk-
that the common form, when carefully executed, has11011,
thefe properties in an eminent degree. And according¬
ly this form has kept its ground amidft all the improve¬
ment which ingenious artifts have made. Mr Belidor,
an author of the firft reputation, has given the defcrip¬
tion of a pifton which he highly extols, and is undoubt¬
edly a very good one, conftrufted from principle, and
extremely well compofed.
It confifts of a hollow cylinder of metal g h (fig. 22.) An ;^pre.
pierced with a number of holes, and having at top avedoneby
flanch AB, whofe diameter is nearly equal to that of Belidor.
the working-barrel of the pump. This flanch has a a2,
groove round it. There is another flanch IK below, by
which this hollow cylinder is faftened with bolts to the
lower end of the pifton, reprefented in fig. 23. This ^ ^
confifts of a plate CD, with a grooved edge fimilar to
AB, and an intermediate plate which forms the feat of
the valve. The compofition of this part is better under-
ftood by infpefting the figure than by any defcrip¬
tion. The pifton-rod HE is fixed to the upper plate
by bolts through its different branches at G, G. This
metal body is then covered with a cylindrical bag of
leather faftened on it by cords bound round it, filling
up the grooves in the upper and lower plates. The
operation of the pifton is as follows.
A little water is poured into the pump, which gets
P U M
[ 5n ]
P U M
Pump.
56
pad the fides of the pifton, and lodges below in the
fixed valve. The pifton being puftied down dips into
this water, and it gets into it by the valve. But as the
pifton in defcending compreffes the air below it, this
eomprefled air alfo gets into the infide of the pifton,
fwells out the bag which furrounds it, and compreffes it
to the fides of the working-barrel. When the pifton is
drawn up again, it muft remain tight, becaufe the valve
will ftiut, and keep in the air in its moft compreffed
ftate •, therefore the pifton muft perform well during the
fuftion. It muft aft equally well when puftied down
again, and afting as a forcer; for however great the
refiftance may be, it will affeft the air within the pifton
to the fame degree, and keep the leather clofe applied
to the barrel. There can be no doubt therefore of the
pifton’s performing both its offices completely ; but we
imagine that the adhefion to the barrel will be greater
than is neceffary : it will extend over the whole fur-
face of the pifton, and be equally great in every part of
its furface; and we fufpedl that the friftion will there¬
fore be very great. We have very high authority for
fuppofing that the adhefion of a pifton of the common
form, carefully made, will be fuch as will make it por¬
ts defe&s. feftly tight j and it is evident that the adhefion of Beli-
dor’s pifton will be much greater, and it will be produc¬
tive of worfe confequences. If the leather bag be worn
through in any one place, the air efcapes, and the pifton
ceafes to be compreffed altogether; whereas in the com¬
mon pifton there will very little harm refult from the
leather being worn through in one place, efpecially if it
project a good way beyond the bafe of the cone. We
ftill think the common piftbn preferable. Belidor’s
pifton would do much better inverted as the pifton of a
fucking pump; and in this fituation it would be equal,
^ but not fuperior, to the common.
Another by Belidor defcribes another forcing pifton, which he
'tie fame had executed with fuccefs, and prefers to the common
tuhor. wooden forcer. It confifts of a metal cylinder or cone,
having a broad flanch united to it at one end, and a fi-
milar flanch which is fcrewed on the other end. Be¬
tween thefe two plates are a number of rings of leather
ftrongly compreffed by the two flanches, and then turn¬
ed in a lathe like a block of wood, till the whole fits
tight, when dry, into the barrel. It will fwell, fays he,
and foften with the water, and withftand the greateft
*bjeftions preffures. We cannot help thinking this but an indif-
ferent pifton. When it wears, there is nothing to
fqueeze it to the barrel. It may indeed be taken out
and another ring or two of leather put in, or the flanches
may be more ftrongly fcrewed together ; but all this
may be done with any kind of pifton ; and this has
therefore no peculiar merit.
The following will, we prefume, appear vaftly pre¬
ferable. ABCD (fig. 24.) is the folid wooden or metal
block of the pifton ; EF is a metal plate, which is turn¬
ed hollow or difh-like below, fo as to receive within
it the folid block. The pifton rod goes through the
whole, and has a ftioulder above the plate EF, and a
nut H below. Four fcrew-bolts, fuch as ik, Im, alfo go
through the whole, have their heads k, m funk into
the block, and nuts above at z, /. The packing or fluf¬
fing, as it is termed by the workmen, is reprefented at
NO. This is made as folid as pofiible, and generally
confifts of foft hempen twine well foaked in a mixture
of oil, tallow, and rofin. The plate EF is gently fcrew-
2,.
Pump.
59
nother
xom-
ended as
sferable.
'&• 24-
Co
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
ed down, and the whole is then ’put into the barrel,
fitting it as tight as may be thought proper. When it
wears loofe, it may be tightened at any time by fcrew-
ing down the nuts z/, which caufe the edges of the difh
to fqueeze out the packing, and comprefs it againft the
barrel to any degree.
The greateft difficulty in the conftruftion of a pifton Difficulties
is to give a fufficient paffage through it for the water,in conftruc-
and yet allow a firm fupport for the valve, and fixturetin§ pif'
fur the pifton rod. We (hall fee prefently that it oc-10"5’
cafions a confiderable expence of the moving power to
force a pifton with a narrow perforation through the
water lodged in the working barrel. When we are
raifing water to a fmall height, fuch as 10 or 20 feet,
the power fo expended amounts to a fourth part of tha
whole, if the water-way in the pifton is lefs than one-
half of the feftion of the barrel, and the velocity of the
pifton two feet per feeond, which is very moderate.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that metal piftons are
preferable, becaufe their greater ftrength allows much
wider apertures.
The following pifton, deferibed and recommended by confuier-
Belidor, feems as perfed in thefe refpe&s as the nature aM,y.remo'
of things will allow. We lhall therefore deferibe it indefcribecT
the author’s own words as a model, which may be adopt- by Belidor,
ed with confidence in the greateft: works. p]ate
“ The body of the pifton is a truncated metal cone CCCCLI,
(%• 25-)> having a fmall fillet at the greater end. Fig* 25-
lig. 26. ihows the profile, and fig. 27. the plan off its
upper bafe; where appears a crofs bar DD, pierced
with an oblong mortife E for receiving the tail of the
pifton-rod. A band of thick and uniform leather AA
(fig. 26. and 28-,) is put round this cone, and fecurcd
by a brafs hoop BB firmly driven on its fmaller end,
where it is previoufly made thinner to give room for the
hoop.
“ This pifton. is covered with a leather valve fortified
with metal plates GG (fig. 29.). Thefe plates are Fig, 25V
wider than the hole of the pifton, fo as to reft on its
rim. There are fimilar plates below the leather of a
fmaller fize, that they may go into the hollow of the
pifton ; and the leather is firmly held between the metal
plates by ferews H, H, which go through all. This
is reprefented by the dotted circle IK. Thus the pref-
fure of the incumbent column of water is fupported by
the plates GG, whofe circular edges reft on the brim
of the water-way, and their flraight edges reft on the
crofs bar DD of fig. 26. and 27. This valve is laid
on the top of the conical box in fuch a manner that its
middle FF refts omthe crofs bar. To bind all together,
the end of the pifton rod is formed like a crofs, and the
arms MN (fig. 30.) are made to reft on the diameter Fig. 30,
FF of the valve, the tail EP going through the hole E
in the middle of the leather, and through the mortife E
of the crofs bar of the box ; and alfo through another
bar (fig. 28. and 29.) which is notched into the
lower brim of the box. A key V is then driven into
the hole T in the pifton-rod ; and this wedges all faft.
The bar QR is made ftrong ; and its extremities projeft
a little, fo as to fupport the brafs hoop BB which binds
the leather band to the pifton-box. The adjoining fcale
gives the dimenfions of all the parts, as they were exe¬
cuted for a fteam-engine near Conde, where the pifton
gave complete fatisfa£Hon.”
This pifton has every advantage of ftrength, tightnefs,
and!
P U M [ 51
t'uinp. and large water-way. The form of the valve (which
—1 has given it the name of the butterfly-valvej is extreme-
ly favourable to the paffage of the water ; and as it has
fesTthis but half the motion of a complete circular valve, left
pifton. water goes back while it is {hutting.
63 The following pifton is alfo ingenious, and has a
Another good deal of merit. OPPO (fig. 31.) is the box ot
ancTufeful the pifton, having a perforation Q, covered above with
pifton de- a flat valve K, which refts in a metal plate that forms
fcribed. t0p of the box. ABCBA is a ftirrup of iron to
FiS- 3»- which the box is fixed by fcrews o, a, «, a, whofe heads
are funk in the wood. This ftirrpp is perforated at C,
to receive the. end of the pifton-rod, and a nut H is
fere wed on below to keep it fall. DEFED is another
ftirrup, whofe lower part at DD forms a hoop like the
foie of a ftirrup, which embraces a fmall part of the top
of the wooden box. The lower end of the pifton-rod
is ferewed ; and before it is put into the holes of the
two ftirrups (through which holes it Aides freely) a
broad nut G is ferewed on it. It is then put into tne
holes, and the nut H firmly ferewed up. The packing
•ER is then wound about the pifton as tight as pofiible
till it completely fills the working barrel of the pump.
When long uTe has rendered it in any degree looie, it
may be tightened again by ferewing down the nut G.
This caufes the ring DD to comprefs the packing be¬
tween it and the proje&ing flioulder of the box at PP •,
and thus caufes it to fwell out, and apply itfelf clofelj
■64 to the barrel. . . .n
Another on We (hall add only another form of a pertoiated pifton •,
a different ^hJch being on a principle different from all the preced¬
ing, will fuggeft many others ; each of which will have
its peculiar advantages. 00 in fig. 32. reprefents the
box of this pifton, fitted to the working barrel in any
of the preceding ways as may be thought beft. AB
is a crofs bar of four arms, which is fixed to the top of
the; box. CF is the piftomrod going through a hole in
the middle of AB, and reaching a little way beyond
the bottom of the bo*. Tt has a fhoulder D, which
prevents its going too far through. On the lower end
there is a thick metal plate, turned conical on its upper
fide, fo as to fit a conical feat PP in the bottom of the
pifton-boX. r • rr*
When the pifton-rod is puflied down, the friction on
the barrel prevents the box from immediately yielding.
The rod therefore flips through the hole of the crcfs
bar AB. The plate E, therefore, detaches itfelf from
the box. When the (boulder D preffes on the bar
AB, the box muft yield, and be puftied down the bar¬
rels,’ and the water gets up through the perforation.
When the pifton-rod is drawn up again, the box does
not move till the plate E lodge in the feat PF? and
thus (huts the water-way ; and then the pifton lifts the
water which is above it, and a£ls as the pifton of a
fucking pump. ,
This, is-a very Ample and effective conftruction, and
makes a very tight valve. It has been much recom¬
mended by engineers of the firft reputation, and is
frequently ufed) and from its fimplicity, and the great
folidity of which it is capable, it feems very fit for
great works. But it is evident that the water-way is
limited to lefs than one-half of the area of the working-
barrel. For if the perforation of the pifton be one-half
of the area, the diameter of the plate or ball EF muft
Pump.
66
principle.
Dg. 32-
65
Its advan¬
tages.
j ] P U M
be greater j and therefore lefs than half the area will
be left for the paffage of the water by its fides.
We come now to confider the forms which may be OWerv;u
given to the valves of a hydraulic engine. nuns on
The requifites of a valve are, that it ftiall be tight,valves,
of fufficient ftrength to refift the great preffures to
which it is expoled, that it afford a fufticient paffage
for the water, and that it de not allow much to go back
while it is {hutting. a-
We have not much to -add to what has been laid al- Clack
ready on this fubjeft. The valves which accompany valves,
the pump of fig. 5. are called clack valves, and are of all
the moft obvious and common ; and the conftru6tion
deferibed on that occafion is as-perleft as any. We on¬
ly add, that as the leather is at laft deftroyed at the
hinge by fuch inceffant motion, and it is troubleiome,
efpecially in deep mines, and under water, to undo the
ioint of the pump in order to put in a new valve, it is
frequently annexed to a box like that of a pifton, made
a little conical on the outfide, fo as to fit a conical feat
made for it in the pipe, as reprefented in fig. 33. and it Fig ^
has an iron handle like that of a baiket, by which it can
be laid hold of by means of a long grappling-hook let
down from above. Thus it is drawn up j and being
very gently tapered on the fides, it ftieks very faft in its
place. . , . , , • 68
The only defe& of this valve is, that by opening Defea in
very wide when pufhed up by the ftream of water, it them,
allows a good deal to go back during its {hutting again.
In fome great machines which are worked by a flow
turning crank, the return of the pifton is fo very flow,
that a fenfible lofs is incurred by this ; but it is nothing
like what Dr Defaguliers fays, one-half of a cylinder
whofe height is equal to the diameter of the valve.—
For in fuch machines, the laft part of the upward
ftroke is equally flow, and the velocity of the water
through the valve exceedingly fmall, fo that the valve
is at this time almoft {hut. .69
The butter fly-valve reprefented in figures 29, &c. isUtilityof
free from moft "of thofe inconveniences, and feems the the butter*
moft perfea of the clack valves. Some engineers make fly-valve,
their great valves of a pyramidal form, confiding of four
clacks, whofe hinges are in the circumference of the
water-way, and which meet with their points in the
middle, and are fupported by four ribs wnich^ rife up
from the fides, and unite in the middle.^ This is an ex- .
cel lent form, affording the moft fpacious water-way,
and (hutting very readily. It feems to be the beft pm-
fible for a pifton. The rod of the pifton is branched
out on four fides, and the branches go through the pi-
fton-box, and are fattened below with fcrews. 1 heie
branches form the fupport for the four clacks. V\ e
have feen a valve of this form in a pump of fix feet dia¬
meter, which difeharged 20 hogftieads of water every
ftroke, and made 12 ftrokes in a minute, raffing the wa¬
ter above 22 feet. , , 70
There is another form of valve, called the button orButton
tail valve. It confifts of a plate of metal AB (fig. 34.) valves,
turned conical, fo as exaflly to fit the conical cavity «^.g. 34-
of its box. A tail CD projeas from the under fide
which paffes through a crofs bar EF in the bottom ot
the box, and has a little knob at the end, to hinder the
valve from rifing too high. ,
This valve, when nicely made, is unexceptionable.
Pump.
72
Though
foraewhat
imperfedl
in the wa¬
ter-way.
73
A very lim
pie valve
defcribed.
Fig- 35-
74
A valve
by Belidor
uniting
every re-
«uifite.
. 7S
Another
valve on
the fame
principle,
^g. 3<S.
P U M E 51
It lias great ftrength, and is therefore proper for all fe-
vere ftrains, and it may be made perfectly tight by
grinding. Accordingly it is ufed in all cafes where this
is of indifpenfable confequence. It is moll durable,
and the only kind that will do for paffages where fleam
or hot water is to go through. Its only imperfedfion
is a fmali water-way •, which, from what has been faid,
cannot exceed, or indeed equal, one-half of the area of
the pipe.
If we endeavour to enlarge the water-way, by giving
the cone very little taper, the valve frequently flicks
fo fall in the feat that no force can detach them.—
And this fometimes happens during the working of the
machine ; and the jolts and blows given to the machine
in taking it to pieces, in order to difeover what has
been the reafon that it has difcharged no water, fre¬
quently detach the valve, and we find it quite loofe,
and cannot tell what has deranged the pump. When
this is guarded againft, and the diminution of the water¬
way is not of very great confequence, this is the beft
form of a valve.
Analogous to this is the fimpleft of all valves, repre-
fented in fig. 35. It is nothing more than a fphere of
metal A, to which is fitted a feat with a fmali portion
BC of a fpherical cavity. Nothing can be more effec¬
tual than this valve ; it always falls into its proper
place, and in every pofition fits it exa&ly. Its only
imperfection is the great diminution of the water-way.
If the diameter of the fphere does not confiderably ex¬
ceed that of the hole, the touching parts have very
little taper, and it is very apt to flick faft. It oppofes
much lefs refidance to the paifage of the water than the
flat under-furface of the button-valve. N. B. li would
be an improvement of that valve to give it a taper-fliape
below like a boy’s top. The fpherical valve muft not
be made too light, otherwife it will be hurried up by
the water, and much may go back while it is returning
to its place.
Belidor defcribes with great minutenefs (vol. ii. p.
221, &c.) a valve which unites every requifite. But
it is of fuch nice and delicate conflru&ion, and its de¬
fers are fo great when this exaftnefs is not attained, or
is impaired by ufe, that we think it hazardous to in¬
troduce it into a machine in a fituation where an intel¬
ligent and accurate artift is not at hand. For this
reafon we have omitted the defcription, which cannot
be given in few words, nor without many figures; and
defire our curious readers to confult that author, or per-
ufe Dr Defagulier’s tranflation of this paflage. Its
principle is precifely the fame with the following rude
contrivance, with which we fhall conclude the defcrip-
tive part of this article.
Suppofe ABCD (fig. 36.) to be a fquare wooden
trunk. EF is a piece of oak board, exactly fitted to
the trunk in an oblique pofition, and fupported by an
iron pin which goes through it at I, one-third of its
length from its lower extremity E. The two ends of
this board are bevelled, fo as to apply exaftly to the
fides of the trunk. It is evident, that if a ftream of
water cou'-e in the dire&ion BA, its preffure on the
part IF of this board will be greater than that upon
El. It will therefore force it up and rufli through,
making it ftand almoft parallel to the fides of the trunk.
To prevent its rifing fo far, a pin mult be put in its
■wav. When this current of -water changes its direc-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Puiftp.
3 ] P U M
tion, the preffure on the upper fide of the board being
again greatefl on the portion IF, it is forced back again
to its former fituation ; and its two extremities rifing
on the oppofite fides of the trunk, the paffage is com¬
pletely flopped. This board therefore performs the
office of a valve; and this valve is the moil perfecf that
can be, becaufe it offers the freeft paflage to the water,
and it allows very little to get back while it is {hutting ;
for the part IE brings up half as much water as IF al¬
lows to go down. It may be made extremely tight,
by fixing two thin fillets H and G to the lides of the
trunk, and covering thofe parts of the board with lea¬
ther which applies to them •, and in thisflate it perfect¬
ly refembles Belidor’s fine valve.
And this conftruftion of the valve fuggefts, by the Defsnption
way, a form of an occafional pump, which may be0fanoc-
quickly fet up by any common carpenter, and will becafional
very effeClual in fmali heights. Let abc de (fig. 36.) PlimP ea"
be a fquare box made to Hide along this wooden trunk
without ffiake, having two of its fides projecting up- tig. 36,
wards, terminating like the gable-ends ot a houfe. A
piece of wood e is mortifed into thefe two fides, and to
this the piflon-rod is fixed. Tins box being furniffied
with a valve fimilar to the one below, will perform the
office of a pifton. If this pump be immerfed fo deep in
the water that the piflon (hall alfo be under water, we
fcruple not^o fay that its performance will be equal to
any. The pifton may be made abundantly tight by co¬
vering its outfide neatly with foft leather. And as no
pipe can be bored with greater accuracy than a very or¬
dinary workman can make a fquare trunk, we prefume
that this pump will not be very deficient even for a con-
fiderable fuCtion.
We now proceed to the laft part of the fubjeCT, to'phe'ino-
cotifider the motion of water in pumps, in reference to tion ofwa-
the force wffiich muft be employed. What we haveterm
hitherto faid with refpeCt to the force which muft bePumPs,
applied to a pifton, related only to the fuftaining the
water at a certain height : but in a&ual fervice we
muft not only do this, but we muft difeharge it at the
place of delivery in a certain quantity ; and this muft
require a force fuperadded to what is neceffary for its
mere fupport at this height. ^
This is an extremely intricate anddifficultfubjeCl:,anintri-
and very imperfeCHy underftood even by profeffed en-catefub»
gineers. The principles on which this knowledge muftje<^*
be founded are of a much more abftrufe nature than the
ordinary laws of hydroftatics ; and all the genius of
Newton was employed in laying the foundation of this
part of phyfical feience. It has been much cultivated
in the courfe of this century by the firft mathematicians
of Europe. Daniel and John Bernoulli have written
very elaborate treatifes on the fubjeft, under the very ^
appofite name of Hydrodynamics; in which, although The theory
they have added little or nothing to the fundamentallleoomina-
propofitions eftabliftied in fome. fort by Newton, andtec* /^r0"
acquiefced in by them, yet they have greatly eontribu-liynumics’
ted to our progrefs in it by the methods which they
have purfued in making application of thofe fundamen¬
tal propofitions to the moil important cafes. It muft
be acknowledged, however, that both thefe propofi¬
tions, and the extenfions-given them by thefe authors,
are fupported by a train of argument that is by no
means unexceptionable ; and that they proceed on af-
fumptions or poflulates which are but nearly true in
3T
any
P U M
[ 5H ]
P U M
Pump, any cafe, and in many are inadmUTible : and it remains
 — to this hour a wonder or puzzle how thefe prop<dilions
and their refults correfpond with the phenomena which
We obferve.
Eat fortunately this correfpondence does obtain to
a certain extent. Ahd it foems to be this correfpond¬
ence chiefly which has given thefe authors, with New¬
ton at their head, the confidence which they place in
their refpe&ive principles and methods : for there are
confiderable differences among them iu thofe refpetls •,
and each feems convinced that the others are in a miflake.
Meflieurs d’Alembert and De la Grange have greatly
corrected the theories of their predeceffors, and have
proceeded on poftidates which come much nearer to the
real {late of the cafe. But their inveftigations involve
us in fuch an inextricable maze of analytical inveftiga-
tion, that even when rve are again conduced to the
light of day by the clue which they have given us, we
can make no ufe of what we there difcovered.
But this theory, imperfeft as it is, is of great fervice.
It generalizes our obfervations and experiments, and en-
;ery ufe- ables us to compofe a praEhcal doBnne from a heap of
faffs which otherwife muff have remained folitary and
unconnected, and as cumberfome in their application as
81 the characters of the Chinefe writing.
Fundamen- The fundamental propofition of this practical hydro-
tal propofi- dynamics is, that water or any fluid contained in an
open vcffrl of indefinite magnitude, and impelled by its
weight only, will flow through a fmall orifice with the
velocity which a heavy body would acquire by falling
from the horizontal furface of the fluid. 1 hus, if the
orifice is 16 feet under the furface of the water, it will
iifue with the velocity of 32 feet in a fecond.
Its velocity correfponding to any other depth h of
the orifice under the furface, will be had by this eafy
proportion : “ As the fquare root of 16 is to the fquare
root of hi fo is 32 feet to the velocity required : or,
^ 2- \/ h
alternately, 16 32= y' ^ : v* and '
So
though
imperfect
is v
ful.
tion
^16
32
\/ Ji, -ZZ % V h ■. that is, multiply the fquare root of
4 . .
the height in feet by eight, and the produCt is the re¬
quired velocity.
On the other hand, it frequently occurs, that we
want to difcover the depth under the furface which will
Therefore, y /i =
o
produce a known velocity v.
82
Jts utility.
and h — : that is, divide the fquare of the velo-
city by 64, an<? the quotient is the depth wanted in
feet.
This propoliUon is fufficient for all our purpofes.
For lince water is nearly a perfeCf fluid, and propagates
all impreflions undiminifhed, we can, in place of any
preflure of a pifton or other caufe, fubilitute a perpen¬
dicular column of water whofe. weight is equal to this
prtffure, and will therefore produce the fame efflux.—-
Thus, if the furface of a pifton is half a fquare foot, and
it be prefied down with the weight of 500 pound', and
wa would wifh to know with what velocity it would
caufe the water to flow through a fmall hole, we know
that a column of Water of this weight, and of half a
foot bafe, would be 16 feet high. And this propolition
teaches us, that a veflel of this depth will have a velo- Pump.,
city of efflux equal to 32 feet in a fecond.
If therefore our preffing power be of fuch a kind that
it can continue to prefs forward the pifton with the force
of 500 pounds, the water will flow with this velocity,
whatever be the fize of the hole. All that remains is',
to determine what change of aEinalprejfureow the pifton
refults from the motion of the piiton itielf, and to change
the velocity of efflux in the fubduplicate ratio of the
change of actual preffure.
But before we can apply this knowledge to the cir- pema^
cumftances which take place in the motion of water inprevi0us
pumps, we muil take notice of an important modifica- to its ap-
tion of the fundamental propofition, which is but veryPhcafion,
obfcurely pointed out by any good theory, but is efta-
bli Hied on the moft regular and unexceptionable obfer-
vation.
If the efflux is made through a hole in a thin plate,
and the velocity is computed as above, we fhall difcover
the quantity of water which iffues in a fecond by obfer-
ving, that it is a prifm or cylinder of the length indi¬
cated by the velocity, and having its tranfverfe fe£tion
equal to that ot the orifice. Thus, in the example al¬
ready given, fuppofing the hole to be a fquare inch, the
folid contents of this prifm, or the quantity of water if-
fuing in a fecond, is 1 X 32 X 12, cubic inches, or 384
cubic inches. This we can eafily meafure by receiving
it in a veflel of known dimenfions. Taking this me¬
thod, we uniformly find a deficiency of nearly 38 parts
in too ; that is, if we ftiould obtain 100 gallons in any
number of feconds, we {hall in fad get only 62. This
is a moll regular faff, whether the velocities are greet
or fmall, and whatever be the fize and form of the ori¬
fice. The deficiency increafes indeed in a very minute
degree with the velocities. If, for inftance, the depth
of the orifice be one foot, the difcharge is r^VoV j if it
be 1 5 feet, the difcharge is tVoW
This deficiency is not owing to a diminution of velo¬
city ; for the velocity may be eafily and accurately mea-
fured by the diftance to which the jet will go, if direct¬
ed horizontally. This is found to correfpond very near¬
ly with the propofition, making a very fmali allowance
for friftion at the border of the hole, and for the refift-
ance of the air. Sir Ifaac Newton afcribed the defici¬
ency with great juftice to this, that the lateral columns
of water, furrounding the column which is incumbent
on the orifice, prefs towards the orifice, and contribute
to the expence equally with that column. Thefe lateral
filaments, therefore, iflue obliquely, crofling the motion
of the central ftream, and produce a contraClion of the
jet •, and the whole ftream does not acquire a parallel
motion and its ultimate velocity till it has got to fume
diftance from the orifice. Careful obfervation fhowed
him that this was really the cafe. But even his' genius
could not enable him to alcertain the motion of the la¬
teral filaments by theory, and he was obliged to mea¬
fure every thing as he faw it. He found the diameter
of the jet at the place of the greateft contraClion to be
precifely fuch as accounted for the deficiency. His ex¬
plication has been unanimoufty acquiefced in ; and ex-
riments have been multiplied to afcertain all thofe cir-
cumftances which our theory cannot determine a prion.
The moft complete fet of experiments are thofe of Mi-
chelotti, made at Turin at the expence of the prince of
Piedmont.
P U M
[ Si
Pump.
Piedmont. Here jets were made of I, 2, 3, and 4
1 inches diameter ; and the water received into citterns
moft accurately formed of brick, and lined with ftucco.
It is the refult of thefe experiments which we have ta¬
ken for a meafure of the deficiency.
We may therefore confider the water as flowing
through a hole of this contrafted dimenfion, or fubfti-
tute this for the real orifice in all calculations. For it is
evident that if a mouth-piece (fo to call it) were made,
whofe internal fliape precifely tallied with the form which
the jet aflumes, and if this mouth-piece be applied to
the orifice, the water will flow out without any obftruc-
tion. The veflel may therefore be confidered as really
having this mouth-piece.
Nay, from this we derive a very important obferva-
tion, “ that if, inftead of allowing the water to flow
through a hole of an inch area made in a thin plate, we
make it flow through a hole in a thick plank, lo formed
that the external orifice fliall have an inch area, but be
widened internally agreeably to the lhape which nature
forms, both the velocity and quantity will be that which
the fundamental proposition determines. Michelotti
meafured with great care the form of the great jets of
three and four inches diameter, and found that the
bounding curve was an elongated trochoid. He then
made a mouth-piece of this form for his jet of one inch,
and another for his jet of two inches ; and he found the
difcharges to be andy^ i a?d he» with juftice,
afcribed the trifling deficiency which ftill remained,
partly to friftion and partly to his not having exa£Uy
fuited his mouth-piece to the natural form. We imagine
that this lafi: circumftance was the foie caufe : For, in
the firfl: place, the water in his experiments, before get¬
ting at his jet-holes, had to pafs along a tube of eight
inches diameter. Now a jet of four inches bears too
great a proportion to this pipe ; and its narrownefs un¬
doubtedly hindered the lateral columns from contribut¬
ing to the efflux in their due proportion, and therefore
rendered the jet lefs convergent. And, in the next
place, there can be no doubt (and the obfervations of
Daniel Bernoulli confirm it) but that this convergency
begins within the veflel, and perhaps at a very confider-
able diftance from the orifice. And we imagine, that
if accurate obfervations could be made on the motion of
the remote lateral particles within the veflel, and an in¬
ternal mouth-piece were fhaped according to the curve
which is defcribed by the remoteft particle that we can
obferve, the efflux of water would almofl: perfectly tally
with the theory. But indeed the coincidence is already
fufficiently near for giving us very valuable information.
We learn that the quantity of water which flows through
a hole, in confequence of its own weight, or by the ac¬
tion of any force, may be increafed one half by proper¬
ly ftiaping the paflage to this hole ; for we fee that it
may be increafed from 62 to near 99.
But there is another modification of the efflux, which
we confefs our total incapacity to explain. If the water
iflues through a hole made in a plate whofe thicknefs is
about twice the diameter of the hole, or, to exprefs it
better, if it iflues through a pipe whofe length is about
twice its diameter, the quantity difcharged is nearly
tW of what refults from the propofition. If the pipe
be longer than this, the quantity is diminiftied by fric¬
tion, which increafes as the length of the pipe increafes.
If the pipe be Ihorter, the water will not fill it, but de-
5 ] P U M
taches itfelf at the very entry of the pipe, and flows P|irn?‘
with a contracted jet. When the pipe is of this length, v
and the extremity is flopped with the finger, fo that it
begins to flow with a full mouth, no fubfequent contrac¬
tion is obferved •, but merely ftriking on the pipe with a
key or the knuckle is generally fufficient to detach the
water in an inftant from the fides of the pipe, and re¬
duce the efflux to TVrr*
This effeCt is moft unaccountable. It certainly arifes
from the mutual adhefion or attraction between the wa¬
ter and the fides of the pipe ; but how tins, aCting at
right angles to the motion, fltould produce an increafe
from 62 to 82, nearly y, we cannot explain. It (hows,
however, the prodigious force of this attraction, which
in the fpace of two or three inches is able to communi¬
cate a great velocity to a very great body of water. In¬
deed the experiments on capillary tubes fhow that the
mutual attraction of the parts of water is fome thoufands
of times greater than their weight.
We have only further to add, that every increafe of
pipe beyond two diameters is accompanied with a dimi¬
nution of the difeharge ; but in what ratio this is dimi-
niflied it is very difficult to determine. We fliall only
obferve at prefent that the diminution is. very great.
A pipe of 2 inches diameter and 30 feet long has its
difeharge only Ts~ of what it would be if only 4 inches
long. If its length be 60 feet, its difeharge will be no
more than tW A pipe of 1 inch diameter would have
a difeharge of and 1V01 *n the fame fituation.
Hence we may conclude that the difeharge of a 4 inch
pipe of 30 feet long will not exceed \ of what it would
be if only 8 inches long. This will fuffice for our pre¬
fent purpofes •, and the determination of the velocities
and difcharges in long conduits from pump machines
muft be referred to the article WATER-lVorks. At pre¬
fent we (hall confine our attention to the pump itfelf,
and to what will contribute to its improvement.
Before we can proceed to apply this fundamental
propofition to our purpofe, we muft anticipate in a loofe
way a propofition of continual ufe in the conftruClion of
water-works.
Let water be fuppofed ftagnant in a veflel EFGH
(fig. 37.), and let it be allowed to flow out by a cylin-Fig. 37.’
drical pipe HIKL, divided by any number of partitions
B, C, D, &c. Whatever be the areas B, C, D, of
thefe orifices, the velocity in the intermediate parts of
the pipe will be the fame j for as much pafles through
any one orifice in a fecond as pafles through any other
in the fame time, or through any fedtion of the inter¬
vening pipe. Let this velocity in the pipe be V, and
let the area of the pipe be A. The velocity in the
VA VA VA
orifices B, C, D, muft be r—, -7^-, -r—-, &c. Let p-
Ju * * *
D
be the velocity acquired in a fecond by a heavy body.
Then, by the general propofition, the height of water
VA
in the veflel which will produce the velocity —^ in
B
V* A*
the firft orifice alone, is —-^7. After this paflage the
velocity is again reduced to V in the middle of the
fpace between the firft and fecond orifices. In the fe-
. . VA
cond orifice this velocity is changed to This
3 T 2
C '
alone
Pump.
P U M [SI
V‘ A"
alone would have required a height of water -—
2^-
But the w'ater is already moving with the velocity V,
which would have refulted from a height of water in
the veil'd (which we lhall, in the language of the art, call
Tr*
the HEAD OF water) equal to -
2g
is only required a head of water
Therefore there
V* A* V1
 or
2g
— I.
C*
Therefore the whole height neceffary
V* A1
— X
2g L2
for producing the efflux through both orifices, fo as
{fill to preferve the velocity V in the intervening pipe,
V2 A2 A*
is X —4-  1. In like manner the third orifice
2<r B2 ^ C*
V2 A2
D would alone require a head of water — X — x
2g
D2
, V* A2 , A2
and all the three would require a head — X +
+
A2
D2 2'
By this indudion may eafily be feen what
head is neceffary for producing the efflux through any
number of orifices.
Let the expence or quantity of water difcharged in
an unit of time (fuppofe a ffcond) be expreffed by the
fymbol Q. This is meafured by the produd of the ve¬
locity by the area of the orifice, and is therefore rrVA,
V A ^ VA n a , ™ Q*
or — XB, or -^r-xC, &c. and V2=gv There¬
fore we may compute the head of water (which we
{hall exprefs by H) in reference to the quantity of wa¬
ter difcharged, becaufe this is generally the interefting
circumfiance. In this view we have H = X
2gA
which (hows that the head of
; — 2
84
To deter¬
mine the
motion of
Ss
In the fuck-
mg-pump,
A_2 A2 A
■p + C* + D
water neceffary for producing the difcharge increafes in
the proportion of the fquare of the quantity of water
which is difcharged.
Thefe things being premifed, it is an eafy matter to
determine the motion of wrater in a pump, and the quan¬
tity difcharged, refulting from the adion of any force
water, See. ori tjie p!ftorij or the force which muft be applied to
the pifton in order to produce any required motion or
quantity difcharged. We have only to fuppofe that the
force employed is the preffure of a column of water of
the diameter of the working barrel ; and this is over
and above the force which is neceffary for merely fup-
porting the water at the height of the place of delivery.
The motion of the water will be the fame in both
cafes.
Let us, firft of all, confider a fucking-pump. The
motion here depends on the preffure of the air, and will
be the fame as if the pump were lying horizontally, and
communicated with a refervoir, in which is a head of
water fufficient to overcome all the obftrudrons to the
motion, and produce a velocity of efflux fuch as-we de¬
fire. And here it muft be noted that there is a limit.
No velocity of the pifton can make the water rife in the
fudion-pipe with a greater velocity than what would
6 ] P U M
be produced by the preffure of a column of water 33 Pump,
feet high •, that is, about 46 feet per fecond. v
Let the velocity of the'pifton be V, and the area of
the working barrel be A. Then, if the water fills the
barrel as fait as the pifton is drawn up, the difcharge
during the rife of the pifton, or the number of cubic
feet of water per fecond, muftbe=:VxA. This is
always fuppofed, and we have already aleertained the
circumftanees which enfure this to happen. If, there¬
fore, the water arrived with perfed ireedom to the pi¬
fton, the force neceffary for giving it this velocity, or for
difeharging the quantity V X A in a fecond, would be
equal to the weight of the pillar of water whofe height
V2
is —, and bafe A.
2g
It does not appear at firft fight that the force ne¬
ceffary for producing this difcharge has any thing to do
with the obftrudions to the afeent of-the water into the
pump, becaufe this is produced by the preffure of the
atmofphere, and it is the adion of this prtffure which
is meafured by the head of water neceffary for produ¬
cing the internal motion in the pump. But we muft al¬
ways recoiled that the pifton, before bringing up any
water, and fupporting it at a certain height, was preffed
on both fides by the atmofphere. While the air fup-
ports the column below the pifton, all the preffure ex¬
pended in this fupport is abftraded from its preflure on
the under part of the pifton, while its upper part ftill
fupports the whole preffure. The atmofphere continues
to prefs on the under furface of the pifton, through the
intermedium of the water in the fudion-pipe, with the
difference of thefe two forces. Now, while the pifton
is drawn up with the velocity V, more of the atmofphe-
ric preffure muft be expended in caufing the water to
follow the pifton ; and it is only with the remainder of
its whole preffure that it continues to prefs on the under
furface of the pifton. Therefore, in order that the pifton
may be raifed with the velocity V, a force mult be ap¬
plied to it, over and above the force neceffary for mere¬
ly fupportir.g the column of water, equal to that part of
the atmofpheric preffure thus employed •, that is, equal
to the weight of the head of water neceffary for forcing
the water up through the fudion-pipe, and producing
the velocity V in the working barrel.
Therefore let B be the area of the mouth of the
fudion-pipe, and C the area of the fixed valve, and let
the fudion-pipe be of equal diameter with the working
barrel. The head neceffary for producing the velocity
, . V2/A2 A2 \ T.
V on the working barrel is — -tt
d exprefs the denfity oT water ) that is, if d be the
number of pounds in a cubic foot of water, then d A
will exprefs the weight of a column whofe bafe is A,
and height —, all being reckoned in feet. Therefore
° 2g
the force which muft be applied, when eftimated in
dAV*(A% A2 V
pounds, will be p, = 1 ^ ^ —I/*
The firft general obfervation to be made on what has-
been faid is, that the power which muft be employed
to produce the nect ffary motion, in oppofition te all the
©bftacles, is in the proportion of. the fquare of the velo¬
city.;
P U M [ 5'
Pump- city which we would produce, or the fquare of the
■— quantity of Water we would difcharge.
We have hitherto proceeded on the fuppofition, that
there is no ccmtrafHon of the jet in pa {Ting through thefe
t wo orifices. This we know would be very far from the
truth. We muft therefore accommodate things to thefe
circumftances, by diminidiing B and C in the ratio of
the contraffion, and calling the diminiihed areas b and
, V Ar/V’/A* A* \
c; then we have p = —— \ + cr /'
What this diminution may be, depends on the form
of the parts. If the fixed valve, and the entry into
the pump, are {imply holes in thin plates, then B
and c—^~qC. The entry is commonly widened or
trumpet-lhaped, which diminifhes greatly the contrac¬
tion : but there are other obftaeles in the way, arifing
from the drainer ufually put round it to keep out filth.
The valve may have its contra&ion greatly diminidied
alfo by its box being made bell-fhaped internally; nay,
even giving it a cylindrical box, in the manner of fig.
33. is better than no box at all, as in fig. 5* j f°r fhch a
cylindrical box will have the unaccountable eftedl of
the fhort tube, and make bzz inftead of T<~B.
Thus we fee that circumftances feemingly very trifling
may produce great effedls in the performance of a pump.
We ftiould have obferved that the valve itfelf prefents
an obftacle which diminifties the motion, and requires
an increafe of power ; and it would leem that in this re-
fpedft the clack or butterfly valve is preferable to the
button valve.
Example. Suppofe the velocity of the pifton to be
2 feet or 24 inches per fecond, and that the two con¬
tracted areas are each of the area of the pump, which
is not much lefs than what obtains in ordinary pumps.
V2/A* A1 \
We have -( ^ ^ —i j = 4Jf (*5 + *5-0
—36,75 inches, and the force which we muft add to
what will merely fupport the column is the weight of a
pillar of water incumbent on the pifton, and fomething
more than three feet high. This would be a fenfible
portion of the whole force in railing water to fmall
heights.
We have fuppofed the fuCHon-pipe to be of the fame
diameter with the working barrel ; but it is ufual to
make it of fmaller diameter, generally equal to the wa¬
ter wav of the fixed valve. This makes a confiderable
change in the force neceflary to be applied to the pi¬
fton. Let a be the area of the fu£Hon-pipe, the area of
the entry being ftill B ; and the equivalent entry with¬
out contraction being ftill we have the velocity at
AV
the entrance = —» and the producing head of water zz
AW*
2g ’
AV'.
After this the velocity is changed to   in
the fuCHon-pipe, with which the water arrives at the
AV
valve, where it is again changed to , and requires for
A* V*
2?
But
this change a head of water equal to
the velocity retained in the fuCHon-pipe is equivalent to
A* V*
the effeCI of a head of water  -. Therefore the
7g or
head neceflary for producing fuch a current through the
4:
7 ] P U M
fixed valve, that the water may follow the pifton with
the velocity V, is
Vs
A*
b%
+ ""
A*
A* V*
2g b%
—
j
+
AW*
2g C1
A* V*
2g «*
This is evidently lefs than
A*
+
(which is a known quantity, refulting
from the dimenfions of the pump) =: M, we have H rz
— M, and V* - and V = Now H
2g 1VI 1VI
is that part of the natural power which we have at com¬
mand which exceeds what is neceflary for merely fup-
porting the column of water. Thus, if we have a
pump whofe pifton has an area of ^ of a fquare foot,
its diameter being 6| inches ; and we have to raife the
water 32 feet, and can apply a power of 525 pounds to
the pifton; we wifti to know at what rate the pifton
will be moved, and the quantity of water difeharged ?
Merely.
Pump.
before, becaufe a is lefs than A, and therefore
U
is greater than unity, which was the laft term of the
former formula. There is fome advantage, therefore,
derived from making the diameter of the fuCHon-pipe
lefs than that of the working barrel: but this is only be¬
caufe the paflage of the fixed valve is fmaller, and the
infpeClion of the formula plainly points out that the area
of the fu&ion-pipe ftiould be equal to that of the fixed
valve. When it is larger, the water muft be accelerated
in its paffage through the valve ; which is an ufelefs ex¬
pence of force, becaufe this velocity is to be immediate¬
ly reduced to V in the working-barrel. If the forego¬
ing example be computed with a equal to ^ of A, we
{hall find the head H equal to 29 inches inftead of 37.
But this advantage of a fmaller fucfion-pipe is m aft
cafes very moderate ; and the pump is always inferior to
one of uniform dimenfions throughout, having the ori¬
fice at the fixed valve of the fame area. And if thefe
orifices are tonfiderably diminiftied in any proportion,
the head neceflary for overcoming the obftacles, fo that
the required velocity V may ftill be produced in the
working barrel, is greatly increafed. If we fuppefe the
area a of A, which is frequently done in houfe pumps,
where the diameter of the fu£tion-pipe does feldom ex-
ced y of that of the working-barrel; and fuppofe every
thing made in proportion to this, which is alfo ufual,
becaufe the unfldlled pump-makers ftudy a fymmetry
which fatisfies the eye; we (hall find that the pump
taken as an example will require a head of water zz
13 feet and upwards. Befides, it muft: be obferved
that the fridtion of the fudlion-pipe itfelf has not been
taken into the account. This alone is greater, in moft
cafes, than all the obftrudlions we have been fpeaking
of; for if this pipe is three inches diameter, and that of
the working-barrel is fix, which is reckoned a liberal
allowance fur a fu£Tion-pipe, and if the fixed valve is
25 feet above the furface of the pit-water-; the friclion
of this pipe will amount to one-third of the whole pro¬
pelling force.
Thus we have enabled the reader to afeertain the
force neceflary for producing any required difcharge of
water from a pump of known dimenfions : and the con-
verfe of this determination gives us the difcharge which
will be produced by any given force. For making
A* A* A*
-p U M
P U M [ Si
Pump. Merely to fupport the column of water of this height
v and diameter, requires 500 pounds. Therefore the re¬
maining power, which is to produce the motion, is 25
pounds. This is the weight of a column 1 foot 4 inches
high, and H =1,333 ^eet* ■^et us fuPP0^e diame¬
ter of the fu&ion -pipe 4 of that of the working-barrel,
fo that = 4. We may fuppofe it executed in the
is
beft manner, having its lower extremity trumpet-fliaped,
formed by the revolution of the proper trochoid. I he
. contraftion at the entry may therefore be confidered
A A*
as nothing, and -^- = 4, and — may a^°
fupnofe the orifice of the fixed valve equal to the
A*
carea of the fu&ion-pipe, fo that —is a^° — *6,
A1
and there is no contraction here ; and therefore —
A*
is alfo 16. And laftly, — is alfo 16. Therefore
4’+ > O'- M- = -6 + >6 - '6. = '«•
2^-H
M
)•
8 ]
1- • in- 1 1 r V*/A—a
quires for its production a head of water — ^—-
This is the height of a column of water whofe bafe is
not A but A—a. Calling the denfity of water d, we
have for the weight of this column, and the force p in
,    . (A—n\ V* dV^A—ay ^ .
^ X A-" + ( — J X -, =“'/— • Th,s,
we fee again, is proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city of the pifton in its defcent, and has no relation to
the height to which the water is raifed.
If the pifton has a button valve, its furface is at leaft
equal to a; and therefore the preffure is exerted on the
water by the whole furface of the pifton. In this cafe
Pump.
we fliall have p —
dV* A3
2 g b*
confiderably greater than
We have alfo 2g — 64. Now N
— , =2,309 feet, and the pifton will
16
move with the velocity of 2 feet 4 inches nearly. Its
velocity will be lefs than this, on account both of the
friCHon of the pifton and the friftion of the water in
the fuCtion-pipe. Thefe two circumftances will pro¬
bably reduce it to one foot eight inches } and it can
hardly be lefs than this.
We have taken no notice of the friClion of the water
in the working-barrel, or in the fpace above the pifton j
becaufe it is in all cafes quite infignificant. Thelongeft
pipes employed in our deep mines do not require more
than a few inches of head to overcome it.
But there is another circumftance which muft 'not be
omitted. This is the refiftance given to the pifton in
its defcent. The piftons of an engine for drawing wa¬
ter from deep mines muft defcend again by their own
weight in order to repeat their ftroke. This muft re¬
quire a preponderance on that end of the working-beam
to which they are attached, and this muft be overcome
bv the moving power during the effe£live ftroke. It
makes, therefore, part of the whole work to be done,
and muft be added to the weight of the column of wa¬
ter which muft be raifed.
This is very eafily afcertained. Let the velocity of
the pifton in its defcent be V, the area of the pump-
barrel A, and the area of the pifton-valve a. It is
evident, that while the pifton defcends with the velo¬
city V, the water which is difplaced by the pifton in a
fecond w (A—d) V. This muft pafs through the hole
of the pifton, in order to occupy the fpace above, which
is left by the pifton. If there were no contra,&ion, the
water would go through with the velocity ——— V ; but
as there will always be fome contra&ion, let the dimi-
niftred area of the hole (to be difcoveredby experiment)
be bt the velocity therefore will be V —^—. This re-
5
before. We cannot afcertain this value with great pre-
cifion, becaufe it is extremely difficult, if poffible, to
determine the refiftance in fo complicated a cafe. But
the formula is exa£I, if b can be given exactly ; and
we know within very moderate limits what it may
amount to. In a pump of the very beft conftru&ion,
with a button-valve, b cannot exceed one-half of A j
A3
and therefore cannot be lefs than 8. In this
b*
V* A3 V*
cafe,  r- will be
2gb*
8 *
In a good fteam-engine pump
V* .
V is about three feet per fecond, and — is about
feet, which is but a fmall matter. 86
We have hitherto been confidering the fucking-pump and in ths
alone : but the forcing pump is of more importance,forcing-
and apparently more difficult of inveftigation.—Here^uinp'
we have to overcome the obftruflions in long pipes,
with many bends, contraftions, and other obftrudtions.
But the confideration of what relates merely to the
pump is abundantly fimple. In moft cafes we have
only to force the water into an air-veffel, in oppofition to
the elafticity of the air compreffed in it, and to fend it
thither with a certain velocity, regulated by the quan¬
tity of water difcharged in a given time. The elafticity
of the air in the air-veffel propels it along the Main.
We are not now fpeaking of the force neceffary for
counterbalancing this preffure of the air in the air-veffel,
which is equivalent to all the fubfequent objlruclions, but
only of the force neceffary for propelling the water out
of the pump with the proper velocity.
We have in a manner determined this already. The
pifton is folid, and the water which it forces has to
pafs through a valve in the lateral pipe, and then to
move in the direftion of the main. The change of di-
reftion requires an addition of force to what is necef¬
fary for merely impelling the water through the valve.
Its quantity is not eafily determined by any theory,
and it varies according to the abruptnefs of the turn.
It appears from experiment, that when a pipe is Lent
to a right angle, without any curvature or rounding,
the velocity is diminiffied about This would aug¬
ment the head of water about 4. This may be added
to the contradHon of the valve hole. Let c be its na¬
tural area, and whatever is the contraction competent
to its form, increafe it -/*-> and call the contradled area
V1 A*
e. Then this will require a head of water _
This
p. u M
r s
v*
Pump~ . This muft be added to the head —, neceffary for mere¬
2g
Therefore the
ly giving the velocity V to the water.
V* / A2 \
whole is —^ + IJ j and ^ie power^ neceffary for
for this purpofe is
d AV* / A*
2g
87
of ex-
I iments.
It cannot efcape the obfervation of the reader, that
In all thefe formulae, expreffing the height of the co¬
lumn of water which would produce the velocity V in
the working barrel of the pump, the quantity which
d AV*
multiplies the conftant faftor —depends on the
contracted paffages which are in different parts of the
pump, and increafes in the duplicate proportion of the
futn of thofe contractions. It is therefore of the utmoft
confequence to avoid all fuch, and to make the main
which lead'' from the forcing-pump equal to the working
barrel. If it be only of half the diameter, it has but
one-fourth of the area, the velocity in the main is four
times greater than that of the pifton, and the force ne-
ceffary for difcharging the fame quantity of water is 16
times greater.
It is not, however, poflible to avoid thefe contrac¬
tions altogether, without making the main pipe wider
than the barrel. For if only fo wide, with an entry of
the fame fize, the valve makes a confiderable obftruc-
tion. Unfkilful engineers endeavour to obviate this by
making an enlargement in that part of the main which
contains the valve. This is feen in fig. 14. at the valve
L. If this be not done with great judgment, it will
increafe the obftruftions. For if this enlargement is full
-of water, the water muft move in the direction of its
axis with a diminifhed velocity j and when it comes in¬
to the main, it muft again be accelerated. In ftiort,
any abrupt enlargement which is to be afterwards con¬
tracted, does as much harm as a contraction, unlefs it
be fo fhort that the water in the axis keeps its velocity
till it reaches the contraction. Nothing would do more
fervice to an artift, who is not well founded in the
theory of hydrodynamics, than to make a few fimple
and cheap experiments with a veffel like that of fig. 37.
Let the horizontal pipe be about three inches diameter,
and made in joints which can be added to each other.
Let the joints be about fix inches long, and the holes
from one-fourth to a whole inch in diameter. Fill the
veffel with water, and obferve the time of its finking
three or four inches. Each joint (hould have a fmall
hole in its upper fide to let out the air •, and when the
water runs out by it, let it be Hopped by a peg. He
will fee that the larger the pipe is in proportion to the
orifices made in the partitions, the efflux is more dimi¬
nifhed. We believe that no perfon would fufpeft this
who has not confidered the fubjeCf minutely.
All angular enlargements, all boxes, into which the
pipes from different working barrels, unite their water
before it goes into a main, muft therefore be avoided
by an artift who would execute a good machine ; and
the different contractions which are unavoidable at the
feats of valves and the perforations of piftons, &c.
fhould be diminiftied by giving the parts a trumpet-
fhape.
In the air-veffels reprefented in fig. 13. this is of very
great confequence. The throat O, through which the
19 J P U M
water is forced by the expanfion of the confined air, Pump*
{hould always be formed in this manner. For it is this ^
which produces the motion during the returning part of
the ftroke in the pump conftrufted like fig. 13. N° 1.
and during the whole ftroke in N° 2. Neglecting this
fetmingly trilling circumftance will diminifh the per¬
formance at leaft one-fifth. The conftru&ion of N0 1.
is the bell, for it is hardly poflible to make the paffage
of the other fo tree from the cffeCts of contraction. 1 he
motion of the water during the returning ftroke is very
much contorted. 55
There is one circumftance that we have not taken any Accelera-
notice of, viz. the gradual acceleration of the motion ofuon- r t!if
water in pumps. When a force is applied to the pifton, ni0™r!l/it
it does not in an inftant communicate all the velocity pum^. *
which it acquires. It aCts as gravity aCis on heavy bo¬
dies \ and if the refinances remained the fame, it would
produce, like gravity, an uniformly accelerated motion.
But we have feen that the refinances (which are always
meafured by the force which juft overcomes them) in¬
creafe as the fquare of the velocity increafes. They
therefore quickly balance the aflion of the moving
power, and the motion becomes uniform, in a time fo
(hort that we commit no error of any confequence by
fuppofing it uniform from the beginning. It would
have prodigioufly embarraffed our inveftigations to have
introduced this circumftance ; and it is a matter of mere
fpeculative curiofity : for moft of our moving powers
are unequal in their exertions, and thefe exertions are-
regulated by other laws. The preffure on a pifton mo¬
ved by a crank is as variable as its velocity, and in moft
cafes is nearly in the inverfe proportion of its velocity,
as any mechanician will readily difcover. The only
cafe in which we could confider this matter with any de¬
gree of comprehenfibility is that of a fteam-engine, or of
a pifton which forces by means of a weight Ijing on it.
In both, the velocity becomes uniform in a very fmall
fraflion of a fecond.
We have been very minute on this fubjeeft. For al- Deficiency
though it is the only view of a pump which is of any of elemen-
importance, it is hardly ever underftood even by profef- t ir> b ok3
fed engineers. And this is not peculiar to hydraulics, illb'
but is feen in all the branches of practical mechanics.
The elementary knowledge to be met with in fuch
books as are generally perufed by thim, goes no farther
than to ftate the forces which are in eqmbbrio by the in¬
tervention of a machine, or the proportion of the parts
of a machine which will fet two known forces in equili-
brio. But when this equilibrium is deftroyed by the fu-
periority of one of the forces, the machine muft move ;
and the only interefting queition is, what will be the
motion ? Till this is anfwered with fome nreeifion, we
have learned nothing of anyimportar.ee. Few engi¬
neers are able to anfwer this queftion even in the fimpleft
cafes 5 and they cannot, from any confident fcience, lay
what will be the performance of an untried machine.
Theygueis at it with a fuccefs proportioned to the mul¬
tiplicity of their experience and their own fagacity.
Yet this part of mechanics is as fufceptible of accurate
computation as the cafes of equilibrium.—We therefore
thought it our duty to point out the manner of proceed¬
ing fi) circumftantially, that every ftep fhould be plain
and eafy, and that conviction (hould always accompany
our progrefs. This we think it has been in our power
to do, by the very fimple method of fubftituting a co¬
lumn
' Pufnp
II
Puncheon.
PUN [520
lumn of water afting by its weight in lieu of any natu-
ral power which we may chaiace to employ.
To fuch as wi(h to profecute the ftudy of this impor¬
tant part of hydraulics in its moft abllrufe parts, we re¬
commend the perufal of the differtations of Mr Pitot
and Mr Boffut, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Pa¬
ris-, alfo the differtations of the Chevalier de la Borda,
1766 and 1767-, alfo the Hydraulique of the Chevalier
De Boat. We (hall have occafion to confider the mo¬
tion of the water in the mains of forcing or lifting
pumps which fend the water to adiftance, in the article
IVATER-Works; where the reader will fee how fmall is
the performance of all hydraulic machines, in compari-
fon of what the ufual theories, founded on equilibrium
only, would make him expedt.
PUN, or PuNN, an expreflion where a word has at
once different meanings. The pradlice-of punning is
the miferable refuge of thofe who wifli to pafs for wits,
without having a grain of wit in their compofftion.
.Tames the I. of England delighted in punning-, and
the tafte of the fovereign was ftudied by the courtiers,
and even by the clergy. Hence the ferrrtons of that
age abound with this fpecies of falfe wit. It continued
to be more or lefs faffiionable till the reign of Queen
Anne, when Addifon, Swift, Pope, and Arbuthnot,
with the other real wits of that claffical age, united
their efforts to banifh punning from polite compofition.
It is Hill admitted fparingly in converfation; and no one
will deny that a happy pun, when it comes unfought,
contributes to excite mirth in a company. A profeffed
punjier, however, who is always pouring forth his- fenfe-
lefs quibbles, as Sancho Pan$a poured, forth his pro¬
verbs, is fuch an intolerable nuifance in fociety, that
we do not wonder at Pope or Swift having written a
pamphlet with the title of God's Revenge again]} Pun¬
ning. .
PUNCH, an inftrument of iron or fteel, ufed in fe-
veral arts, for the piercing or ftamping holes in plates of
metals, &.c. being fo contrived as not only to perforate,
but to cut out and take away the piece. The punch is
a principal inllrument of the metal-button makers, flioe-
makers, Sec. #
Punch is alfo a name for a fort of compound drink,
much ufed here, and in many parts abroad, particu¬
larly in Jamaica, and feveral other parts of the Weft
Indies.
Its balls is fpring-water; which being rendered cool¬
er, brilker, and more acid, with lemon or lime juice,
and fweetened again to the palate with fine fugar, makes
what they call Jherbet; to which a proper quantity of
fpirituous liquor, as brandy, rum, or arrack, being add¬
ed, the liquor becomes punch.
PUNCHEON, Punchin, or Punchion, a little
block or piece of fteel, on one end whereof is fume
figure, letter, or mark, engraven either in creux or
relievo, impreflions whereof are taken on metal, or
fome other matter, by linking it with a hammer on
the end not engraved. There are various kinds of
thefe puncheons ufed in the mechanical arts} fuch, for
inllance, are thofe of the goldfmiths, cutlers, pewte-
rers, &c.
The puncheon, in coining, is a piece of iron fteeled,
whereon the engraver has cut in relievo the ftveral fi¬
gures, arms, effigy, infeription, &c. that there are to
] PUN
be in the matrices, wherewith the fpecies are to be mar.
ked. Minters diltinguilh three kinds of puncheons, ac¬
cording to the three kinds of matrices to be made} that v-i
of the effigy, that of the crofs or arms, and that of the
legend or infeription. The firft includes the whole por¬
trait in relievo-, the fecond are fmall, fuch only contain¬
ing a piece of the crofs or arms} for inftance, a fleur-
de-lis, an harp, a coronet, &c. by the affemblage of all
which the entire matrice is formed. The puncheons of
the legend only contain each one letter, and ferve equal¬
ly for the legend on the effigy fide and the crofs fide.
See the article Coinage.
For the puncheons ufed in ftamping the matrices
wherein the types of printing charadters are call, fee
LeTTE R-Foun deny.
Puncheon is alfo ufed for feveral iron tools, of va¬
rious fizes and figures, ufed by the engravers en creux
on metals. Seal engravers particularly ufe a great num¬
ber for the feveral pieces of arms, &c. to be engra¬
ven, and many ftamp the whole feal from a fingle pun¬
cheon.
Puncheon is alfo a common name for all thofe iron
inftruments ufed by ftone-cutters, fculptors, blackfmiths,
&c. for the cutting, inciding, or piercing their feveral
matters.
Thofe of fculptors and ftatuaries ferve for the. re¬
pairing of ftatues when taken out of the moulds. Fhe
lockfmiths ufe the greateft variety of puncheons} fome
for piercing hot, others for piercing cold} fome flat,
fome fquare, fome round, others oval, each to pierce
holes of its refpeaive figure in the feveral parts of
locks.
Puncheon, in Carpentry, is a piece of timber pla¬
ced upright between two pofts, whofe bearing is too
great } ferving, together with them, to fuftain fome
large weights.
This term is alfo ufed for a piece of timber raifed up¬
right, under the ridge of a building, wherein the legs of
a couple, &c. are jointed.
Puncheon, is alfo the name of a meafure for li¬
quids. Rum is brought from the colonies in pun¬
cheons, which are large calks containing about J30
gallons.
PUNCTUATION, in Grammar, the art of point¬
ing, or of dividing a difeourfe into periods, by points
expreffing the paufes to be made therein.
The points ufed are four, viz. the period, colon, femi-
colon, and comma. See the particular ufe of each under
its proper article, Comma, Colon, Period, and Semi¬
colon.
In general, we ftHl only here obferve, that the
comma is to diftinguiffi nouns from nouns, verbs from
verbs, and fuch other parts of a period as are not necef-
farily joined toget her. The femi-eolon ferves to fufpend
and fuftain the period when too long: the colon, to add
fome new fupernumerary reafon, or conlequence, to
what is already faid : and the period to clofe up the
fenfe and conftru&ion, and releafe the voice.
It has been aflerted, that puncluation is a modern art,
and that the ancients were entirely unacquainted with
the ufe of our commas, colons, &c. and wrote not only
without any diftinftion of numbers and periods, but al¬
fo without diftindlion of words: which cuftom, Lip-
fius obferves, continued till the hundred and fourth 0-
lympiad}
Puncheon
Pundtua.
tion.
PUMP
/’LATJ'J rcrrXLZX.
I
PUN [ S
pPun&ua- lymplad j during which time the fenfe alone divided the
tion. difcourfe.
What within our own knowledge at this day puts this
beyond difpute, is the Alexandrian manufcript, which is
at prefent in the king’s library, at the Britifh Mufaeum.
Whoever examines this, will find that the whole is writ¬
ten continuo ducht, without ditiinftion of words or fen-
tences. How the ancients read their works written in
this manner, it is not eafy to conceive.
After the practice of joining words together ceafed,
notes of diftin£Hon were placed at the end of every
word. In all the editions ot the J'Cupitohm thele
points occur. T'he fame are to be feen on the Co/urnna
Rqjlrata. For want of thefe, we find much confufion
in'the Chronicon Marmoreum, and the covenant between
the Smyrnaeans and Magnefians, which are both now at
Oxford. In Salmafius’s edition of Dcdicatiojlatuce ri-
gillce Herod is, the like confufion occurs, where we find
AETPITE and Aiug ive.
Of thefe marks of diftinaion, the Walcote inferip-
tion found near Bath may ferve as a.fpecimen j
IVLIUSv VITALISv FABRI
CESISv LEGv XXVv Vv V
STIPENDIORUMv &c.
After every word here, except at the end of a line, we
fee this mark v. There is an infeription in Montfau-
con, which has a capital letter laid in an horizontal po-
fition, by way of interftitial mark, which makes one apt
to think that this way of pointing was fometimes accor¬
ding to the fancy of the graver.
P. FERRARI VS HERMES
CAECINIAE H DIGNAE
CONIVGI H KARISSIMAE
NVMERIAE H'&c.
Here we obferve after the words a T laid horizontally,
but not after each word, which proves this to be of a
much later age than the former.
As the improvement of flops appears not to have ta¬
ken place while manuferipts and monumental infer!p-
tions were the only known methods to convey know¬
ledge", it is conjedfured that it was introduced with the
art of printing. The 14th century, to which we are
fuppofed to be indebtedTor this invention, did not, how¬
ever, beftow thofe appendages rve call Jlops : whoever
will be at the pains of examining the firtl printed books,
will difeover no flops of any kind; but arbitrary.marks
here and there, according to the humour of the printer.
In the 16th century, we obferye their firft appearance.
We find, from the books of this age, that they were
not all produced at the fame time ; thofe we meet with
there in ufe, being only the comma, the parenthefis, the
interrogation, and the full point. i o prove this, wTe
need but look into Bale’s Acts of Englifh Votaries,
black letter, printed *550. Indeed, in the dedication
of this book, which is to Edward VI. we difeover a co¬
lon : but, as this is the only one of the kind throughout
the work, it is plain this flop was not eflabhfhed at this
time, and fo warily put in by the printer ; or if it was,
that it was not in common ufe. Thirty years after this
time, in that fenfible and judicious performance of Sir
Thomas Elyot, entitled T'he Governour, imprinted
1580, we fee the colon as frequently introduced as any
other flop ; but the femicolon and the admiration were
Vol. XVII. Fart II.
1 ] PUN
flill wanting, neither of thefe being vifible in this book. FurAua
In Hackluyt’s Voyages, printed 1599* we fee thefemi-, .
colon : and, as if the editors did not fully apprehend the
propriety of its general admiffion, it is but fparingly
introduced. It has been faid, indeed, that the femicolon
was brought into ufe at a much earlier period; but it
appears that it wras only for the purpofe of an abbrevi¬
ation, as in (namq;) (ncq;) for namque, neque, and not
in the fenfe in which it is now employed, Month. Mug.
v. 411.
The femicolon, indeed, as well as all the ordinary
points, is ufed in a work entitled “ Imagines Deorum,”
printed at Leyden, in the year 1581, in Roman charac¬
ters. We likewife meet with them in the tranflation of
a juftly celebrated book, written in French by that wife
and good man, Philip Mornay, lord of Plefiis; in the
“ Schoolmafter” of Roger Afcham, printed in 1570,
with the exception of the femicolon ; and in the
“ Trewneffe of the Chriftian Religion,” by Sir Philip
Sidney, publiftied in 1587, in which we find the afte-
rilk, brackets, the interrogation, the comma and the fe¬
micolon, all as we now ufe them ; and the colon and
period are fquare dots.
In an alchemical manufcript of the date of 1572, the
femicolon is faid to be met with, as well as the other
three points which are in common ufe. I he colon and
period are abundant in a work entitled “ Dionifius de
Situ Orbis,” printed at Venice in 1498, but none of the
other Hops or points. The fingle point (.) appears to
be the moil ancient. Since the year 1485 the colon
was introduced ; the comma is firft feen about the year
1521; and the more refined femicolon was brought into
ufe about the year 157c.
The invention of the femicolon is moft probably due
to the Englifti ; for from the Leyden edition of Pliny,
1553, it is evident that the Dutch printers were not
then in the pra£tice of ufing it; and if in 1570, they
were, Roger Afcham would probably have employed it;
for the Dutch were the principal claftical printers in his
time ; but we find that feme Englifti books were mark¬
ed with it at that period.
The admiration was the laft flop that was invented,
and feems to have been added to the reft in a period not
fo far diftant from our own time.
Thus we fee that thefe notes of diftinftion came into
ufe as learning was gradually advanced and improved ;
one invention indeed, but enlarged by feveral additions.
But notwithftanding what has been faid relative to
the ufe of flops as being a modern invention, we Ihall
find reafon to be fatisfied that the ancients were not un¬
acquainted with the method of making paufes in fpeak-
ing and writing, if we attend to the following elaborate
inveftigatjon of Mr Warburton, which we ihall lay be¬
fore our readers in the words of the author.
“ Some fpeeies of paufes and divifions of fentenees in
fpeaking and writing muft have been coeval with the
knowledge of communicating ideas by found or by fym-
bols.
“ Suidas * fays, that the period and the colon were* £<? 7£rir-
difeovered and explained by Thrafymachus, about qfi&fymacho.
years before the Chriftian cera. Cicero f fays, that j Cicera
Thrafymachus was the firft who ftudied oratorical nnm-orat §
bers, which entirely confifted in the artificial ftruclure of
periods and colons. It appears from a padage in Ari-
ftotle J, that punfluation was known in his time. The! Rhet.
3 U learnedlib- ^ c‘ ^
PUN [ 522 ] PUN
Pimitua- learned Dr Edward Bernard * refers the knowledge of
ti°n* pointing to the time of that philofopher, and lays, that
it confttfed in the different pofltion of one fingle point.
bit e'rud. At the bottom of a letter •, thus, (A.) it was equivalent
Ltterat. to a comma ; in the middle (A-).it was equal to a colon ;
tab. 30. at the ton (A‘) it denoted a period, or the conclulion of
fidit. 1685. a rentence.
‘s This mode was eafily praftifed in Greek manu-
fcripts, while they were written in capitals. But when
the fmall letters were adopted, that is, about the ninth
century, this diitinftion could not be obferved; a change
was therefore made in the fcheme of punftuation. Un-
ciales literas hodierno ufu dicirnus ecu in vctujhs codici-
bus, quce prifcnm formam fervant, ac folutce funt, nec
mutub colligantur. Hujus modi hlerce unciales obfervan-
tur in libris omnibus ad nonum ufque fceculunu Montf.
Palaeog. Recens. p. xii.
“ According to Cicero, the ancient Romans as well
as the Greeks made ufe of points. He mentions them
under the appellation of librariorum twice ; and in feveral
parts of his works he fpeaks of ‘ interpunElce claufulce
in orationibus'', of ‘claufulce atque interpuncice verboruni'y
•f Cic. He
Oral. lib.
iii. §26.
Ibid- 7-
Oral- pro
Muraena,
$ 35-
f Sen. E-
tift- 4°-
of interpun&iones verborum, 'b'c. f .
“ Seneca, who died A. D. 65, exprefsly fays, that
Latin writers in his time, had been ufed to punftuation.
‘ Nos J, cum fcribimus interpungere confuevimusd Mu-
retus and Liplius imagined that thefe words alluded to
the infertion of a point after each word; but they cer¬
tainly were miftaken, for they muff neceffarily refer to
marks of punftuation in the divifion of fentences, becaufe
in the paffage in which thefe words occur, Seneca is
fpeaking of one Q. Haterius, who made no paufes in
his orations,
“ According to Suetonius in his Illuft. Gram. Valerius
Probus procured copies of many old books, and employ¬
ed himfelf in correfHng, pointing and illuftrating them, 5
devoting his time to this and no other part of grammar.
Mu/ta exemplaria contracla emend are, ac dijlinguere el
adnotare curavit ; foli huic, nec uliiprceterea, gramma-
tices parti dedilus,
“ It appears from hence that in the time of Probus, or
about the year 68, that Latin manufcripts had not been
ufually pointed ; and that gramm-arians made it their
bufmefs to fupply this deficiency.
“ Quintilian, who wrote his celebrated treatife on
Oratory about the year 88, fpeaks of commas, colons,
and periods *, but it muff be obferved, that by thefe terms
he means claufes, members, and complete fentences, ?„nd
not the marks of punctuation §.
HAD o ** Donates j| publiihed a treatife on Grammar
* • • 340, jn tjjg fourth century, in which he explains the diJiinEiio,
the media dijlintdia, and the fubdiftindio ; that is, the
ufe of a fingle point in the various pofitions already men¬
tioned.
“ Jerom *, who had been the pupil of Donatus, in
his Latin verfion of the feriptures, made ufe of certain
diftintions or divifions, which he calls cola and com-
Fnef in niatn. It has however been thought probable, that thefe
yofuam, divifions were not made by the addition of any points or
&c. tom. iii. fl0pS. but were formed by writing, in one line, as many
2(5’ words as conftituted a claufe, equivalent to what we di-
ftinguilh by a comma or a colon. Thefe divifions were
Falxog. cafied <ru-g6i or fapstr* j and had the appearance of fliort
Crceca, lib. Jrregu^ar verfes in poetry. There are fome Greek ma-
hi. c. 4. nuferipts ftill extant which are written in this mannerf.
\ QuinSl.
lib. ix. c. iv.
* Hieron.
Free/, in
E/aiatn-
Vide etiam
“ The beft treatife upon punctuation I have feen, and Punclua*-
from which thefe authorities are partly taken, was pub- tl°n
lilhed fome years fince and dedicated to Sir Clifton
Wintringham, Bart, the name of the author I know ment
not f.” v—
PUNCTUM saliens, in Anatomy, the firft rudi-¥ Month.
ments of the heart in the formation of the foetus, where
a throbbing motion is perceived. This is faid to be ea¬
fily obferved with a rhicrofcope in a brood-egg, wherein
after conception, wre fee a little fpeck or cloud, in the
middle whereof is a fpot that appears to beat or leap a
confiderable time before the foetus is formed for hatch¬
ing. See the articles Foetus and Anatomy.
PUNCTUMJlans, a phrafe by which the fchoolmen
vainly attempt to bring within the reach of human
comprehenfion the pofitive eternity of God. Thofe
fubtile reafoners feem to have dilcovered that nothing,
which is made up of parts, whether continuous or dis¬
crete, can be ablolutely infinite, and that tlierefore eter¬
nity cannot confift of a boundlefs feries of fucceflxve
moments. Yet, as if fuch a feries had always exifted,
and were commenfurate m duration with the fupreme
Being, they compared his eternity to one of the mo¬
ments which compofe the flux of time arrefted in its
courfe : and to this eternal moment they gave the. name
of punBum Jlans, becaufe it was fuppofed to ftand ftill,
whilft the reft followed each other in fucceftion, all va-
niflung as foon as they appeared. We need not wafte
time or room in expofing the abfurdity of this conceit,
as we have elfewhere endeavoured, in the beft manner
we can, to afeertain the meaning of the words eternitij
and infinity, and to Ihow that they cannot be predicated
of time or fpace, of points or moments, whether flowing
or Handing ftill. See Metaphysics, Part II. chap. 7.
8. and Part III. chap. 6.
PUNCTURE, in Surgery, any wound made by a
{harp-pointed inftrument.
PUNDITS, or Pendits, learned Bramins devoted
to the ftudy of the Sahfcrit language, and to the ancient
fcience, laws, and religion of Hindoftan. See Philo¬
sophy, N° 4—12.
PUNICA, the Pomegranate Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the icofandria clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 36th order, Pomacece.
See Botany Index.
PUNISHMENT, in Law, the penalty which a per-
fon incurs on the commiflion of a crime. See the article
CRIME and Punijhment.
The ingenuity of men has been much exerted to tor¬
ment each other ; but the following are the punifhments
that have been ufually adopted in the different countries
of the world. The capital puniftiments have been be¬
heading, crucifixion, burning, roafting, drowning, fcal-
ping, hanging by the neck, the arm, or the leg, ftar-
ving, fawing, expofing to wild hearts, rending afunder
by horfes drawing oppofite ways, burying alive, {hoot¬
ing, blowing from the mouth of a cannon, compulfory
deprivation of fleep, rolling in a barrel ftuck with nails
pointed inwards, poifoning, prefling {lowly to death by
a weight laid on the breaft, calling headlong from a
rock, tearing out the bowels, pulling to pieces with red-
hot pincers, the rack, the wheel, impaling, flaying alive,
&c. &.c.
The punilhments Ihort of death have been fine, pillo¬
ry, imprifonment, compulfpry labour at the mines, gal¬
leys,
PUR r 523 ] PUR
miftimentleys, lilgliways, os* corre&ion^houfe j whipping, baftina-
II ding, mutilation by cutting away the ears, the nofe,
IPurflew. t^e tongue^ t]ie breafts of women, the foot, the hand j
^ , fqueezing the marrow from the bones with fcrews or
wedges, caftration, putting out the eyes, banilhment,
running the gauntlet, drumming, (having off the hair,
burning on the hand or forehead, &c.
PUNNING. See Pun.
PUPIL, in the civil law, a boy or girl not yet arri¬
ved at the age of puberty *, i. e. the boy under 14 years,
the girl under 12.
Pupil, is alfo ufed in univerfities, &c. for a youth un¬
der the education or difcipline of any perfon.
Purrx, in Anatomy, a little aperture in the middle of
the uvea and iris of the eye, through which the rays of
light pafs to the cryftalline humour, in order to be
painted on the retina, and caufe vifion. See Anatomy
Index.
PURCELL, Henry, a juflly celebrated mafler of
mufic, began early to diftinguifh himfelf. As his ge¬
nius was original, it wanted but little forming, and he
role to the height of his profeflion with more cafe than
others pafs through their rudiments. He was made or-
ganift to Weftminfter abbey in the latter end of the
reign of Charles II. In that of William, he fet feveral
fongs for Dry den’s Ampkytrion and his King Arthur,
which were received with juft applaufe. His notes in
his operas were admirably adapted to his words, and fo
echoed to the fenfe, that the founds alone feemed ca¬
pable of exciting ihofe paftions which they never failed
to do in conjunflion. His mulic was very different
from the Italian. It was entirely Englifti, and perfedt-
ly mafculine. His principal works have been publilhed
under the title of Orpheus Britannicus. He died in 169 §;,
in the 37th year of his age, and was interred in Weit-
minfter abbey, where a monument is eredled to his me¬
mory.
PURCHAS, Samuel, an Englilh divine, famous for
compiling a valuable colleftion of voyages, was born in
1577, at Thackfted in ElTex. After Itudying at Cam¬
bridge, he obtained the vicarage of Eaftwood in his na¬
tive county *, but leaving that cure to his brother, he fet¬
tled in London, in order to carry on the great work in
which he was engaged. He publilhed the firft volume
in folio, 1613, and the four laft, 12 years after, under
the title of Purchas his Pilgrimage, or Relations of the
world, and the Religions ohferved in all ages and places.
Meanwhile he was collated to the redlory of St Mar¬
tin’s, Ludgate, in London, and made chaplain to Dr
Abbot, archbifhop of Canterbury. His Pilgrimage, and
the learned Hackluyt’s Voyages, led the way to all the
other colledtions of that kind, and have been juftly valued
and efteemed. But unhappily, by his publifhing, he in¬
volved himfelf in debt: he did not, however, die in pri-
fon, as fome have afferted j but at his own houfe, about
the year 1628.
PURCHASE, in Law, the buying or acquiring of
lands, &c. with money, by deed or agreement, and not
by defcent or right of inheritance.
Purchase, in the fea-language, is the fame as draw
in: thus, when they fay, the capftan purchafes a-pace,
they only mean it draws in the cable a-pace.
PURE, fomething free from any admixture of fo¬
reign or heterogeneous matters.
PURFLEW, a term in heraldry, exprefling ermins,
peans, or any of the furs, when they compofe a bordure Purflevr
round a coat of arms : thus they lay, He beareth gules, H
a bordure, purflew, vairy ; meaning, that the bordure is i^urg^tory»i
vairy.
PURGATION, the art of purging, feouring, or
purifying a thing, by feparating, or carrying off any
impurities found therein. Thus,
In pharmacy, purgation is the cleanfing of a medicine
by retrenching its fuperffuities. In chemiftry, it is ufed
for the feveral preparations of metals and minerals in¬
tended to clear them of their impurities, more ufually
called purification and refining.
In medicine, purgation is an excretory motion arifmg
from a quick and orderly contrafrion of the fteftiy fibres
of the ftomach and inteftines, whereby the chyle, cor¬
rupted humours, and excrements lodged therein, are
protruded further and further, and at length quite ex¬
cluded the body by ftool. See Materia Medica.
Purgation, in Law, fignifies the clearing a perfon’s
felf of a crime of which he is fufpefted and accufed be¬
fore a judge. This purgation is either canonical or vul¬
gar. Canonical purgation is prefcribed by the canon-
law, and the form thereof in the fpiritual court is ufual¬
ly thus : The perfon fufpedled takes his oath that he is
innocent of the crime charged againft him 5 and at the
fame time brings fome of his neighbours to make oath
that they believe he fwears truly. Vulgar purgation
was anciently by fire or water, or elfe by combat, and
was pradfifed here till abolilhed by our canons. See
Battel, in law; Ordeal, &c.
PURGATIVE, or PURGING Medicines, medica-'
ments, which evacuate the impurities of the body by
ftool, called alfo cathartics.
PURGATORY, a place in which the juft, who de¬
part out of this life, are fuppofed to expiate certain of¬
fences which do not merit eternal damnation. Brousfr-
tow has endeavoured to prove, that this notion has been
held by Pagans, Jews, and Mahometans, as well as by
Chriftians ; and that in the days of the Maccabees the
Jews believed that fin might be expiated by facrifice
after the death of the finner, cannot be queftioned.
Much abufe has been poured upon the church of Papijl mif-
Rome for her dodtrine of purgatory, and many falfe re- reprefinted
prefentations have been made of the dodlrine itfelf. 'Y^and repre-
following view of it is taken from a work which is con-^ente^
fidered as a ftandard by the Britifti Catholics. 1. Every
fin, how flight foever, though no more than an idle
word, as it is an offence to God, deferves punifhment
from hira, and will be puniftred by him hereafter, if not
cancelled by repentance here. 2. Such fmall fins do
not deftTve eternal punifhment. 3. Few depart this life
fo pure as to be totally exempt from fpots of this na¬
ture, and from every kind of debt due to God’s iuftice.
4. Therefore few will efcape without fuffering fome¬
thing from his juftice for fueh debts as they have carried
with them out of this world ; according to that rule
of divine juftice, by which he treats every foul hereafter
according to its works, and according to the ftate in
which he finds it in death. From thefe propofitions,
which the Papift confiders as fo many felf-evident truths,
he infers that there muft be fome third place of punifli-
ment $ for, fince the infinite goodnefs of God can ad¬
mit nothing into heaven which is not clean and pure
from all fin both great and fmall ; and his infinite
juftice can permit none to receive the reward of blifr,
3 U 2 wha
PUR t
Purgatory, wlio as yet are not out of debt, but have fomething in
Punfica- ;u^ice to fuifer j there mutt of neceffity be fome place
tion- or It ate, where fouls, departing this life, pardoned as to
^ ' the eternal guilt or pain, yet obnoxious to fome tempo¬
ral penalty, or with the guilt ot lome venial faults are
purged and purified before their admittance into hea¬
ven. And this is what he is taught concerning purga¬
tory. Which, though he knows not where it is, ot
what nature the pains are, or how long each foul is de¬
tained there ; yet he believes, that thole that are in
this place, being the living members of Jefus Chriit, are
relieved by the prayers ot their fellow members here on
earth, as alfo by alms and maffes offered up to God tor
their fouls. And as for fuch as have no relations or
friends to pray for them, or give alms, or procure mal-
fes for their reliei i they are not neglected by the church,
which makes a general commemoration of all the iaith-
ful departed in every mats, and in every one of the ca¬
nonical hours of the divine office. .
Such is the Popith doctrine of purgatory, which is
built chiefly upon 2 Macc. xii. 43, 44, 45 > St
jdi. 31, 32; and 1 Cor. iii. 15. By Proteftants the
books of Maccabees are not acknowledged- to be in-
fpired feripture ; but if they were, the texts referred to
7  j # /
would rather prove that there is no iuch place as pur
gatory, fince Judas did not exped the fouls departed to
reap any benefit from his fin-olfering till the refurrec-
tion. Our Saviour, in St Luke, fpeaks of remiffion in
this world, and in the world to come ; but furely neither
of thefe is purgatory. The world to come is the ftate
after the refurredion, and the remiflion fpok.en of is
the fentcnce of abfolution to be pronounced on the
penitent from the feat of general judgment. In the
obfeure verfe referred to in the epiflle to the Corin¬
thians, the apoftle is, by the beft interpreters, thought
to fpeak of the difficulty with which Chriftians ffiould
be faved from the deftrudion of Jerufalem. Of the
ftate of fouls departed he cannot well be fuppofed to
fpeak, as upon difembodied fpirits fire could make no
impreffion. We cannot help, therefore, thinking with
the church of England, that “ the Romiffi dodrine of
purgatory is a fond thing, vainly invented, and ground¬
ed on no warranty of feripture but we muft confefs at
the fame time, that it appears to us to be a very harm-
lefs error, neither hoftile to virtue nor dangerous to fo-
ciety. See Resurrection.
PURIFICATION, in matters of religion, a cere¬
mony which confifts in cleanfing any thing from a fup¬
pofed pollution or defilement.
The Pagans, before they facrificed, ufually bathed or
walhed themfelves in water •, and they were particularly
careful to waffi their hands, becaufe with thefe they were
to touch the vidims confecrated to the gods. It was alfo
cuftomary to wafh the veffel with which they made their
libations. The Mahometans alfo me purifications pre¬
vious to the duty of prayer j which are alfo of twTo kinds,
either bathing, or only waffiing the face, hands and feet.
The firft is required only in extraordinary cafes, as after
having lam with a woman, touched a dead body, &.c.
But Eft fo neceffary a preparation for their devotions
fhould be omitted, either where water cannot be had, or
when it may be of prejudice to a perion’s health, they are
allowed in fuch cafes to make ufe of fine fand, or dull, in¬
stead of it y and then they perform this duty by clapping
4i
524 ] PUR
their open hands on the fand, and paffing them over
the parts, in the fame manner as if they were dipped
in water. ... .
There were alfo many legal purifications among the v
Hebrews. When a woman was brought to bed ot a
male child, fhe was efteemed impure tor 4c days j and
when of a female, for 60 : at the end of which time the
carried a lamb to the door of the temple to be offered
for a burnt-offering, and a young pigeon or turtle fur a
fin-offering j and by this ceremony the was cleanied or
PUrpURlM or The Feast of Lots, a foiemn feftival
of the Jews,’inftituted in memory of the deliverance they
received, by means of IVIordecai and Efther, trom Ha¬
inan’s wicked attempt to deftroy them.
PURITAN, a name formerly given in denfion to
the diffenters from the church of England, on account
of the profeffion to follow the pure word ot Cod, in
oppefitiun to all traditions and human conftitutions. It
was likewife given in the primitive church to the No-
vatian fchifmatics, becaufe they would never admit to
communion any one who from dread of death had apo-
ftatized from the iaith. .
PURITY, the freedom of any thing from foreign ad¬
mixture.
Purity of Style. See Oratory, p. 411!
PURLIEU, liguifies all that ground near any foreft.
Purifica,
tion
II
Purpure.
which being made foreft by King Henry II. Richard 1.
and Kiim John, was afterwards by perambulations and
grants of Henry III. fevered again from the lame, and
made purlieu j that is to fay, pure and free from the
laws of the foreft.—The word is derived from the trench
pur, “ pure,” and lieu, 'L place.” _ .
PURLINS, in building, thofe pieces ot timber that
lie acrofs the rafters on the infide, to keep them liom
finking in the middle of their length. _
By the aft of parliament for rebuilding London,
it is provided, that all purlins from 15 feet 6 inches
to 18 feet 6 inches long, be in their fquare 9 inches
and 8 inches ; and all in length from 18 feet 6 inches
to 21 feet 6 inches, be in their fquare 12 inches and 9
inches. . , r . c a
PURPLE, a colour compofcd of a mixture ot rea
and blue. See COLOUR-Making, N° 29, and Dyeing,
iticlcx •
PURPURA, in NaturalHifory. See Murex, Con- •
chology Index. The Iyrian method of dyeing purp e
was with a liquid extra&ed from this filh. It has been
affirmed, however, that no fuch method was ever prac-
tifed “ At 'lyre (fays Mr Bruce) I engaged two hih-
ermen, at the expence of their nets, to drag in thole
places where they faid fhell-fiffi might be caught in
hopes to have brought out one of the famous purple-h h.
I did not fucceed •, but in this I was, I believe, as lucky
as the old fifliers had ever been. The purple-filh at lyre
feems to have been only a concealment ot their know¬
ledge of cochineal ; as, had they depended upon the hiti
for their dye, if the whole city of Tyre applied to no¬
thing elfe but fi filing, they would not have coloured 20
yards of cloth in a year.”
' PURPURE, in Heraldry. The colour lo called,
which fignifies purple, is in engraving reprefented by
diagonal lines, from the left to the right. See Heral-
It,
PUS , £ S2
It Hi ay ft:rve to denote an admin! ftrator of juftice, a
lawgiver, or a governor equal to a fovereign : and ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
Or, ■] f Riches.
Arg. | J j yluietnefs.
Gul. ! ^ j Politics.
Az. | ts0 I Fidelity.
Ver. | } Cruelty.
Sab. J [_ Sadnefs.
PURRE, or Perkin. See Agriculture Index.
PURSER, an officer aboard a man of war, who re¬
ceives her viftuals from the viilualler, fees that it be well
flowed, and keeps an account of what he every day de¬
livers to the Reward. Pie alio keeps a lift of the (hip’s
company, and lets down exa&ly the day of each man’s
admiffion, in order to regulate the quantity of provifions
to be delivered out ; and that the paymafter or treafurer
of the navy may iffue out the deburfements, and pay off
the men, according to his book.
PURSLAIN. See Portulaca, Botany Index.
PURVIEW, a term ufed by feme lawyers for the
body of an aft of parliament, or that part which begins
with “ Be it enacted, &c.” as contradiftinguiffied from
the preamble.
PURULENT, in Medicine, fomething mixed with,
or partaking of, pus or matter.
PUS, in Medicine, a white or yellowifti matter defign-
ed by nature for the healing and cementing of wounds
and fores.
The origin and formation of pus is as much un¬
known as that of any other animal fluid. In an in¬
augural differtation publiftied at Edinburgh by Lr
Hendy, the author fuppofes pus to be a fecreted
fluid/ It has been thought by many, that pus is ei¬
ther a fediment from ferura when beginning to putre¬
fy, or that it is the fame fluid infpiffated by the heat
of the body. But both thefe opinions are refuted by
fome experiments of our author, which (how, that pus
is much lels inclined to putrefaftion than ferum, and
the putrefaftion of both is haftened by an addition of
fome of the red part of the blood. Some other expe¬
riments were made in order to try whether pus could
be artificially produced. A thin piece of lamb’s flefh,
applied to an ulcer difeharging laudable pus, and cover¬
ed over with lead, did not affume the appearance of
pus, but became fetid, and was much leffened. Serum,
in its inflammatory and in its ordinary (late, and lymph
in different dates, were applied to the fame ulcer,
which (till difeharged good pus; but none of thefe
were converted into pus ; on the contrary, they became
very putrid.
In oppofttion to thefe arguments of our author,
however, it may be alleged, that if pus was a fecreled
fluid, the veffels by which it was fecreted would cer¬
tainly be vifible ; but no fuch thing has ever been ob-
ferved : on the contrary, it is certain that pus cannot
be formed unlefs the air is excluded from the wound.
Thefe difputes, however, are of no great confequence :
but in fome cafes it becomes a matter of real import¬
ance to diftinguifh pus from mucus ; as thus we may
be enabled to know whether a cough is confumptive,
or merely catarrhous. See Mucus. Mr Hume, in a
differtation on the properties of pus, in which he avails
aimfelf of the experiments ofi Mr Hunter, as delivered
5 ] PUT
in his PhyjiologtcalLeSiures, fays, “ tnat the charaften- ^'1'
(lie of pus is its being competed of globules ; and he puleo|j_
thinks that the prefence of globules feems to depend upon ■ —v —, t
the pus being in a perfect (late. It differs from the
blood in the colour of the globules ; in their not being
foluble in water, which thole ol the blood are ; and
from the fluid in which they fwim being coagulable by
a folution of fal ammoniac, which ferum is not.” .Re-
fpefting the formation of pus, our author adopts the idea
fuggefted by Mr Hunter, that the veffels of the part af¬
fume the nature of a gland, and fecrete a fluid which
becomes pus. Mr Horne afeertains, by experiment,
that pus, at its formation, is not globular, but a tranl-
parent fluid, of a confidence, in lome fort, refembling
jelly ; and that the globules are formed while lying up¬
on the furface of the fore ; requiring, in fome inftances,
while the influence of the external air is excluded, fif¬
teen minutes for that purpofe.
PUSTULE, a pimple, or fmall eruption on the fkin
full of pus ; fuch as the eruptions of the fmallpox.
PUT AMINEAc, (from putamen, “ a (hell,”) the
name of the 25th order of Linnaeus’s fragments of a
natural method ; confiding of a few genera of plants
allied in habit, whofe fleftiy feed-veffel or fruit is fre¬
quently covered with a hard woody (hell. See Bo¬
tany.
PUTEOLI, (Livy, Strabo) : a town of Campania ; jWff-
fo called either from its wells, there being many hot and*»r»<?b _
cold fprings thereabouts; or from its (tench, pidor,
caufed by fulphureous exhalations, (Varro, Strabo). ’ l“
It is now called Pwzzuo/i, and is pleafantly and advan-
tageoufly fituated for trade. In a very remote age, the
Cumeans made it their arfenal and dockyard ; and to
this naval eftabliflnnent gave the fublime appellation of
Dicenrchia or Jujl Power.
The Romans avere wrell awrare of the utility of this
port, and took great pains to improve its natural advan¬
tages. Nothing remains of their works but a line of
piers, built to break the force of a rolling fea : they are
vulgarly called the bridge of Caligula, becaufe that mad¬
man is faid to have marched in triumph from Puzzuoli
to Baia on a bridge ; .but his was a bridge of boats.
The ruins of its, ancient edifices are widely fpread
along the adjacent hills and (hores. An amphitheatre
dill exifts entire in mod of its parts, and the temple of
Serapis offers many curious fubjefts of obfervation ;
half of its buildings are dill buried under the earth
thrown upon it by volcanical commotions, or accumu¬
lated by the crumblings of the hill ; the inclofure is
fquare, environed with buildings for priefts and baths
for votaries; in the centre remains a circular platform,
with four flights of fteps up to it, vafes for fire, a cen¬
trical altar, rings for viftims, and other appendages of
facrifice, entire and not difplaced ; but the columns that
held its roof have been removed to the new palace of
Caferta (fee Caserta). Behind this round place of
worftiip dand three pillars without capitals, part, of the
pronaos of a large temple ; they are of cipoline marble, ,
and at the middle of their height are full of holes eaten
in them by the file-fifh *. * Pbola:
The prefent city contains near 10,000 inhabitants, Etofly/w,.
and occupies a fmall peninfula ; the cathedral was a pa-Lmn.
gan temple, dedicated to the divinities that prefided.
over commerce and navigation. E. Long. 14. 40. N.
Lat. 41. 15..
In
PUT [ ] PUT
iVteoli In tlie neiglibourhood of Puteoli are many relicks of
1! ancient grandeur, of which none deferves more attention
•Putrefae- tjian tjie Campanian way paved with lava, and lined on
^°n‘ , each fide with'venerable towers, the repofitories of the
.dead, which are richly adorned with flucco in the infide.
This road was made in a moft folid expenfive manner by
order of Domitiao, and is frequently the fubjeft of en¬
comium in the poems of Statius.
PUTI CARAJA, in Botany, is a genus of Indian
plants, of which the charafters, as given by SirWilliam
Jones in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. ii. p. 351. are
thefe. The calyx is five-cleft, the corolla has five equal
•petals, the pericarpium a thorny legumen and two feeds,
the leaves oval and pinnated, and the ftem armed. “ I he
feeds (fays the learned Prefident) are very bitter, and
perhaps tonic ; fince one of them, bruifed and given in
two dozes, will, as the Hindoos affert, cure an intermit¬
tent fever.”
PUTORIUS. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
PUTREFACTION, is the natural procefs by which
organized bodies ate difiblved, and reduced to what may
be called their original e'lemenls.
Putrefaftion differs from chemical folution j becaufe
an the latter, the diffolved bodies are kept in their ftate
of folution by being combined with a certain agent
from which they cannot eafily be feparated 5 but in pu-
trefaflion, the agent which diffolves the body appears
not to combine with it in any manner of way, but mere¬
ly to feparate the parts from each other. It differs alfo
from the refolution of bodies by diffillation with violent
fire •, becaufe, in diftillation, new and pernament com¬
pounds are formed, but by putrefaftion every thing feems
to be refolved into fubftanees much more firaple and in-
deftru&ible than thofe which are the refult of any che¬
mical procefs.
The bodies mofl liable to putrefaflion are thofe of
animals and vegetables, efpecially when full of juices.
'Stones, though by the aftion of the weather they will
moulder into duff, yet feem not to be fubjefl to any
thing like a real putrefa&ion, as they are not refolved
into any other fubftance than fand, or fmall duff, which
flill preferves its lapideous nature. In like manner, ve¬
getables of any kind, when deprived of their juices by
drying, may be preferved for many ages without being
fubje&ed to any thing like a putrefaftive procefs. The
lame holds good with refpeft to animals j the parts of
which, by fimple drying, may be preferved in a found
ftate for a much longer time than they could be without
the previous exhalation of their juices.
Putrefaftion is generally allowed to be a kind of fer¬
mentation, or rather to be the laft ftage of that preceis ;
which beginning with the vinous fermentation, gees
on through the acetous, to the ftage of putridity, where
it flops. It is argued, however, and feeraingly not
without a great deal of reafon, that if putrefaction be a
fermentation, it muft neceffarily be a kind diftinft from
either the vinous or acetous j fince we frequently obferve
that it takes place where neither the vinous nor the ace¬
tous ftages have gone before ; of confequence, it muft be,
in fome cafes at leaft, entirely independent of and un¬
connected with them. In feveral other refpeCts it dif¬
fers fo much from thefe proceffes, that it feems in fome
•degree doubtful whether it can with propriety be called
a fermentation or not. Both the vinous and acetous fer¬
mentations are attended with a confiderable degree of
heat j but in the putrefaClion of animal matters efpeci- Putrefae-
ally, the heat is for the moft part fo imall, that we can- don
not be certain whether there is any degree of it or not
produced by the procefs. In cafes, indeed, where the
quantity of corrupting animal matter is very great, fome
heat may be perceived : and accordingly Dr Monro
tells us, that he was fenfible of heat on thrufting his
hand into the fleftr of a dead and corrupting whale.
But the moft remarkable difference between the putre-
faClive fermentation and that of the vinous and acetous
kinds is, that the end of both thefe procefles is to pro¬
duce a new and permanent compound 5 but that of the
putrefaClive procefs is not to produce any new form,
but to deftroy, and refolve one which already exifts into
the original principles from which all things feem to
proceed. Thus the vinous fermentation produces ardent
fpirits j the acetous, vinegar : but putrefaCtion produces
nothing but earth, and fome effluvia, which, though
moft difagreeable, and even poiionous to the human bo¬
dy, yet, being imbibed by the earth and vegetable crea¬
tion, give life to anew race of beings. It is commonly
fuppofed, indeed, that volatile alkali is a production of
the putrefaCtive procefs : but this feems liable to dif-
pute. The vapour of pure volatile alkali is not hurtful
to the human frame, but that of putrefying fubftances is
exceedingly fo ; and, excepting in the cafe of urine, the
generation of volatile alkali in putrid fubftances is very
equivocal. This fubftance, which produces more alkali
than any other, is much lefs offenfive by its putrid fetor
than others; and all animal fubftances produce a volatile
alkali on being expofed to the aCtion of fire, of quick¬
lime, or of alkaline falls. In thefe cafes the volatile al¬
kali is not fuppofed to be produced by the quicklime
or fixed fait, but only to be extricated from a kind of
ammoniacal fait pre-exifting in the animal matters •, the
probability is the fame in the other cafe, viz. that vola¬
tile alkali is not produced, but only extricated, from tiiefe
fubftances by putrefaCtion.
The only thing in which the putrefaClive fermenta¬
tion agrees with the other kinds is, that in all the tlnee
there is an extrication of fixed air. In the putrefaCtive
procefs, it has been thought that this efcape cf the fix¬
ed air deprives the body of its cohefion : and Dr Mac-
bride has written a treatife, in which he endeavours to
prove that fixed air is the very power of cohefion itfelf^
and that all bodies when deprived of their fixed air en¬
tirely lofe their cohefion. According to this bypothefis,
the came of putrefaCtion is the efcape of fixed air *, but it
is impoflable to give a reafon why fixed air, after having
fo long remained in a body, and preferved its cohefion,
ftiould of a hidden begin to fly off without being aCted
upon by fomething elfe. To a fimilar objection the
hypothefis of thofe is liable, who fuppofe putrefaCtion
to be occafioned by the efcape of phlogifton ; for phlo-
gifton is now known to be a chimera : and though it
were a reality, it would not fly off without fomething
to carry it off, any more than fixed air. Animalcules
have been thought to be the caufe oi putrefaClion : but
if animal fubftanees are covered fo as to exclude the ac-
cefs of flies or other infeCts, no fuch animalcules are to
be difeovered though putrefaCtion has taken place j and
indeed it requires little proof to convince us, that ani¬
mals are produced in corrupted bodies only becaufe fueh
fubftances prove a proper nidus for the eggs of the pa¬
rent infeCIs.
To
PUT [ 527 I PUT
Putrefao To underftand the true caufe of putrefaction, we
tlon- muft take notice of the circumftances in which the pro-
u * ' cefs goes on moft rapidly. Thefe are, heat, a little
moifture, and confined air. Extreme cold prevents pu-
trefaftion, as well as perfect drynefs •, and a free circu¬
lation of air carries off the putrid effluvia ; a ftagnation
of which feems to be neceffary for carrying on the pro-
cefs. It feems alfo to hold pretty generally, that pu¬
trefying bodies fwell and become fpecifically lighter 5
for which reafon the carcafes of dead animals, after
having funk in water, rife to the top and float. This
laft phenomenon, as has been obferved under the article
Blood, N° 29. fflows that thefe bodies have received
a certain quantity of an elaftic principle from the air,
which thus fwells them up to fuch a fize. It may be
faid indeed, that this increafe of fize in putrefying bo¬
dies is owing only to the extrication of air within them-
felves: but this amounts to the fame thing; for the air
which exifts internally in the body of any animal, is
entirely divefted of elafticity while it remains there,
and only fflows its elaflic properties upon being extri¬
cated. The elaftic principle which combines with the
air fixed in the animal fubilance, therefore, muft come
from the external atmofphere j and confequently the
agent in putrefaClion muft be the elaftic principle of the
atmofphere itfelf, probably the fame with elementary
fire.
But, granting this to be true, it is difficult to fflow
why putrefa&ion fflould not take place in a living body
as well as in a dead one j feeing the one is as much ex-
pofed to the aftion of the air as the other. This dif¬
ficulty, however, is not peculiar to the prefent hypothe-
fis ; but will equally occur whatever we may fuppofe the
caufe of putrefaction to be. '1'he difficulty feems to be
a little cleared up by Dr Prieftley, who fflows, that, by
means of refpiration, the body is freed from many nox¬
ious effluvia which would undoubtedly deftroy it ; and
by the retention of which, he thinks, a living body
would putrefy as foon as a dead one. The way in
which refpiration prevents the putrefaction of the body,
is evidently the fame with that in which the wind pre¬
vents fiffl or fleffl hung up in it from becoming putrid.
The conftant infpiration of the air is like a ftream of
that element continually blown upon the body, and
that not only upon its iiirface, but into it ; by which
means putrefaftion is prevented in thofe parts that are
moft liable to become putrid. On the other hand, the
SeeB/o0<f,etaftic principle received from the air by the blood*,
Pip. by invigorating the powers of life, quickening; the cir¬
culation, and increafing perfpiration, enables the body
to expel noxious particles from other parts of the body
which cannot conveniently be expelled by the lungs.
This leads us to confider the reafon why a free ex-
pofure to the air prevents the coming on of putrefac¬
tion, or why the confining of thte putrid effluvia fflould
be fo necefiary to this procefs. Here it will be proper
to recoiled, that putrefaClion is a Ample refolution of
the body into earth, air, &c. of which it feems original¬
ly to have been compofed. This refolution is evidently
performed by an expanfive power feemingly fituated in
every particle of the body. In confequenqe of this
principle, the body fifft fwells, then burfts, flies off in
vapour, and its particles fall afunder from each other.
The a&ion of the putrefadive procefs, then, is analo¬
gous to that of .fife, fince thefe are the very properties
of fire, and the very effeds which follow the adion of Putrefac-
fire upon any combuftible body, it is therefore exceed-. tlon‘
ingly probable, that the agent in the air, which we have
all along confidered as the caufe of putrefadion, is no
other than fire itfelf j that is, the ethereal fluid expanding
itfelf everywhere, as from a centre to a circumference.
The force of the fluid, indeed, is much lefs in putrefac¬
tion than in adual ignition ; and therefore the effeds
alfo take place in a much fmaller degree, and require a
much longer time : rreverthelefs, the fame circumftances
that are neceflary for keeping up the adion of fire, arc
alfo neceffary for keeping up the putrefadive procefs.
One of thefe is a free accefs of air, yet without too vio¬
lent a blaft for as fire cannot burn without air, neither
can it endure too much of it: thus a candle goes out
if put under a receiver, and the air exhaufted 5 and it
will do the fame if we blow violently upon it. In like,
manner, putrefadion requires a cerlain quantity of air,
much lefs indeed than fire : and as it requires lefs to fup-
port it, fo it can alfo endure much lefs air than fire *, for
a ftream of air which would not put out a fire, will ef-
fedually prevent putrefadion. The caufe of this in
both is the fame. Fire cannot burn becaufe the vapour
is carried off too faff ; and thus the latent heat, which
ought to fupport the flame, is entirely diffipated. In
like manner putrefadion is as certainly attended with
an emiffion of azotic gas as fire is with an emiffion of
flame. Thefe gafes contain a great quantity of latent
heat, or of the expanfive principle already mentioned j
and if thefe are carried off with greater rapidity than the
heat of the atmofphere can produce them, the confe-
quence muft be, that an oppofite principle to that which
produces putrefadion, namely, a. principle of cold, or
condenfation, inftead of expanfion, muft take place, and
the body cannot putrefy. That this muft be the cafe,
is evident from the property which all evaporations have
of producing cold 5 and it is well known that a brilk.
current of air. promotes evaporation to a great degree. .
Hence alfo the reafon is evident why bodies are pre fer- ■
ved uncorrupted by cold 5 for thus the adion of the ex-,
panfive principle is totally overcome and fufpended, fo
that none of its effeds can be perceived.
Thus we may fay, that one reafon why an animal
body does not putrefy while alive, is its ventilation, as
we may call it, by refpiration-’, and another is, the
continual acceffion of new particles, lefs difpofed to pu¬
trefy than itfelf, by the food and drink which is con¬
ftant ly taken in. But if either of thefe ways of pre*
venting the commencement of this procefs are omitted,
then putrefadion will take place as well in a living as
in a dead body. Of the truth of this laft fad we have
innumerable inftances. When air is infeded with the
putrid effluvia of marffles, and thus the natural effluvia
are not carried off from the human body; but, on the
contrary, fome enter into it which are not natural to it,
the moft putrid difeafes are produced. The fame thing
happens from the putrid effluvia of dead bodies. Of
this we have a remarkable inftance in fthe fever which
took place in Germany indhe war of 1755 : one rea¬
fon of which is faid to have been an irifedion of the
air by the vaft numbers of people killed in battle,, to
which was added a calm in the atmofphere for a long
time ; the putrid effluvia being by this prevented fronj
flying off f. When Mr Howell with 145 others were
imprifoned in the black-hole at Calcutta, after palling 16^/'
a..
PUT [ - 52
a night in that tlifmal habitation, he found hitnfelf in
a high putrid fever. When failors in long voyages are
obliged to feed upon putrid aliments } when, through
Itormy weather, they are much expofed to wet } in the
one cafe the putrefcent effluvia being kept from flying
off, and in the other a greater quantity being thrown in¬
to the body than what it naturally contains, the fcurvy,
malignant fevers, &c. make their appearance (a). Nei¬
ther' can thefe difeafes be removed without removing
every one of the caufes juft now mentioned : for as pu¬
trid difeafes will be the confequence of confined air,
naftinefs, &c. though the provifions be ever fo good ;
fo on the other hand, if the provifions be bad, the beft
air, and moft exact cleanlinefs, nay, the beft medicines
in the world, will be of no fervice j as hath been often
obferved in the fcurvy.
From this account of the nature, caufe, and method
of preventing putrefaction by means of a current of
air, we may ealily fee the reafon why it does not take
place in fome other cafes alfo. Bodies will not pu¬
trefy in vacuo, becaufe there the atmofphere has not
accefs to impart its elaftic principle-, and though in
the vacuum itfelf the principle we fpeak of does un¬
doubtedly exift, yet its aCtion there is by far too weak
to decompofe the ftruCture of an animal body. In ex¬
treme cold, the reafon why putrefaction does not take
place, has been already fflown. If the heat is extreme¬
ly great, the procefs of ignition or burning takes place
inftead of putrefaftion. If the body is very dry, pu-
trefaCtion cannot take place, becaufe the texluie is too
firm to be decompofed by the weak a&ion of the ela¬
ftic principle. PutrefaCtion may alfo be prevented by
the addition of certain fubftances; but they are all of
them fuch as either harden the texture of the body,
and thus render it proof againft the aClion of the ela¬
ftic fluid, or, by diffolving its texture entirely, bring
it into a ft ate fimilar to what it would be brought
by the utmoft power of putrefadion, fo that the procefs
cannot then take place. 1 hus various kinds of falls
8 ] PUT
and acids harden the texture of animal fubftances, and Putrefac.
thus are fuccefsfully ufed as antifeptics. . 1 he fame, t1™(a) * * * * * * * * * * 1, _
thing may be faid of ardent fpirits-, while oils and gums
of various kinds prove antifeptic by a total exclufion of
air, which is neceffary in fome degree for carrying on
the procefs of putrefaction. Many vegetables, by the
aftringent qualities they poffefs, harden the texture of
animal fubftances, and thus prove powerfully antifeptic ;
while, on the other hand, fixed alkaline falls, quicklime,
and cauftic volatile alkali, though they prevent putre-
fadlion, yet they do it by diffolving the fubftances in
fuch a manner that putrefaction could do no more
though it had exerted its utmoft force. There is only
one or other antifeptic fubltance'Yvhofe effeCts deferve to
be confidcred, and that is fugar. 1 nis, though neither
acid nor alkaline, is yet one of the moft effeaual means
of preventing putrefaClion : and this feems to be owning
to its great tendency to run into the vinous fermentation,
which is totally inconfiftent with that of putrefaCtion j
and this tendency is fo great, that it can fcarce be coun-
tera&ed, by the tendency of animal fubftances to putrefy
in any circumftances whatever.
Some kinds of air are remarkably antifeptic, though
this fubjeCt has not been fo fully inquired into as could
be wiftied. The moft powerful of them in this refpeft
is the nitrous air 5 next to it, is fixed air ; but the powers
of the other airs are not fo -well known. It is probable
that the antifeptic properties of fixed and nitrous air, are
owing to their quality of extinguifhing fire, or at leaft
that the principle is the fame j but, till the natuie of
thefe two kinds of air are better known, little can be
faid with certainty on the fubjea.
Sir John Pringle has made experiments to determine
the powers of certain fubftances to promote or to pre¬
vent putrefaaion. From thefe experiments he has form¬
ed the following Table, fflowing the relative antifeptie
powers of the faline funftances mentioned, dialing
found that two drams of beef put in a phial with two
•ounces of water, and placed in a heat equal to pc® of
Fahrenheit’s
(a) This aeriform fluid, which is exhaled from animal bodies in a ft ate of putrefaction, ats at certain limes
more powerfully than at others, and is indeed in one ft age of the procefs infinitely more -^n ^us lat he
elaftic fluid yet difeovered. In the Gentleman’s Magazine for Auguft 1788, !> St John, ’
knew a gentleman who, by flightly touching the inteftines of a human body beginning
gas, was affeaed with a violent inflammation, which in a very fhort fpace of time exten P < , f r
length of his arm, producing an extenfive ulcer of the moft foul and frightful appearance, which continued for le-
veral months, and reduced him to a miferable ftate of emaciation. The fame writer mentions a -^mted profef-
for who was attacked with a violent inflammation of the nerves and fauces, from which he with dAculty recove
ed, merely by (looping for an inftant over a body which was beginning to give forth this delctenm's IIukI. ^
he infers, that the fame gas modified or mixed, or united with others, may be the occafiono 1 .1 ' 8 j
fo often threatened to annihilate the human fpecies. It is happy, however, for mankind that thi parUcula g
of putrefaaion continues but for a few hours -, and, what may appear very remarkable, this deftruane gas is « t
very difagreeable in fmell, and has nothing of that abominable and loathfome fe or produced by dead b°d es m
lefs dangerous ftate of corruption but has a certain fmell totally peculiar to itfelf, by which it ^ >nftantly
difeovrred by any one that ever fmelled it before. This is an objea very worthy the attention of phyfic.ans. ft
is both extremely interefting, and very little known but at the fame time it is a ftudy in ^ hlg 16 ^
pleafant, from the deteftable fmell and naftinefs which attend the putrefaftlon of animal bodies, and a man mult
be armed with uncommon philanthropy and refolution to attempt it. . , , , . certain
Dr St John thinks it probable that there is a rapid fixation of the bafis of vital air in dead bodies at a certain
ftate of putrefaeftion, on account of the luminous appearance which they fometimes make, and w ‘ or
for a few hours: but whether this luminous appearance takes place m everybody, or whetht P q
follows the exhalations of the corrofive gas above mentioned, he had not, when he wiote his pap ,
difeover.
PUT [ 529 ] PUT
“utrefac- Fahrenheit’a thermometer, became putrid in 14 hours,
ti°n. and that 60 grains of fea-falt preferved a fimilar mixture
* of beef and water more than 30 hours, he made the an-
tifeptic power of the fea-falt a flandard, to which he
compared the powers of the other falls. The algebraic
character -f- fignifies, that the fubfiance to which it is
annexed had a greater antifeptic power than isexpreffed
by the numbers :
Sea-falt, or the ftandard - - 1
Sal-gem - - - - 1 -{-
Vitriolated tartar . - _ 2
Spiritus Mindereri - - - 2
Soluble tartar - - - 2
Sal diureticus - - - 2-p
Crude fal ammoniac “ “ 3
Saline mixture " * • 3
Nitre - 4-f-
Salt of hartlhorn - - - 4 -j-
Salt of wormwood - - - 4-j-
Borax - - - - 12
Salt of amber - 20
Alum 30
N. B. The quantities of fpiritus Mindereri and of
the faline mixture were fuch, that each of them contain¬
ed as much alkaline fait as the other neutral falls.
Myrrh, aloes, afafoetida, and terra Japonica, were
found to have an antifeptic power 30 times greater than
the ftandard. Gum ammoniacum and fagapenum {bow¬
ed little antifeptic power.
Of all refinous fubftances, camphor was found to re-
iift putrefaction moft powerfully. Sir John Pringle be¬
lieves that its antifeptic power is 300 times greater than
that of fea-falt.
Ghamomile flowers, Virginian fnake-root, pepper,
ginger, faffron, contrayerva root, and galls, were found
to be 12 times more antifeptic than fea-falt.
Infufions of large quantities of mint, angelica, ground-
ivy, green tea, red-rofes, common wormwood, muftard,
and horfe-radifti, and alfo decoCtions of poppy-heads,
were more antifeptic than fea-falt.
DecoCtions of w’heat, barley, and other farinaceous
grains, checked the putrefadlion by becoming four.
Chalks and other abforbent powders, accelerated the
putrefaftion, and refolved meat into a perfeCt mucus.
The fame powders prevented an infufion of farinaceous
grains from becoming mucilaginous and four.
One dram of fea-falt was found to preferve two drams
of freftr beef in two ounces of water, above 30 hours,
uncorrupted, in a heat equal to that of the human body,
or above 20 hours longer than meat is preferved in wra-
ter without fait: but half a dram of fait did not pre¬
ferve it more than twro hours longer than pure water.
Twenty-five grains of fait had little or no antifeptic
quality. Twenty grains, 15 grains, but efpecially 10
grains only of fea-falt, were found to accelerate and
heighten the putrefaClion of two drams of flefli. Thefe
Imall quantities of fea fait did alfo foften the fldh more
than pure water.
The fame learned and ingenious pbyfician made ex¬
periments to difcover the effeCts of mixing vegetable
with animal matters.
Two drams of raw beef, as much bread, and an
ounce of water, being beat to the confiftence of pap,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
and expofed to 90° of heat according to Fahrenheit’s PutreFac.
thermometer, began to ferment in a few hours, and , tl0n'
continued in fermentation during two days. When
it began to ferment and fwell, the putrefaClion had be¬
gun ; and in a few hours afterwards, the fmell was of-
fenfive. Next day the putrid fmell ceafed, and an acid
tafte and fmell fucceeded. Frefti alimentary vegetables,
as fpinach, afparagus, fcurvy-grafs, produced fimilar ef¬
feCts as bread on flelh, but in a weaker degree. From
feveral other experiments he found, that animal fub¬
ftances excite the fermentation of vegetable fubftances,
and that the latter fubftances correCt the putrefcency of
the former.
By adding faliva to a fimilar mixture of flefti, bread,
and water, the fermentation was retarded, moderated,
but rendered of twice the ufual duration, and the acid
produced at laft was weaker than when no faliva was
ufed.
By adding an oily fubftance to the common mixture
of flefli, bread, and water, a ftronger fermentation was
produced, which could not be moderated by the quan¬
tity of faliva ufed in the former experiment, till lome
fixed alkaline fait was added ; which fait was found,
without faliva, to ftop fuddenly very high fermentations.
He did not find that fmall quantities of the following
falts, fal ammoniac, nitre, vitriolated tartar, fal diureti¬
cus, fait of hartftiorn, fait of wormwood, were feptic, as
fmall quantities of fea-ialt were.
Sugar was found to refill putrefaClion at firft, as other
falls do, and alfo to cheek the putrefaClion after it had
begun by its own fermentative quality, like bread and
other fermentative vegetables.
Lime-water made fome fmall refiftance to putrefac¬
tion.
Port-rvine, fmall-beer, infufions of bitter vegetables,
af bark, and the juice of antifcorbutic plants, retarded
the fermentation of mixtures of flefti and bread. But
an unllrained decoCtion of bark confiderably increafed
that fermentation.
Crab-eyes accelerated and increafed the fermentation
of a mixture of flefti and bread.
Lime-water neither retarded nor haftened the fer¬
mentation of fuch a mixture : but when the fermenta¬
tion ceafed, the liquor was neither putrid nor acid, but
fmelt agreeably.
Flcfti pounded in a mortar was found to ferment fooner
than that which had not been bruifed.
The tough inflammatory cruft of blood was found to
be moft putrefcent; next to which the craffamentum, or
red coagulated mafs ; and laftly the ferum.
Dr Macbride’s experiments confirm many of thole
above related, efpecially thofe which fliow that the fer¬
mentation of vegetable fubftances is increafed by a mix¬
ture of animal or putrefcent matter j that the putref¬
cency of the latter is corrected by the fermentative
quality of the former j and that the putrefaClion and
fermentation of mixtures of animal and vegetable fub¬
ftances were accelerated by additions of abforbent earths
and of Peruvian bark. He alfo found, that although
unburnt calcareous earths were feptic, quicklime and
lime-water prevented putrefaClion, but that they de-
ftroyed or diflblved the texture of flefli.
The experiments of the author of the Ejjhi pour fer-
vir a I'HiJloire de la Putrefa&ion, ftiow that metallic
3 X lalts,
P Y A [
Ptitrefac- falls, refinous powders, extrafls of bark, and opium, are
tion very powerfully antileptic, and that lalts with earthy
T1 i! . bales are lefs antifeptiu than any other falls.
1 yanep ia.^ pUTTOCK-SHROUDS. See P lit lock-SHROUDS.
PUTTY, in its popular fenfe, is a kind of pafte
compounded of whiting and linfeed oil, beaten together
to the confidence of a thick dough.
It is ufed by glaziers for the faftening in the fquares
of glafs in faPn-windows, and by painters for Hopping up
the crevices and clefts in timber and wainfeots, &c. ^
Putty fometimes alfo denotes the powder of calci¬
ned tin, ufed in polilliing and giving the laft glofs to
works of iron and Heel.
Terra PUZZULANA, or Pozzolaka, is a
grayilh kind of earth ufed in Italy for building under
water. The bed; is found about Puteoli, Bairn, and
Cumae, in the kingdom of Naples, from the fird of
which places it derives its name. It is a volcanic pro-
duff, compofed of heterogeneous fubdances, thrown
out from the burning mouths of volcanoes in the form
of a dies ; fometimes in fuch large quantities, and with
fo great violence, that whole provinces have been co¬
vered with it at a eonfiderable didance. In the year
<79 of the common era, the cities of Herculaneum,
Pompeia, and Stabia, although at the didance of many
miles from Vefuvius, were, neverthelefs, buried unoi i
the matters of thefe dreadlul eruptions } as Beigman
relates in his Treatife of the Volcanic Prodmds. 'I his
volcanic earth is of a gray, brown, or blackifn colour ;
of a'loofe, granular, or dudy and rough, porous ot
fpongy texture, refembling a clay hardened by fire,
and then reduced to a grofs powder. It contains \ a-
rious heterogeneous fubdances mixed with it. Its fpe-
cific gravity is from 2500 to 2800 } and it is, in fome
degree, magnetic : it fear cel y effervefees with acids,
though partially foluble in them. It eafdy melts per/e;
but its mod didinguifliing property is, that it Irardens
verv Suddenly when mixed with of its weight of lime
and water •, and forms a cement, which is more duiable
in water than any other.
According to Bergman’s Analyfis, too parts of it
contain from 55 to 60 of fdiceous earth, 20 of argil¬
laceous, five or fix of calcareous, and from 15 to 20
of iron. Its effe&.s, however, in cement may perhaps
depend only on the iron which has been reduced into
a particular fubifance by means of fubterraneous fires 5
evident figns of which are obfervable in the places
where it is obtained. If the date in Henneberg, or
Kennekulle in the province of Wedergottland, fiiould
happen to get fire, the uppermod dratum, which now
eonfids of a mixture of iron and different kinds of
rocks, called graberg in the account given of them, they
might perhaps be changed partly into dag and partly
into terra pu%%olana.
It is evidently a martial argillaceous marl, that has
fufifered a moderate heat. Its hardening power arifes
from the dry date of the half-baked argillaceous parti¬
cles, which makes them imbibe water rapidly, and thus
accelerates the defiecatinn of the calcareous part ; and
alfo from the quantity and peculiar date of the iron and
manganefe which it contains •, on which metals its pro¬
perties chiefly depend. It is found not only in Italy
but in France, and alfo in England and elfewhere.
PUZZUOLI. See Puteoli.
PYANEPSI A, in antiquity, an Athenian feftival
53° ] P Y L
celebrated on the feventh day of the month Pyanepjion j
which, according to the generality of critics, was the
fame with our September. _ ^
Plutarch refers the inditulion of this fead to The-
feus, who, after the funeral of his father, on this day
paid his vows to Apollo, becaufe the youths who re¬
turned with him fafe from Crete then made their entry
into the city. On this occafion, thefe young men put¬
ting all that was left of their provifions into one kettle,
feaded together on it, and made great rejoicing. Hence
was derived the cudom of boiling pulle on this fedival.
The Athenians likewife carried about an olive branch,
bound about with wood, and crowned with all forts
of fird-fruits, to fignify that fcarcity and barrennefs
were ceafed, finging in proceflion a fong. And w hen
the folemnity was over, it was ufual to ere6t the olive
branch before their doors, as a prefervative againd
fcarcity and want.
PYCNOSTYLE, in the ancient archite&ure, is a
building where the columns dand very clofe to each
other ; only one diameter and a half of the column be¬
ing allowed for the intercolumniations.
According to Air Evelyn, the pycnoftyle chiefly be¬
longed to the Compofite order, and was ufed in the mod
magnificent buildings 5 a;i prefent in the peridyle as.
St Peter’s at Rome, which confids of near 300 columns •,
and in fuch as yet remain of the ancients, among the
ruins of Palmyra.
PYGARGUS, a fpecies of falco. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
PYGMALION, in fabulous hidory, a king of Cy¬
prus, who, being difguded at the diiiolute lives of the
women of his itland, rtfolved to live in perpetual celi¬
bacy ; and making a daiue of ivory, he fell pai-
fionately in love with it, that the high fedival ct \ e-
nus being come, he fell down before the altar of that
goddels, and befought her to give him a wife like the
ifatue he loved. At his return home, he embraced, as
ufual, his ivory form, when he perceived that it became
fenfihle by degrees, and was at lad a living maid, who
found herfelf in her lover’s arms the moment die faw
the light. Venus bleffed their union ; and, at the end
of nine months, die was delivered of a boy, who was
named Paphos. _ ^
PYGMY, a perfon not exceeding a cubit in height.
This appellation was given by the ancients to a fabu¬
lous nation inhabiting 1 brace j who brought imtii
young at five years of age, and were old at eight : thefe
were famous for the bloody war they waged with the
cranes. As to this dory, and for the natural hidory of
the true pygmy, fee Simia, Mammalia/Wex.
PYKAR, a broker in India, inferior to thole called
dal/als, who Iran faffs the bufinels at fird hand with
the manufacturer, and fometimes carries goods aooutfor
fale.
PYKE, a watchman in India, employed as a guard
at night. Likewife a footman or runner on bufinels.
They are generally armed with a fpear. ^
PYLADES, a fon of Strophius, king of Phocisr
by one of the fillers of Agamemnon. He was educa¬
ted together with his coufm Oreiles, with whom he
formed the mod inviolable friendlhip, and whom ee a.-
filled to revenge the murder of Agamemnon, by aiLi-
finating Clytemnedra and /Egydhus. He ado accom¬
panied him into Taurica Cheifonefus j. and for his fer-
1 vices
PvanepEa
II
Pylades;
P Y R [ 53i ] P Y R
vb.t’es vices O/eRcs rewarded him, by giving him his fitter
il Elrctra in marriage. Pylades had by her two Tons,
yramid. T\Je<Jun and Strophins. i'he friendlhip of Orettcs and
‘ Pylades became proverbial.
PYLORUS, in A uatonnj, the under orifice of the
ftomach. See Anatomy, N° pr.
PYLUS, in Ancient Geographi/, a town of Elisi its
ruins to be feen on the road from Olympia to Eiis, (Pau-
fanias) ; fituated between the mouths of the Peneus and
Selles, near Mount Sco’lis, (Strabo). Built by Pylas
of Megara, and Rettroyed by Hercules, (Paufanias),
Another Pyius in Triphylia, (Strabo) ; by which the
Alpheus runs, (Paufanias); on the confines of Arcadia,
and not in Arcadia itfslf, (id.).—A third in Mofi' nia,
(Strabo, Ptolemy) ; fituated at the foot of Mount /E-
galeus on the fea coatt, over-againft the ifland Sphagea
or Sphafteria : built by Pylas, and fettled by a colony
of Leleges from Megara ; but thence expelled by Ne-
leus and the Pelafgi, and therefore called Nelect, (Ho¬
mer). A farrdy territory. 1 he royal refidence of No¬
lens, and of Neftor his fon : the more ancient and more
excellent Pyius; whence the proverb Pyius ante Pylum
(Ariftophanes, Plutarch), ufed when we want to re-
prefs the arrogance and pride of any one : faid to be
afterwards called Cori/phajium. It made a figure in the
Peloponnefian war ; for being rebuilt by the Athenians,
it proved of great benefit to them for the fpace of 15
years, and of much annoyance to the Lacedaemonians,
(Thucydides). All the three Pyli were fubjeft to Ne-
itor, (Strabo).
PYRAMID, in Geometry, a folid Handing on a tri¬
angular, fquare, or polygonal bafis, and terminating in
a point at the top ; or, according to Euclid, it is a fo¬
lid figure, confifting of feveral triangles, whofe bafes are
all in the fame plane, and have one common vertex.
Pyramids are fometimes ufed to preferve the memory
of Angular events, and fometirrres to tranfmit to pofte-
rity the glory and magnificence of princes. But as
they are efteemed a fymbol of immortality, they are
moft commonly ufed as funeral monuments and temples
to the gods. Such is that of Ceftius at Rome ; the
pyramids of Dafliur drawn by Pococke ; and thofe other
celebrated ones of Egypt, as famous for the enormity
of their fize as their antiquity. Of thefe the largeft are
the pyramids of Gee%a, fo called from a village of that
name on the banks of the Nile, diftant from them about
11 miles. The three which moft attraff the attention
of travellers Hand near one another on the weft fide of
the river, almoft oppofite to Grand Cairo, and not far
from the place where the ancient Memphis flood. They
rvere vifited by M. Savary, of whofe defeription of them
Ave ftiall here give an abftraft.
He took his journey in the night time, in order to
get up to the top of the great one by funrife. Having
got Avithin fight of the Iavo great ones, Avhile the full
moon (hone upon them, he informs us, that they ap¬
peared, at the diftance of three leagues, like Iavo points
of rock crowned by the clouds.
It is in the rich territory Avhich furrounds them that
fable has placed the Elyfian fields. The canals which
interfeiR them are the Styx and Lethe.
“ The afpefts of the pyramids, varied according to
the circuits .he made in the plain, and the pofition of
the clouds, dilplayed themfelves more and more to vieAV.
At half pafl three in the morning Ave arrived (fays he)
at lhe Lot of the greati ft. We left our clothes tit the
gate of the paflage Avhieh leads to the infide, and de-
fiended, carrying each of ns a flambeau in his 1 and,
ToAvards the bottom you mutt creep like ferpents to
get into the interior pafiage, Avhich correfponds Avith
the former. We mounted it on our knees, fupporting
ourfdyes Avith our hands againft the fides Without
this precaution one runs the rilk of flipping on the in¬
clined plane, AA'here the flight notches are infufficient to
flop the foot, and one might fall to the bottom. To-
Avards the middle avc fired a pittol, the frightful noife
of Avhich, repeated in the cavities of this immenfe edi¬
fice, continued a long time, and awakened thoufands of
bats, Avhich flying round Us, ftruck againft our hands
and faces, and extinguiftred feveral of our Avaxxandlec.
They are much larger than the European bats. Ar¬
rived abo\'e, vve entered a great hall, the gate of Avhich
is very Ioav. It is an oblong fquare, Avhoily compofed
of granite. Seven enormous ftones extend from one
Avail to the. other, and form the roof. A fsreophagus
made of a Angle block of marble lies at one end of it.
It is empty ; and the lid of it has been Avrenched off.
Some pieces of earthen vafes lie around it. Under this
beautiful hall is a chamber not fo large, Avbere you' find
the entrance to a conduit filled with rubbifh. After
examining thofe caves, Avhere daylight never penetrated,
Ave defeended the fame way, taking care not to fall in¬
to a well, Avhich is on the left, and .goes to the very
foundations of the pyramid. Pliny makes mention of
this Avell, and fays it is 26 cubits deep. The internal
air of this edifice never being renewed, is fo hot and
mephitic that one is almoft fuffocated. When Ave came
out of it, we Avere dropping with fweat, and pale as
death. After refreihing purfelves with the external air,
we loft no time in afeending the pyramid. It is com¬
pofed of more than 200 layers of ftone. They overlap
each other in proportion to their elevation, Avhich is
from Iavo to four feet. It is neceffary to climb up all
thefe enormous fteps to reach the top. We undertook
it at the north-eaft angle, which is the leaft damaged.
It took us, hoAvever, half an hour Avith great pains and
many efforts to effebf it.
“ The fun was rifing, and we enjoyed a pure air,
Avith a moft delicious coolnefs. After admiring the
profpecT: around us, and engraving our names on the
fummit of the pyramid, Ave defeended cautioufly, for Ave
had the abyfs before us. A piece of ftone detaching
itfelf under our feet or hands might have fent us to the
bottom.
“ Arrived at the foot of the pyramid, Ave made the
tour of it, contemplating it with a fort of horror.
When viewed clofe, it feems to be made of maffes of
rocks ; but at a hundred paces diftance, the largenefs
of the ftones is loft in the immenfity of the Avhole, and
they appear very fmall.
“ To determine its dimenfions is ftill a problem. From
the time of Herodotus to our days it has been meafured
by a great number of travellers and learned men, and
their different calculations, far from clearing up doubts,
have only increafed the uncertainty. The folloAving
table Avill ferve at leaft to prove how difficult it is to
come at the truth.
Height
3X2
Pyramid.
P Y R
Height of the great
Pyramid.
Ancients.
Herodotus
Strabo
Diodorus Siculus
Pliny
Moderns.
Le Bruyn
Profper Alpinus
Thevenot
Niebuhr
Greaves
Humber of layers of Stone which form it.
Greaves - - 20 7
Maillet - -
Albert Liewenftein - 260
Pococke - " 212
Belon - - 250
Thevenot - - 208
“ It appears that Meffrs Greaves and Niebuhr have
prodigioufly deceived themfelves in tneafuring the per¬
pendicular height of the great pyramid. All the tra¬
vellers allow that it has at lead; 200 layers of ftone.
Thefe layers are from two to four feet high. Accord¬
ing to Pococke, they are from four feet and a half to
four feet high, being not fo high at the top as at the
bafe. Profper Alpinus informs us, that the elevation
of the firil layer is five feet, but it diminifires infen-
libly in proportion as one mounts. Thevenot men¬
tions 208 fteps of large ftones, the thicknefs of which
makes the height of them about two feet and a half
one with another : He meafured lome of them more
than three feet high. I have meafured feveral of them
which were more than three feet high, and I found
none lefs than two ; the leaft height of them we can
take as a medium therefore is two feet and a half,
which, even according to Mr Greaves’s calculation,
who reckons 207 layers, would make 517 feet 6 inches
perpendicular height. Meffrs Greaves, Maillet, Theve-
not* and Pococke, who only differ in the number of the
layers from 207 to 212, all mounted by the north-eaft
angle, as the leaft injured. I followed the fame route,
and counted only 208 fteps. But if we refleft that
the pyramid has been open on the fide next the defert,
that the ftones on that fide have been thrown down,
that the fand which covers them has formed a confider-
able hill, we ftiall not be aftonifhed that Albert Liexv-
enftein, Belon, and Profper Alpinus, who muft have
mounted by the fouth-eaft or fouth-weft angle, which
are lefs expofed to the fands of Libya, ihould have
found a greater number of fteps : fo that the calculation
of thefe travellers, agreeing with that of Diodorus Si¬
culus and Strabo, appears to be neareft the true height
«f the pyramid taken at its natural bafe } whence we
may conclude with reafon that it is at leaft 600 feet
high. Indeed this is authenticated by a paffage of
Strabo. Thefe are his words : ‘ Towards the middle
of the height of one of the fides is a ftone that may be
raifed up. It Ihuts an oblique paffage which leads to a
coffin placed in the-centre of the pyramid.’ This paf-
3
P Y Tl
fage, open in our days, and which in the time of Strabo Pyramid,
was towards the middle of one face of the pyramid, is —‘
at prefent only 100 feet from the bafe. So that the
ruins of the covering of the pyramid, and of the ftones
brought from within, buried by the fand, have formed
a hill in this place 200 feet high. Pliny confirms this
opinion. The great fphynx was in his time upwards
of 62 feet above the furface of the ground. Its whole
body is at prefent buried under the fand. Nothing
more appears of it than the neck and head, which are
27 feet high. If even the fphynx, though defended by
the pyramids againft the northerly winds, which bring
torrents of fand from Libya, be covered as high as 38
feet, what an immenfe quantity muft have been heaped
up to the nortlnvard of an edifice whofe bafe is upwards
of 700 feet long ? It is to this we muft attribute the
prodigious difference between the accounts of the hi-
ftorians who have naeafured the great pyramid at diftant
periods, and at oppofite angles. Herodotus, who faw
it in the age neareft to its foundation, when its true
bafe was ftill uncovered, makes it 800 feet fquare. This
opinion appears very probable. Pliny alfo fays that it
covered the fpace of eight acres.
“ Meffrs Shaw, Thevenot, and the other travellers
who pretend that this pyramid was never finiftied, be-
caufe it is open and without coating, are in an error. It
is only neceffary to obferve the remains of the mortar,
with the fplinters of white marble which are to be found
in many parts of the fteps, to fee that it has been coated.
After reading attentively the defeription given of it by
the ancients, every doubt vanifties, and the truth is as
clear as day-light. Herodotus tells us, ‘ The great py¬
ramid was covered with poliftied ftones, perfeftly well
jointed, the fmalleft of which was 30 feet long. It
was built in the form of fteps, on each of which were
placed wooden machines to raife the ftones from one to
another.’ According to Diodorus, ‘ The great pyra¬
mid is built of ftones, very difficult of workmanfhip,
but of an eternal duration. It is preferved to our days
(towards the middle of the Auguftan age) without be¬
ing in the leaft injured. The marble was brought from
the quarries of Arabia.’ This hiftorian thought that
the whole building vras compofed of ftones, fimilar to
thofe of the coating, which were of very hard marble.
Had there been feme pieces torn off, he would have
perceived under that covering a calcareous ftone rather
loft. Pliny fays that it ‘ is formed of ftones brought
from the quarries of Arabia. It is not far from the vil¬
lage of Bufiris (which ftill exifts under the name of
Boufir')' where thofe perfons refide who are fo Ikilful as
to climb up to the top.’
“ This paffage ftiows that Pliny, deceived by the
appearance, was in the fame error with Diodorus
Siculus. It demonftrates alfo that it was covered : for
what difficulty would there have been for the inhabi¬
tants of Bufiris to fcale a building raifed by fteps ? but
it was really a prodigy for them to get up it when it
formed a mountain, the four inclined planes of which
prefented a furface covered with poliftied marble. It is
indeed an inconteftable fa£t, that the great pyramid was
coated. It is as certain too that it has been fhut, as
Strabo gives us to underftand ; and that by removing a
ftone placed in the middle of one of the fides, one found
a paffage which led to the tomb of the king. But I
ftiall leave Mr Maillet, who vifited it 40 times with all
imaginable
[ 532 ]
Width of one of
its ftdes.
French F«et.
800 - 800
625 - 600
600 and a fraction 700
, - 708
616 - 7°4
625 - 75°
320 - 682
440 - 7IQ
444 - 648
pyramid.
P Y R [ 533 ] P Y R
imaginable attention, the honour of relating the means
employed to open it. I have examined the infide of it
in two different journeys : twice I have mounted it : and
I cannot help admiring the fagacity with which that
author has developed the mechanifm of that aftoniihing
edifice.”
Our author next proceeds to give a particular de-
fcription of the methods by which it is moft probable
that the pyramids were clofed, and the immenfe labour
requifite to open them. We muft remark, that the
final outlet to the workmen he fuppofes to have been the
well at the entrance formerly mentioned. This well de-
fcends towards the bottom of the pyramid by a line not
quite perpendicular to the horizon, but flanting a little,
in fuch a manner as to referable the figure of the He¬
brew letter Lamed. About 60 feet from the aperture
there is a fquare window in this paffage, from whence
we enter a fmall grotto hewn out of the mountain;
which in this place is not a folid ftone, but a kind of
gravel concreted together. The grotto extends about
15 feet from eafl to weft, where there is another groove
hollowed likewife, but almoft perpendicular. It is two
feet four inches wide by two and a half in height. It
defcends through a fpace of 123 feet, after which we
meet with nothing but fand and ftones. M. Savary is
convinced that the only ufe of this paffage was to ferve
as a retreat for the labourers who conftru<fted the pyra¬
mid ; and of this he looks upon the flope of the conduit,
its winding road, its fmallnefs, and its depth, to be cer¬
tain proofs. The way out of it he fuppofes to have
been formed by a paffage over which hung a row of
ftones, which they had difcovered the fecret of fufpend-
ing, and which falling down into the paflage by the
means of feme fpring they fet in motion, fhut up the en¬
trance for ever, as foon as the workmen were withdrawn
from the pyramid.
It feems to be an unqueftionable faft, that this py¬
ramid was a maufoleum of one of the kings of Egypt,
and it is very probable that all the reft anfwered fimilar
purpofes. We do not, however, think that this was
their primary ufe or the original defign of their build¬
ers. Mr Bryant is of opinion that they were temples
eredled in honour of the Deity ; and a very ingenious
writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine for June 1794
has done much to prove that they were altars dedicated
to the fun, the firft and greateft god in every pagan
kalendar.
“ Our Engliftv word pyramid (fays he) is dire£lly
derived from the Latin pyramis, and mediately from
the Greek ; all denoting the fame mathemati¬
cal figure. The original of the whole feems to be
the Egyptian word pyramoua, which we are told by
Oriental fcholars, fignifies light, or a ray of light. From
this Coptic vocable the word in Greek, fignifying
fire, is probably defcended; as the fiames of fire alfume
that conical or pyramidal form which the folar rays
commonly difplay ; and as it is natural for the mind to
diftinguilh its objefls rather by their external qualities,
and thofe obvious and interefting appearances which
they exhibit to the fenfes, than by their conftituent and
infeparable properties.
“ The ancient Egyptians feem to have penetrated very
far into the myfteries of nature ; and although their
fuperftition appears at firft fight to be extremely grofs
and abfurd, yet it is very probable that their deities
were only emblematical perfonages, reprefenting by Pyramid,
fenfible images the grand effects or prefiding principles
which they fuppofed to exift in the univerfe. Thus
the moon was called IJis, and the fun OJiris ; and to
the honour of this laft deity, from whofe vifible influ¬
ence and creative energy all things feem to fpring into
exiftence, it is not improbable that the Egyptians eredl-
ed thofe ftupendous monuments, and dedicated them
to him as temples or altars. It was natural to build
them in that lhape which the rays of the fun difplay
when difcovered to the eye, and which they obferved to
be the fame in terreftrial flame, becaufe this circumftance
was combined in their imaginations with the attribute
which they adored. If they were temples dedicated to
the fun, it feems a natural confequence that they Ihould
likewife be places of fepulture for kings and illuftriouS
men, as the fpace which they covered would be confider-
ed as confecrated ground. This hypothefis is common,,
and is not contradidted by the prefent reafoning. But,
confidering them as altars, and as moft travellers agree
that they were never finifhed, but terminate in a fquarc
horizontal furface, it would not be refining too much
to venture an aflertion that, in great and folemn adls of
adoration, the Egyptians conftrudted fires, the flames
of which ftiould terminate in the vertex of the pyramid,
and fo complete that emanation of their deity which
they admired and adored. As far, therefore, as we are
juftified in forming any conclufion on fo dark a fubjedf,
we may venture to fay, that the Egyptian pyramids were
temples or altars dedicated to the fun, as the material re-
prefentative of that invifible power which creates, go¬
verns, and pervades, the whole fyftem of nature.”
This reafoning has fome force j and it certainly re¬
ceives additional ftrength from the undoubted fa£l, that
the firft ftatues for idolatrous worfhip were erected on the
tops of mountains, and of a pyramidal or conical form.
(See Polytheism, N° 13 and 21.). It is likewife cor¬
roborated by other circumftances difcovered by the mem¬
bers of the Afiatic Society. In the fecond volume of
their tranfadlions we have an account of feveral large fta¬
tues of the gods Seeva and Mchedeo, all of a conical
or pyramidal figure ; but it has been ftiown in the arti¬
cle already referred to, that the idolatry of Hindoftan
was probably of Egyptian original.
It is not known in Europe when the pyramids were
built 5 but we have reafon to expeff a hi (lory of them
foon from Shanfcrit records examined by Mr Wilford
lieutenant of engineers. It is as little known at what
time, or from what motive, the great pyramid was open¬
ed. Some think it was done by one of the khalifs about
the beginning of the eighth century, in expectation of
finding a great treafure 5 but all he met with was the
king’s body, with fome golden idols which had been bu¬
ried along with it.—-By others it is fiippofed to have
been done by the celebrated Harun A1 Rafchid khalif of
Bagdad ; but all are agreed that this pyramid was open¬
ed in the time of the Arabs. The fecond pyramid
has likewife been opened j and an attempt was made
not long ago upon the third by one of the Beys of
Cairo : but after removing a number of ftones at acon-
fiderable expence, he thought proper to defift from the
enterprife.—Mr Bryant is of opinion that the pyramids,
at lead the three great ones, are not artificial ftru&ures
of ftone and mortar, but folid rocks cut into a pyra¬
midal lliape, and afterwards caftd with ftone) and to
this
Pyvrain].
  ”v'—-
P Y K [
tills ws find that IVlr Bruce likevviie aiTents. I he re?-
fon gtven for this opinion iSj that the pa 1 fa^es Mithm
it feem rather to anfwer to the natural cavities and rents
i i rocks than to the artificial ones in buildings. The
opinion, however, we think fufficiently confuted by
Savary and Maillet: and, as an acute critic obferves,
it is in itfelf as improbable, as that the caverns inha¬
bited by the Troglodytes were dug by the hands of man.
See Troglodytes.
On the eaft fide of the fecond pyramid is the fphynx,
an enormous mafs of one lolid Hone, but fo buried in the
fand that only the top of the back is vifible, which is too
feet long. Its head riles, as wehavefeen, 2 y feet above the
fand; and its face has been disfigured by the Arabs,
who hold all reprefentations of men and living animals in
deteftation. Other travellers fay that this fphynx is a
huge mi ill a pen rock, by no means worthy oi the atten¬
tion which has been bellowed upon it.
In the defert of Saccara there is a great number of
pyramids, which, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, are compoled
of clay. They terminate in what the inhabitants call
a dug lour or falfe pyramid, about two miles from the
Nile, between Suf and Woodan. This is no other than
a hill cut into the thape of a pyramid, or naturally fo
formed, for a confiderable height; on the top of which
is a pyramidal building of brick terminating in a point,
and having its bafis fo exadlly adapted to the top of the
hill, that at a diftance the ditference cannot be percei¬
ved; especially as the face of the Hones refembles very
nearly the clay of which the pyramids of the Saccara are
compofed.
But a very different opinion concerning the purpofes
to which the great pyramid was originally deltined, and
the period in which that extraordinary edifice was ere fl¬
ed, is held by Mr Gabb, who has not long fince pub-
lifhed an elaborate treatife on this fubjefl. According
to this author not only the great pyramid, but alfo Uie
fmaller pyramids are of antediluvian origin; the im-
inenfe accumulation ol fand around thole ffupendous
flruCtures took place at the time of the eleluge; the
height of this fand, when the waters fubfided, probably
reached the fummit of the pyramid, and the apex of
the great pyramid was torn off by the violent agita¬
tion of the waters. The author contends that the land
round the pyramids could not have been coiiefled by
the force of the winds; and that it is equally improbable
that it could have been depofited from the waters of the
Nile during the inundations of that river ; for the Nile
was never known to rile to fuch a height, and the or¬
ganized remains, fuch as (hells and petrified oyflers,
found in the fands about the pyramids, are quite differ¬
ent from any (liell-filli that inhabit the Nile. From
all this the author concludes, that the great pyramid
was erefled by the Antediluvians, that the remarkable
depofition of fand on the furface of the extenfive rock
on which that immenfe fabric Hands can only be fatif-
faflorily accounted for from the effefls of the univerfal
deluge or flood of Noah; and that the accumulation of
fand is diminilhing rather than increafing by the force
of the wind. The author fuppofes that the other py¬
ramids were alfo built before the flood, but at a later
period than that of the great pyramid, which latter he
thinks was the work of the immediate defeendants of
Seth. In proof of this, Jofephus is quoted, who notices
a memorial of an ancient tradition preferved among the
Pyrola.
534 1 . p Y R.
Jews, that the dirccl defeendants of Seth were much cm- Pyramid
ployed in aftronomieai obfervations. The perfect geome¬
trical figure of the pyramid, the commeniurability of its ,
parts to the whole, the icientific approach of the fide of
its bale to a meridional degree of the circumference of the
earth, and the ufeful folutions of problems deducible
from it, lead to the fame inference.
But the molt curious part of this author’s difquifition
concerning the pyramid relates to the purpofe for which
that liupendous fabric was railed; and here he is deci¬
dedly of opinion, that it was originally intended as a
(landard of meafure, and not as has been more generally
fuppofed as a fepulehral momument; and farther, tliat
the excavation of the celebrated granite cheft in the
interior of the pyramid was intended not for the repo-
fitory of a corpfe, but for a ftandard meafure of capa¬
city, as its length was for linear meafure. This is alfo
the opinion of the French fcavans who accompanied
the army of Bonaparte to Egypt, and very fuccefsfully
alcertained the dimenfions of that remarkable building.
The plan of the pyramid is a geometrical fquare, the
fide of which is equal to 400 cubits of Cairo, or the
great Egyptian fladium. The length of the granite
cheit in the upper chamber of the pyramid is exaflly four
cubits, which is precifely one hundredth part of the
bafe of the fide of the pyramid. The commenfurabi-
Lity of the component parts of the pyramid now men¬
tioned, as well as of others difeuffed by the author, is
undoubtedly a curious circumftance. But we mufl re¬
fer our readers to the work itfelf, and for farther infor¬
mation concerning the pyramids, to Dcnon's Travels,
&cc.
PYRAMID ALES, in Anatomy, one of the muf-
cles of the abdomen. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
PYRAMIDOID, a term which is occafionally em¬
ployed to denote the parabolic fpindle, or the folid for¬
med by the rotation of a femiparabola about its bafe or
greatell ordinate.
PYRENEAN Mountains, or Pyrenees, are the
mountains which divide France from Spain, and are the
moll celebrated in Europe, except the Alps. I hey
reach from the Mediterranean fea as far as the ocean,
and are about 212 miles in length. They have differ¬
ent names, according to the different places wherein,
they Hand. Some think they are as high as the Alps;
but the paffages over them are not fo difficult, what¬
ever fome travellers may think who have not croffed the
former.
PYRITES, a metallic fubffance combined with ful-
phur, as iron, pyrites, compofed of fulphur and iron ;
copper pyrites, of fulphur and copper. See Minera¬
logy Index.
PYRMONT, a town of Lippe in Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, and capital of a country of the
fame name. It has a cafile, kept by a governor, who is
under the counts of Waldeck. At a fmall diflance from
hence there are mineral waters, which are much efttem-
ed. The Proteftants have here the free exercife of their
religion. It is feated on the confines of the duchy of
Brunfwick, 40 miles fouth-weft of Hanover. E Long.
9. o. N. Lat. 52. o.
PYROLA, a genus of plants belonging to the de-
candria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Biconus, See Botany Index.
PYROMANCY,
P Y R
[- S
Pyromancy,' PYROMANCY, a kind of divination by means of
Pyrometer. fire. See DIVINATION, N° 6.
PYROMETER, an inftrument for meafuring the
expanfion of bodies by heat. See Chemistry Index.
Mufchenbroeck, who was the original inventor of this
machine, has given a table of the expanlion of the dif¬
ferent metals in the fame degree of heat. Having pre¬
pared cylindric rods of iron, Reel, copper, brafs, tin,
and lead, he expofed them firft to a pyrometer with
one flame in the middle j then with two flames ; and
fucceflively to one with three, four, and five flames.
But previous to this trial, he took care to cool them
equally, by expofing them fome time upon the fame
Rone, when it began to freeze, and Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer was at 32 degrees. The efletRs of which ex¬
periment are digeRed in the following table, where the
degrees of expanfion are marked in parts equal to the
T2T0 0- part of an inch.
Expanfion of
By one flame
By two flames
placed clofe
together.
By two flames
24- inches di-
Rant.
By three flame?
placed clofe
together.
By four flames
placed clofe
together.
Iron,
80
top
142
Steel.jCopper. Brafi
85 89
!23 ! 115
94
92
168
211
170
[93
270
By five flames.
110
220
I4r
Tin.
Lead.
T53 J55
219
274
-63
275
361
230 310 310 377
It is to be obferved of tin, that it will ealily melt
when heated by two flames placed together. Lead com¬
monly melts with three flames placed together, efpecially
if they burn long.
From thefe experiments, it appears at firft view that
iron is the leaft rarefied of any of thefe metals, whether
it be heated by one or more flames; and therefore is moft
proper for making machines or inftruments which we
would have free from any alterations by heat or cold,
as the rods of pendulums for clocks, &c. So likewife
the meafures of yards or feet fliould be made of iron,
that their length may be as nearly as poffible the fame
fummer and winter.
1 he expanfion of lead and tin, by only one flame, is
nearly the lame ; that is, almoft double of the expanfion
of iron. It is likewife obfervable, that the flames placed
together, caufe a greater rarefaction than when they
have a fenfible interval between them ; iron in the form¬
er caie, being expanded 117 degrees, and only 109 in
the latter ; the reafon of which difference is obvious.
By comparing the expanfions of the fame metal pro¬
duced by one, two, three, or more flames, it appears
that two flames do not caule double the expanfion of one,
35 i p Y R
nor three flames three times that expanfion, but always Pyrometer,
lefs; and thefe expanfions differ fo much the more from ’ ^
the ratio of the number of flames as there are more flames
afting at the fame time.
- It is alfo obfervable, that metals are not expanded
equally at the time of their melting, but fome more
fome lefs. Thus tin began to run when rarefied 219
degrees; whereas brafs was expanded 377 degrees, and
yet was far from melting.
Mr Ellicot found, upon a medium, that the expan¬
fion of bars of different metals, as nearly of the fame di-
menfions as poflible, by the fame degree of heat, Avert
as follow :
Gold, Silver, Brafs, Copper, Iron, Steel, Lead,
73 I03 95 89 60 56 149
The great difference between the expanfions of iron and
brafs Las been applied Avith good fuccefs to remedy the
irregularities in pendulums arifing from heat. See Pen¬
dulum.
Mr Graham ufed to meafure the minute alterations,
in length, of metal bars, by advancing the point of a
mierometer-fcreAV, till it fenfibly flopped againft the
end of the bar to be meafured. This fererv, being
fmall and very lightly hung, Avas capable of agreement
A-vithin the three or four-thoufandth part of an inch.
On this general principle Mr Smeaton contrived his
pyrometer, in Avhich the meafures are determined by
the contaft of a piece of metal Avith the point of a mr-
crometer-fcreAV.
The folioAving table IhoAvs hoAV much a foot in length
of each metal grows longer by an increafe of heat, cor-
refponding to j8o0 of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, or to
the difference between freezing and boiling Avater, ex-
preffed in fuch parts of which the unit is equal to the
lOjOCOth part of an inch.
8.
9-
10.
11.
1. White-glafs barometer tube,
2. Martial regulus of antimony,
3. Bliftered Reel, - - _
4. Hard Reel, - . _
5. Iron, - - .
6. Bifmutb, - . .
7. Copper hammered,
Copper eight part4, Avith tin one,
Caft brafs, - . _
Brafs fixteen parts, Avith tin one,
Brafs-Avire, - . .
12. Speculum metal,
13. Spelter folder, viz. brafs two parts, zinc one,
14. Fine pewter,
15. Grain tin, - - _
16. Soft folder, viz. lead Iavo, tin one,
1 7. Zinc eight parts, Avith tin one, a little ham¬
mered, - - . ''22 3
18. Lead, - - . 344
19. Zinc or fpelter, - .
20. Zinc hammered half an inch per foot, 373
We fliall clofe this article Avith a brief defeription
of a pyrometer invented by M. De Luc, in eonfe-
quence of a hint fuggefted to him by Mr Ramfden.
The bafis of this inftrument is a reftangular piece of
deal-board two feet and a half long, ij inches broad
and one inch and a half thick ; and to this all the
other parts are fixed. This is mounted in the manner
of a table, with four deal legs, each a feet long and an
inch.
IQO
I30
138
I47
167
204
218
225
229
232
232
247
274
298
301
P Y R
[ 536 1
P Y R
Pyiometer. inch and a half fquare, well fitted near its four angles,
    and kept together at the other ends by four firm crofs-
pieces. This fmall table is fufpended by a hook to a
Hand ; the board being in a vertical fituation in the di-
reftion of its grain, and bearing its legs forward in fuch
a manner as that the crofs-pieces which join them may
form a frame, placed vertically facing the obferver. This
frame fuftains a microfcope, which is firmly fixed in
another frame that moves in the former by means of
grooves, but with a very confiderable degree of tight-
nefs; the friftion of which may be increafed by the
preffure of four fcrews. The inner Aiding frame, which
is likewife of deal, keeps the tube of the microfcope in
a horizontal pofition, and in great part without the
frame, infomuch that the end which carries the lens is
but little within the fpace between the frame and the
board. This microfcope is conftru&ed in fuch a man-
ner as that the objeft obferved may be an inch diftant
from the lens ; and it has a wire which is fituated in
the focus of the glaffes, in which the objeas appear re-
verfed. At the top of the apparatus there is a piece of
deal, an inch and a half thick and two inches broad,
laid in a horizontal direftion from the board to the top
of the frame. To this piece the rods of the different
fubftances, whofe expanfion by heat is to be meafured,
are fufpended : one end of it Aides into a focket, which
is cut in the thicknefs of the board ; and the other end,
which reds upon the frame, meets there with a fcrew,
which makes the 'piece move backward and forward,
to bring the objefts to the focus of the microfcope.
There is a cork very ftrongly driven through a hole Pyrometer,
bored vertically through this piece; and in another 1hrcPh,'tu'-
vertical hole made through the cork, the rods are fix¬
ed at the top ; fo that they hang only, and their dila¬
tation is not counteracted by any prelfure. In order to
heat the rods, a cylindrical bottle of thin glafs, about
21 inches high, and four inches in diameter, is placed
in the infide of the machine, upon a Hand indepen¬
dent of the reft of the apparatus. In this bottle the
rods are fufpended at a little lefs than an inch diftance
from one of the infides, in order to have them near the
microfcope. Into this bottle is poured water of dif¬
ferent degrees of heat, which muft be ftirred about, by
moving upwards and downwards, at one of the fides
of the bottle, a little piece of wood, faftened horizon¬
tally at the end of a flick : in this water is hung a
thermometer, the ball of which reaches to the middle
of the height of the rods. During thefe operations
the water rifes to the cork, which thus determines the
length of the heated part ; the bottle is covered, to
prevent the water from cooling too rapidly at the fur-
face ; and a thin cafe of brafs prevents the vapour
from fixing upon the piece of deal to which the rods are
fixed.
PYROPHORUS, formed of 7™$, “ fire,” and <p£g«,
“ I bear,” in Chemijlry, the name ufually given to that
fubftance called by feme black phofphorus 5 a chemical
preparation poffefling the fingular property of kindling
fpontaneoufly when expofed to the air. See Chemistry
Index,
PYROTECHNY,
Vnn T ITERALLY fignifies the art of fire, and is derived
0—1 “ fire,” and “ art.” i he term is
now, however, generally confined to denote the art of
making artificial fire-works, which has become a par¬
ticular trade.
As this art depends chiefly on chemical principles,
and as the objefts about which it is employed aflord
feme of the moft gratifying fpeftacles on occafions of
public rejoicing, we have not confidered it unworthy of
a place in our Encyclopedia ; and we fliall endeavour
to give fuch an account of the operations and principles
of the art as may fatisfy thofe who w'ifli to praftife it by
way of rational amufement.
On in of ^ the origin of artificial fire-wmrks nothing certain
rhe art un- appears to be recorded. We know that in Europe their
certain. invention is of a recent date, and appears due to the Ita¬
lians. The ufe of fire-works in China feems to have been
very general long before their invention in Europe, and
that ingenious people have carried thefe exhibitions to a
degree of perfection which European artifts have yet
fcarcely attained. The following defeription of a Chi-
nefe difplay of fire-works by one of the gentlemen who
accompanied Lord Macartney’s embafly to Pekin, will
give our readers fome idea of the fl:ate of the art among
that people.
Defcnption “ ^'^e fire'worhs in fome particulars, exceeded any
of Chinefe thing of the kind I had ever feen. In grandeur, mag-
'fcre-works. nificence, and variety, they were, I own, inferior to the
Chinefe fire-works we had feen at Batavia, but infinitely
faperior in point of novelty, neatnefs, and ingenuity of
contrivance. One piece of machinery I greatly admir¬
ed ; a green cheft of five feet fquare was hoifted up by
a pulley to the height of 50 or 60 feet from the ground
the bottom was fo conflru&ed as then fuddeply to fall
out, and make way for 20 or 30 firings of lanterns en¬
closed in the box to defeend from it, unfolding them-
felves from one another by degrees, fo as at laft to form
a collection of at leaft 500, each having a light, of. a
beautifully coloured flame burning brightly within it.
This devolution and developement of lanterns (which ap¬
peared to me to be compofed of gauze and paper) were
feveral times repeated, and every time exhibited a dif¬
ference of colour and figure. On each fide was a corre-
fpondence of fmaller boxes, which opened in like man¬
ner as the others, and let down an immenfe net-work of
fire, with divifions and compartments of various forms
and dimenfions, round and fquare, hexagons, oCtagons,
and lozenges, which flione like the brighteft burnilhed
copper, and flaflied like prifmatic lightning, with every
impulfe of the wind. The diverfity of colours indeed
with w hich the Chinefe have the fecret of cloathing fire
feems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny. The
whole concluded with a volcano, or general explofion
and difeharge of funs and ftars, fquibs, bouncers, crack- * ^rrs.w’j
ers, rockets, and grenadoes, which involved the gar Travels in
dens for above an hour after in a cloud of intolerable
fmoke *.” ^
Till of late the French and Italian makers of fire- 4
-works
s.
hap
,T.
P Y R O T
,paratu\ works muck excelled our Brkifh artifts, and even now,
atenals, though the practice of the art is well underftood among
worksrC"^ principles are almoft entirely unknown; and no
’ ■ Engliih work of any refpe£lability has appeared on the
fubje£t. In France, the art has been more lortunate,
and feveral men of eminent literary abilities have con-
defcended to make it an objedl of their attention. It
will be fufficient, in proof of this, to mention the names
of Ozanam and Montucla. The following works are
recommended by the latter, as containing the belt ac¬
count of this amufing art; viz.
Trait# des Feux d'Artifice (Treatife on Artificial
Fire-Works), by M. Frezier, a new edition of which
appeared in 1745.
Trait# des Feux d' Artifice pour le Spe&ac/e et pour la
Guerre, (Treatife on Artificial Fire-Works, employed
in Exhibitions and in War), by M. Pcrrinet d’Orval.
Manuel d'Artificier, (Artificial Fire-Work-Maker’s
Manual), publilhed at Paris in 1757, by Father d’ln-
carville.
Indeed moft of the written information which we
poflefs on the making of fire works, is derived from the
French ; and many of thefe produftions {till retain
French names, fuch as gerbes, balloons, marroons, tour-
billons, fauciffions, &e.
§ We (hall divide this article into two chapters; in the
firft of which we fhall confider the apparatus required for
forming the cafes or (hells of artificial fire-works, and the
materials employed in their eon(lru61ion ; and in the fe-
cond we (hall defcribe the different kinds of fire-works
and the moft approved methods of conftrufling them.
Chap. I. Of the Apparatus and Materials employed
in making Fire-Works,
SXCT. I. Of Apparatus.
[ cket
1 mlds.
Plate
CCC2.II.
Sg. I.
Tftl apparatus ufed in making fire works confifls
chiefly of folid wooden cylinders,-called formers, for rol¬
ling the cafes on ; fimilar cylinders either of wood or
metal for ramming down the compofition ; moulds for
holding the cafes while filling, a machine for choahing
or contrafting the cavity of the cafes, another for grind¬
ing the materials, and a particular apparatus for boring
feme cafes after they are filled.
We fhall begin with deferibing the moulds, as on the
fize of thefe depends that of the formers and rammers.
As the performance of rockets depend much on
their moulds, it is requifite to give a defeription of
them and their proportions: They are made and pro¬
portioned by the diameter of their orifice, which is di¬
vided into equal parts. Fig. I. reprefents a mould made
by its diameter AB : its height from C to D is fix dia¬
meters and two thirds ; from D to E is the height of
the foot, which is one diameter and two-thirds ; F the
choak or cylinder, whole height is one diameter and
one-third ; it muff be made out of the fame piece as the
foot, and fit tight in the mould ; G is an iron pin that
goes through the cylinder to keep the foot fad ; H
the nipple, which is half a diameter high, and two-
thirds thick, and of the fame piece of metal as the pier¬
cer I, whofe height is three diameters and a half, and
at the bottom it is one-third of the diameter thick,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
E C H N Y.
537
from thence tapering to one fixth of the diameter. The Apparatus,
piercer is an iron pin riling from the nipple, a d intend- ^ 0f
ed to preferve a vacuity in the centre of the charge. wor|;s.
The bed way to fix the piercer in the cylinder, is to v—■ ^
make that part below the nipple long enough to go
quite through the foot, and rivet it at bottom. Fig. 2. Fig. 2.
is a former or roller for the cafes, whofe length from the
handle is feven diameters and a half, and its diameter
two-thirds of the bore. Fig. 3. is a part attached to Fig. 3.
the former, which is of the fame thicknefs, and one
diameter and two-thirds long; the fmall part, which
fits into the hole in the end of the roller when the cafo
is pinching is one-fixth, and one half of the mi aid’s
diameter thick. Fig. 4. the fird drift or rammer, Fig. 4*
which mull be fix diameters from the handle; and this,
as well as all other rammers, mud be a Httle thinner
than the former, to prevent the hacking of the paper
when driving in the charge. In the end of this ram¬
mer is a hole to fit over tlie piercer : the line K marked
on this is two diameters and one-third from the handle;
fo that, when fi ling the rocket, this line appears at top
of the cafe: you mud then take the fecund rammer,
(fig. 5.) which from the handle is four diameters, and
the hole for the piercer is one diameter and a half long.
Fig. 6. is the (hurt and folid drift which is ufed when Fig. 5, &
the cafe has been filled as high as the top oi the pier¬
cer.
Rammers mud have a collar of brafs at the bottom,
to keep the wood from fpreading or fplitting, and the
fame proportion mud be given to all moulds, from one
ounce to fix pounds. We mentioned nothing concern¬
ing the handles of the rammers; however, if their dia¬
meters be equal to the bore of the mould, and two dia¬
meters long, it will be a very good proportion : but the
Ihorter they can be ufed, the better ; for the longer the
drift, the lefs will be the preffure on the compofition by
the blow given with the mallet.
The following are the dimenfions for rocket moulds,
when the rockets are rammed folid.
Weight ot
Rockets.
Length of the
mould' without
their feet.
Interior diameter
of the moulds
'le.^h- of
\e nipple
lb. oz.
6 dram'
4 dram
Inches.
34»7
386
13-35
12,25
10,125
7^75
6.2
4,9
3-9
3,5
2.2
i.che-
3,5
2,9
2,1
*,7
i,333
1,125
°*9
0,7
o,55
°,5
o,3
Inches.
i,4
i o
0,85
0,6
o,?
o,45
0.33
0,2?
0.225
0,2
N. B. The diameter of the nipple mud always be
equal to that of the former.
We fhall now fhow the method of finding the dia¬
meters or calibres of rockets, according to their weight;
but we mud firft obferve, that a pound rocket, is that
3 Y juft
538
PYROTECHNY.
Apparatus, juil capable of admitting a leaden bullet of a pound
Materials, wejg}jtj an([ f0 f)f the reft. The calibre for the different
^works'16"^zes may be found in the two following tables, one of
- .1 which is calculated for rockets of a pound weight and
under •, and the other for thofe from a pound to 50
pounds.
Chap.
s
Method of
finding the
diameters of
rockets ac- Table I, Of the Calibf'e of Moulds of a pound weight
and below.
cording to
their
weight.
Ounces.
16
I 2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Lines.
ipT
lS
Hi
Hi
13
124-
9i
6%
Drams.
H
12
10
8
6
4
2
Lines.
7tr
7
64-
U4
5t
4ir
3i
The ufe of this table will be underftood merely by
infpedtion ; for it is evident that the mould for a rocket
of 12 ounces ought to be 17 lines in diameter •, one of
eight ounces, 15 lines ; one of 10 drams, 6j- lines j and
fo of the reft.
On the other hand, if the diameter of the rocket be
given, it will be eafy to find the weight of the ball cor-
refponding to that calibre. For example, if the diame¬
ter be 13 lines, it will be immediately feen, by looking
for that number in the column of lines, that it eorre-
fponds to a ball of five ounces.
II. Table of the Calibre of Moulds from one to 50
pounds ball.
Pounds.
9
10
11
12
r3
H
H
16
Calibre.
IOO
126
I44
158
171
181
I9I
200
208
2! 5
222
228
235
24I
247
252
257
Pounds.
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Calibre.
262
267
271
275
280
284
288
292
296
300
3°4
307
310
3H
311
320
323
Pounds, Calibre.
3d
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
326
33°
'333
336
339
341
344
347
35°
353
355
358f
361
363
366
368
19 4, fo is 288 to a fourth term, which will be the num- Apparatus
bcr of lines of the calibre required j or multiply the ^aterials,,
number found, that is 288, by 194-, and from the pro- ^orks'^
duce 5616, cutoff the two laft figures j the required ' ^
calibre, therefore, will be 56,16 lines, or four inches
eight lines.
On the other hand, the calibre being given in lines,
the weight of the ball may be found with equal eafe.
If the calibre, for example, be 28 lines, fay as 19^ is
to 28, fo is 100 to a fourth term, which will be 143.5,
nearly 144. But in the above table, oppofite to
144 in the fecond column, will be found the number
3 in the firft j which ftiows that a rocket, the diameter
or calibre of which is 28 lines, is a rocket of a three
pounds ball.
Fig 7. reprefents a mould, in which the cafes are ^ ^
driven folid ; L the nipple, with a brafs point at top, Moulds for
(fiat at top, and of the fame length as the neck of the feipents,o:
cafe), which, when the cafe is filling, ferves to ftop thew^eel
neck, and prevent the compofition from falling out, asca ’
without this point it would 5 and, in confequence, the
The ufe of this fecond table is as follows: If the
weight of the ball be given, which we {hall fuppofe to
be 24 pounds, feek for that number in the column of
pounds, and oppofite to it, in the column of calibres,
will be found the number 288. Then fay, as 100 is to
air would get into the vacancy in the charge, and at
the time of firing caufe the cafe to be burft. Thefe
moulds are made of any length or diameter, according
as the cafes are required ; but the diameter of the rol¬
lers muft be equrd to half the bore, and the rammers
made quite folid. The nipple and cylinders muft bear
the fame proportion as thofe for rockets.
The rolling- and formation of cafes is fo intimately
connected with the conftruclion of moulds and formers^
that we fhall introduce what we have to fay on that
fubjeft into the fame feiflion.
Sky-rocket cafes are to be made 64 of their exterior
diameter long ; and all other cafes that are to be filled
in moulds muft be as long as the moulds, within half its
interior diameter. i i0
Rocket cafes, from the fmalieft to four or fix pounds, Method of
are generally made of the ftrongeft fort of cartridge-rolling
paper, and rolled.dry y but the large fort are made ofca‘c.s’
pafted pafteboard. As it is very difficult to roll the ends
of the cafes quite even, the beft way will be to keep a
pattern of the 'paper for the different forts of cafes
which pattern fiiould be forriewhat longer than the’cafe
it is deiigned for, and on it marked the number of Iheets
required* which will prevent, any paper being cut to
wafte. Having cut the papers of a proper fize, and the
laft ftieet for each cafe with a {lope at one end, io that
when the cafes are rolled it may form a fpiral line round
the outfide, and that this.fide may always be the fame,
let the pattern be fo cut for a guide. Before you begin
to roll, fold down one end of the firft ftieet, fo far that
the fold will go two or three times round the former :
then, on the double edge, lay the former with its handle
off the table y and when you have rolled on the paper
within two or three turns, lay the next (beet on that
part which is loofe, and roll it all on.
Having thus done, you muft have a fmooth board,
about 20 inches long, and equal in breadth to the
length of the cafe. In the middle of this board muft
be a handle placed length wife. Under this board lay
the cafe, and let one end of the board lie on the table j
then prefs hard on it, and puffi it forwards, which will
roll the paper very tight ; do this- three or four times be¬
fore you roll on any more paper. This muft be repeat¬
ed with every other flieet of paper, till the cafe is thick
enough j
iiiap. I. PYROT
..paratus, enough *, but if the rolling board be drawn backwards,
i saterials, {0ofen the paper: you are to obferve when you
l; °fFire- roH on tjie ]a^ (heet, that the point of the flope be pla-
! l™* S" ced at the fmall end of the roller. Having rolled your
cafe to fit the mould, pufh in the fmall end of the for¬
mer F, about one diameter from the end of the cafe, and
put in the end-piece within a little diftance of the for
mer ; then give the pinching cord one turn round the
cafe, between the former and the end-piece ; at firfl pull
gently, and keep moving the cafe, which will make the
neck fmooth, and without large wrinkles. When the
cafes are hard to choak, let each iheet of paper (except
the firft and laft, in that part where the neck is formed)
be a little moiftened with v/ater : immediately after you
have ftruck the concave ftroke, bind the neck of the
cafe round with fmall twine, which muft not be tied in
a knot, but fattened with two or three hitches.
Having thus pinched and tied the cafe, fo as not to
give way, put it into the mould without its foot, and
with a mallet drive the former hard on the end-piece,
which will force the neck clofe and fmooth. This done,
cut the cafe to its proper length, allowing from the
neck to the edge of the mouth half a diameter, which
is equal to the height of the nipple •, then take out the
former, and drive the cafe over the piercer with the
long rammer, and the vent will be of a proper fize.
Wheel-cafes mutt be driven on a nipple with a point to
clofe the neck, and make the vent of die fize required *,
which, in moft cafes, is generally one fourth of their in¬
terior diameter. As it is very often difficult, when the
cafes are rolled, to draw the roller out, you may make
a hole through the handle, and put in it a fmall iron
pin, by which you may eafily turn the former round
l, 3. and ^ull it out. Fig. 8. (how's the method of pinching
cafes 5 P a treddle, which, when prefled hard with the
foot will draw the cord tight, and force the neck as
clofe as you pleafe ; Q a fmall wheel or pulley, with a
groove round it for the cord to run in.
Cafes for wheels and fixed pieces are commonly rol¬
led wet; and when they are required to contain a great
length of charge, the method of making thofe cafes is
this : The paper mutt be cut as ufual, only the laft
Iheet muft not be cut with a flope : Having the paper
ready, pafte each ffieet on one fide ; then fold down the
firft (heel as before dire&ed : but be careful that the
pafte does not touch the tipper part of the fold 5 for if
the roller be wetted, it will tear the paper in drawing
it out. In palling the laft ffieet, obferve not to wet the
laft turn or two in that part where it is to be pinched *,
for if that part be damp, the pinching cord will flick to
it, and tear the paper : therefore when you choke thofe
cafes, roll a bit of dry paper once round the cafe before
you put on the pinching cord j but this bit of paper muft
be taken off after the cafe is choked. The rolling
board, and all other methods, according to the former
diredlions for the rolling and pinching of cafes, muft be
n ufed to thefe as well as all other cafes.
1 billon Tourbillon cafes are generally made about eight dia-
tJs> meters long 5 but if very large feven will be fufficient:
tourbillons will anfwer very well from four ounces to
two pounds ; but when larger there is no certainty.
The cafes are beft rolled wet with pafte, and the laft
fheet muft have a ftraight edge, fo that the cafe may be
all of a thicknefs : when the cafes have been rolled in
the manner of wheel cafes, pinch them at one end quite
E C H N Y» 539
clofe j then with the rammer drive the ends down flat, ^PParatas
and afterwards ram in about one-third of a diameter of rite-
dried clay. The diameter of the former for thefe cafes works.
muft be the fame as of that for fky-rockets. -v—
N. B. Tourbillons are to be rammed in moulds with¬
out a nipple, or in a mould without its foot. • 12
Yor ba//oons, firft prepare an oval former turned of Balloon ca-
fmooth wood j over which palling a quantity of brownPaPe£
or cartridge paper, let it lie till the pafte has quite *
foaked through 5 this done, rub the former with foap or
greafe, to prevent the paper from flicking to it; then
lay the paper on in imall flips till yTou have made it
one-third of the thicknefs of the intended fhell. This
being done, let it to dry 5 and when dry, cut it round
the middle, and the two halves will eafily come off j
but obferve, when you cut, to have about one inch un¬
cut, which will make the halves join much better than
if they had been quite feparated. When there are feme
ready to join, place the halves evenly together, pafte a
flip of paper round the opening to hold them together,
a* d let that dry •, then lay on paper ail over as before,
everywhere equal, excepting that end which goes down¬
wards in the mortar, which may be a little thicker than
the reft ; for that part which receives the imp idle from
the powder in the chamber of the mortal requires the
greateft ftrength. When the fhell is thoroughly dry,
burn a round hole at top, with fquare iron, large enough
for the fuze : this method will do for balloons from four
inches two-fifths, to eight inches diameter ; but if they
are larger, or required to be thrown a great height, let
the firft fliell be turned of elm, inftead of being made of
paper.
For a balloon of four inches two fifths, let the former
be three inches one-eighth diameter, and five inches and
a half long. For a balloon of five inches and a half,
the diameter of the former muft be four inches, and
eight inches long. For a balloon of eight inches, let
the diameter of the former be five inches and Ij-l6ths,
and 11 inches feven-eighths long. For a 10-inch bal¬
loon, let the former be feven inches three-fixteenths
diameter, and 14 inches and a half long. The thick¬
nefs of a fhell for a balloon of four inches two-fifths,
muft be one-half inch. For a balloon of five inches and
a half, let the thicknefs of the paper be five-eighths of
an inch. For an eight inch balloon, feven-eighths of
an inch. And for a 10 inch balloon, let the Ihell be
one inch one-eighth thick.
Shells that are defigned for flats only, may be made
quite round, and the thinner they are at the opening,
the better ; foi if they are too ftrong, the ftars are apt
to break at the burlting of the fhell: when making the
fhell, ufe a pair of calibre compaffes, er a round gage,
fo that the paper may not be kid thicker in one place
than another \ and alfo to know when the fhell is of a
proper thicknefs. Balloons muft always be made to go
eafy into the mortars. lS
Portfire cafes muft be made very thin, and rolled on Cafes for
formers, from two inches to of an inch diameter, and
from two to fix inches long : they are pinched clofe at
one end, and left open at the other. WTen they are to
be filled, put in but little compofition at a time, and
ram it lightly, fo as not to break the cafe: three or
four rounds of paper, with the laft round pafted, will
be ftrong enough for thefe cales.
Common port-fires are intended for the purpofe of fir-
3 Y 2 ing
I
540
PYROTECHNY.
14
For com¬
mon port-
fires.
Method of
grinding
the ingre¬
dients.
Fig. 9.
Fig. to.
Fiz. xt.
Apparatus, ing the works, their fire being very flow, and the heat
Materials, 0f'the flame fo intenfe, that, if applied to rockets, lead-
&c-of7ire'ers, &c. it will fire them immediately. Portfires may
^ . be made of any length, but are feldom made more than
21 inches long : the interior diameter of portfire moulds
fhould be io-i6ths of an inch, and the diameter of the
former half an inch. The cafes muft be rolled wet with
pafte, and one end pinched, or folded down. 1 he
moulds ftiould be made of brafs, and fuch as will take
in two pieces length wife j when the cafe is in the two
fides, they are held together by brafs rings, or hoops,
which are made to fit over the outfide. The bore of the
mould muft not be made quite through, fo that there ,
will be no occafion for a foot. Thefe portfires, when
ufed, are held in copper fockets, fixed on the end of a
long flick: thefe fockets are made like port-crayons, on¬
ly with a fcrew inftead of a ring.
There have been many methods contrived for grind¬
ing the ingredients for fire-works to a powder, fuch as
large mortars and peftles made of ebony and other hard
wood, and horizontal mills with brafs barrels", but none
have proved fo effeftual and fpeedy, as that of the meal-
ing-table, reprefented in fig. 9. made of elm, with a rim
round its edge four or five inches high j and at the nar¬
row end A, furnilhed with a Aider that runs in a groove,
and forms part of the rim : fo that when you have taken
out of the table as much powder as you can with the
copper (hovel (fig. 10.), fweep all clean out at the Aider
A. When about to meal a quantity of powder, obferve
not to put too much in the table at once *, but when you
have put in a good proportion, take the muller (fig. 11.)
and rub it till ail the grains are broken •, then lift it in
a lawn fieve that has a receiver and top to it, fuch as is
ufed by the apothecaries, and that which does not pafs
through the. fieve, muft be returned again to the table,
and ground till it is fine enough to go through the fieve.
Sulphur and charcoal are ground in the fame manner,
only the muller muft be made of ebony; for thefe ingre¬
dients being harder than powder, would flick in the
grain of elm, and be difficult to grind. As fulphur is
apt to flick and clod to the table, it will be belt to keep
one for that purpofe, by which means you will always
have your brimftone clean and well ground.
Fig. 12. reprefents the plan of an apparatus, or lathe,
Apparatus for boring rocket*. A the large wheel, which turns
for boring the fmall one B, that works the rammer C : thefe ram-
rockets that mers arc 0p different fizes according to the rockets;
ihfid*111’”16 rnuft be of the fame diameter a* the ton of the in¬
tended bore, and continue that thicknefs a little longer
than the depth of the bore required, and their points
muft be like that of an augre : the thick end of each
rammer muft be made fquare, and all of the fame fize,
fo as to fit into one focket, into which they are fattened
by a fcrew D. E the guide for the rammer, which is
made to move backwards and fi.wards; fo that, after
tbe rammer has been marked three diameters and a half
of the rocket from the point, fet the guide, allowing
for the thicknefs of the fronts of the rocket boxes, and
tbe neck and mouth of the rocket; fo that when the
front of the large box is clofe to the guide, the rammer
mav not go too far up the charge. F, boxes for hold¬
ing the rockets, which are made fo as to fit one within ;
their fides muft be equal in tbicknefs to the difference of
the diameters of the rockets, and their interior diameters
Fig. 12
16
Chap. I,
equal to the exterior diameters of the rockets. To pre- Apparatus,
vent the rocket from turning round while boring, a piece
of wood muft be placed againft the end of the box in Cw°?ks're‘'
the infide, and preffed againft the tail of the rocket. '■ - ^ ' J
This will alfo hinder the rammer from forcing the roc¬
ket backwards. G, a rocket in the box. H, a box
that Aides under the rocket-boxes to receive the borings
for the rockets, which fall through holes made on pur¬
pofe in the boxes ; thefe holes muft be juft under the
mouth of the rocket, one in each box, and all to corre-
fpond with each other.
Fig. 13. is a front view of the large rocket-box. I, Fig. 13,
an iron-plate, in which are holes of different fizes,
through which the rammer paffes ; this plate is fattened
with a fcrew in the centre, fo that when the rammer is
changed, the plate is turned round, but the hole you
are going to ufe muft always be at the bottom : the
fronts of the other boxes muft have holes in them to
correfpond with thofe in the plate. K, the lower part
of the large box; which is made to fit the infide of the
lathe, that all the boxes may move quite fteadily.
Fig. 14. is a perfpe&ive view of the lathe. L, the Fig, 14.
guide for the rammer, which is fet by the fcrew at bot¬
tom.
Fig. 15. A view of the front of the guide facing the Fig. if.
rammer. M, an iron plate, of the fame dimenfions as
that on the front of the box, and placed in the fame di¬
rection, and alfo to turn on a fcrew in the centre. N,
the rocket-box which Aides backwards and forwards :
when a rocket is fixed in the box, it is to be puttied for¬
wards againft the rammer; and when the fcoop of the
rammer appears to be full, draw the box back, and
knock out the compofition : this muft be done till the
rocket is bored, or it will be in danger of taking fire;
and if the boring be done in a hurry, wet the end
of the rammer now and then with oil to keep it
cool.
Having bored a number of rockets, you muft have
taps of different forts according to the rockets. Thefe
taps are a little longer than the bore : but when ufed
they muft be marked 3A diameters from the point, al¬
lowing for the thicknefs of the rocket’s necK ; then,
holding the rocket in one hand, tap it with the other. ^
One of thefe taps is reprefented by fig. x6. They are 12‘ 1 ‘
made in the fame proportion as the fixed piercers, and
are hollowed their whole length.
There are hand machines for boring, which anfwer
very well, though not fo expeditious as the lathes. But |)orjngi
they are not fo expenfive, and they may be worked by _
one man; whereas the lathe will require three. Fig. 17. llS-17’
reprefents the machine. O, the xocket boxes, which
are to be fixed, and not to Aide as thofe in the lathe..
P(^ are guides for the rammers, that are made to Aide
together, as the rammer moves forward : the rammers
for thefe machines muft be made of a proper length, al¬
lowing for the thicknefs of the front of the boxes, and
the length of the mouth and neck of the cafe ; on the
fquare end of thefe rammers muft be a round (boulder
of iron, to turn againft the outfide of the guide f), by
which means the guides are forced forwards. R, the
flock which turns the rammer, and which, while turn¬
ing, muft be preffed towards the rocket by the body of
the man who works it; all the rammers are to be made
to fit one flock.
Sect,
I
IDhap. I.
Apparatus,
Materials, SECT. II. Of the Ingredients for compojing the Charges of
[Jtc. of t ire- Firfi-innrbs..
P Y R O T E C H N Y. S4i
Nitre may be fpeedily reduced to a fine powder, by Apparatus,
iffolvinsr it in a little more than its own weight of boil
works.
18
[Ingredients
for the char¬
ges of fire¬
works.
19
Nitre.
so
Method of
purifying
aitre.
ST
iiTethod of
procuring
nitre from
damaged
gunpow¬
der.
The charges or compofitions with which the cafes
that we have defcribed are to be filled, confiit chiefly of
gunpowder, or of a powder compoied of the fame mate¬
rials in various proportions, and fome other combuftible
fubftances, intended either to give the compofition a
ftronger impelling force, or to increafe the beauty and
fplendourof the exhibition. As the nature and compo¬
fition of gunpowder have been fully explained under the
article Gunpowder, it is unneceffary to confider them
in this place ; but as the makers of fire-works common¬
ly employ confiderable quantities of the fuijftances of
■which gunpowder is compofed, it may be proper to
give fome diredtions for obtaining thefe in the greateft
purity. We may alfo notice, that gunpowder, in its
ordinary flate, is called corn-powder; while, when
ground down, as diredled in N® 15. it is denominated
meal-powder.
The ingredient on which the force of the compofitions
chiefly depends, is nitre or faltpetre 5 but as this fub-
Itance, in its ufual fiate, is very impure, being much
contaminated with earthy matter, and as pure nitre
is now become very expenfive, it is of confequence to
know how the nitre of commerce may be purified.
Nitre, like mod other faline bodies, is much more fo-
luble in boiling water, than in water of the ordinary
temperature. If, therefore, the nitre of commerce be
diffolved in a fmall quantity of boiling water, and the
folution be properly ftrained, the liquor, when cold,
will afford cryftals that are very pure. The following
is the moll convenient method of proceeding. Diflblve
the nitre in boiling water, in the proportion of about an
Englifh quart, or Scotch chopin, to each pound of
nitre; and that the folution may be more eafily effect¬
ed, let the nitre be reduced to powder, and let the vef-
fel containing the nitre and water be kept at the boil¬
ing heat till all the fait is dilTolved. Then drain the
liquor while hot through thick blotting paper, placed
in a clean funnel, and fet by the filtered liquor in a
ihallow veffel, in fome cold place, till crydals are form¬
ed. Thefe mud be removed from the liquor, and dried
with a gentle heat \ and if the remaining liquor be
flowly evaporated over the fire, in an earthen unglazed
veffel, till a film appears on the top, and then fet by to
crydallize as before, an additional quantity of pure nitre
will be procured j and thus, by repeated evaporations
and crydallizations, the whole of the fait will be ob¬
tained.
Nitre may be obtained in great purity from damaged
gunpowder, which may often be bought at a cheap rate.
The damaged powder mud be ground with a fmall
quantity of hot water, in a large wooden or done mor¬
tar, or it may be boiled over a gentle fire, with as much
water as will cover it. When the water feems to have
diffolved as much of the nitre as it will retain, it is to
be poured off from the fediment, and filtered or drained
through a flannel bag, then heated again, and, while
hot, filtered through blotting paper, and fet by to cry-
ftaliize, as in the former cafe. Frefh quantities of hot
water are to be fucceflively added to the fediment, and
drained as before, till the whole of the nitre is ob¬
tained.
diflblving it in a little more than its own weigh- — „ ^ t p.re
ing water, in a kettle with a round bottom, keeping
the folution over a gentle fire, and continually llirring    >
it with a wooden fpatula till all the water is evaporated, 22
and the remaining powder is pretty well dried. Care Hie“
mud be taken, however, not to differ it to remain to° l^dering
long, or expofe it to too great a heat, otherwife it will ^6.
be melted into a firm cake. The drying may be com¬
pleted by differing it to lie for a lufficient time on paper
before the fire. 1.
Sulphur or brimdone, may be employed in three Sulphur,
dates, i. As it is brought from the neighbourhood of
volcanoes, or what is called fulphur vivum. 2. Roll brim-
done, which is fold by mod grocers, and is employed
for making matches j and, 3. Flowers of fulphur, or
fublimed fulphur. The fird of thefe is the cheaped,
and anfwers very well for coarfe fire-works j the feeond
is confidered as the dronged, and is mod ufed; but the
third is the pured fulphur, and will anfwer bed for the
nicer and more delicate fire-works. It alfo has the ad¬
vantage of being in a date of fine powder, whereas the
two former require to be ground or mealed, as diredted
in N° 15. . 24
Charcoal may, in general, be procured at the fhops charcoal,
of founders and hardware dealers } but when this is not
the cafe, it may eafily be prepared by putting a quan¬
tity of fmall pieces of wood into a large earthen cru¬
cible or iron pot, and covering them to the head with
fand, and placing the crucible or the pot in the middle
of a drong fire, where it mud be kept red hot for an
hour or two, in proportion to the quantity of wood.
Charcoal fhould be chofen foft and light, and fuch as
may eafily be reduced to powder. It fhould be kept in
a dry place, but is always bed when frefh burned.
Several other ingredients are employed in the compo- 25
fition of fire-works, fuch as camphor, antimony (ful-
phuret of antimony'), rafpings of ivory, yellow amber,
fal ammoniac, verdigris, common pilch, and Greek
pitch, all of which are ufed on did'erent occafions, to
produce a change of colour in the fire ; filings of iron
and copper, for giving a fparkling appearance to the
flame, and fait of benjamin {benzoic acid) to produce
an agreeable odour. 26
Iron filings anfwer very well for ordinary fire-works *, Method of
but they do not produce fuch a brilliant appearance
powdered cad-iron. The introduction of this latter is
an improvement of the Chinefe, and its ufe is now very
general.
Cad-iron being of fo hard a nature as not to be cut
by a file, we are obliged to reduce it into grains, though
this is rather diflicult to perform j but if we confider
what beautiful fparks this iron yields, no pains diould be
fpared to granulate fuch an effential material: to do this,
procure at an iron-foundery fome thin pieces of iron,
iuch as generally run over the mould at the time of cad-
ing: then have a fquare block made of cad-iron, and
and iron fquare hammer about four lb. weight-, then, ha¬
ving covered the floor with cloth or fomething to catch
the beatings, lay the thin pieces of iron on the block,
and beat them with the hammer till reduced into fmall
grains -, which afterwards lift with a very fine fieve, to
feparate the fine dud, which is fometimes ufed in final!
cafes of brilliant fire, indead of deel dud ; and when
you have got out all the- dud, lift what remains with a
fieve
&.c, of Fire¬
works
542 . . P Y
Apparatus, fieve a little larger, and fo on with fieves of dilferent
Materials, fizes, til] the iron paffes through about the bignefs of
"fr"“ fmall bird-lhot: the iron, thus beaten and fifted, is to
be put feparately, according to its finenefs, into wooden,
boxes or oiled paper, to keep it from rufting. When
ufed, obferve the difference of its fize, in proportion to
the cafes for which the charge is intended ; for the coarfe
fort is proper only for very large gerbes of fix or eight
pounds.
When thefe pieces of iron cannot be procured, an
©Id caft-iron pot may be employed ", but care muft be
taken that its furface be perfeftly freed from ruft. This
pulverized caft iron is fometimes called iron fand, and
is denominated, according to its finenefs, fand of the
firft, fecond, third, &c. order, that of the firfl: order be¬
ing the finert.
It fometimes happens, that fire-works may be re¬
quired to be kept a long time, or fent abroad 5 neither
of which could be done with brilliant fires, if made
with filings unprepared, for this reafon *, that the fait-
petre being of a damp nature, it caufes the iron to ruft",
the confequence of which is, that when the works are
fired, there will appear but very few brilliant fparks,
but inftead of them a number of red and droffy fparks $
and befides, the charge will be fo much weakened, that
if this were to take place in wheels, the fire would
fcarcely be ftrong enough to force them round. But to
prevent fuch accidents, the filings may be thus prepar¬
ed : Melt in a glazed earthen pan fome brimftone over a
flow fire, and when melted throw in fome filings j which
keep ftirring till they are covered with brimftone : this
muft be done while it is on the fire) then take it off,
and ftir it very quickly till cold, when it muft be rolled
on a board with a wooden roller, till broken as fine as
corn powder ; after which lift from it as much of the
brimftone as poflible. There is another method of pre¬
paring filings, fo as to keep two or three months in win¬
ter ", this may be done by rubbing them between ftrong
brown paper, which before has been moiftened with lin-
feed oil.
N. B. If the brimftone fhould take fire, it may be
extinguifhed, by covering the pan clofe at top : it does
not fignify what quantity of brimftone is ufed, provided
there is enough to give each grain of iron a coat ; but
as much as will cover the bottom of a pan of about one
foot diameter, will do for five or fix pounds of filings or
2S caft-iron for gerbes.
Chinefe fire. Before we enumerate the various compofitions gene*
rally employed in filling cafes for rockets, wheels, &c.
we {hall defcribe two compofitions that are much valued
for the brilliancy of their appearance. One of thefe is
called Chinefefire, and is either red or white. The fol¬
lowing tables {hew the proportions of the different ingre¬
dients for each of thefe compofitions ; as they are adapt¬
ed to rockets (in the conftru&ion of \vhich the Chinefe
fire is much employed) of from 12 to 36 lbs.
Compofition of Red Chinefe fire.
R O T E C H N Y.
Calibres.
Pouijds.
I 2 to 15
l8 to 21
24 to 36
Saltpetre
Sulphur.
Founds.
I
Ounces.
3
3
4
Charcoal.
Ounces.
4
5
6
Sand of the
firft order
Oz.
7
7
8
Dr.
O
8
o
For White Chinefe Fire.
Chap I,
Apparatus,
Materials,
&.c. of Fire,
works.
Calibres.
Pounds.
12 to 15
18 to 21
24 to 36
Saltpetre.
Pounds
I
I
I
Bruiied
lunpowder
Charcoal.
Ounces.
12
11
11
Oz.
7
8
8
Dr.
8
o
8
Sand ef the
third order.
Oz.
11
II
I 2
Dj.
o
8
o
The other compofition is called fpur-fire, becaufe theSpur-rir*.
fparks yielded by it have a ftarry appearance like the
rowel of a fpur.
Spur-fire.*—T h i s fire is the moft beautiful and curious
bf any yet known 5 and was invented by the Chinefe,
but now is in greater perfedtion in England than in
China. As it requires great trouble to make it to per-
fedtion, it will be neceffary that beginners fhould have
full inftrudtions j therefore care ftiould be taken ihat all
the ingredients are of the beft, that the lamp-black is
not damp and clodded, that the laltpetre and brimftone
are thoroughly refined. This compofition is generally
rammed in one or two ounce cafes about five or fix
inches long, but not drove very hard; and the cafes
muft have their concave ftroke ftruck very fmooth, and
the choak or vent not quite fo large as the ufual propor¬
tion : this charge, when driven and kept a few months,
will be much better than when rammed ; and will not
fpoil, if kept dry, in many years.
As the beauty of this compofition cannot be feen at
fo great a diftance as brilliant fire, it has a better effedt
in a room than in the open air, and may be fired in a
chamber without any danger : it is of fo innocent a na¬
ture, that, though with an improper phrafe, it may be
called a cold fire ; and fo extraordinary is the fire pro¬
duced from this compofition, that, if Avell made, the
fparks will not burn a handkerchief when held in the
midft of them ■, you may hold them in your hand while
burning, with as much fafety as a candle ; and if you
put your hand within a foot of the mouth of the cafe,
you will feel the fparks like drops of rain.—When any
of thefe fpur-fires are fired fingly, they are called artifi¬
cialflower-pots ; but fome of them placed round a tranf-
parent pyramid of paper, and fired in a large room,
make a very pretty appearance.
The compofition confifts of faltpetre, four pounds
eight ounces j fulphur two pounds, and lamp-black one
pound eight ounces 5 or, faltpetre one pound, fulphur,
half a pound, and lamp-black four quarts.—This com¬
pofition is very difficult to mix. The faltpetre and
brimftone muft be firft fifted together, and then put in¬
to a marble mortar, and the lamp-black with them,
which you work down by degrees with a wooden peftle,
till all the ingredients appear of one colour, which will
be fomething grayifti, but very near black : then drive
a little into a cafe for trial, and fire it in a dark place $
and if the fparks, which are called fiars, ox pinks, cqvsxq
out in clufters, and afterwards fpread well without any
other fparks, it is a fign of its being good, otherwife
not} for if any droffy fparks appear, and the ftavs not
full, it is then not mixed enough ; but if the pinks are
very fmall, and foon break, it is a fign that it has been
rubbed too much.
This
Chap. I. P Y R O T
iApparatus, This mixture, when rubbed too much, will be too
^ot'Fire-^erce, har£Hy Ibow any flars j and, on the contrary,
X works. AV^en not mixed enough, will be too weak, and throw
out an obfcure fmoke, and lumps of drofs, without any
liars.
I he following compofitions are thofe commonly em-
ployed in ordinary fire-works.
! Charges for Rockets of four ow/zeej1.—Mealed powder I lb. 4 oz.
i ky-rockets. faitpetre 4 oz. and charcoal 2 oz.
Rockets of eight ounces.—I. Mealed powder 1 lb.
faitpetre 4 oz. brimftone 3 oz. and charcoal i|. oz.
II. Meal-powder i-|lb. and charcoal 4^ oz.
Rockets of one ‘pound.—Meal-powder 2 lb. faitpetre 8
oz. brimftone 4 oz. charcoal 2 oz. and fteel-filings oz.
Sky-rockets in general.—I. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone
I lb. and charcoal i-J lb. II. Saltpetre 41b. brim¬
ftone i^-lb. charcoal 1 lb. 12 oz. and meal-powder 2oz.
Large fky-rockets.—Saltpetre 4 lb. meal-powder 1 lb.
and brimftone 1 lb.
Rockets of a middling fixe.—I. Saltpetre 8 lb. ful-
phur 3 lb. meal-powder 3 lb. II. Saltpetre 3 lb. ful-
3I phur 2 lb. meal-powder 1 lb. charcoal 1 lb.
■or rocket White far s.—Meat-powder 4 oz, faitpetre 12 oz.
ars. fulphur vivum 6 oz. oil of fpike 2 oz. and camphor 5 oz.
Blue fars.—Meal-powder 8 oz. faitpetre 4, fulphur 2,
fpirit of wine 2, and oil of fpike 2.
Coloured or variegated fars.—Meal-powder 8 drams,
rochpetre 4 oz. fulphur vivum 2, and camphor 2.
Brilliant fars.—Saltpetre 3^ oz. fulphur i-J, and
meal-powder worked up with fpirits of wine only.
Common fars.—-Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4 oz. an¬
timony 4I, ifinglafs -t, camphor i, and fpirit of wine \.
Tailed fars.—Meal-powder 3 oz. brimftone 2, fait¬
petre 1, and charcoal (coarfely ground) j-.
Drove furs.—I. Saltpetre 3 lb. fulphur 1 lb. brafs
duft 12 oz. antimony 3. II. Saltpetre I lb, antimony
4 oz. and fulphur 8.
Fixed pointedfars.—Saltpetre 8y oz. fulphur 2, an¬
timony 1 oz, 10 dr.
Stars of a fine colour.—Sulphur 1 oz. meal-powder 1,
faitpetre I, camphor 4 dr. oil of turpentine 4 dr.
ains.2 Gold rain for Jky-rockets.—I. Saltpetre 1 lb. meal-
powder 4 oz. fulphur 4, brafs-duft 1, favv-duft 2^, and
glafs-duft 6 dr. II. Meal-powder 12 oz; faitpetre 2,
charcoal 4. III. Saltpetre 8 oz. brimftone 2, glafs-duft
I. antimony brafs-duft and faw-duft 12 dr.
Silver rain.—I. Saltpetre 4 oz, fulphur, meal-pow¬
der, and antimony, of each 2 oz. fal prunella 4 oz.
II. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone 2 oz. and charcoal 4.
III. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4 lb- antimony 6 oz.
IV. Saltpetre 4 oz. brimftone 1, powder 2, and fteel-
daft 4 oz.
water I* Meal-powder 6 lb. faitpetre 4, brimftone 3, char-
•kets, coal 5. II. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 44 oz. charcoal
6. III. Saltpetre 1 lb. brimftone 4 oz. charcoal rz.
IV. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone 14 lb. charcoal 1 lb. 12
oz. V. Brimftone 2 lb. faitpetre 4 lb. and meal-pow¬
der 4. VI. Saltpetre 1 lb. meal-powder 4 oz. brim¬
ftone 84, charcoal 2. VII. Meal-powder 1 lb. faitpetre
3, brimltone 1 $ fea-coal 1 oz. charcoal 84, faw-duft 4,
fteel-duft 4, and coarfe charcoal ^ oz. VIII. Meal-
powder i^lb. faitpetre 3, fulphur 14, charcoal l2oz.
faw-duft 2.
Sinking charge for water-rockets.—Meal-powder 8 oz.
charcoal 4 oz.
E c H N Y.
543
Wheel-cafes from two ounces to four pounds.—I. Meal- Apparatus,
powder 2 lb, faitpetre 4 oz. iron-filings 7. II. Meal- jyIatef“ajs>
powder 2 lb. faitpetre 12 oz. fulphur 4, fteel-duft 3. works]16
III. Meal-powder 4 lb. faitpetre 1 lb. brimftone 8 oz. ■ v '
charcoal 44. IV. Meal-powder 8 oz. faitpetre 4, faw- 34
duft 14, fea-coal 4* V. Meal-powder 1 lb. 4 oz. ^or w'iee^s*
brimftone 4 oz. 10 dr. faitpetre 8 oz. glafs-duft 24.
VI. Meal-powder 12 oz. charcoal 1, faw-duft 4. VII.
Saltpetre I lb. 9 oz. brimftone 4 oz. charcoal 44.
VIII. Meal-powder 2 lb. faitpetre 1, brimftone 4, and
fea-coal 2 oz. IX. Saltpetre 2 lb. brimftone 1, meal-
powder 4, and glafs-duft 4 oz. X. Meal-powder 1 lb.
faitpetre 2 oz. and fteel-duft 34. XI. Meal-powder 2
lb. and fteel-duft 2 and a half oz. with 2 and a half of
the fine duft of beat iron. XII. Saltpetre 2 lb. 13 oz,
brimftone 8 oz. and charcoal.
Slow) fire for wheels.—I. Saltpetre 4 oz. brimftone 2,
and meal-powder 1 and a half. II. Saltpetre 40Z. brim¬
ftone 1, and antimony 1 oz. 6 dr. III. Saltpetre 4 oz. and
a half, brimftone x oz. and mealed powder 1 and a half.
Dead fire for wheels.—I. Saltpetre 1 oz. brimftone
-J, lapis-calaminaris 4, and antimony 2 dr.
I. Meal-paxvdcr 4 lb. faitpetre 2, brimftone and char- For fixed or
coal 1. II. Meal-powder 2 lb. faitpetre 1, and fteel- ftai.ding
duft 8 oz. III. Meal-powder 1 lb. 4 oz. and char-ca^es’
coal 4 oz. IV. Meal-powder 1 lb. and fteel-duft 4 oz.
V. Meal-powder 24 lb. brimftone 4 oz^ and fea-coal
6. VI. Meal-powder 3 lb. charcoal 5 oz. and faw-duft
1 and a half. o6
I. Meal-powder 84 lb. faitpetre 1 lb. 2 oz, fteel-duft For fun
2 lb. 10 oz. brimftone 4, II. Meal-powder 3 lb. falt-cales-
petre 6 oz. and fteel-duft 74. -7-
Meal-powder 11 lb. faitpetre I, brimftone 4 oz. fteel- For a bril-
duft I lb. and a half. liant fire.
Meal-powder 6 lb. and beat-iron 2 lb. 1 oz. and a half. por |^rbes
Charge for four ounce Tourbillons.—Meal-powder 2
lb. 4 ,oz. and charcoal 4 oz. and a half. For tour-
Eight ounce Tourbillons.—Meal-powder 2 lb. aiidbi:ions-
charcoal 44 oz.
Large Tourbillons.—Meal-powder 2 lb, faitpetre 1,
bri mftone 8 oz. and beat iron 8.
N. B. 1 ourbillons. may be made very large, and of
different-coloured fires : only you are to obferve, that
the larger they are, the weaker muft be the charge,;
and, on the contrary, the fmaller, the ftronger their
charge.
I. Saltpetre 4 lb. brimftone 2, meal-powder 2, anti-yor ^°tei,
mony 4 oz, faw-duft 4, and glafs-duft I and a fourth, balloons.
II. Saltpetre 9 lb. brimftone 3 lb. meal-powder 6 lb.
rofin 12 oz.. and antimony 8 oz.
I. Meal-powder 1 lb. and charcoal 1 lb. II. Meal-For water
powder 1 lb. and charcoal 9 oz. fquibs.
I. Meal-powder x lb. and charcoal 1 oz. II. Meal- 42
powder 9 oz. charcoal 1 oz; 1 lne P01"13
for firing rockets, &c.—I. Saltpetre 12 oz. brim- 43
ftone 4 oz. and meal-powder 2 oz. II. Saltpetre 8 oz. Port-fires.
brimftone?4 oz. anc^ meal-powder 2 oz. III. Saltpetre 1
lb. 2 oz, meal-powder 1 lb. and a half,and brimftone xooz.
This compofition muft be moiftened with one gill of lin-
feed oil. IV. Meal-powder 6 oz. faitpetre 2 lb. 2 oz.
and brimftone 10 oz. V. Saltpetre 1 lb. 4 oz. meal-
powder 4 oz. brimftone 5 oz. faw-duft 8 oz. VI. Salt¬
petre 8 oz. brimftone 2 oz. and meal-powder 2 cz.
For illuminations.— Saltpetre 1 lb,, brimftone 8 cz.
and meal-powder 6 oz,
Saltpetre
p Y R O T
Aprar.tu,, Saltpetre I lb. and a half, brimilone 6 ox. meal-potv-
Materia!?, jer I4oZ, and gdafs-durt I4«z.
Scc.ofF.ra Saltpetre 6 oz. brimilone 2 lb. antimony 4 oz. and
works. 1
■ _____ camphor 2 oz. 1 .1
44 I. Saltpetre 1 lb. to oz. brunftone 8 oz. and meal-
Cones or powder t lb. 6 oe. II. Saltpetre l lb. and a halt, bmn-
fPral, (lone 8oz. and meal-powder 1 lb. Buz.
wheeJs-. Meal powder l lb. 8 oz. faltpetre 12 oz, and char-
Crowns or coal 2 o2. j ^ . IK
globes. I. Saltpetre 1; lb. brimftone 1 Id. meal-powder 1 lb*
. 4b and a half, and glafs-duft 1 lb. H. Saltpetre 5 Ib- S oz.
faze brimftone lib. meal-powder lib. 8 ol. and glak-dutt
Serpent' for I. Saltpetre 2 lb. brimftone 3 lb. antimony 1 lb. 11.
poisde' Saltpetre ^ lb. fuiphur 2^ lb. meal-powder l Ite. anti-
lnn- o monv half a lb. glafs-duft 4 -z. braft-duft 1 oz.
Fire pumps- N. B. Thefe compofitions, driven im h in a I oZ.
49 ‘ cafe, will bum one mintite, which is much longer time
A flow than an equal quantity of any compofition yet known
whiteflame wi]]laft<
Amber Meal-powder 9 oZ. amber 3 oz. This charge may
lights. be drove in fmall cafes, for illuminations.
St Saltpetre 3 lb. brimftone 1 lb. meal-powder 1 lb. an-
<?ther timonv AH thefe mult be mixed with the oil
lights. o£ A 9. V
A red fire. Meal-powder 3 lb. charcoal 12 oz. and fa w-duft 8oz.
S3 Saltpetre 3 lb. charcoal 10 oz. and bnrrmone 2 oz.
A common Meal-powder 4 oz. faltpetre 2 oz. brimftone 2 oz.
fire* fteel-duft 1 oz. and a half, and camphor, white amber, an-
For pars of timony,and mercury-fublimate, of each ^o2. . oc ie
different petre IO oz. brimftone, charcoal, antimonv, meal pow-
colours. der, and camphor, of each | oz. moiftened with oil ot
turpentine. Thefe compofitions are made into flam, by
being worked to a pafte with aqua vitae, in which has
been diffolved feme gum-tragacanth ; and after you
have rolled them in powder, make a hole through the
middle of each, and firing them on quick-match, leav¬
ing about 2 inches between each. Ill- Saltpetre 8 oZ.
brimftone 2 oz. vellow amber 1 oz. antimony » oz. and
powder 3 oz. IV. Brimftone 02. faltpetre 6 oz.
olibanum or frankincenfe in drops 4 oz. ; maftick, and
mercurv-fublmiate, of each 4 oz. meal-powder 5 oz.
white amber, yellow amber, and camphor, of each 1 oZ.
antimony and orpitnent half a oz. each. V. Saltpetre
I lb. brimftone half a lb. and meal-powder 8 oz. mot
tened with petrolio-oil. VI. Powder half a lb. brim¬
ftone and faltpetre, of each 407. VII. Saltpetre 4 oZ.
brimftone 2 oz. and meal-powder I oz.
Stars that carry tails of fnarhs.—I. Brimftone 6 oz,
^crude antimony 2 oz. faltpetre 4 oz. and roftn 4 0Z.
II. Saltpetre, rofin. and charcoal, of each 2 o2. brim-
ftone 1 oz. and pitch 1 oz.
Thefe compofitions are fometimes melted in an ear¬
then pan, and mixed with chopped cotton-match, before
they are rolled into ftars} but will do as well if wet-
.ted, and worked np in the uftial manner.
Stars that yield fame fparhs.—l. Camphor 2 oz. falt¬
petre I oz. meal-powder 1 07. IT. Saltpetre 1 nz. ditto
melted half an oz. and camphor 2 1 z._ When you would
make ftars of either of thefe compofitions, you tnuft wet
them with gum-water, or weak fpirits, in which has
been diflfolved fome gum-arabic, or gum-tragacanth. that
the whole may have the confidence of a pretty thick li¬
quid j having thus done, take I 02. of lint, and ftir it
E C H Y. Chap. I,
about in the compofition till it becomes dry enough to Apparatus,
... a Materials,
roll into ftars. ^ (;f Fire*
Stars of a yellowijl colour.— l ake 4 oz. of gum- w ;iks ‘
tragaianth or gum-aiabic, pounded and lifted through mmj
a tine fieve, camphor difliilved in brandy 2uz. faltpetre
I lb. fuiphur halt a lb. coarfe powder of glab 4 oz*
white amber I oz. and a half, orpiment 2 oz. Being well
incorporated, make them into ftars after the common
method.
Stars of another Take 40Z. of camphor, and
melt it in halt a pint of Ipirit of wine over a flow fire j
then add to it 4 lb. of gum-arabic that ha* been diffolved;
with this liquor mix 1 lb. of faltpetre, 6 oz. of fuiphur,
and 50Z. of meal-powder ; and after you have ftirred
them well together, roll them into ftars proportionable
to the rockets for which you intend them. _
As variety of fires adds greatly to a colleftion of Colours prfo
works, it is neceffary that every artiii fhould know tlieducedby
different efftd of each ingredient. Tor which reafon,^ differ;
we fhall here explain the colours they produce of them-fitionfc ^
felves ; and likewife how to n>ake them retain the fame
when mixed w ith other bodies : as for example, (ulphur
gives a blue, camphor a white or pale colour, faltpetre
a clear white-yellow, amber a colour inclining to yellow,
fal-ammoniac a green, antimony a reddtfh, rofin a cop«
per colour, and Greek-pitch a kind of bronze, or be¬
tween red and yellow. All thefe ingredients are fucU
as ftiow themfelves in a flame, viz.
Saltpetre, fuiphur, meal-powder, and
Camphor ; the faltpetre muft be the chief part. ^
Blue fume Meal-powder, faltpetre, and fuiphur vi-
vum ; fuiphur muft be the chief: or meal-powder, falt¬
petre, brimftone, fpirit of wine, and oil of fpike j bullet
the powder be the principal part.
Flame inclining to red.**- Saltpetre, fuiphur, antimony,
and Greek pitch ; faltpetre the chief.
By the above method may be made various colours
of fire, as the praaitioner pleafes; for, by making a fe w
trials, he may caufe any ingredient to be predominant in
colour. 5*
The fet colours of fire produced by fparks are di- Sparkling
vided into four forts, viz. the black, white, gray, andeonipofi.
red. The black charges are compofed of two ingredi-
ents, which are meal-powder and charcoal; the white oftaFwt
three, viz. faltpetre, fuiphur, and charcoal ; the gray of
four, viz. meaTpowder, faltpetre, brimftone, and char¬
coal ; and the red of three, viz. meal-powder, charcoal,
and faw-duft.
1 here are, befides tbefe four regular or fet charges,
two others, which are diftinguifhed by the names. o£
compound and brilliant charges ; the compound bung
made of many ingredients, fuc h as meal-powder, falt-
p*tre, brimftone, charcoal, faw-duft, fea-coal, antimony,
glafs-duft, brafs-duft, tteel filings, caft-iron, tanner’sduft,
&c. or any thing that will yield fparks; all which mult
be managed with diferetion. The brilliant fires are
compofed of meal-powder, faltpetre, brimftone, and fteel-
duft ; or with meal-powder and fteel filings only. ^
The beauty of tire-works depends much on the com-of n! xing
pofitions being well mixed; therefore great care muft the compo-
be taken in this part of the work, particularly for thefiuons.
compofition fo’- Iky rockets. When there are four or five
pounds of ingredients to be mixed, which is a Fumcient
quantity at a time (for a larger proportion will not do
Shap.
pparatus,
Materials,
c. of Fire
Works.
I.
P Y R O T
S5
Cotton
uick-
:iatch.
59
juch pa-
r for cap-
ag fire-
rrks.
60
! fte for
| >refent-
; ohiecls
i fire.
fo well), firft put tlie different ingredients together j
then work them with your hands, till you think they
are pretty well incorporated : alter which put them into
a lawn lieve with a receiver and top to it •, and if, after
it is lifted, any remains that will not pafs through the
fieve, grind it again till fine enough ; and if it be twice
lifted, it will not be amifs^ but the compofitions for
wheels and common works are not fo material, and need
not be fo fine. But in all fixed works, from which the
fire is to play regularly, the ingredients muff be very
fine, and great care taken in mixing them well toge¬
ther 5 and in all compofitions in which are iron filings,
the hands mull not touch *, nor will any works which
have iron or fteel in their charge keep long in damp
weather, unlefs properly prepared, according to the for¬
mer diredtions.
Cotton quick-match is generally made of fuch cotton
as is put in candles, of feveral fizes, from one to fix
threads thick, according to the pipe for which it is de-
figned j which pipe mult be large enough for the match,
when made, to be pulhed in eafily without breaking.
Having doubled the cotton into as many threads as is
proper, coil it very lightly into a flat-bottomed copper
or earthen pan ; then put in the faltpetre and the liquor,
and boil them about 20 minutes 3 after which coil it again
into another pan, as in fig. . and pour on it what liquor
remains 3 then put in fome meal powder, and prefs it
down with the hand till it is quite wet 3 afterwards place
the pan before the wooden frame (fig. 18.) which muff
be fufpended by a point in the centre of each end 3 and
place yourfelf before the pan, tying the upper end of
the cotton to the end of one of the fides of the frame.
When every thing is ready, an afliflant muft turn the
frame round, while the cotton paffes through the hand,
holding it very lightly, and at the fame time keeping
the hand full of the wret powder 3 but if the powder
fliould be too wet to flick to the cotton, more muft be
added, fo as to keep a continual fupply till the match is
all wound up 3 it may be wound as clofe on the frame as
you pleafe, fo that it may not flick together ; when the
frame is full, take it off the points, and lift dry meal-
powder on both fides the match, till it feem quite dry :
in winter the match will be a fortnight before it is fit
for ufe 3 when it is thoroughly dry, cut it along the out-
fide of one of the fides of the frame, and tie it up in
fkai ns for ufe.
N B. The match muft be wound tight on the
frames.
The ingredients for the match, are, cotton 1 lb. i2oz.
faltpetre 1 lb. fpirit of wine 2 quarts, water 3 quarts,
ifinglafs 3 gills, and meal pow^der 10 lb. To diffolve
4 Oz. of ifinglafs, take 3 pints of water.
Diffolve, in fpirit of wine or vinegar, a little falt¬
petre 3 then take fome purple or blue paper, and wTet
it with this liquor, and when dry it will be fit for ufe 3
when this paper is to be parted on any fire-works, take
care that the pafte does not touch that part which is to
burn. The method of ufing this paper is by cutting it
into flips, long enough to go once round the mouth of a
ferpent, cracker, &c. When thefe flips are parted on,
leave a little above the mouth of the cafe not parted 3
then prime the cafe with meal-powder, and twift the
paper to a point.
We are indebted to the Chinefe for the contrivance
of a pafte which may be employed for reprefenting ani-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
E C H N Y.
5 4 4
mals and other objefts in fire. To prepare this pafte, Apj anitu',
take fulphur reduced to a very fine powder, or flowers”
of fulphur, and having formed it into a pafte with ftarch, ^orks^
cover with it the figure you are defirous of reprefenting —*
on fire : it is here to be obferved, that the figure mult
fir ft be coated over with clay, to prevent it from being
burnt.
When the figure has been covered with this pafte,
befprinkle it while ftill moift with pulverized gun¬
powder; and when the whole is perfeftly dry, arrange
fome fmall matches on the principal parts of it, that the
fire may be fpeedily communicated to it on all fides.
The fame pafte may be employed on figures of clay,
to form devices and various deiigns. Thus, for example,
feftoons, garlands, and other ornaments, the flowers of
which might be imitated by fire of different colours,
cculd be formed on the frieze of a piece of architecture
covered with plafter. The Chinefe imitate grapes ex¬
ceedingly well, by mixing pounded fulphur with the
pulp of the jujube, inftead of flour pafte.
It is ufual to paint the frames or Hands of large fire- Method el
works of fome dark colour, but this renders them very PretervinS
combuftible. It would be better to wafti them with the^f^J^
following compofition, which will both give them aburnt
proper colour, and render them lefs combuftible. Take by acci-
equal parts of brick-duft, coal-afhes, and iron-filings, dem¬
and mix them with a double fize while hot. With this
wafti over the frames, &c. and when dry repeat the
walhing.
Chap. II. Of the principal varieties of Fire-Works,
and the mojl approved Methods of conflruBing them.
62
Artificial fire-works differ from each other very-Divifion of
much in point of fimplicity of conftruftion. Some re-
quire very little dexterity in the preparation 3 and are
either employed as appendages to works of greater im¬
portance, or, if ufed by themfelves, are confined to the
fports of fchoolboys. Of this nature are fquibs,ferpents,
crackers, fars, fparks, marrons, faucifjons, pin wheels,
leaders, and gerbes or Roman candles. Others are very
Complex in their ftruClure, require confiderable addrefs
and ingenuity, and form the amufement of faftiionable
circles on occafion of public rejoicings or private fefli-
vity : Such are rochets of various kinds, wheels, funs,
globes, balloons, pyramids, &c. We lhall firft defcribe
the more Ample kinds, and then give an account of the
method of conftruCling thofe of a more complex na¬
ture.
Sect. I. Of Simple Fire-Works.
As in the fubfequent directions for fire-works, ure Leaders,
(hall have frequent occafion to mention pipes of com¬
munication commonly called leaders, by which the fe¬
veral parts of a compound fire-work are connected with
each other, it will be proper to fliow how thefe are con-
ftrufted. Leaders confift of fmall tubes of paper of dif¬
ferent lengths, according to the diftance to which they
muft extend 3 and thefe tubes are filled with a combuf¬
tible compofition that will not burn too faft.
The beft paper for leaders is that called elephant 3
which is cut into long flips 2 or 3 inches broad, fo that
they may go 3 or 4 times round the former, but not
more : when, they are very thick, they are too ftrong
3 ^ for
54 6
P Y 11 O T E C H N Y.
Varieties for the paper which fattens them to the works, and will
of Conttruc-fometimes fly off" without leading the fire. Ihe/or-
t“)n' mers for thefe leaders are made from 2 to 6-i6ths of an
inch diameter ; but 4-i6ths is the fize generally ufed.
The formers are made of fmooth brafs wire : when
ufed, rub them over with greafe, or keep them wet
with pafte, to prevent their flicking to the paper,
which mutt be patted all over. In rolling pipes,
make ufe of a rolling-board, but ufe it lightly : having
rolled a pipe, draw out the former with one hand,
holding the pipe as light as poflible with the other’, for
if it prefs againft the former, it will flick and tear the
paper.
N. B. Make the leaders of different lengths, or in
clothing works many will be wafted. Leaders for
marron batteries muft be made of flrong cartridge
paper. _
Joining and placing leaders is a very effential part
of fire-works, as it is on the leaders that the perform¬
ance of all complex works depends *, for which reafon
the method of condufting pipes of communication fhall
be here explained in as plain a manner as poflible. Your
works being ready to be clothed, proceed thus. Cut your
pipes of a fuflicient length to reach from one cafe to the
other 5 then put in the quick-match, which muft always
be made to go in very eafy : when the match is in, cut
it off within about an inch of the end of the pipe, and
let it projedl as much at the other end : then fallen
the pipe to the mouth of each cafe with a pin, and put
the loofe ends of the match into the mouths of the cafes,
with a little meal-powder : this done to all the cafes,
pafte over the mouth of each two or three bits of paper.
The preceding method is ufed for large cafes, and the
following for fmall, and for illuminations: Tirft thread
a long pips j then lay it on the tops of the cafes, and
cut a bit off the under fide, over the mouth of each cafe,
fo that the match may appear 3 then pin the pipe to
avery other cafe} but before you put on the pipes, put
a little meal-powder in the mouth of each cafe. If the
<fafes thus clothed are port-fires on illuminated works,
covet the mouth of each cafe with a fingle paper •, but
if they are choked cafes, fituated fo that a number of
[parks from other works may fall on them before they
are fired, fecure them with three or four papers, which
muft be parted on very fmooth, that there may be no
creafes for the fparks to lodge in, which often fet fire to
the works before their time. Avoid as much as pof-
fible placing the leaders too near, or one acrofs the other
fo as to touch, as it may happen that the flafh of one
will fire the other ; therefore if your works fhould be fo
formed that the leaders muft crofs or touch, be fure to
make them very ftrong, and fecure at the joints, and at
every opening.
When a great length of pipe is required, it muft be
made by joining feveral pipes ip this manner : Having
put on one length of match as many pipes as it will
hold, pafte paper over every joint; but, if a ftill greater
length is required, more pipes muft be joined, by cut¬
ting about an inch off one fide of each pipe near the end,
and laying the quick-match together, and tying them
faft with fmall twine j after which, cover the joining
64 with parted paper. ,
Serpents. One of the fimpleft fire-works is what is called a fer-
pent, which confifts of a cylindrical paper cafe, about
4 or 5 inches long, and not made very thick. AC,
Chap. II,
fig. 19. reprefents the ufual form of the ferpent, except Varieties
that in general they have not the contraction in the01 (onftfuc.
middle, reprefented in this figure. The name ferpent, t‘"n‘ ^
has been given to this fire-work, either from the bif¬
fing noife which it makes when fired, or from the zig¬
zag or undulating direftion in which it moves, when
properly conftrufted. The cafe or cartridge is rolled
round a cylindrical flick, rather larger than a goofe
quill, and provided at one end with a narrow appendage,
fuch as that ufed for rockets, fig. 3. by means of which
it is choaked at one end. This cafe is filled about half
way with feme of the compofitions deferibed for making
fmall rockets, fee N° 30, rammed moderately hard in
the proper mould, and then it is either choaked in the
middle, or fome obftrufting body, fuch as a fmall piece
of paper, is introduced, and the remainder of the cafe
is filled with grained or corn powder. Laftly, this
other extremity is well fecured with twine, and com¬
monly dipt into melted pitch ; a little moiftened meal
powder is introduced into the extremity next the choak,
and a piece of touch-paper being properly faftened on
this end, the ferpent is complete. 5s
Crackers are compofed of a pretty long paper cafe, Crackeis,
filled with the proper compofition, as will be deferibed
immediately, and folded up in fuch a manner as, when
fired, to make fucceflive reports at fhort intervals. To
conftrutt thefe crackers, cut fome cartridge paper into
pieces 3, inches broad, and one foot long } one edge of
each fold down lengthwife about of an inch broad j
then fold the double edge down £ of an inch, and turn
the fingle edge back half over the double fold j then
open it, and lay all along the channel, which is formed
by the folding of the paper, fome meal-powder j then
fold it over and over till all the paper is doubled up,
rubbing it down every turn } this done, bend it back¬
wards and forwards, 2 inches and a half, or thereabouts,
at a time, as oft as the paper will allow ; then hold all
thefe folds flat and clofe, and with a fmall pinching
cord give one turn round the middle of the cracker, and
pinch it clofe •, then bind it with a packthread as tight
as poflible ; then in the place where it was pinched,
prime one end of it, and cap it with touch-paper.
When thefe crackers are fired, they will give a report
at every turn of the paper: if you would have a great
number of reports, the paper muft be cut longer, or
join them after they are made; but if they are made
very long before they are pinched, you muft have
a piece of wood with a groove in it, deep enough to
let in half the cracker ; this will hold it ftraight while
it is pinching. Fig. 20. reprefents a cracker com- c(;
plete. # . 66
Stars are fmall balls, prepared of a compofition which stars,
emits a brilliant, radiating light, and are much employ¬
ed in the conflruftion of rockets, Roman.candles, and
fimilar fire-works. They are made of various fizes, but
generally about as large as a mufket bullet. Compofitions
for ftars have been deferibed in N° 31. and 34. The in¬
gredients muft be thoroughly incorporated, and in form¬
ing the ball, unlefs the pafte is fufficiently glutinous, it
muft be wrapped up in a piece of paper, or linen rag,
tied clofely round with pack thread, and a hole muft
be pierced through its middle for the infertion of a piece
of match. Thefe ftars, when lighted, will exhibit a
moft beautiful appearance for the fire, as it iffues from
the two ends of the hole in the middle, will extend to
Chap. II. P Y R O T
Varieties a great diftance, and thus make the fiery ball appear
t)f Conftmc- niuc]j larger.
L tl°n‘ . StrungJlars. Firft take fome thin paper, and cut it
into pieces of one inch and a half fquare, or thereabouts ;
then on each piece lay as much dry ftar-compofition as
the paper will eafily contain ; then twill up the paper
as tight as poflible j when done, rub fome palle on your
hands, and roll the liars between them ; then fet them
to dry : the liars being thus made, get fome flax or fine
tow, and roll a little of it over each liar ; then palle
the hand and roll the liars as before, and fet them again
to dry ; when they are quite dry, with a piercer make
a hole through the middle of each, into which run a
cotton quick-match, long enough to hold 10 or 12 liars
at 3 or 4 inches dillance : but any number of liars may
be Itrung together by joining the match.
TailedJlars. Thefe are called tailedJlars, becaufe
there are a great number of fparks iffuing from them,
which reprefent a tail like that of a comet. Of thefe
there are two forts; which are rolled, and driven : when
rolled, they mull be moillened with a liquor made of
half a pint of fpirit of wine and half a gill of thin fize,
of this as much as will wet the compofition enough to
make it roll eafy ; when they are rolled, lift meal-pow¬
der over them, and fet them to dry.
When tailed liars are driven, the compofition mull
be moillened with fpirit of wine only, and not made fo
wet as for rolling: 1 and 2 oz. cafes, rolled dry, are
bell for this purpofe : and when they are filled, unroll
the cafe within 3 or 4 rounds of the charge, and all that
are unrolled cut off-, then palle down the loofe edge :
2 or 3 days after the cafes are filled, cut them in pieces
5 or 6 8ths of an inch in length : then melt fome wax,
and dip one end of each piece into it, fo as to cover the
compofition : the other end mull be rubbed with meal-
powder wetted with fpirit of wine.
Driven Jlars. Cafes for driven liars are rolled with
palle, but are made of paper very thin. Before they
•are filled, damp the compofition with fpirit of wine that
has had fome camphor diffolved in it : ram them indif¬
ferently hard, fo that the cafe be not broken or facked
to prevent which, they Ihould fit tight in the mould.
They are driven in cafes of feveral fizes, from 8 drams
to four oz. When they are filled in half ounce cafes,
cut them in pieces of three fourths of an inch long ; if
1 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of 1 inch ; if 2 oz. cafes,
cut them in pieces of 1 and one fourth inch long ; and if
4 oz. cafes, cut them in pieces of 1 inch and a half long :
having cut the liars of a proper lize, prime both ends
with wet meal-powder. Thefe liars are feldom put in
rockets, they being chiefly intended for air balloons,
and driven in cafes, to prevent the compofition from
being broken by the force of the blowing powder in the
ihell.
Rolling Jlars are commonly made about the fize
of a mulket ball -, though they are rolled of feveral
fizes, from the bignefs of a piltol ball to I inch dia¬
meter and fometimes very fmall, but are then called
fparhs. Great care mull be taken in making liars,
firll, that the fcveral ingredients are reduced to a fine
powder ; fecondly, that the compofition may be well
worked and mixed. Before beginning to roll, take
about a pound of compofition, and wet it with the fol¬
lowing liquid, enough to make it flick together and roll
eafy : Spirit of wine x quart, in which diffolve one fourth
E C H N Y.
547
of an ounce of ifinglafs. If a great quantity of compo- Varieties
fition be wetted at once, the fpirit will evaporate, and
leave it dry, before it is rolled into liars: having rolled ; .
up one proportion, lhake the liars in meal-powder,
and fet them to dry, which they will do in 3 or 4
days ; but if they Ihould be wanted for immediate ufe,
dry them in an earthen pan over a flow heat, or in an
oven. It is very difficult to make the liars all of
an equal fize when the compofition is taken up pro-
mifeuoufly with the fingers j but by the following
method they may be made very exactly. When the
mixture is moillened properly, roll it on a flat fmooth
Hone and cut it into fquare pieces, making each fquare
large enough for the liars intended. There is another
method ufed by fome to make liars, which is by role
ling the compofition in long pieces, and then cutting
off the liar, fo that each liar will be of a cylindrical
form : but this method is not fo good as the for¬
mer j for, to make the compofition roll this way, it
mull be made very wet, which makes the liars heavy,
as well as weakens them. All liars mull be kept as
much from air as poffible, otherwife they will grow
weak and bad. 6
Sparks differ from liars, only in their fize and dura- Sparks'
tion, as they are made fmaller than liars, and are fooner
extinguilhed. The following is the moll approved me¬
thod of making them. Having put into an earthen vef-
fel an ounce of mealed gunpowder, 3 oz. of powdered
faltpetre, and 4 oz. of camphor, reduced to powder by
rubbing it in a mortar with a little fpirit of wine ; pout-
over this mixture fome weak gum water, or fome weak
brandy, in which fome gum dragant has been diffolved,
till the compofition acquires the confiltence of thick
foup. Then take fome lint or caddiee, which has been
boiled in brandy, vinegar, or with faltpetre, and after¬
wards dried and unravelled, and throw into the compo¬
fition as much of it as is neceffary to abforb the whole,
taking care to llir it well. This matter is to be formed
into fmall balls of about the fize of a pea, which being
dried in the air, are to be fprinkled with meal gunpow¬
der, that they may more readily take fire.
Another method of making fparks is, to take fome
faw dull of any wood that burns readily, filch as fir, and
boil it in water that has been faturated with faltpetre.
When it has been boiled for fome time, the veffel is to
be removed from the fire, and the folution of nitre pour¬
ed off, fo as to leave the faw dull at the bottom. The
faw dull thus impregnated with nitre, is then to be
poured on a table, and, while moilt, to be fprinkled with
powdered fulphur, to which a little bruifed gunpowder
has been added ; and when the whole is well mixed, and
of a proper confillence, fparks are to be made of it as
before. ^
Marroons are fmall boxes made either of paper or Marroon?,-
palteboard, and of a roundiffi or cubical form, fo pre¬
pared as when fired to make a loud and fudden report.
They are ufually employed either as appendages to
other fire-works, or a great many of them are fo arran¬
ged, as to explode fucceffively at certain intervals.
Formers for marroons are from three fourths of an
inch to one and a half diameter ; but the paper for the
cafes twice the diameter of the former broad, and long
enough to go three times round. When you have rolled
a cafe, pafte down the edge and tie one end clofe 5 then
with the former drive it down to take away the wrin-
3 z 2 ' kies,.
'54-8
P Y R O T
Varieties kies, make it flat at bottom J then fill the cafeAvith
at Conftruc- corn-powder one diameter and one fourth high, and rol
. tio:i- , down the reft of the cafe tight on the powder. 1 he
marroon being thus made, wax fome ilrong pack-thread
•with (hoemakers wax : this thread wind up in a ball,
then unwind two or three yards of it, and that part
which is near the ball make fall to a hook ; then take a
marroon, and ftand as far from the hook as the pack¬
thread will reach, and wind it lengthwife round the
xnarroon as clo
69
Marroon
batteries.
luatiwi. ^ v.ofe as poffible, till it will hold no more
that way } then turn it, and wind the packthread on the
fhort way, then lengthwife again, and fo on till the pa¬
per is all covered ; then make fall: the end of the pack¬
thread, and beat down both ends of the marroon to
bring it in (hape. The method of firing marroons is by
making a hole at one end with an awl, and putting in
a piece of quick-match then taking a piece of ftrong
paper, in which wrap up the marroon with two leaders,
which muft be put down to the vent, and the paper
tied tight round them with fmall twine : thefe leaders
are bent on each fide, and theif loofe ends tied to the
other marroohs, and are nailed in the middle to the rail
¥ig. 21. of the ftand, as in fig. 21. The ufe of winding the
packthread in a ball is, that it may be let out as wanted,
according to the quantity the marroon may require •,
and that it may not be tied in knots, which would fpoil
the marroon. . Thefe oblong marroons are, by the
French, called Sauciffons, as they are fuppofed to re¬
ferable a fauflage.
Batteries of Marroons.—if well managed, will
keep time to a march, or a flow piece of mufic. Mar¬
roon'batteries are made of feveral Hands, with a num¬
ber of crofs rails for the marroons ; which are regulated
by leaders, by cutting them of different lengths, and
nailing them tight, or loofe, according to the time of
the mulic. In marroon batteries you muft ufe the large
and fmall marroons, and the nails for the pipes muft have
flat heads.
The proper marroon boxes are made of ftrong pafte-
board, cut as reprefented in fig. 22. fo as to fold up in
the form of a cube, one fide of which is to be left unce¬
mented till the box be filled. The cavity being filled
with gun-powder, ftrong paper is to be parted over the
box in various diredtions, and the whole is to be wrap¬
ped round with ftrong pack-thread dipt in glue. Laft-
ly, a hole is to be made in the corner of the box, and
a piece of match introduced, by which it may be
fired.
Sometimes it is required to render marroons luminous,
or to prepare them in fuch a way. that they (hall emit a
brilliant light before they bur ft. To efftft this, they
are to be covered on the outfidewith one of the compo-
fitions diredted for ftars, and then rolled in bruifed gun-
70 powder.
Pin-wheels. For Bin-Wheels.—Firft roll fome paper pipes, about
14 inches long each-, thefe pipes muft not be made
thick of paper, two or three rounds of elephant paper
being fuffieient. When the pipes are thoroughly dried,
you muft have a tin tube 12 inches long, to fit eafy in¬
to the pifres ; at one end of this tube fix a fmall conical
cup, called a funnel; then bend one end of one of
the pipes, and put the funnel in at the other as far as it
will reach, and fill the cup with compofition : then
draw out the funnel bv a little at a time, (baking it up
and down, and it will fill the pipe as it comes out.
5
E C H N Y. Chap. It.
Having filled fome pipes, have fome fmall circular Varieties
blocks made about one inch diameter and half an inch 0^li.n(*ruc’ 1
thick : round one of thefe blocks wind and pafte a pipe, , ^
and to the end of this pipe join another which muft be
done by twilling the end of one pipe to a point, and
putting it into the end of the other with a little pafte :
in this manner join four or five pipes," winding them one
upon the other fo as to form a fpiral line. Having
wound on your pipes, pafte two flips of paper acrofs
them to hold them together : befides thefe flips of pa¬
per, the pipes muft be parted together.
There is another method of making thefe wheels, viz.
by winding on the pipes without pafte, and flicking
them together with fealing-wax at every half turn ; lu
that when they are fired, the end will fall loofe every
time the lire palfes the wax, by which means the circle
of fire will be confiderably increafed. The formers for
thefe pipes are made from one and a half-to 4 xdtlis of
an inch diameter 5 and the compofition for them is as
follows : Meal-powder 8 oz. faltpetre 2 oz. and fulphur
1 : among thefe ingredients may be mixed a little ft eel-
filings or the dull of cart iron : this compofition Ihould
be very dry, and not made too fine, or it will flick in
the funnel. Thefe wheels may be fired on a large pin,
and held in the hand with fafety.
There is a pleafing decoration frequently added to Shower of
rockets, called a fhower of fire, rain, or rain fall, and itfire. erram.
is called gold or filver rain, according as its colour is
more or lefs intenfe. It confifts of feveral fmall cafes
filled with a brilliant compofition, fuch as the following
variety of Chinefe fire, viz. meal powder 1 pound,
flower of fulphur 2 oz. and iron fand of the firft order,
5 oz*
Gold and filver rain compofitions are rammed in cafes
that are pinched quite clofe at one end : if rolled dry, 4
or 5 rounds of paper will be ftrong enough but if they
are parted, 3 rounds will do \ and the thin fort of car¬
tridge-paper is beft for thole fmall cafes, in rolling
which you muft not turn down the infide edge as in
other cafes, for a double edge would be too thick for fo
fmall a bore. The moulds for rain-falls Ihould be made
of brafs, and turned very fmooth in the infide or the
cafes, which are fo very thin, would tear in coming
out -, for the charge muft be rammed in tight; and the
better the cafe fits the mould, the more driving it will
bear. Thefe moulds have no nipple, but inftead of it
they are made flat. As it would be very tedious and
troublefome to (hake the ccmpofition out of fuch fmall
ladles as are ufed for thefe cafes, it will be neceffary to
have a funnel made of thin tin, to fit on the top of the
cafe, by the help of which they may be filled very fall.
For Angle rain-falls for 4 oz. rockets, let the diameter
of the former be 2-i6ths of an inch, and the length of
the cafe 2 inches for 8 oz. rockets, 4-i6ths and 2 dia¬
meters of the rocket long ; for 1 lb. rockets, 5-l6ths,
and 2 diameters of the rocket long for 2 lb. rockets,
5- i6ths, and 3 inches and a half long 5 for 4 lb. rock¬
ets, 6-i6ths, and 4 inches and a half long ; and for
6- pounders, 7-i6ths diameter, and 5 inches long.
Of double rain-falls there are two forts. For ex¬
ample, fome appear firft like a ftar, and then the rain *,
and fome appear firft like rain,' and then like a ftar.
When you would have ftars firft, you muft fill the cafes,
within half an inch of the top, with rain-compofition, and
the remainder with ftar-compofition j but when you in¬
tend
map. II-
'arieties tend the rain Ihould be firft, drive the cafe half an inch
Conftruc-with ftar-compolition, and the reft with rain. Ey this
tl0n| j method may be made many changes of fire ; for in large
' ' rockets you may make them firft burn as ftars, then
rain, and again as ftars ; or they may firft (how rain,
then ftars, and finifti with a report •, but when thus ma¬
naged, cut open the firlt rammed end, after they are fil¬
led and bounced, at which place prime them. The
ftar-compofition for this purpofe muft be a little ftronger
than for rolled ftars.
*rbes Gerbes confift of a ftrong cafe of thick paper or pafte-
board, filled with a brilliant compofition, and generally
with ftars or balls placed at fmall diftances, fo that the
eompofition and the balls are introduced alternately.
Immediately below each ball is placed a little grained
powder. Thefe laft gerbes are fometimes called Roman
candles. When fired, they firft throw up a beautiful
^et of flame, which in fome meafure refembles a water-
fpout, whence the name. Gerbes are either employed
fingly, or batteries are formed of them, and frequently
thofe filled with brilliant fire without balls, are placed
in rows along the front of the frames of large compound
fire-works. They are fometimes made perfe611y cylin¬
drical j at others they have a contracted part at file top
called the necl:.
j. 23. and Fig. 23. reprefents a wooden former ; fig. 24. a gerfce
L complete, with its foot or ftand. The cafes for gerbes
are made very ftrong, on account of the ftrength of the
compofition •, which, when fired, comes out with great
velocity \ therefore, to prevent their burfting, the paper
fhould be parted, and the cafes made as thick at the top
as at the bottom. They fhould alfo have very long
necks, for this reafon 3 firft, that the particles of iron
will have more time to be heated, by meeting with
greater refiftance in getting out, than with a fhort
neck, which would be burnt too wide before the
charge be confirmed, and fpoil the effeCt : fecondly,
that with long necks the ftars will be thrown to a great
height, and will not fall before they are fpent, or
fpread too much ; but, when made to perfection, will
rife and fpread in fuch a manner as to form exactly a
wheat ftreaf.
In ramming of gerbes, there will be no need of a mould,
the cafes being fufficiently firong to fupport thcmfelves.
But you muft be careful, before you begin to ram, to
have a piece of wood made to fit in the neck 3 for if
this be not done, the compofition will fall into the neck,
and leave a vacancy in the cafe, which will caufe the
cafe to burft as foon as the fire arrives at the vacancy.
You muft likewife obferve, that the firft ladleful of
charge, or fecond, if proper, be of fome weak compofi¬
tion. When the cafe is filled, take out the piece of
wood, and fill the neck with fome ftow charge. Gerbes
are generally made about fix diameters long, from the
bottom to the top of the neck : their bore muft be one-
fifth narrower at top than at bottom. The neck S is
nne-fixth diameter and three-fourths long. T, a wooden
foot or ftand, on which the gerbe is fixed. This may
be made with a choak or cylinder four or five inches
long to fit the infide of the cafe, or with a hole in it to
put in the gerbe ; both thefe methods will anfwer the
fame purport?. Gerbes produce a moft brilliant fire,
and are very beautiful when a number of them are
fixed in the front of a building or a collection of fire¬
works.
545
N. B. Gerbes are made by their diameters, and their Varieties
cafes at bottom one-fourth thick. The method of find- ' on^ruc"
ing the interior diameter of a gerbe is this : Supporting , tu>n‘ .
the exterior diameter of the cafe, when made, to be five
inches, then, by taking two-fourths for the Tides of the
cafe, there will remain 2§- inches for the bore, which
will be a very good fize. Thefe gerbes Ihould be ram¬
med very hard.
Small Gerbes, or white Fountains,
May be made of four ounces, eight ounces, or one
pound cafes, Rafted and made very ftrong, ot any length :
but before they are filled, drive in clay one diameter of
their orifice high ; and when the cafe is filled, bore ?
vent through the centre of the clay to the compofition .
the common proportion will do for the vent, which
muft be primed with a flow charge. Thefe cafes, with¬
out the clay, may be filled with Chinefe fire.
Sect. II. Of Compound Firc^works.
Among the moft pleafing compound fire-works are Rocii(fts,'
rockets, which are of various kinds. Some are made
to afcend to a great height in the air, where they burft,.
and throw out the contents of the head with which they
are provided. Thefe are called fky-rockets. Others-
are fo conftrufted as to run with great velocity along a
line, and are called line-rochets. Some are arranged at
the extremities of the fpokes of a wheel, and are deno¬
minated wheel-rockets; while a fourth variety have their
cafes made water tight, and are filled with a very ftrong
compofition, fo as to admit of their burning below wa¬
ter. Thefe laft are called water-rockets. Sky-rockets
are tied to a ftick, which renders their afcent into the
air more equable and fteady.
Fig. 25. reprefents a rocket complete without its sky.rock-
ftick. Its length from the neck is five diameters one-ets.
fixth : the cafes fhould always be cut to this length after big. 25.
they are filled. M is the head, which is two diameters
high, and one diameter one-fixth and a half in breadth 3
N the cone or cap, whofe perpendicular height muft be
one diameter one-third. Fig. 26. the collar to which Fig. 26.
the head is fixed : this is turned out of fir or any light
wood, and its exterior diameter muft be equal to the in¬
terior diameter of the head ; one-fixth will be fufficienfc
for its thicknefs, and round the outfide edge muft be a
groove ; the interior diameter of the collar muft not be
quite fo wide as the exterior diameter of the rocket :
when this is to be glued on the rocket, two or three
rounds of paper muft be cut oft the cafe, which will
make a fhoulder for it to reft upon. Fig. 27. a former Yig. 27,
for the head : two or three rounds of paper well pafted
will be enough for the head, which, when rolled, put
the collar on that part of the former marked O, which
muft fit the infide of it j then, with the pinching cord,
pinch the bottom of the head into the groove, and tie
it with fmall twine. Fig. 28.- a former for the cone, pi-r s8.
To make the caps, cut the paper in round pieces, equal 0
in diameter to twice the length of the cone to be made ;
which pieces being cut into halves, will make two caps
each, without wafting any paper ; having formed the
caps, parte over each of them a thin white paper, which
muft be a little longer than the cone, fo as to projeft
about half an inch below the bottom : this projection of
paper, being notched and pafted, ferves to faften the cap
to the head.
PYROTECHNY.
When
55°
Varieties
of Uonltruc-
tion.
P Y R O T
When you load the heads of the rockets with ftars,
rains, ferpents, crackers, or any thing elfe according to
fancy, remember always to put one ladleful of meal-
powder into each head, which will be enough to burit
the head, and difperfe the ftars, or whatever it contains:
when the heads are loaded with any cafes, let their
mouths be placed downwards •, and after the heads are
filled, pafte on the top of them a piece of paper before
putting on the caps. As the fize of the flars often dif¬
fers, it would be needlefs to give an exaft number tor
each rocket $ but this rule may be obferved, that the
heads may be nearly filled with whatever they are to
contain.
Dimenjtons and Poife of Rocket-JIicks.
. 7S.
Dimennons
and poife.
of rocket-
fticks.
Weight
of the
Rocket.
lb. oz.
Length of
the ftisk.
Ft. in.
14
12
9
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
10
4
2
6
3
1
6
4
ro->
Thicknefs
at top.
Inches.
M
1,25
1,125
0,725
o,5
o,375o
o,3
0,25
0,125
0,1
Breadth
at top.
Inches.
1,85
1,4°
l,
0,80
0,70
o,55
o,45
o,35
0,20
0,15
Square at
bottom.
Inches.
o,75
0,625
o,525
o,375
0,25
o,35
0,15
0,10
0,16
o,5
Poife from
the point of
the cone.
Ft. in.
4
3
2
2
1
1
1
11
8
5
I»5
9>
9>
1,
10,5
8,5
3»
o,
o,
o,5
Fig. 251. 1'he laft column on the right, in the above table, ex-
preffes the diftance from the top ef the cone, where the
Hick, when tied on, Ihould balance the rocket, fo as to
ftand' in an equilibrium on one’s finger, or the edge of a
knife. The beft wood for the fticks is dry fir, and they
are thus made : When you have cut and planed the
flick, according to the dimenfions given in the table,
cut, on one of the flat fidws at the top, a groove the
length of the rocket, and as broad as the flick will al¬
low ; then on the oppofite flat fide, cut two notches
for the cord, which ties on the rocket, to lie in •, one
of thefe notches mull be near the top of the flick, and
the other facing the neck of the rockets •, the diftance
between thefe notches may eafily be known, for the top
of the flick ftiould always touch the head of the rocket.
When the rockets and fticks are ready, lay the rockets
in the grooves in the fticks, and tie them on. J hofe
who, merely for curiofity, may choofe to make rockets
of different fizes from thofe expreffed in the table of di¬
menfions, may find the length of their fticks, by making
them for rockets, from half an ounce to one pound, 60
diameters of the rocket long; and for rockets above one
pound 50 or 52 diameters will be a good length ; their
thicknefs at top may be about half a diameter, and their
breadth a very little more j their fquare at bottom is
generally equal to half the thicknefs at top. But al¬
though the dimenfions of the fticks be very nicely ob-
ferved, we can depend only on their balance, for, with¬
out a proper counterpoife, the rockets, inftead of mount¬
ing perpendicularly, will take an oblique direftion, and
fall to the ground before they are burnt out.
.Rockets rammed over a piercer muft not have fo
E C H N Y. Chap. H,
much compofition put into them at a time as when ram- Va mies
med folid j for the piercer, taking up great part of the of Co,nftuic.
bore of the cafe, would caufe the rammer to rife too, ^
high j fo that the preffure of it would not be fo great on ^
the compofition, nor would it be rammed every where Method of
etpial. To prevent this, obferve the following rule : ramming
That for thofe rockets which are rammed over a piercer,
let the ladle hold as much compofition as, when drove,
will raife the drift one-half the interior diameter of the
cafe, and for thofe rammed folid to contain as much as
will raife it one-half the exterior diameter of the cafe :
ladles are generally made to go eafy in the cafe, and
the length of the fcoop about one and a half of its own
diameter.
The charge of rockets muft always be rammed one
diameter above the piercer, and on it muft: be rammed
one-third of a diameter of clay ) through the middle of
which bore a fmall hole to the compofition, that, when
the charge is burnt to the top, it may communicate its
fire, through the hole, to the ftars in the head. Great,
care muft be taken to ftrike with the mallet, and with
an equal force, the fame number of ftrokes to each ladle¬
ful of charge •, otherwife the rockets will not rife with
an uniform motion, nor will the compofition burn equal¬
ly and regularly : for which reafon they cannot carry a
proper tail : for it will break before the rocket has got
half way up, inftead of reaching from the ground to the
top, where the rocket breaks and difperfes the ftars,
rains, or whatever is contained in the head. When
ramming, keep the drift conftantly turning or moving5
and when you ufe the hollow rammers, knock out of
them the compofition now and then, or the piercer will
fplit them. To a rocket of four ounces, give to each
ladleful of charge, 16 ftrokes; to a rocket of one
pound, 28 ; to a two pounder, 36 ; to a four pounder,
42 ; and to a fix pounder, 56 : but rockets of a larger
fort cannot be rammed well by hand, but muft be ram¬
med with a machine made in the fame manner as thofe.
for driving piles.
The method of ramming wheel cafes, or any other
fort, in which the charge is rammed folid, is much the
fame as in Iky-rockets ; for the fame proportion may be
obferved in the ladle, and the fame number of ftrokes
given, according to their diameters, all cafes being di-
ftinguilhed by their diameters. In this manner, a cafe,
whofe bore is equal to a rocket of four ounces, is called
a four ounce cafe, and that which is equal to an eight
ounce rocket an eight ounce cafe, and fo on, according
to the different rockets.
Having taught the method of ramming cafes in
moulds, we {hall here fay fomething concerning thofe
filled without moulds; which method, for ftrong pafted
cafes, will do extremely well, and fave the expence of
making fo many moulds. The reader muft here ob¬
ferve, when filling any cafes, to place the mould on a
perpendicular block of wood, and not on any place
that is hollow ; for we have found by experience, that
when cafes were rammed on driving benches, which
were formerly ufed, the works frequently mifcarried,
on account of the hollow refiftance of the benches,
which often jarred and loofened the change in the cafes;
but this accident never happens when the driving blocks
are ufed.
When cafes are to be filled without moulds, pro¬
ceed thus: Have fome nipples made of brafs or iron,
of
lap. II. P Y R O T
irieties of feveral fizes, m proportion to the cafes, and to fcrew
( onftruc- or in the top of the driving block ; -when you have
: 10^ fixed in a nipple, make, at about one inch and a half
T "from it, a fquare hole in the block, fix inches deep and
one inch diameter ; then have a piece of wood, fix inches
longer than the cafe intended to be filled, and two
inches fquare •, on one fide of it cut a groove almoft
the length of the cafe, whofe breadth and depth muft be
fufficient to cover near one-half of the cafe : then cut
the other end to fit the hole in the block, but take care
to cut it fo that the groove may be of a proper difiance
from the nipple ; this half mould being made and fix¬
ed tight in the block, cut, in another piece of wood
nearly of the fame length as the cafe, a groove of the
fame dimenfions as that in the fixed piece ; then put the
cafe on the nipple, and with a cord tie it and the two
half moulds together, and the cafe will be ready for fil¬
ling.
The dimenfions of the above-defcribed half-moulds
are proportionable for cafes of eight ounces, but notice
muft be taken, that they differ in fize in proportion to
the cafes.
The beft wood for mallets is dry beech. If a perfon
ufes a mallet of a moderate fize, in proportion to the
rocket, according to his judgment, and if the rocket
fucceeds, he may depend on the reft, by ufing the fame
mallet ; yet it will be neceffary that cafes of different
forts be driven with mallets of different fizes.
The following proportion of the mallets for rockets
of any fize, from one oz. to fix lb. may be obferved ; but
as rockets are feldom made lefs than one oz. or larger
than fix lb. we fhall leave the management of them to
the curious; but all cafes under one oz. may be rammed
with an ounce rocket mallet. The mallets will ftrike
more folid, by having their handles turned out of the
fame piece with the head, and made in a cylindrical form.
Let their dimenfions be worked by the diameters of the
rockets : for example *, let the thicknefs of the head be
three diameters, and its length four, and the length of the
handle five diameters, whofe thicknefs muft be in pro-
I ijy portion to the hand.
j^nt of As the caufe which occafions the afcent of a rocket
'rockets int0 the air is the fame as that which makes a nmfket
amed‘ recoil when fired, it will be proper, before explaining
the afcent of rockets, to thow how the recoil of fire-arms
is produced. When the powder is fuddenly inflamed in
the chamber, or at the bottom of the barrel, it necef-
farily exercifes an a£Hon two ways at the fame time ;
that is to fay, againft the breech of the piece, and againft
the bullet or wadding, which is placed above it. Be-
fides this, it a&s alfo againft the fides of the chamber
which it occupies j and as they oppofe a refiftance al-
raoft infurmountable, the whole effort of the elaftic fluid,
produced by the inflammation, is exerted in the two di-
re&ions above mentioned. But the refiftance ©ppofed by
the bullet, being much lefs than that oppofed by the mafs
of the barrel or cannon, the bullet is forced out with
great velocity. It is impoflible, however, that the body
of the piece itfelf fhould not experience a movement
backwards ; for if a fpring is fuddenly let loofe, between
two moveable obftacles, it will impel them both, and
communicate to them velocities in the inverfe ratio of
their maffes j the piece, therefore, muft acquire a velo-
wty backwards nearly in the inverfe ratio of its mafs to
E C H N Y. 55i‘
that of the bullet. We make ufe of the term nearly, Varieties
becaufe there are various circumftances which give toGt
this ratio certain modifications; but it is always true . ^ - i
that the body of the piece is driven backwards, and that
if it weighs with its carriage 1000 times more than
the bullet, it acquires a velocity which is 1000 times
lefs, and which is loon annihilated by the fri&ion of the
wheels againft the ground, &c.
The caufe of the afcent of a rocket is nearly the fame.
At the moment when the powder begins to inflame, its
expanfion produces a torrent of elaftic fluid, which ads
in every diredion *, that is, againft the air which op-
pofes its efcape from the cartridge, and againft the up¬
per part of the rocket j but the refiftance of the air is
more confiderable than the weight of the rocket, on ac¬
count of the extreme rapidity with which the elaftic
fluid iffues through the neck of the rocket to throw it¬
felf downwards, and therefore the rocket afcends by the
excefs of the one of thefe forces above the other.
This however would not be the cafe, unlefs the rocket
were pierced to a certain depth. A fufficient quantity
of elaftic fluid would not be produced; for the compofi-
tion would inflame only in circular coats of a diameter
equal to that of the rocket \ and experience fhewe that
this is not fufficient. Recourfe then is had to the very in¬
genious idea of piercing the rocket with a conical hole,
which makes the compofition burn in conical ftrata which * Hutton’f
have much greater furface, and therefore produce a much}
greater quantity of inflamed matter and fluid. This ex-V?^’
pedient was certainly not the work of a moment *. ^
When Iky-rockets are fixed one on the top of an-Tofixone
other, they are called towering rockets, on account ofloc^ct on.
their mounting fo very high. Towering rockets are oi
made after this manner : Fix on a pound-rocket a head
without a collar ; then take a four ounce rocket, which
may be headed or bounced, and rub the mouth of it with
meal-powder wetted with fpirit of wine : this done, put
it in the head of the large rocket with its mouth down¬
wards \ but before it is put in, flick a bit of quick-match
in the hole of the clay of the pound-rocket, which match
ffiould be long enough to go a little way up the bore of
the fmall rocket, to fire it when the large rocket is burnt
out. As the four ounce rocket is too fmall to fill the head
of the other, roll round it as much tow as will make it
ftand upright in the centre of the head : the rocket being
thus fixed, pafte a fingle paper round the opening of the
top of the head of the large rocket. The large rocket
muft have only half a diameter of charge rammed above
the piercer ; for, if filled to the ufual height, it would
turn before the fmall one takes fire, and entirely deftroy
the intended effeft : when one rocket is headed with
another, there will be no occafion for any blowing pow¬
der ; for the force with which it goes off will be fuffi¬
cient to difengage it from the head of the firft fired
rocket. The flicks for thefe rockets muft be a little
longer than for thofe headed with ftars, rains, &c. ^
Caduceus rockets are fuch as, in rifing, form two fpi-Caduceus-
ral lines, by reafon of their being placed obliquely, one rockets,
oppofite to the other ; and their counterpoife in their
centre, which caufes them to rife in a vertical direction.
Rockets for this purpofe muft have their ends choaked
clofe, without either head or bounce, for a weight at
top would be a great obftruflion to their mounting.
No caduceus rockets afeend fo high as fingle, becaufe of
their
I
552
PYKOTECHNY.
80
Honorary
rockets.
Varieties their Terpentine motion, and likewife the refiftance of
of Con (true-ajr w]1ich is much greater than two rockets of the fame
tIon fize would meet with if fired fingly..
Fig. 30. (hews the method of fixing thefe rockets :
the flicks for this purpofe mull have all their fides equal,
end the fides fhould be equal to the breadth of a flick
proper for a fky-rocket of the fame weight as thofe you
intend to ufe, and made to taper downwards as ufual,
long enough to balance them, one length of a rocket
from the crofs flick 5 which mufl be placed from the
large flick fix diameters of one of the rockets, and its
length feven diameters j fo that each rocket, when tied
on,&may form with the large flick an angle of 60 de¬
crees. In tying on the rockets, place their heads on the
oppofite fides of the crofs flick, and their ends on the op-
pofite fides of the long flick 5 then carry a leader from
the mouth of one into that of the other. W hen thefe
rockets are to be fired, fufpend them between two hooks
or nails, then burn the leader through the middle, and
both will take fire at the fame time. Rockets of one lb.
are a good fize for this ufe.
Honorary rockets are the fame as fky-rockets, except
that they carry no head nor report, but are clofed at
top, on which is fixed a cone : then on the cafe, clofe to
the top of the flick is tied on a two ounce cafe, about
five or fix inches long, filled with a flrong charge, and
pinched clofe at both ends $ then in the reverfe fides, at
each end, bore a hole in the fame manner as in tourbil-
lons, to be prefently deferibed'j from each hole carry a
leader into the top of the rocket. When the rocket is
fired, and arrived to its proper height, it will give fire
to the cafe at top ^ w7hich will eaufe both rocket and
flick to fpin very fad in their return, and reprefent a
worm of fire defeending to the ground.
There is another method of placing the fmall cafe,
which is by letting the flick rife a little above the top
of the rocket, and tying the cafe to it, fo as to reft on
the rocket: thefe rockets have no cones.
A third method by which they are managed is this :
In the top of a rocket fix a piece of wood, in which drive
a fmall iron fpindle ; then make a hole in the middle of
the fmall cafe, through which put the fpindle : then fix
on the top of it a nut, to keep the cafe from falling off j
when this is done, the cafe will turn very fall, without
the rocket : but this method does not anfwer fo well as
either of the former.
Fig. 31. is the honorary rocket complete. The bell
fized rockets for this purpofe are thofe of one lb.
Having fome rockets made, and headed according to
fancy, and tied en their flicks •, get fome flieet tin, and
cut it into round pieces about three or four inches dia¬
meter ; then on the flick of each rocket, under the mouth
of the cafe, fix one of thefe pieces of tin 16 inches from
the rocket’s neck, and fupport it by a wooden bracket, as
flrong as poflible: the ufe of this is, that when the rocket
is afeending the fire may play with great force on the
tin, which will divide the tail in fuch a manner that it
will form an arch as it mounts, and will have a very
good effeft when well managed : if there is a fliort piece
of port-fire, of a ftrong charge, tied to the end of the
flick, it will make a great addition ; but this muft be
famedirec- lighted before the rocket is fired.
tion, and at Take fix, or any number of fky-rockets, of any fize •,
the fame then cut fome ftrong packthread into pieces of three or
four yards long, and tie each end of thefe pieces to a
To make
a rocket
form an
arch in
riling.
To make
feveral
rockets
rife in the
.diftance.
Chap.
rocket in this manner : Having tied one end of the Varieties ;
packthread round the body of one rocket, and the other Con^ruC;
end to another, take a fecond piece of packthread, and i
make one end of it fafl to one of the rockets already
tied, and the other end to a third rocket, fo that all
the rockets, except the two on the outfide, will be
faftened to two pieces of packthread : the length of
thread from one rocket to the other may be what the
maker pleafes ; but the rockets muft be all of a fize,
and their heads filled with the fame weight of liars,
rains, &c.
Having thus done, fix in the mouth of each rocket a
leader of the fame length ; and when about to fire them,
hang them almoft clofe ; then tie the ends of the leaders
together, and prime them : this prime being fired, all
the rockets will mount at the fame time, and divide as
far as the firings will allow7; and this divifion they will
keep, provided they are all rammed alike, and well
made. They are fometimes called chained rackets. §3
Signal rockets are made of feveral kinds, according Signalr#cLi
to the different fignals intended to be given ; but in ar-ets-
tificial fire-works, two forts are only ufed, which are one
with reports and the other without 5 but thofe for the
ufe of the navy and army are headed with liars, ferpents,
&c. Rockets which are to be bounced muft have
their cafes made one and a half or two diameters longer
than the.common proportion ; and after they are filled,
drive in a double quantity of clay, then bounce and
pinch them after the ufual manner, and fix on each a
cap.
Signal fky-rockets without bounces, are only fky-
rockets clofed and capped : thefe are very light, there¬
fore do not require fuch heavy flicks as thofe with load¬
ed heads 5 for which reafon the rocket may be cut from
the flick, or elfe be made thinner.
Signal rockets with reports are fired in fmall flights;
and often both thefe, and thofe without reports, are
Ufed for a fignal to begin firing a colledtion of works.
Two, three, or fix fky-rockets, fixed on one flick, To fix ie-
and fired together, make a grand and beautiful appear-veral rock-
ance 3 for the tails of all will feem but as one of an itn-
menfe fize, and the breaking of fo many heads at once
will referable the burfling of an air-balloon. The ma¬
nagement of this device requires a fkilful hand; but
if the following inflrudlions be well obferved, even by
thofe who have not made a great progrefs in this art,
there will be no doubt of the rockets having the defired
effeft. '
Rockets for this purpofe muft be made with the great-
eft exadlnefs, all rammed by the fame hand, in the fame
mould, and filled with the fame proportion of compofi-
tion ; and after they are filled and headed, muft all be
of the fame weight. The flick muft alfo be xvell made
(and proportioned) to the following diredlions l firft,
fuppofing the rockets to be half pounders, whofe flicks
are fix feet fix inches long, then if two, three, or fix of
thefe are to be fixed on one flick, let the length of it be
nine feet nine indies : then cut the top of it into as ma¬
ny fides as ther'e are rockets, and let the length of each
fide be equal to the length of one of the rockets without
its head; and in each fide cut a groove (as ufual) ; then
from the grooves plane it round, down to the bottom,
where its thicknefs mull be equal to half the top of
the round part. As their thicknefs cannot be exactly
afeertained, we fliall give a rule which generally anfwers
for
t
hap.
Varieties
iifGonftroc
SS
b fire
ickets
ithout
icks.
II. P Y R 0 T
fof any humlDer of rockets above two : the rule is this ;
'that the ftick at top mutt be thick enough, when the
, grooves are cut, for all the rockets to lie, without pref-
fing each other, though as near as pofiible.
When only two rockets are to be fixed on one (tick,
let the length of the flick be the laft given proportion,
but thaped after the common method, and the breadth
and thicknefs double the ufual dimenfions. The point
of poife muft be in the ufual place (let the number of
rockets be what they will) : if flicks made by the above
direftions fhould be too heavy, plane them thinner j and
if too light, make them thicker j but always make them
of the fame length.
When more than two rockets are tied on one flick,
there will be fome danger of their flying up without the
flick, unlefs the following precaution is taken : For cafes
being placed on all fides, there can be no notches for the
cord which ties on the rockets to lie in ; therefore, in-
.flead of notches, drive a fmall nail in each fide of the
flick, between the necks of the cafes: and let the. cord,
which goes round their necks, be brought clofe under
the nails *, by this means the rockets will be as fecure as
when tied on fingly. The rockets being thus fixed, car¬
ry a quick-match, without a pipe, from the mouth of
one rocket to the other j this match being lighted will
give fire to all at once.
Though the dire&ions already given may be fuffi-
cient for thefe rockets, we fhall here add an improve¬
ment on a very effential part of this device, which is,
that of hanging the rockets to be fired ; for before the
following method was contrived, many attempts proved
unfuccefsful. Inftead, therefore, of the old and common
manner of hanging them on nails or hooks, make ufe of
the following contrivance : Have a ring made of ftrong
iron wire large enough for the flick to go in as far as
the mouths of the rockets ; then have another ring fup-
ported by a fmall iron, at fome diftance from the poft or
Hand to which it is fixed: then have another ring fit to
receive and guide the fmall end of the flick. Rockets
thus fufpended will have nothing to obftrudl their fire j
but when they are hung on nails or hooks, in fuch a
manner that fome of their mouths are againft or upon a
rail, there can be no certainty of their rifing in a verti¬
cal dire&ion.
To fire rockets without fiicks, you muft have a ftand,
of a block of wood, a foot diameter, and make the bot¬
tom flat, fo that it may ftand fteady : in the centre of
the top of this block draw a circle two inches and a half
diameter, and divide the circumference of it into three
equal parts ; then take three pieces of thick iron wire,
each about three feet long, and drive them into the
block, one at each point made on the circle ; when
thefe wires are driven in deep enough to hold them faft
and upright, fo that the diftance from one to the
other is the fame at top as at bottom, the ftand is com¬
plete.
The ftand being thus made, prepare the rockets
thus : Take fome common Iky-rockets of any fize,
and head them as you pleafe j then get fome balls of
lead, and tie to each a fmall wire two or two feet and a
half long, and the other end of each wire tie to the neck
of a rocket. Thefe balls anfwer the purpofe of flicks
when made of a proper weight, which is about two-
thirds the weight of the rocket 5 but when they are of a
proper fize, they will balance the rocket in the fame
Vox.. XVII. Part II.
ECHNY. 553
manner as a flick, at the ufual point of poife. To fire Varieties
thefe, hang them, one at a time, between the tops of the ^ n‘/i *
wires, letting their heads reft on the point of the.wires, < .. «
and the balls hang down between them : if the wires
ftiould be too wide for the rockets, prefs them together
till they fit j and if too clofe, force them open ; the wires
for this purpofe muft be foftened, fo as not to have any
fpring, or they will not keep their pofition when prefled
clofe or opened. S6
Cafes for fcrolls ftiould be made four or five inches in Scrolls for
length, and their interior diameters three-eighths of an rockets,
inch : one end of thefe cafes muft be pinched quite clofe
before beginning to fill; and when filled clofe, the other
end : then in the oppofite fides make a fmall hole at each
end, to the compofition, as in tourbillons j and prime
them with wet meal-powder. You may put in the head
of a rocket as many of thefe cafes as it will contain :
being fired they turn very quick in the air, and form a
fcroll or fpiral line. They are generally filled with a
ftrong charge, as that of ferpents or brilliant fire* g7
Rockets that pafs under the denomination ofswarU tr.
erx, are thofe from two ounces downwards. Thefe roc¬
kets are fired fometimes in flights, and in large water¬
works, &c. Swarmers of one and two ounces are bor¬
ed, and made in the fame manner as large rockets, ex¬
cept that, when headed, their heads muft be put on
without a collar : the number of ftrokes for driving one'
ounce muft be eight, and for two ounces twelve.
All rockets under one ounce are not bored, but rcufr
be filled to the ufual height with compofition, which
generally confifts of fine meal-powder four ounces, ami
charcoal or fteel-duft two drams : the number of ftrokes
for ramming thefe fmall fwarmers is not material, provi¬
ded they are rammed truly, and moderately hard. The
necks of unbored rockets muft be in the fame proportion
as in common cafes. '
Care mult be taken, in placipg the rockets, when they Stands for
are to be fired, to give them a vertical diredlion at their rockets-
firft fetting outj which may be managed thus: Have
two rails of wood, of any length, fupported at each
end by a perpendicular leg, fo that the rails may be ho¬
rizontal, and let the diftance from one to the other be
almoft equal to the length of the flicks of the rockets
intended to be fired j then in the front of the top rail
drive fquare hooks at eight inches diftance, with then-
points turning fidewife, lo that when the rockets are
hung on them, the points will be before the flicks and
keep them from falling or being blown off by the wind •,
in the front of the rail at bottom muft be ftaples, dri¬
ven perpendicular under the hooks at top j through
thefe ftaples put the fmall ends of the rocket flicks.
Rockets are fired by applying a lighted port-fire to their
mouths.
N. B. When Iky-rockets are made to perfedh’on, and
fired, they will ftand two or three feconds on the hook
before they rife, and then mount up brifkly, with a
fteady motion, carrying a large tail from the ground all
the way up, and juft as they turn, break, and difperfe
the ftars.
Girandole chefts are generally compofed of four fides Girandole
of equal dimenfions ; but may be made of any diame- c'iefts for
ter, according to the number of rockets defigned to be fll8lus ot
fired; their height muft be in proportion to the rockets, r0C^eti*
but muft always be a little higher than the rockets with
their flicks. When the fides arc joined, fix in the top
4 -A- as
P Y R O T
Varieties as far down llie ctie'l as the length of one of the roc-
apf ('onftrus- kets its cap on. In this top, make as many Iqnare
tion- or round holes to receive the rocket fticks as there are
' v to be rockets; but let the diftance between them be
fufficient for the rockets to ftand without touching one
another ; then from one hole to another cut a groove
large enough for a quick match to lie in; the top being
thins fixed, put in the bottom, at about one foot and a halt
diilance from the bottom of the cheft, in this bottom
tnuft be as many holes as in the top, and all to corre-
fpond : but thefe holes need not be fo large as thole in
the ton.
To prepare the cheft, a quick match muft be laid m
all the grooves, from hole to hole: then take fome Iky-
rockets1, and rub them in the mouth with wet meal-
powder, and put a bit of match up the cavity of each;
which match muft be long enough to hang a little be¬
low the mouth of the rocket. The rockets and cheit
being prepared according to the above dire6Iions', put
the fticks of the rockets through the holes in the top
and bottom of the cheft, fo that their mouths may reft
on the quick-match in the grooves : by which all the
rockets will be fired at once ; for by giving fire to any
part of the match, it will communicate to all the roc¬
kets in an inftant. As it would be rather troublefome
to direa the ftieks from the top to the proper holes in
the bottom, it will be neceffary to have a fmall door in
one of the Tides, through which, when opened, you
may fee how to place the fticks. Flights of rockets
being feldom fet off at the beginning of any fire-works,
they are in danger of being fired by the fparks nom
wheels, &c.; therefore, to preferve them, a cover ftiould
be made to fit on the cheft, and the door in the fide
kept ftiut.
. 9° Line-rockets are made and rammed as the Iky-rockets,
rackets. but have no heads, and the cafes muft be cut clofe to the
clay ) they are fometimes made with fix or feven chan¬
ges, but in general not more than four or five. The
method of managing thefe rockets is the following :
Firft, have a piece of light wood, the length of one of
the rockets turned round about two inches and a half dia¬
meter, with a hole through the middle length wife, large
enough for the line to go eafily through ;_if four chan¬
ges are intended, have four grooves cut in the fwivel,
one oppofite the other, in which to lay the rockets.
The mouths of the rockets being rubbed with wet
meal-powder, lay them in the grooves head to tail,
and tie them fall ; from the tail of the firft rocket carry
a leader to the mouth of the fecond, and from the fe-
cond to the third, and fo on to as many as there are
on the fvvivel, making every leader very fecure ; but in
fixing thefe pipes, take care that the qnick-match does
not enter the bores of the rockets: the rockets being
fixed on the fwivel and ready to be fired, have a line
ICO yards long, ftretched and fixed uptight, at any
height from the ground ; but be fure to place it hori¬
zontally : this length of line will do for half-pound
rockets; but if larger, the line muft be longer. Be¬
fore you put up the line, put one end of it through the
fwivel; and when you fire the line rocket, let the mouth
of that rocket which is firft fired face that end of the
line where you ftand ; then the firft rocket will carry
the reft to the other end of the line, and the fecond will
bring them back ; and fo they will run out and in ac¬
cording to the number of rockets j at each end of the
E C H N Y. Chap. H,
line there muft be a piece of flat wood for the rocket Vantties
to ftrike againft, or its force will cut the line. Let theof ^‘truc.
line be well foaped, and the hole in the fwivel very
fmooth. ~ _ 9i
To line rockets may be fixed a great variety of fi- Different
gures, fuch as flying dragons'; Mercuries, fliips, ?foerCj[n^10ns
or they may be made to run on the line like a wheel > rocke^
which is done in this manner. Have a flat fwivel made
very exaflly, and on it tie two rockets obliquely one on
each fide, which will make it turn round as it goes, and
form a circle of fire ; the charge for thefe rockets Humid
be a little weaker than common. If you would fliow
two dragons fighting, get two fwivels made fquare, and
on each tie three rockets together on the under fide ;
then have two flying dragons made of tin, and fix one
of them on the top of each fwivel, fo as to ftand upright;
in the mouth of each dragon put a fmall cafe of com¬
mon fire, and another at the end of the tail; put two
or three port-fires, of a ftrong charge, on one fide of.
their bodies, to {howT them, i his done, put them on
the line, one at each end ; but let there be- a fwivel m
the middle of the line to keep the dragons from ftriking
together: before firing the rockets, light the cafes
on the dragons ; and if care be taken in firing both at
the fame time, they will meet in the middle of the line,
and feem to fight. Then they will run back and return
with great violence, which will have a very pleafing ef-
fe&. The line for thefe rockets muft be very long, or
they will ftrike too hard together. >
Cafes for Chinefe flyers may be made of different
fizes, from one to eight ounces ; they muft be made thick ( hinefa
of paper, and eight interior diameters long; they, are flyers.,
rolled in the fame manner as tourbillons, with a ftraight
pafted edge, and pinched clofe at one end. The method
of filling them is, the cafe being put in a mould, whole
cylinder, or foot, muft be flat at top without a nipple,
fill it within half a diameter of the middle; then ram
in half a diameter of clay, on that as much compofition
as before, on which drive half a diameter of clay ; then
pinch the cafe clofe, and drive it down flat : after this
is done, bore a hole exadfly through the centre of the
clay in the middle ; then in the oppofite fides, at both
ends, make a vent; and in that fide intended to be fired
firft make a fmall hole to the compofition near the clay
in the middle, from which carry a quick-match, coier-
ed with a fingle paper, to the vent at the other, ena 3
then, when the charge is burnt on one fide, it will, by
means of the quick-match, communicate to 'the charge
on the other (which may be of a different fort). I he
flyers being thus made, put an iron pin, that muft be
fixed in the work on which they are to be fired, and on
which they are to run, through the hole in the middle;
on the end of this pin muft be a nut to keep the flyer
from running off. If they are to turn back again after
they are burnt, make both the vents at the ends on the
fame fide, which will alter its courfe the contrary way* ^
Table rockets are defigned merely to (h'ow the truth -j-pble
of’driving, and the judgment of a fire-worker ; they rockets,
having no other effeft, when fired, than fpinning round
in the fame place where they begin, till they are burnt
out, and fl to wing nothing more than an horizontal circle
°f fire.
The method of making thefe rockets is,—Have a cone
turned out of hard wood two inches and a half in dia¬
meter, and as much high ; round the bafe of it drive a
' . line
fchap. II. P Y R O T
'Varieties line j on tins line fix four fpokes, each two inches loifg,
'Conftruc-f() as t0 Hand one pppofite the other ) then fill four nine-
t inch one pound cafes with any ftrong compofition,
,^r~y within two inches of the top : thefe cafes are made like
tourbillons, and muft be rammed with the greateft ex-
.94
Serial
;lubes or
lombs.
33*
aftnefs.
The rockets being filled, fix their open ends on the
fhort fpokes j then in the fide of each cafe bore a hole
near the clay ; all thefe holes, or vents, mull be fo made
that the fire of each cafe may adl the fame way; from
thefe vents carry leaders to the top of the cone, and
tie them together. When the rockets are to be fired,
fet them on a fmooth table, and light the leaders in the
middle, and all the cafes will fire together (fee fig. 32.)
and fpin on the point of the cone.
Thefe rockets may be made to rife like tourbillons, by
making the cafes fhorter, and boring four holes in the
under fide of each at equal diftances : this being done
they are called double tourbillons.
Note, All the vents in the under fide of the cafes
muft be lighted at once 5 and the (harp point of the cone
cut off, at which place make it fpherical.
Fireworks called aerial globes or bombs confift of
a fpherical cafe made of ftrong paper, or of wood, pre¬
pared as will be immediately defcribed, and thrown from
a mortar commonly made of pafteboard, with a copper
chamber to contain the charge, fuch as AB> 33-
This fmall mortar muft be made of light wood, or of
paper parted together, and rolled up in the form of a
cylinder, or truncated cone, the bottom excepted j
which, as already faid, muft be of wood. The cham¬
ber for the powder AC muft be pierced obliquely, with
a finall gimlet, as feen at BC j fo that the aperture B
correfponding to the aperture of the metal mortar, in
which this paper mortar muft be placed when the globe
is fired, the fire applied to the latter may be communica¬
ted to the powder which is at the bottom of the cham¬
ber AC, immediately below the globe. By thefe means
the globe will catch fire and make an agreeable noife as
it rifes into the air ; but it would not fucceed fo well
if any vacuity were left between the powder and the
globe.
A profile or perpendicular feci ion of fuch a globe is
reprefented by the right-angled parallelogram A BCD,
fig. 34. the breadth of which AB is nearly equal
to the height AD. The thicknefs of the wood to¬
wards the two fides L, M, is equal to about the
twelfth part of the diameter of the globe j and the
thicknefs E, F, of the cover, is double the preceding,
or equal to a fixth part of the diameter. The height
GK, or HI of the chamber GHIK, where the match is
applied, and which is terminated by the femicircle
LGKM, is equal to the fourth part of the breadth
AB, and its breadth GH is equal to the fixth part of
AB.
We muft here obferve, that it is dangerous to put
wooden covers, fuch as EF, on aerial balloons or globes,
for thefe covers may be fo heavy as to wound thofe on
whom they happen to fall. It will be fufficient to place
turf or hay above the globe, in order that the powder
may experience fome refiftance.
The globe muft be filled with feveral pieces of cane
or common reed, equal in length to the interior height
of the globe, and charged with a flow compofition, made
of three ounces of pounded gunpowder, an ounce of ful-
E C H N Y. 555
phur moiftened with a fmall quantity of petroleum oil, ^ "5.
and two ounces of charcoal-, and in order that thefe0'
reeds or canes may catch fire fooner, and with more fa-  
cility, they murt be charged at the lower ends, which
reft on the bottom of the globe, with pulverized gun¬
powder moiftened iti the fame manner with petroleum
oil, or well befprinkled with brandy, and then dried.
The bottom of the globe ought to be covered with a.
little gunpowder half pulverized and half grained ;
which, when fet on fire by means of a match applied to
the end of the chamber GH, will fet fire to the lower
part of the reed. But care muft have been taken to fill
the chamber with a compofition fimilar to that in the
reeds, or with another flow compofition made of eight
ounces of gunpowder, four ounces of faltpetre, two
ounces of fulphur, and one ounce of charcoal : the
whole muft be well pounded and mixed.
Inltead of reeds, the globe may be charged with run¬
ning rockets, or paper petards, and a quantity of fiery
ftars or fparks mixed with the pulverized gunpowder,
placed without any order above thefe petards, which
muft be choked at unequal heights, that they may
perform their eftefl at different times.
Thefe globes may be conftrudiod in various other
ways, which it would be tedious here to enumerate. We
fliall only obferve, that when loaded they muft be well
covered at the top •, they muft be wrapped up in a piece
of cloth dipped in glue, and a piece of woollen cloth
muft be tied round them, fo as to cover the hole which
contains the match. 9.
Fuzes for air balloons are fometimes turned out of Fuzes for
dry beech, with a cup at top to hold the quick-match, K.'obes or
or other firing material j but if made with parted paper, a'lAa^oon5'
they will do as well: the diameter of the former for
fuzes for coehorn balloons muft be half an inch; for a
foyal fuze, five-eighths of an inch ; for an eight inch
fuze, three-fourths of an inch ; and for a ten inch fuze,
feven-eighths of an inch. Having rolled the cafes, pinch
and tie them almoft clofe at one end : then drive them
down, and let them dry. Before beginning to fill them,
mark on the outfide of the cafe the length of the charge
required, allowing for the thicknefs of the bottom ; and
when the cflmpofition is rammed in, take two pieces of
quick-match about fix inches long, and lay one. end of
each on the charge, and then a little meal-powder,
which ram down hard ; the loofe ends of the match
double up into the top of the fuze, and cover it with a
paper cap to keep it dry. When the fhells are put into
the mortars, uncap the fuzes, and pull out the loofe ends
of the match, and let them hang on the fides of the bal¬
loons. The ufe of the match is, to receive the fire from
the powder in the chamber of the mortar, in order to
light the fuze : the (hell being put in the mortar with
the fuze uppermoft, and exa611y in the centre, fprinkle
over it a little meal-powder, and it will be ready to be
fired. Fuzes made of wood muft be longer than thofe
of paper, and not bored quite through, but left folid
about half an inch at bottom; and when ufed law them
off" to a proper length, meafuring the charge from the
cup at top. ^
To make Tourbillons.—Having filled fome cafes with-Tourbil-
in about one diameter and a half, drive in a ladleful ofhms.
clay ; then pinch the ends clofe,- and drive them down
with a mallet. When done, find the centre of gravity
of each cafe; where the nail and flick are tied which
4 A 2 fhould
1
j56 P Y R O T
Varieties OioulcI be half an inch broad at the middle, and run
ofConftiuc-a j-ttie narrower t0 the ends: thefe flicks mufl have
, , their ends turned upwards, fo that the cafes may turn
' horizontally on their centres : at the oppofite Tides of
the cafes, at each end, bore a hole clofe to the clay
with a gimblet, the fize of the neck of a common cafe
of the fame nature : from thefe holes draw a line round
the cafe, and at the under part of the cafe bore a hole
with the fame gimblet, within half a diameter of each
line towards the centre ; then from one hole to the
other draw a right line. Divide this line into three
equal parts ; and at X and Y (fig. 35.) bore a hole j
then from thefe holes to the other two lead a quick-
match, over which pafte a thin paper. Fig. 36. repre-
fents a tourbillon as it fhould lie to be fired, with a
leader from one fide hole A to the other B. When
tourbillons are fired lay them on a fmootn table, with
their flicks downwards, and burn the leader through the
middle with a portfire. They fliould fpin three or four
feconds on the table before they rife, which is about the
time the compofition will be burning from the fide holes
to thofe at bottom.
To tourbillons may be fixed reports in this manner :
In the centre of the cafe at top make a fmall hole, and
in the middle of the report make another} then place
them together, and tie on the report, and with a fingle
paper fecure it from fire : this done, the tourbillon is
completed. By this method you may fix on tourbil¬
lons fmall cones of ftars, rains, &c. but be careful not
to load them too much. One eighth of an inch will be
enough for the thicknefs of the flicks, and their length
equal te that of the cafes.
Aigrettes. Mortars to throw aigrettes are generally made of
pafleboard, of the fame thicknefs as balloon mortars,
and two diameters and a half long in the infide from the
top of the foot: the foot muft be made of elm without a
chamber, but flat at top, and in the fame proportion as
thofe for balloon mortars •, thefe mortars muft alfo be
bound round with a cord : fometimes eight or nine of
thefe mortars, of about three or four inches diameter,
are bound all together, fo as to appear but one: but
when they are made for this purpofe, the bottom of the
foot muft be of the fame diameter as the mortars, and
only half a diameter high. The mortars being bound
well together, fix them on a heavy folid block of wood.
To load thefe mortars, firft put on the infide bottom of
each a piece of paper, and on it fpread one ounce and a
half of meal and corn powder mixed $ then tie the fer-
pents up in parcels with quickmatch, and put them in
the mortar with their mouths downwards •, but take care
the parcels do not fit too tight in the mortars, and that
all the ferpents have been well primed with powder
wetted with fpirit of wine. On the top of the ferpents
in each mortar lay fome paper or tow •, then carry a
leader from one mortar to the other all round, and then
from all the outfide mortars into that in the middle :
thefe leaders muft be put between the cafes and the
fides of the mortar, down to the powder at bottom : m
the centre of the middle mortar fix a fire pump, or bril¬
liant fountain, which muft be open at bottom, and long
enough to project out of the mouth of the mortar $ then
pafte paper on the tops of all the mortars.
Mortars thus prepared are called a neji of ferpents, as
reprefented by fig. 37. When thefe mortars are to be
fired, light the fire-pump C, which when confumed will
2
E C H N Y. Chap. II. [
communicate to all the mortars at once by means of Varieties b
the leaders. For mortars of 8, 9, or 10 inches diame-of i
ter, the ferpents (hould be made in one and two ounce l—u
cafes fix or feven inches long, and fired by a leader
brought out of the mouth of the mortar, and turned
down the outfide, and the end of it covered with paper,
to prevent the fparks of the other works from fetting it
on fire. For a fix-inch mortar, let the quantity of
powder for firing be two ounces ; for an eight-inch, two
ounces and three quarters 5 and for a ten-inch, three
ounces and three quarters. Care muft be taken in thefe,
as well as fmall mortars, not to put the ferpents in too
tight, for fear of burfting the mortars. Thefe mortars
may be loaded with ftars, crackers, &tc.
If the mortars, when loaded, are fent to any diftance,
or liable to be much moved, the firing powder ftiould
be fecured from getting amongft the ferpents, which
would endanger the mortars, as well as hurt their per¬
formance. To prevent this, load the mortars thus:
Firft put in the firing powder, and fpread it equally
about j then cut a round piece of blue touch-paper,
equal to the exterior diameter of the mortar, and draw
on it a circle equal to the interior diameter of the mor¬
tar, and notch it all round as far as that circle : then
pafte that part which is notched, and put it down the
mortar clofe to the powder, and ftick the palled edge
to the mortar : this will keep the powder always fmooth
at bottom, fo that it may be moved or carried anywhere
without receiving damage. The large fingle mortars
are called pots des aigrettes. . 9j
Pots des Brins are formed of pafteboard, and muft be p0ts des
rolled pretty thick. They are ufually made three or brins.
four inches diameter, and four diameters long 5 and
pinched with a neck at one end, like common cafes.
A number of thefe are placed on a plank thus : Having
fixed on a plank two rows of wooden pegs, cut in the
bottom of the plank a groove the whole length under
each row of pegs ; then, through the centre of each peg,.
bore a hole down to the groove at bottom, and on every
peg fix and glue a pot, whofe mouth muft fit tight on
the peg ; through all the holes run a quick match, one
end of which muft go into the pot, and the other into
the groove, which muft have a match laid in it from
end tq end, and covered with paper, fothat when light¬
ed at one end it may difeharge the whole almoft inftan-
taneoufly : in all the pots put about one ounce of meal
and corn powder •, then in fome put ftars, and in others
rains, fnakes, ferpents, crackers, &c.: when they are all
loaded, pafte paper over their mouths. Two or three
hundred of thefe pots being fired together make a very
pretty (how, by affording fo great a variety of fires. -
Fig. 38. is a range of pots des brins, with a leader A,
by which they are fired. ^
Pots des Sanciffons are generally fired out of large pots cies
mortars without chambers, the fame as thofe for aigrettes, fauciflbr-'-
only fomewhat ftronger. Saucifibns are made of one
and two ounce cafes, five or fix inches long, and choked
in the fame manner as ferpents. Half the number
which the mortar contains muft be driven one diame¬
ter and a half with compofition, and the other half two
diameters, fo that when fired they may give two volleys, _
of reports. But if the mortars are very ftrong, and
will bear a fufficient charge to throw the fauciffons very
high, you may make three volleys of reports, by divid¬
ing the number of cafes into three parts* and making a
® difference
hap. II. P Y R O T
"arieties difference in tlie height of the charge. After they are
Lllonftruc-filled, pinch and tie them at top of the charge almoft
lion. ci0fie . oniy leaving a fraall vent to communicate the
fire to Upper part of the cafe, which muft.be filled
with corn-powder very near the top $ then pinch the
end quite clofe, and tie it: after this is done, bind the
cafe very tight with waxed packthread, from the choke
at top of the compofition to the end of the cafe} this
will make the cafe very ftrong in that pact, and caufe
the report to be very Iqud. Sauciffons fhould be rolled
a little thicker of paper than the common proportion.
When they are to be put in the mortar, they muft. be
primed in their mouths, and fired by a cafe of brilliant
fire fixed in their centre.
The charge for tbefe mortars fhould be one-fixth or
one-eighth more than for pots des aigrettes of the fame
IOo diameter. . , , , r i
agle ver- There are different forts of vertical wheels ; iome ha-
!':al ving their fells of a circular form, others of an hexagonal,
IliBels. oftagonal, 0r decagonal form, or of any number of fides,
according to the length of the cafes you defign for the
wheel: the fpokes being fixed in the nave, nail flips
of tin, with their edges turned up fo as to form grooves
for the cafes to lie in, from the end of one fpoke to that
of another *, then tie the cafes in the grooves head to
tail, in the fame manner as thofe on the horizontal water¬
wheel, fo that the cafes fucceflively taking fire from one
another, will keep the wheel in an equal rotation. Two
of thefe wheels are very often fired together, one on each
fide of a building •, and both lighted at the fame time,
and all the cafes'filled alike, to make them keep time
together; as they will, if made by the following di-
re&ions : In all the cafes of both wheels, except the
firft, on each wheel drive two or three ladiesful of flow
fire, in any part of the cafes ; but be careful to ram the
fame quantity in each cafe, and in the end of one of
the cafes, on each wheel, you may ram one ladleful
of dead-fire compofition, which muft be very lightly
driven *, you may alfo make many changes of fire by this
method.
Let the hole in the nave of the wheel be. lined with
brafs, and made to turn on a fmooth iron fpindle. On
the end of this fpindle let there be a nut, to fcrew off
and on j when you have put the wheel on the fpindle,
jerew on the nut, which will keep the wheel from fly¬
ing off. Let the mouth of the firft cafe be a little raifed.
See fig. 39. Vertical wheels are made from ten, inches
to three feet diameter, and the fize of the cafes muft
differ accordingly } four-ounce cafes will do for wheels
of 14 or 16 inches diameter, which is the proportion
generally ufed. The beft wood for wheels of all forts
is a light and drv beech.
orizontal Horixontal wheels are beft when their fells are made
heels. circular j in the middle of the top of the nave muft be
a pintle, turned out of the fame piece as the nave, two
inches long, and equal in diameter to the bore of one of
the cafes of the wheel: there muft be a hole bored up
the centre of the nave, within half an inch of the top of
the pintle. The wheel being made, nail at the end of
each fpoke (of which there'fhould be fix or eight) a
‘ piece of wood, with a groove cut in it to receive the
cafe. Fix thefe pieces in fuch a manner that half the
cafes may incline upwards and half downwards, and that,
when they are tied on, their heads and tails may come
very nearly together j from the tail of one cafe to the
E C H N Y. 557
mouth of the other carry a leader, which fhould be fe- Varieties
cured with pafted paper. Befides thefe pipes, it will be0
neceffary to put a little meal-powder within the pafted , .
paper, to blow off the pipe, that there may be no ob-
Itru&ion to the fire from the. cafes. By means of thefe
pipes the cafes will fucceflively take fire, burning one
upwards and the other downwards. On the pintle fix a
cafe of the fame fort as thofe on the wheel j this cafe
muft be fired by a leader from the mouth of the laft cafe
on the wheel, which cafe muft play downwards: inftead
of a common cafe in the middle, you may put a cafe of
Chinefe fire, long enough to burn as long as two or three
of the cafes on the wheel.
Horizontal wheels are often fired two at a time, and
made to keep time like vertical wheels, only they are
made without any flow or dead fire j 10 or 12 inches
will be enough for the diameter of wheels with fix ccccLIV^
fpokes. Fig. 40. reprefents a wheel on fire, with the fig. 4o.
firft cafe burning. .103
Spiral wheels, are only double horizontal wheels, andsPiral
made thus: The nave muft be about fix inches long, ‘ce's’
and rather thicker than the Angle fort j inftead of the
pintle at top, make a hole for the cafe to be fixed in,
and twm fets of fpokes, one fet near the top of the nave,
and the other near the bottom. At the end of each
fpoke cut a groove ■wherein you tie the cafes, there be¬
ing no fell 5 the fpokes (hould not be more than two
inches and a half long from the naves, fo that the wheel
may not be more than eight or nine inches diameter j
the cafes are placed in fuch a manner, that’thofe at top
play down, and thofe at bottom play up, but let the
third or fourth cafe play horizontally. The cafe in the
middle may begin with any of the others : fix fpokes
will be enough for each fet, fo that the wheel may con-
fift of 12 cafes, befides that on the top : the cafes fix
inches each. . 103
Plural wheels are made to turn horizontally, and to Plural
confift of three fets of fpokes, placed fix at top, fix at^heels.
bottom, and four in the middle, which laft muft be a
little fhorter than the reft : let the diameter of the wheel
be 10 inches; the cafes muft be tied on the ends of the
fpokes in grooves cut on purpofe, or in pieces of wood
nailed on the ends of the fpokes, with grooves cut in
them as ufual: in clothing thefe wheels, make the up¬
per fet of cafes play obliquely downwards, the bottom
fet obliquely upwards, and the middle fet horizontally.
In placing the leaders, they muft be managed fo that the
cafes may burn thus, viz. firft up, then down, then ho¬
rizontal, and fo on with the reft. But another change
may be made, by driving in the end of the eighth cafe
two or three ladiesful of flow fire, to burn till the
wheel has flopped its courfe ; then let the other cafes
be fixed the contrary way, which will make the wheel
run back again : for the cafe at top you may put a fmall
gerbe ; and let the cafes on the fpokes be ftiort, and filb
ed with a ftrong brilliant charge.
Illuminatedfpiral wheel.—Firft have a circular hori-Illumi^ated
zontal wheel made two feet diameter, with a hole quite fpnal
through the nave ; then take three thin pieces of deal, wheels,
three feet long each, and three-fourths of an inch broad
each : one end of each of thefe pieces nail to the fell of
the wheel, at an equal diftance from one another, and
the other end nail to a block with a hole in its bottom,
which muft be perpendicular to that in the block of the
wheel, but not fo large. The wheel being thus made,
have
I05
Double
fpiral
wheel.
106
Balloon
wheels.
107
Fruiloni
wheels.
P Y R O T
have a hoop planed down very thin and flat 5 then nail
one end of it into the fell of the wheel, and wind it
round the three flicks in a fpiral line from the wheel to
the block at top : on the top of this block fix a cafe of
Chincfe fire •, on the wheel you may place any number
of cafes, which muft incline downwards, and burn two
at a time. If the wheel fliould confiil of ten cafes, you
may let the illuminations and C-hinefe fire be^in with
the feCond cafes. The fpindle for this wheel muft be a
little longer than the cone, and made very fmooth at
top, on w hich the upper block is to turn, and the whole
weight of the wheel to reft. See fig. 41*
Double fpintl wheel.—For this wheel the block, or
nave, muft be as long as the height of the worms, or
fpiral lines, but muft be made very thin, and as light as
poflible. In this block mult be fixed feveral fpokes,
which muft diminilh in length, from the wheel to the
top, fo as not to exceed the furface of a cojre of the fame
height. To the ends of thefe fpokes nail the worms,
which muft crofs each other feveral times : clothe thele
worms with illuminations, the fame as thofe on the Angle
-wheels 5 but the horizontal wheel you may clothe as
you like. At top of the worm place a cafe of fpur-fire,
or an amber light, fee fig. 42. This figure is fliown
without leaders, to prevent a confufion of lines.
Balloon wheels are made to turn horizontally : they
muft be made two feet diameter, without any fpokes;
and very ftrong, with any number of fides. On the top
of a wheel range and fix in pots, three inches diameter
and feven inches high each, as many of thefe as there
are cads on the wheel : near the bottom of each pot
make a fmall vent.; into each of thefe vents carry a
leader from the tail of each cafe ; load feme of the pots
with ftars, and fome with ferpents, crackers, &c. As
the wheels turn, the pots will fucceflively be fired, and
throw into the air a great variety of fires.
For fruiloni wheels firft have a nave made nine inches
long and three in diameter : near the bottom of this
nave fix eight fpokes, with a hole-in the end of each,
large enough to receive a two or four ounce cafe : each
of thefe fpokes may be id inches long from the block.
Near the top of this block fix eight more of the fame
fpokes, exaftly over the others, but not fo long by two
inches. As this wheel is to run horizontally, all the
cafes in the fpokes muft play obliquely upwards,-and all
thofe in the fpokes at bottom obliquely downwards.
This being done, have a fmall horizontal -wheel made
with eight fpokes, each five inches long from the block :
on the top of this wheel place a cafe of brilliant fire :
all the cafes on this wheel muft; play in an oblique di¬
rection downwards, and burn tivo at a time, and thofe
on the large wheel four at a time ; that is, two of thofe
in the top fet of fpokes, and two of thofe in the bottom
fet of fpokes.
The four firft cafes on the large wheel, and the two
firft on the fmall, muft: be fired at the fame time, and
the brilliant fire at top at the beginning of the laft cafes.
The cafes of the wheels may be filled with a gray
charge. When thefe wheels are completed, you muft
have a ftrong iron fpindle, made four feet fix inches
long, and fixed perpendicularly on the top of a ftand :
on this put the large wheel, whofe nave muft have a hole
quite through from the bottom to the top. This hole
jnuft be large enough to turn eafily round the bottom of
E C H N Y. . . - Chap. II.
the fpindle, at which place there muft be a flioulder, to Varieties
keep the wheel from touching the ftand : at the top of0* ^'itruc-
the fpindle put the fmall wheel, and join it to a large , t‘“n' J
one with a leader, in order that they may be fired both
together. i0S
Cif cades offire are made of any fize ; but one made Caicadesof
according to the dimenfions of that ftiown in fig. 43.fire'
will be large enough for eight-ounce cafes. Let the
diftance from A to B be three feet; from B to C two
feet fix inches ; and from C to D two feet; and let the
crofs piece at A be four feet long : then from each end
of this piece draw a line to D ; then make the other
crofs pieces fo long as to come within thofe lines. The
top piece D may be of any length, fo as to hold the
cafes, at a little diftance from each other ; all the crofs
pieces arc fixed horizontally, and fupported by brackets ;
the bottom crofs piece ftiould be about one foot fix
inches broad in the middle, the fecond one foot, the
third nine inches, and the top piece four inches : the
cafes may be made of any length, but muft be filled
with a brilliant charge. On the edges of the crofs
pieces muft be nailed bits of wood, with a groove cut
in each piece, large enough for a cafe to lie in. Thefe
bits of wood are fixed fo as to incline downwards, and
that the fire from one tier of cafes may play over that of
the other. AH the cafes being tied fail on, carry lead¬
ers from one to the other ; and let there be a pipe hung
from the mouth of one of the cafes, covered at the end
with a Angle paper, which you burn to fire the cafcade. J09
The Fire Tree.—To make a fire tree, as fliown by p;re uee.
fig. 44. you muft firft have a piece of wood fix feet long,
and three inches fquare ; then at E, nine inches from
the top, make a hole in the front, and in each fide ; or,
inftead of holes, you may fix ftiort pegs, to fit the infide
of the cafes. At F, nine, inches from E, fix three more
pegs; at G, one foot nine inches from F, fix three pegs;
at H nine inches from G, fix three pegs; at I, nine
inches from H, fix three pegs, inclining downwards;
but all the other pegs muft incline upwards, that the
cafes may have the fame inclination as is feen in the
figure : then at top place a four-inch mortar, loaded
with ftars, rains, or crackers. In the middle of this
■mortar place a cafe filled with any fort of charge, but
let it be fired with the other cafes : a brilliant charge
will do for all the cafes; but the mortar may be made
of any diameter, and the tree of any fize ; and on it
any number of cafes, provided they are placed in the
manner deferibed. m
Chincfe Fountains.—To make a Chinefe fountain, youCbinefe
muft have a perpendicular piece of wood feven feet longf001’1^11”
and two inches and a half fquare. Sixteen inches from
the top, fix on the front a crofs piece one inch thick,
and two and a -half -broad, with the broad fide up-
W'ards.; below this, fix three more pieces of the fame
width and thicknefs, at fixteen inches from each other;
let the bottom rail be five feet long, and the others of
fuch a length as to allow the fire-pumps to ftand in
the middle of the intervals of each other. The pyra¬
mid being thus made, fix in the boles made in the bot¬
tom rail five fire pumps, at equal diftances ; on the fe¬
cond rail, place four pumps ; on the third, three ; on
the fourth, two ; and on the top of the poll, one ; but
place them all to incline a little forwards, that, when
they throw -out the liars, they may not ftrike againft
the
5
bhap.II. ' PYROT
Varieties the crofs rails. Having fixed your fire-pumps, clothe
Conftruc-them with leaders, fo that they may all be fired toge-
ticm' , then See fig. 45.
~ Of illuminated Globes with horizontal Wheels.—The
l Juminated hoops for thefe globes may be made of wood, tin, or
3bes withiron \vire, about two feet in diameter. For a fingle
: jrizontal gi0be, take two hoops, and tie them together, one
within the other, at right angles ; then have a horizon¬
tal wheel made, whole diameter rouft be a little wi¬
der than the globe, and its nave fix inches long -7 on the
top of which the globe is fixed, fo as to Hand three or
four inches from the wheel: on this wheel you may put
any number of cafes, filled with what charge you pleafe;
but let two of them burn at a time: they may be placed
horizontally, or to incline downwards, juft as you
choofe. Now, when the wheel is clothed, fix on the
hoops as many illuminations as wdll ftand within two
inches and a half of each other: fallen thefe- on the
hoops with final 1 iron binding wire ; and when they are
all on, put on the pipes of communication, which muft
be fo managed as to light them all with the fecond or
third cafe on the wheel. The fpindle on which the globe
is to run muft go through the block of the wheel, up to
the infide of the top of the globe; where muft be fix¬
ed a bit of brafs, or iron, with a hole in it to receive
the point of the fpindle, on which the w'hole weight of
the wheel is to bear, as in fig. 46. which reprefents a
globe on its fpindle. By this method may be made a
crown, which is done by having the hoops bent in the
form of a crown. Sometimes globes and crowns are
managed fo as to ftand Hill, and the wheel only to turn
round ; but wyhep you would have the globe or crown
to ftand ftill, and the wheel to run by itfelf, the block
of the wheel muft not be fo long, nor the fpindle any
longer than juft to raife the globe a little above the
wheels; and the wheel cafes and illumination muft be¬
gin together. , ^
•decahe- Dodecahedron.—So called becaufe it nearly re-
)n. prefents a twelve-fided figure, is made thus : hirft have
a ball turned out of fome hard wood, 14 inches diame¬
ter: divide its furface into 14 equal parts, from which
bore holes one inch and a half diameter, perpendicular
to the centre, fo that they may all meet in the middle:
then let there be turned in the infide of each hole a fe¬
male fcrew ; and to all the holes but one muft be made
a round fpoke five feet long, with four inches of the
fcrew at one end to fit the holes; then.in the fcrew-end
of all the fpokes bore a hole, five inches up, which muft
be bored ftanting, fo as to come out at one fide, a little
above the fcrew ; from which cut a fmall groove along
the fpoke, within fix inches of the other end, where
make another hole through to the other fide of the
fjioke. In this end fix a fpindle, on which put a fmall
wheel of three or four fides, each fide fix or feven inches
long ; thefe fides muft have grooves cut in them, large
enough to receive a two or four ounce cafe. When
thefe wheels are clothed, put them on the fpiridles, and
at the end of each fpihdle put a nut to keep the wheel
from falling off. The wheels being thus fixed, carry a
pipe from the mouth of the firft cafe; on each wheel,
through the hole in the fide of the fpoke, and from
thence along the .groove, and through the other hole', fo
as to hang out at the ferew-end about an inch.' The
fpokes being all prepared in this manner, you muft have
a poll, on which you intend to-fire the workj with an
e c H N Y. 559
iron fcrew in the top of it, to fit one of tire holes in ^aneties
the ball: on the fcrew fix the ball; then in the top0’ '°j0[JuC
hole of the ball put a little meal-powder, and fome ■„ ^ j
loofe quick-match: then fcrew in all the fpokes; and
in one fide of the ball bore a hole, in which put a lea¬
der, and fecure it at the end; and the work will be rea¬
dy to be fired. By the leader the powder and match in
the centre is fired, which will light the match at the
ends of the fpokes all at once, whereby all the wheels
will be lighted at once. There may be an addition to
this piece, by fixing a fmall globe on each wheel, or
one on the top wheel only. A gray charge will be pro¬
per for the wheel cafes.
The Tew Tree of Brilliant Fire is reprefented by Yew tree of
fig. 47. as it appears when burning. Firft, let A be an brilliant
upright piece of wood, four feet long, two inchesfire*
broad, and one thick : at top of the piece, on the flat
fide, fix a hoop 14 inches diameter; and round its edge
and front place illuminations, and in the centre a five^
pointed ftar ; then at E, which is one foot and a half
from the edge of the hoop, place two cafes of brilliant
fire, one on each fide ; thefe cafes ftiould be one foot
long each : below thefe fix twro more cafes of the fame
fize, and at fuch a diftance that their mouths may al-
moft meet them at top: then dofe to the ends of thefe
fix two more of the fame cafes ; they muft ftand parallel
to them at E. The cafes being thus fixed, clothe them
with leaders; fo that they, with the illuminations and
liars at top, may all take fire together. ^ ^
Stars with Points for regulated Pieces, &c.—Theft? stars with
ftars are made of different fizes, according to the work points,
for which they are intended ; they are made with cafes
from one ounce to one pound, but in general wTith four-
ounce cafes, four or five.inches long : the cafe muft be
rolled with pafte, and twice as thick as that of a rocket
of the fame bore. Having rolled a cafe, pinch one end
of it quite clofe : then, drive in half a diameter of
clay ; and when the cafe is dry, fill it with compofition
two or three inches to the length of the cafes with
which it is to burn : at top of the charge drive fome
clay ; as the ends of thefe cafes are feldom pinched, they
would be liable to take fire. Having filled a cafe, di¬
vide the circumference of it at the pinched end clofe
to the clay into five equal parts; then bore five holes
with a gimblet about the fize of the neck of a common
four-ounce cafe, into the compofition : from one hole to
the other carry a quick-match, and fecure it with pa*
per : this paper muft be put on in the manner of that on
the end of wheel-cafes, fo that the hollow part, w’hicb
projects from the end of the cafe, may fcrve to receive
a leader from any other w7ork, to give fire to the points
of the ftdrs. Thefe ftars may be made with any number
of points. II5
Fixed Sun with a tranfparent Face.—To make a fun Fixed lutv
of the bell kind, there ihould be two rows of cafes, as in with a
fig. 48. which will fhow a double glory, and make the tranfparent
rays ftrong and full. The frame or fun-wheel, muft beface’
made thus : Have a circular flat nave made very ftrong,
12 inches diameter : to this fix fix ftrong flat fpokes,
A, B, C, D, Ei F. On the front of thefe fix a circular fell,
five feet diameter; within which fix another fell, the
length of one of the fun-cafes lefs in diameter ; within
this fix a third fell, whofe diameter muft be lefs than
the fecond bv the length of one cafe and one-third.
The wheel being made, divide the fells-into fo many equal
parts, -
560
Varieties parts as there are to be cafes (which may be done from
of Conftruc- to ^ . at gadr divifion fix a flat iron ftaple; thefe
. tl°n~ . ftaples muft be made to fit the cafes, to hold them faft
T 0n the wheel j let the ftaples be fo placed, that one row
of cafes may lie in the middle of the intervals of the
other.
In the centre of the block of the fun drive a fpindle,
■ on which put a fmall hexagonal wheel, whofe cafes
muft be filled with the fame charge as the cafes of the
fun: two cafes of this wheel muft burn at a time, and
begin with them on the fells. Having fixed on all the
cales, carry pipes of communication from one to the
other, as you fee in the figure, and from one fide of
the fun to the wheel in the middle, and from thence
to the other fide of the fun. Thefe leaders will hold
the wheel fteady while the fun is fixing up, and will
alfo be a fure method of lighting both cafes of the
wheel together. A fun thus made is called a brilliant
fun, becaufe the wood work is entirely covered with
"fire from the wheel in the middle, fo that there appears
nothing but fparks of brilliant fire: but if you would
have a tranfparent face in the centre, you muft have
one made of pafteboard of any fize. The method of
making a face is, by cutting out the eyes, nofe, and
mouth for the fparks of the wheel to appear through ;
but inftead of this face, you may have one painted on
oiled paper, or Perfian filk, ftrained tight on a hoop j
which hoop muft be fupported by three or four pieces of
wire at fix inches diftance from the wheel in the centre,
fo that the light of it may illuminate the face. By this
method may be Ihown in the front of a fun, Vivat Rex,
cut in pafteboard, or Apollo painted on filk ; but, for
a fmall colleftion, a fun with a fingle glory, and a wheel
in front, will be moft fuitable. Half pound cafes, filled
ten inches with compofition, will be a good fize for a
fun of five feet diameter ; but, if larger, the cafes muft
II(; be greater in proportion.
Three ver- Three Vertical Wheels illuminated, which turn on their
tical wheels own Naves upon a horizontal Table.—A plan of this is
illumina- fhown by fig. 49. Let D be a fir table three feet in
diameter: this table muft be fixed horizontally on the
top of a poll *, on this poll muft be a perpendicular iron
fpindle, which muft come through the centre of the table:
then let A, B, C, be three fpokes joined to a triangular
flat piece of wood, in the middle of which make a hole
to fit eafily over the fpindle: let E, F, G, be pieces of
wood, four or five inches long each, and two inches
fquare, fixed on the under fides of the fpokes j in thefe
pieces make holes length wife to receive the thin part of
the blocks of the wheels, which, when in, are prevented
from coming out by a fmall iron pin being run through
the end of each. K, L, M, are three vertical octagonal
wheelsj 18 inches diameter each : the blocks of thefe
wheels muft be long enough for three or four inches to
reft on the table 5 round which part drive a number of
ftiarp points of wire, which muft not projeft out of the
blocks more than l-i6th of an inch: the ufe of thefe
points is, that, when the blocks run round, they will
flick in the table, and help the wheels forward : if the
naves are made of ftrong wood, one ipch will be enough
for the diameter of the thin part, which fhould be made
to turn eafily in the holes of the pieces E, F, G. On
the front of the wheels make four or five circles of
ftrong wire, or flat hoops, and tie on them as many il¬
luminations as they will hold at two inches diftant from
Chap.]]] 1
each other: inftead of circles, you may make fpiral VarViiw
lines, clothed with illuminations, at the fame diftance0^Co.r^rw
from each other as thofe on the hoops. When illumi- ■ tKn‘ ^
nations are fixed on a fpiral line in the front of a wheel,
they muft be placed a little on'the flant, the contrary
way from that in which the wheel runs; the cafes for
thefe wheels may be filled with any coloured charge,
but muft burn only one at a time. r ,
The wheels being thus prepared, you muft have a
globe, crown, or fpiral wheel, to put on the fpindle in
the middle of the table : this fpindle ihould be juft long
enough to raife the wheel of the globe, crown, or fpi¬
ral wheel, fo high that its fire may play over the three
vertical wheels: by this means their fires will not be
confufed, nor will the wheels receive any damage from
the fire of each other. In clothing this work, let the
leaders be fo managed, that all the wheels may light to¬
gether, and the illuminations after two cafes of each
wheel are burned.
Illuminated works are much admired by the Laiians>iiiu”jnatP
and indeed are a great addition to a colleftion of works: chandelier
in a grand exhibition an illuminated piece fhould be
fired after every two or three wheels, or fixed pieces of
common and brilliant fires j and likewife illuminated
works may be made cheap, quick, and eafy.
To make an illuminated chandelier, you muft firft
have one made of thin wood (fee fig. 50.). The chan¬
delier being made, bore in the front of the branches,
and in the body, and alfo in the crown at top, as many
holes for illuminations as they will contain at three
inches diftance from each other: in thefe holes put il¬
luminations filled with white, blue, or brilliant charge.
Having fixed in the port-fires, clothe them with leaders,
fo that the chandelier and crown may light together.
The fmall circles on this figure reprefent the mouths of
the illuminations, which muft projeft ftraight from the
front* . ... n8
To make a flamingftar with brilliant wheels, you muft Fian,ing
firft have made a circular piece of ftrong wood about oneftars with
inch thick and two feet diameter: round this block fix brilliant ,
eight points, two feet fix inches long each j four of thefe
points muft be ftraight and four flaming : thefe points be-
ing joined on very ftrong, and even with the furface of the
block, nail tin or pafteboard on their edges, from the
block to the end of each, where they muft be joined :
this tin muft projefl in front eight inches, and be joined
where they meet at the block •, round the front of the
block fix four pieces of thick iron wire, eight inches
long each, equally diftant from each other : this being
done, cut a piece of pafteboard round, two feet diameter,
and draw on it a ftar, as may be feen in fig. 51. Cut Fig. 51,
out this ftar, and on the back of it pafte oiled paper j
then paint each point half red and half yellow, length-
wife ; but the body of the ftar muft be left open, where¬
in muft run a brilliant wheel, made thus : Have a light
block turned nine inches long : at each end of it fix fix
fpokes; at the end of each fpoke put a two ounce cafe
of brilliant fire : the length of thefe cafes muft be in
proportion to the wheel, and the diameter of the wheel
when the cafes are on muft be a little lefs than the dia¬
meter of the body of the fmall ftar: the cafes on the
fpokes in front muft have their mouths incline outwards,
and thofe on the infide fpokes muft be placed fo as to
form a vertical circle of fire. When you place the
leaders, carry the firft pipe from the tail of one of the
PYROTECHNY.
•II9 ,
Projected
regulated
ipiece with
mutations.
Fig- 53-
Plate
CCCCLV.
(Chap. IT. P Y R 0 T
cafes m front to the mouth of one of the Infide cafes,
and from the tail of that to another in front, and fo on
to all the cafes. The wheel being made, put it on a
fpindle, in the-centre of the liar ; this fpindle mull have
a Ihoulder at bottom, to keep the wheel at a little dif-
tance from the block. The wheel muft be kept on the
fpindle by a nut at the end ; having fixed on the wheel,
fallen the tranfparent ftar to the four pieces of wire :
when you fire it, you will only fee a common horizontal
wheel ; but when the firft cafe is burnt out, it will fire
one of the vertical cafes, which will (how the tranfparent
ftar, and fill the large flames and points with fire; then
it will again appear like a common wheel, and fo on for
I 2 charges.
A regulated piece, if well executed, is as curious as
any in fire-works : it confifts of fixed and moveable
pieces on one fpindle, reprefenting various figures,
which take fire fucceffively one from another, without
any afliftance after lighting the firft mutation. See
%• 53-
I. Names of the mutations, with the colour of fire
and fize of the cafe belonging to each.
Firjl mutation is a hexagon vertical wheel, illuminat¬
ed in front with fmall portfires tied on the fpokes ; this
wheel muft be clothed with two ounce cafes, filled with
black charge ; the length of thefe cafes is determined
by the fize of the wheel, but muft burn fingly.
Second mutation is a fixed piece, called •& golden glory,
by reafon of the cafes being filled with fpur-fire. The
cafes muft ftand perpendicular to the block on which
they are fixed, fo that, when burning, they may reprefent
a glory of fire. This mutation is generally compofed of
five or feven two ounce cafes.
Third mutation is moveable ; and is only an oftagon
vertical wheel, clothed with four ounce cafes, filled with
brilliant charge : two of thefe cafes muft burn at a time.
In this wheel you may make changes of fire.
Fourth mutation is a fixed fun of brilliant fire, con-
fifting of 12 four ounce cafes ; the necks of thefe cafes
muft be a little larger than thofe of four ounce wheel-
cafes. In this mutation may be made a change of fire,
by filling the cafes half with brilliant charge, and half
with gray.
Fifth mutation is a fixed piece, called the porcupine^s
quills. This piece confifts of 12 fpokes, ftanding per¬
pendicular to the block on which thdy are fixed ; on
each of thefe fpokes, near the end, muft be placed a four
ounce cafe of brilliant fire. All thefe cafes muft incline
either to the right or left, fo that they may all play one
way.
Sixth mutation is a ftanding piece, called the crofs-fre.
This mutation confifts of eight fpokes fixed in a block $
near the end of each of thofe fpokes muft be tied two
four ounce cafes of white charge, one acrofs the other,
fo that the fires from the cafes on one fpoke may inter-
feft the fire from the cafes on the other.
Seventh mutation is a fixed wheel, with two circular
fells, on which are placed 16 eight ounce cafes of bril¬
liant fire, in the form of a ftar. This piece is called a
fixedfiar of wildfire.
Eighth mutation.—This is a beautiful piece, called a
brilliantfiar-piece. It confifts of fix fpokes, which are
ftrengthened by two fells of a hexagon form, at fome
diftance from each other : at the end of each fpoke, in
the front, is fixed a brilliant ftar of five points; and on
Vol. XVII. Part II.
E C H N Y. 561
each fide of every ftar is placed a four ounce cafe of Varieties
black or gray charge j thefe cafes muft be placed with ot Conitruc-
their mouths fidewife, fo that their fires may crofs each tl^n‘ r
other.
Ninth mutation is a wheel-piece. This is compofed
of fix long fpokes, with a hexagon vertical wheel at the
end of each : thefe wheels run on fpindles in the front
of the fpokes \ all the wheels are lighted together : two
ounce cafes will do for thefe wheels, and may be filled
with any coloured charge.
II. Proportions of the mutations, with the method of
conveying the fire from one to the other, and the diftance
at which they ftand one from the other on the fpindle.
Fitfi mutation muft be a hexagon vertical wheel,
14 inches diameter j on one fide of the block, whole
diameter is two inches and a quarter, is fixed a tin bar¬
rel A (fee fig. 53. N° 1.). This barrel muft be a little
lefs in diameter than the nave 5 let the length of the
barrel and block be fix inches. Having fixed the cafes
on the wheel, carry a leader from the tail of the lafl;
cafe into the tin barrel through a hole made on purpofe,
two inches from the block $ at the end of this leader
let there be about one inch or two of loofe match, but
take care to fecure well the hole wherein the pipe is
put, to prevent any fparks falling in, which would light
the fecond mutation before its time, and confufe the
whole.
Second mutation is thus made : Have a nave turned
two inches and a half diameter, and three long ; then
let half an inch of that end which faces the firft wheel
be turned fo as to fit eafy into the tin barrel of the firft
mutation, which muft turn round it without touching.
On the other end of the block fix a tin barrel B, N° 2.
This barrel muft be fix inches long, and only half an
inch of it to fit on the block. Round the nave fix five
fpokes, one inch and a half long each *, the diameter of
the fpokes muft be equal to a two ounce former. On
thefe fpokes put five feven inch two ounce cafes of fpur-
fire, and carry leaders from the mouth of one to the other,
that they may all light together. Then from the mouth
of one of the cafes carry a leader through a hole bored
flantwife in the nave, from between the fpokes, to the
front of the block near the fpindle hole : the end of this
leader muft projeft out of the hole into the barrel of the
firft: mutation, fo that when the pipe which comes from
the end of the laft cafe on the firft wheel flafhes, it may
take fire, and light the fecond mutation. To commu¬
nicate the fire to the third mutation, bore a hole near
the bottom of one of the five cafes to the compofition,
and from thence carry a leader into a hole made in the
middle of the barrel B : this hole muft be covered with
pafted paper.
Third mutation may be either an oflagon or hexagon
wheel, 20 inches diameter; let the nave be three inches
and a quarter diameter, and three and a half in length j
one inch and a half of the front of the nave muft be made
to fit in the barrel B. On the other end of the block fix
a tin barrel C, N° 3. This barrel muft be fix inches
and a half in length, one inch of which mull fit over the
block. The cafes of this wheel muft burn two at a
time ; and from the mouths of the firft two cafes carry
a leader, through holes in the nave, into the barrel of
the fecond mutation, after the ufual manner : but be-
fides thefe leaders let a pipe go acrofs the wheel from
the firft cafe to the other ; then from the tail of one of
4 the
562
Varieties tJle laft cafes carry a pipe into a liole in the middle of
of Conftruc. the barrel C; at the end of this pipe let there be feme
a loofe quick-match. r *u j
Fourth and fifth mutations.—T'nck may be defcribed
under one head, as their naves are made of one piece,
■which from E to F is finches; E, a block four inches
diameter, with 10 or 1 2 thort fpokes, on which are fixed
11 inch eight ounce cafes: let the front of this block
be made to fit eafily in the barrel C, and clothe the cafes
fo that they may all light together*, and let a pipe be
carried through a hole in theblock'into the barrel C, in
order to receive the fire from the leader brought trom
the lafl: cafe on the wheel. G is the nave of the 5th
mutation; whofe diameter mull be four inches and a
half: in this nave fix 10 or 12 fpokes, one foot and a
hialf in length each; thefe fpokes mull ftand feven inches
dilfant from the fpokes of the 4th mutation; and at the
end of each fpoke tie a four ounce cafe, as N° 5. All
thefe cafes are to be lighted together, by a leader brought
from the end of one of the cafes on N° 4‘ Let I1 and H
be of the fame piece of wood as E and G, but as much
thinner as poflible, to make the work light.
Sixth and feventh mutations.—The blocks of thefe
two mutations are turned out of one piece of wood, whofe
length from F to P is 15 inches. L, a block five inches
diameter, in which are fixed eight fpokes, each two feet
four inches long; at the end of each fpoke tie two four
ounce cafes, as in N° 6. All thefe cafes mull be fired
at the fame time, by a pipe brought from the end of
one of the cafes on the 5th mutation. Let the diftance
between the fpokes at L, and thofe in the 5th mutation,
be feven inches. M, the nave of the 7th mutation,
whofe diameter mud be fire inches and a half: in this
nave fix eight fpokes, and on the front of them two cir¬
cular fells, one of four feet eight inches diameter, and
one of three feet 11 diameter; on thefe fells tie 16 eight
ounce or pound cafes, as in N° 7. and carry leaders from
one to the other, fo that they may be all fired together.
This mutation muft be fired by a leader brought from
the tail of one of the cafes on the 6th mutation.
Eighth and ninth mutations.—The blocks of thefe
may be turned out of one piece, whofe length from P
to D muft be 1 2 inches. O, the block of the 8th mu¬
tation, which muft be fix inches diameter; and in it muft:
be fixed fix fpokes, each three feet in length, ftrengthen-
ed by a hexagon fell within three or four inches of the
ends of the fpokes: clofe to the end of each fpoke, in
the front, fix a five-pointed brilliant ftar; then feven
inches below each ftar tie two 10 inch eight ounce cafes,
fo that the upper ends of the cafes may reft on the fells,
and their ends on the fpokes. Each of thefe cafes muft
be placed parallel to the oppofite fell (fee N° 8.) NNN,
&c. are the cafes, and kkk, &c. the ftars.
The 9th mutation is thus made: Let D be a block
feven inches diameter. In this block muft be fcrewed fix
fpokes, fix feet long each, with holes and grooves for
leaders, as thofe in the dodecahedron ; at the end of each
fpoke, in the front, fix a fpindle for a hexagon vertical
wheel, 10 inches diameter, as in N° 9. When thefe
wheels are on, carry a leader from each into the block,
fo that they may all meet; then lead a pipe from the
end of one of the cafes of the 8th mutation, through a
hole bored in the block D, to meet the leaders from the
vertical wheels, fo that they may all be fired together.
The fpindles for larger pieces are required to be
PYROTECHNY. Chap. IT,
made very ftrong, and cxafl as poffible; for a piece of Varieties
mutations, let the foindle be ac the larsre end oneof ( onftruc’
non.
nine mutations, let the fpindle be ac the large end one1
inch diameter, and continue that thicknefs as far as the _
7th mutation; and thence to the 5th, let its diameter be
three-fourths of an inch; from the fifth to the fourth,
five-eighths of an inch; from the fourth to the fecond
half an inch; and from the fecond to the end three eighths
of an inch. At the fmall end muft be a nut to keep on the
fir ft wheel, and at the thick end muft be a large nut, as
(hown by the figure; fo that the fcrew part of the fpindlc
being put through a poll, and a nut fcrewed on tight, the
fpindle will be heldfaft and Heady: but you are to ob-
ferve, that that part of the fpindle on which the move-
able pieces are to run, be made long enough for the
wheelstoruneafy without flicking; the fixed pieces being
made on different blocks, the leaders muft be joined after
they are fixed on the fpindle. The beft method of pre¬
venting the fixed mutations from moving on the fpindle,
is to make that part of the fpindle which goes through
them fquare; but as it would be difficult to make fquare
holes through fuch long blocks as are fometimes required,
it will be beft to make them thus: Bore a hole a little
larger than the diameter of the fpindle; and at each end
of the block, over the hole, faften a piece of brafs with
a fquare hole in it to fit the fpindle. j20
To make a horizontal wheel change to a vertical wheel Horizontal
with a fun in front.—The hidden change of this piece changed to
is very pleaiing; and gives great furprife to thofe who^®^c
are not acquainted with the contrivance. A wheel for
this purpofe ftiould be about three feet diameter, and its
fell circular; on which tie 16 half pound cafes filled
with brilliant charge: two of thefe cafes muft burn at a
time: and on each end of the nave muft be a tin barrel
of the fame conftru6tion as thofe on the regulated piece.
The wheel being completed, prepare the poll or ftand
thus: Firft have a ftand made of any height, about
three or four inches fquare; then fawr oft'from the top
a piece two feet long; this piece join again at the place
where it 'was cut with a hinge on one fide, fo that it
may lift up and down in the front of the ftand; then fix
on the top of the bottom part of the ftand, on each fide,
a bracket; and thefe brackets muft projeft at right
angles ivith the ftand, one foot from the front, for the
Ihort piece to reft on. Thefe brackets muft be placed
a little above the joint of the poft, fo that when the up¬
per ftand falls, it may lie between them at right angles
with the bottom ftand; which may be done by fixing a
piece of wood, one foot long, between the brackets, and
even with the top of the bottom ftand; then, as the
brackets rife above the bottom ftand, they will form a
channel for the Ihort poft to lie, and keep it fteady
without {training the hinge. On the fide of the Ihort
poft, oppofite the hinge, nail a piece of wood, of fuch a
length, that, when the poft is perpendicular, it may reach
about one foot and a half down the long poft ; to which
being tied, it will hold the ffiort ftand upright. The
ftand being thus prepared, in the top of it fix a fpindle
10 inches long: on this fpindle put the wheel: then fix
on a brilliant fun with a fingle glory; the diameter of
this fun muft be fix inches lefs than that of the wheel.
When you fire this piece, light the wheel firft, and let
it run horizontally till four cafes are confumed : then
from the end of the fourth cafe carry a leader into the
tin barrel that turns over the end of the ftand: this
leader maft: be met by another brought through the top
of.
;hap. II. P Y R O T
'Varieties of the poft, from a cafe filled with a ftrong port-fire
tConftruc-charge, and tied to the bottom port, with its mouth
. facing the packthread which holds up the Hand; fo that
when this cafe is lighted, it will burn the packthread,
and let the wheel fall forward, by which means it will
become vertical : then from the lall cafe of the wheel,
carry a leader into the barrel next the fun, which will
in begin as foon as the wheel is burnt out.
trand il- Grand volute illuminated with a pro jelled wheel in
iminated front.—Firlt have two hoops made of ftrong iron wire,
jlutB. one of fix feet diameter, and one of four feet two inches ;
thefe hoops mutt be joined to fcrolls A, A, A, &c. as
ig- 54- in fig. 54. Thefe fcrolls muft be made of the fame fort
of wire as the hoops ; on thefe fcrolls tie, with iron¬
binding wire, as many illuminating port-fires as they
will hold, at two inches diftance; clothe thefe port-fires
with leaders, fo that they may all take fire together.—
1 hen let C be a circular wheel of four {pokes, three feet
fix Indies diameter ; and on its fell tie as many four
ounce cales, head to tail, as will complete the circle,
only allowing a lufficient diftance between the cafes,
that the fire may pafs free ; which may be done by cut¬
ting the upper part of the end of each cafe a little {helv¬
ing : on each fpoke fix a four ounce cafe, about three
inches from the fell of the wheel: thefe cafes are to burn
one at a time, and the firft of them to begin with thofe
on the fell, of which four are to burn at a time ; fo
that the wheel will laft no longer than one-fourth of
the cafes on the fell, which in number fliould be 16 or
20. On the front of the wheel form a fpiral line with
ftrong wire, on which tie port-fires, placing them on a
ilant, with their mouths to face the fame way as the
cafes on the wheel : all thefe port-fires muft be fired
with the fecund cafes of the wheel. Let D, D, D, &c.
be fpokes of wood, all made to fcrew into a block in the
centre; each of thefe fpokes may be in length about four
feet fix inches ; in the top of each fix a fpindle, and on
each fpindle put a fpiral wheel of eight fpokes, fuch as
E, E, E, &c. 1 he blocks of thefe wheels muft have a
hole at top for the centre cafe, and the fpindle muft have
nuts fere wed on their ends ; which nuts (hould fit in the
holes at top of the blocks, fo that all the wheels muft
be put «n before you fix in the centre cafes : as fome of
thefe wheels, from their fituation, will not bear on the
nut, it will be neceiTary to have fmooth (boulders made
on the fpindles for the blocks to run on. The cafes of
thefe wheels are to burn double ; and the method of fir¬
ing them, is by carrying a leader from each down the
fpokes into the block in the centre, as in the dodecahe¬
dron, but the centre cafe of each wheel muft begin with
the two laft cafes as ufual. It is to be obferved,. that
the large circular wheel in front muft have a tin barrel
on its block, into which a pipe muft be carried from one
of the fecund cafes on the wheel; this pipe being met by
another from the large block, in which the eight fpokes
are ferewed, will fire all the fpiral wheels and the illu¬
minating port-fires at the fame time. The cafes of the
proje6ted wheel may be filled with a white charge, and
m thofe of the fpiral wheels with a gray charge,
bon and Let fig. 55. be a fmooth circular board fix feet dia-
en (tars, meter : out of the middle of it cut a circular piece 12
^ or 14 inches diameter; and over the vacancy put white
Perfian filk, on which paint a moon’s face: then let
I, I, I, &c. be ftars, each four or five inches diameter,
cut out with five points, and covered with oiled filk: on
E C H N Y. 563
the front of the large circular board draw a feven point- Varieties
cd ftar as large as the circle will allow; then on the lines0^l'®n^rilC“
which torm this ftar bore holes, wherein fix pointed ftars. , t on' f
When this cafe is to be fired, it muft be fixed upon the
front of a port, on a fpindle, with a wheel of brilliant,
fire behind the face of the moon; fothat while the wheel
burns, the moon and ftars will appear tranfparent: and
when the wheel has burnt out, they will difappear, and
the large ftar in front, which is formed of pointed ftars,
will begin, being lighted by a pipe of communication
from the laft cafe of the vertical wheel, behind the moon;
this pipe muft be managed in the fame manner as thofe
in regulated pieces. ^
Double cone-wheel illuminated— This piece is repre- Double
fented by fig. j6. Let A be a ftrong decagonal or ten- cone-wheel
fided wheel, two feet fix inches diameter; then on each
fide of it fix a cone B and C : thefe cones are to confift^g,
of a number of hoops, fupported by three or four pieces
of wood, in the manner of the fpiral wheels. Let the
height of each cone be three feet fix inches; and on all
the hoops tie port-fires horizontally, with their mouths
outwards, and clothe the wheel with eight-ounce cafes,
nil to play horizontally, two at a time: the cones may
be fired with the firft or fecond cafes. The fpindle for
this piece muft go through both the cones, and rife three
feet above the point of the cone at top; fo that its length
will be 10 feet four inches from the top of the poll H,
in which it is fixed, allowing four inches for the thick-
nefs of the block of the wheel. The whole weight of
the wheel and cones muft bear on a ftioulder in the
fpindle, on which the block of the wheel muft turn.—-
Near the top of the fpindle muft be a hole in the front,
into which fcrew a fmall fpindle, after the cones are on : •
then on this fmall fpindle fix a fun D, compofed of fix-
teen nine inch four-ounce cafes of brilliant fire ; which
cafes muft not be placed on a fell, but only ftuck into a
block of fix inches diameter : then in the front of this
fun muft be a circular vertical wheel, 16 inchesdiameter;
on the front of this wheel form with iron-wire a fpiral
line, and clothe it with illuminations after the ufual me¬
thod. As this wheel is not to be fired till the cones are
burnt out, the method of firing it is this : Let the hole
in the block, at the top of the uppermoll cone, be a lit¬
tle larger than the fpindle which paffes through it.
Then, from the firft cafe of the vertical wheel before the
fun, carry a leader down the fide of the fpindle to the
top of the block of the horizontal wheel, on which muft
be a tin barrel: then this leader being met by another
brought from the end of the laft cafe of the horizontal
wheel, will give fire to the vertical wheel as foon as the
cones are extinguiftied : but the fun D muft not be fired
till the vertical wheel is quite burned out. l
Cafes for fire pumps arc made as thofe for tourbil- Fire pump*
Ions ; only they are pafted, inftead of being rolled dry.
Having rolled and dried the cafes, fill them : firft put
in a little meal-powder, and then a ftar ; on which ram
lightly a ladleful or two of compofition, then a little
meal-powder, and on that a ftar, then again compofi¬
tion ; and fo on till the cafes are filled. Stars for fire
pumps {hould not be round ; but rauft be made either
fquare, or flat and circular, with a hole through the mid¬
dle : the quantity of powder for throwing the ftars muft
increafe near the top of the cafe ; for, if much powder
be put at the bottom, it will burft the cafe. The ftars
muft differ in fize in this manner : Let the ftar which is
4 B 2 put
5&4
pYROTECHNY.
Chap. II,
iaS
Vertical
fcroll
wheel.
57*
126
Fire-globe.
Varieties put in firft be about a quarter lefs than the bore of the
of Conftruc-cafe . but let the next ftar be a bttle larger, and the
tion- third ftar a little larger than the fecond, and fo on : let
V^ them increafe in diameter till within two of the top of
the cafe, which two muft fit in tight. As the loading
of fire-pumps is rather difficult, it will be neceffary to
make two or three trials before depending on their per¬
formance : when you fill a number of pumps, take care
not to put in each an equal quantity of charge between
the ftars, fo that when they are fired, they may not throw
up too many ftars together. Cafes for fire-pumps Ihould
be made very ftrong, and rolled on four or eight ounce
formers, 10 or 12 inches long each.
A vertical fcroll wheel may be made of any diameter,
but muft be conftru&ed as in fig. 57. to do which pro¬
ceed thus : Have a block made of a moderate fize, in
which fix four flat fpokes, and on them fix a flat circular
fell of wood ; round the front of this fell place port-fires *,
then on the front of the fpokes form a fcroll, either with
a hoop or ftrong iron wire *, on this fcroll tie cafes oi
brilliant fire, in proportion to the wheel, head to tail,
as in the figure. When you fire this wheel, light the
firft cafe near the fell; then, as the cafes fire fucceffive-
ly, the circle of fire will gradually diminilh j but whe¬
ther the illuminations on the fell begin with the fcroll or
not, is immaterial.
N. B. This wheel may be put in the front of a re¬
gulated piece, or fired by itfelf, occafionally.
There are two forts of fre-globes ; one with projeded
cafes*, the other with the cafes concealed. For the latter
have a globe made of wood, of any diameter, and divide
the furface of it into 14 equal parts, and at each divifion
bore a hole perpendicular to the centre : thefe holes
muft be m proportion to the cafes intended to be ufed :
in every hole, except one, put a cafe filled with brilliant
or any other charge, and let the mouths of the cafes be
even with the furface of the globe *, then cut in the globe
a groove, from the mouth of one cale to the other, for
leaders which muft be carried from cafe to cafe, fo that
they may all be fired together ; this done, cover the
globe with a Angle paper, and paint it. Thefe globes
may be ufed to ornament a building.
Fire-globes with projected cafes are made thus: the
globe being made with 14 holes bored in it as ufual, fix
in every hole except one, a cafe, and let each cafe pro-
jeft from the globe two-thirds of its length; then clothe
all the cafes with leaders, fo that they may all take fire
at the fame time. Fire-globes are fupported by a pintle,
made to fit the hole in which there is no cafe.
Method of Nothing adds more to the appearance of fire-works
placing fire- than placing them properly ; though this chiefly depends
works to be on the judgment of the maker. The following are the
exhibited. rules generally obferved, whether the works are to be
fired on a building or on ftands : if they are a double
fet, place one wheel of a fort on each fide of the build¬
ing ; and next to each of them, towards the centre,
place a fixed piece, then wheels, and fo on ; leaving a
fufficient diftance between them for the fire to play from
one without burning the other. Having fixed fome of
the works thus in front, place the reft behind them, in
the centre of their intervals : The largeft piece, which
is generally a regulated or tranfparent piece, muft be
placed in the centre of the building, and behind it a fun,
which muft always ftand above all the other works. A
little before the building, or ftands, place the large
3
gerbes ; and at the back of the works fix marroon bat- Varieties
teries, pots ties aigrettes, pots ties brins, pots des faucijfons* C™|[ruc-
air-balloons, and flights of rockets : the rocket ftands
may be fixed behind, or anywhere elfe, fo as not to be
in the way of the works.
Single colle&ions are fired on ftands*, which are made
in the fame manner as theodolite ftands, only the top
part muft be long or ftiort occafionally : thefe ftands
may be fixed up very foon without much trouble.
127
The following order of Firing willferve as a fpecimen
of the Flan to be purfued in an exhibition of Fire¬
works.
4. xu
0
}
rockets
j. Twto fignal
2. Six Iky
3. Two honorary
4. Four caduceus
f" vertical
Two "I fpiral
I, tranfparent ftars
8. A line rocket of five changes
g. Four tourbillons
10. 1
wheels illuminated
11.
12.
13* I
14* J
*> Two <
horizontal wheels
air balloons illuminated
Chinefe fountains
regulating pieces of four mutations each
_ pots ties aigrettes
[4 ,
1 5. Three large gerbes
16. A flight of rockets
C balloon wheels
^ Two cafcac[e5 of brilliant fire
19
20
21
22
23
24
Twelve fky-rockets
1. T f illuminated yew trees
C 1 W° 1 air-balloons of ferpents and two compound
Four tourbillons
•It S Fru^oni wheels
j- I wo ^ illuminated globes with horizontal wheels
28.
29*
3°*
31,
34*
25. One pot des faucijfons
26. Two plural wheels
27. Marroon battery
Two chandeliers illuminated
Range of pots des Wins
Twelve {ky-rockets
Two yew-trees of fire
32. Neft of ferpents
33. Two double cones illuminated
Regulating piece of feven mutations, viz.
1. Vertical wheel illuminated
2. Golden glory
3. Oiftagon vertical wheel
4. Porcupine’s quills
3. Crofs fires
6. Star-piece with brilliant rays
7. Six vertical wheels
Brilliant fun
,. Large flight of rockets.
When water-works are to be exhibited, divide them
into feveral fets, and fire one fet after every fifth or fixth
change of land and air-works. Obferve ^ this rule in
firing a double fet of works : Always begin with Iky-
rockets, then two moveable pieces, then two fixed pieces,
and fo on ; ending with a large flight of rockets, or a
marroon battery : if a Angle colledtion, fire a fixed
piece after every wheel or two, and now and then fome
air and water-works.
Fj
35*
36-
i
'hap. II.
Varieties FSg. 58. reprefents a fountain of 30 rockets. Let A
Conftruc-be a perpendicular poft, 16 feet high from the ground,
tion. an(j ^ inches fquare. Let the rail, or crofs piece C,
be one foot fix inches long, three inches broad, and one
^untainof thick. The rail D, at bottom, muft be fix feet long,
y-rockets. one foot broad, and one inch thick. F and G are the
PYROTECHNY. 565
All the cafes and flars nrnft be fired at once. This Varieties
piece fliould be fixed high from the ground. of C°"||ruc'
An illuminated pyramid, with Archimedian /crews, a , , ^ .
globe, and verticalfun, may be of any fize. One made
jg-58-
Up
ilm tree.
59-
two fides which ferve to fupply the rails D, E, H, I, C:
thefe fides are one foot broad at bottom, and cut in the
front with a regular Hope, to three inches at top $ but
their back edges muft be parallel with the front of the
pots A. The breadth of the rails E, H, I, will be de¬
termined by the breadth of the fides : all the rails muft
be fixed at two feet diftance from each other, and at
right angles with the pots. Having placed the rails
thus, bore in the bottom rail 10 holes, at equal diftances,
large enough to receive the flick of a one pound rock¬
et : in the back edge of this rail cut a groove from one
end to the other, fit to contain a quick-match ; then
cut a groove in the top of the rail, from the edge of
each hole, into the groove in the back: in the fame
manner cut in thefecond rail, E,eight holes and grooves j
in the third rail, H, fix holes and grooves; in the fourth
rail, I, four holes and grooves; and in the top rail, two
holes and grooves. B, a rail with holes in it to guide
the ends of the rocket flicks : this rail muft be fixed fix
feet from the rail D. The fountain frame being thus
made, prepare the rockets thus: Tie round the mouth of
each a piece of thin paper, large enough to go twice round,
and to projeft about an inch and a half from the mouth
of the rocket, which muft be rubbed with wet meal-
powder; in the mouth of each rocket put a leader, which
fecure well with the paper that projefls from the mouth
of the cafe: thefe leaders muft be carried into the grooves
in the back of the rails, in which lay a quick-match
from one end to the other, and cover it with parted
paper : holes muft be made in the rail D, to receive the
ends of the flicks of the rockets in the rail E, and fo on
to the fourth rail; fo that the flicks of the rockets at
top may go through all the rails. The rockets being
fo prepared, fix a gerba, or white flower-pot, on each rail,
before the poft, with its mouth inclining a little forwards:
thefe gerbes muft be lighted all at once. Behind or be¬
fore each gerbe, fix a cafe of brilliant or flow fire : thefe
cafes muft be filled fo that they may burn out one after
the other, to regulate the fountain ; which may be done
by carrying a leader from the end of each flow or bril¬
liant fire, into the groove in the back of each rail. Dif¬
ferent fixed rockets may be ufed in thefe fountains: but
it will be beft to fill the heads of the rockets on each
rail with different forts of things, in this manner; thofe
at top with crackers, the next with rains, the third with
ferpents, the fourth with tailed ftars, and the laft flight
with common or brilliant ftars.
The piece called a palm tree, though made of com¬
mon fires, and of a fimple conftru&ion, has a very plea-
fing effefl; from the fires interfering fo often, that
they referable the branches of trees. Let A (fig. 59.)
be a perpendicular poft, of any thicknefs, fo that it be
fufliciently ftrong to hold the cafes; let the diftance
from B to C be two feet fix inches, and from C to D
two feet fix inches, and let the length of each crofs-
piece be two feet; on each end of each fix a five-point¬
ed ftar: then fix, on pegs made for the purpofe, twelve-
inch half-pound cafes of brilliant fire, as in the figure.
according to the dimenfions of fig. 60. will be of a good Illuminated
proportion, whofe height is 21 feet; from C to D, fixkyrarri^*
feet; from E to F, nine feet: the fpace between the
rails muft be fix inches, and the rails as thin as poflible: cCCCLVIy
in all the rails Hick portfires at four inches diftance.
The Archimedian fcrews, G, K, are nothing more than
double fpiral wheels, with the cafes placed on their
wheels horizontally inftead of obliquely. The vertical
fun, I, need not confift of more than 12 rays, to form
a Angle glory. The globe at top muft be made in pro¬
portion to the pyramid ; which being prepared accord¬
ing to the preceding direftions, place the leaders fo that
all the illuminating portfires, fcrews, globe, and fun,
may take fire together. The pyramid muft be fupport-
ed by the two fides, and by a fupport brought from a
pole, v'hich muft be placed two feet from the back of
the pyramid, that the wheels may run freely. 1 j,
A rofe-piece may be ufed for a mutation of a regu- R0fe piece
lated piece, or fired by itfelf: it makes the beft appear- and fun.
ance when made large ; if its exterior diameter be fix ^6- 61.
feet, it will be of a good fize. Fig. 61. fhows the man¬
ner in which it appears before it is fired. Let the outer
fell be made of wood, and fupported by four wooden
fpokes: all the other parts, on which the illuminations
are fixed, muft be made of ftrong iron wire : on the
outer fell place as many half-pound cafes of brilliant
charge as you think proper, but the more the better ;
for the nearer the cafes are placed, the ftronger will be
the rays; the illuminatfcns ftiould be placed within %
three inches of each other: they muft all be fired toge¬
ther, and burn fome time before the fun is lighted ;
which may be done by carrying a leader from the mid¬
dle of one of the illuminations, to the mouth of one of
the fun cafes.
Fig. 62. reprefents an illuminatedjlar. Let the diame- Tranfpa-
ter from A to B be two feet, and from C to D feven re.nt ^ars
feet. Firft make a ftrong circular back or body of the ^te/raT"
ftar, two feet diameter, to which fix the illuminated fig! 62?^"
rays : in the centre of the front of the body fix a fpindle,
on which put a double triangular wheel, fix inches dia¬
meter, clothed with two ounce cafes of brilliant charge:
the cafes on this wheel muft burn but one at a time.
Round the edge of the body, nail a hoop made of thin
wood or tin : this hoop muft projeft in front fix or feven
inches; in this hoop cut three or four holes to let out
the fmoke from the wheel. The ftar and garter may
be cut out of ftrong pafteboard or tin, made in this
manner: Cut a round piece of pafteboard or tin, two
feet diameter, on which draw a ftar, and cut it out;
then over the vacancy pafte Perfian filk; paint the let¬
ters yellow ; four of the rays yellow, and four red ; the
crofs in the middle may be painted half red and half
yellow, or yellow and blue. This tranfparent flat muft
be fattened to the wooden hoop by a fcrew, made fo as
to take off and on ; the illuminated rays are made of
thin wood, with tin fockets fixed on their fides within
four inches of each other; in thefe fockets flick illumi¬
nating portfires ; behind the point of each ray fix a half-
pound cafe of gray, black, or Chinefe fire.
N. B. The illuminated rays are to be lighted at the
fame
566
P Y R O T
Varieties fame time as the triangular wheel, or after it is burnt
of Conftruc-oat. which may be done by a tin barrel being faxed to
tion- the wheel, after the manner of thofe in the regulated
nieces. Into this barrel carry a leader from the illumi¬
nated rays, through the back of the ftar •, and this lead¬
er mull be met by another, brought from the tail ol the
laft cafe on the wheel.
   Fig. 63. reprefents a tableJlar, whofe diameter, from
rent illumi-E tQ f is j 2 feet ; and from E to I, four feet. This
nated table rtion> obferved on each fide, will make the centre
frame four feet fquare : in this fquare fix a tranfparent
ftar, as in the figure. This ftar may be painted bme,
and its rays made as thofe of the flaming ftars delcribed
before. The wheel for this ftar may be compofed ot
different coloured fires, with a charge or two of flow
fire ‘y the wheels a, a, a, a, may be clothed with any
number of cafes, fo that the ftar-wheel confift of the
fame : the illuminating portfires, which muft be placed
very near each other on the frames, muft be fo manage
as to burn as long as the wheels, and lighted at the
fame time.
133
Tranfpa
Fig- 63*
134 lil LUC 11 LUC/* ^ ^ # • Cl 1
Regulated jfie regU/ated illuminated fpiralpiece, with a projected
illuminated illuminated, is reprefented by fig. 64. and is
gnal piece. Have a b]f)ck made eight inches diameter;
in this block ferew fix iron fpokes, which muft ferve for
fpindles for the fpiral wheels : thefe wheels are made as
ufual, each one foot and a half diameter, and three feet
in height: the fpindles mull be long enough to keep the
wheels four or five inches from one another : at the end
of each fpindle muft be a ferew-nut, on which the wheels
that hang downwards will run ; and on the fpindles
which {land upwards muft be a flioulder, for the blocks
— of the wheels to run on.
The proje&ed ftar-wheel muft turn on the fame
fpindle on which the large block is fixed ; this fpindle
muft be long enough to allow the ftar-wheel to projecl
a little before the fpiral wheels : the exterior diameter
of the ftar-wheel muft be three feet five inches. On
this wheel fix three circles of iron wire, and on them
portfires; on the block place a tranfparent ftar, or a large
five-pointed brilliant ftar. The cafes on this wheel may
burn four at once, as it will contain nearly twice the
number of one of the fpiral wheels: the cafes on the
fpiral wheels muft be placed parallel to their fells, and
155 burn two at a time.
Illuminated ^figure piece illuminated with five-pointed fiars.—
figurepiece.'j'be Conftru£lion of this piece is very eafy, as fhown by
fig. 65. whofe diameter from B to C is eight feet, and
from D to F two feet : the vertical wheel in the centre
muft be one foot diameter, and confift of fix four-ounce
cafes of different coloured charge, which cafes muft burn
double : on the frames fix five-pointed brilliant or blue
ftars, rammed four inches with compofition : let the
fpace between each ftar be eight inches ; at each point
fix a gerbe, or cafe of Chinefe fire. When to be fired,
let the gerbe, ftars, and wheel, be lighted at the fame
i g time.
Illuminated T/zefiar-wheel illuminated, is fhown bv fig. 66. Its
ftar-wheel. exterior fell is made of wood, three feet fix inches or
Fig. 66. four feet diameter; within this fell, form with iron
wire three circles, one lefs than the other, fo that the
diameter of the leaft may be about 10 inches : place
the portfires on thefe fells with their mouths inclining
outwards, and the portfires on the points of the ftar
with their mouths proje£fing in front; let the exterior
4
E C H N Y. Chap. II-
fell be clothed with four-ounce cafes of gray charge : V aneties
thefe cafes muft burn four at a time, and be lighted atofConftruc.
the fame time as the illuminations. , ^n'
Pyramid offlower-pots is reprefented at fig. 67. and I37
made thus. Let the diftance from A to B be fix feet; Pvramid of
and from one rail to the other, two : on the bottom railfl°w‘‘r-pots.
fix five paper mortars, each three inches and a half dia- ”2 67*
meter; thefe mortars load with ferpents, crackers, ftars,
Sec.
In the centre of each mortar fix a cafe of fpur-fire :
on the fecond rail fix four mortars, fo as to ftand exaflly
in the middle of the intervals of thofe on the bottom
rail; on the third rail place three mortars; on the
fourth, two ; and on the top of the polls, l : the bot¬
tom rail muft be fix feet long: all the mortars muft in¬
cline a little forwards, that they may be eafily dilchar-
ged ; and the fpur-fires rammed exactly alike, that the
mortars may all be fired at the fame time. Having pre¬
pared the pyramid according to the preceding diredions,
carry pipes of communication from one Ipur-fire to the
other. _ ; 13S
Fig. 68. reprefents one half of the illuminated regu/a- Illuminated
ting piece.—A, A, A, A, are flat wooden fpokes, each regulating
five feet long : at the end of each place a vertical wheel,
10 inches diameter, clothed with fix four-ounce cafes of piate
brilliant fire : thefe cafes mull burn but one at a time : cccclvit.
on two of the fpokes of each wheel place two portfires,
which muft be lighted with the firft cafe of the wheel;
on each fpoke A, A, &c. behind the wheels, place fix
cafes of the fame fize with thofe on the wheels: thefe
cafes muft be tied acrofs the fpokes with their mouths all
one way, and be made to take fire fucceflively one after
the other, fo that they may aflift the whole piece to turn
round.
The diameter of the large wheel muft be two feet
and a half; and its fell made of wood, which muft be
fixed to the large fpokes: on this wheel place 24 cafes
of the fame fort with thofe on the fmall wheels; thefe
cafes muft burn four at a time : in this wheel make
three circles with iron wire, and on them place illumi¬
nating portfires, as in the figure : the ftar-points on the
large fpokes may be made of thin afh-hoops ; the diame¬
ter of thefe points clofe to the centre-wheel muft be 11
inches : on thefe points place portfires, at three inches
and a half diftance one from the other.
Fig. 69. reprefents the blocks of this piece. The dia-Fig. 6p.
meters of thefe blocks, at A and B, muft be eight
inches; and C and D, four inches and a half, the
length of each of thefe blocks muft be fix inches . at
the fmall ends of thefe blocks fix an iron wheel, five
inches diameter, and thefe wheels muft have teeth, to
turn the wheel E: this wheel is fixed on a fmall fpindle
ferewed into the large fpindle, which goes through the
two blocks, and on which they run. _
Suppofing fig. 68. to be on the block A, in fig. 6p»
and to turn to the right, and another piece of the fame
conftruaion on the block B, with its fires placed fo as
to turn it to the left; you will find them move very
true and faft, by the help of the three iron wheels,
which ferve to regulate their motions, as well as to af-
filt them in turning : let the iron circles in the front of
the great wheels be of different diameters, fo that when
fired there may appear fix circles. When thL piece is
fired all the wheels and illuminations muft be lighted at
one time. . .
Aquatic
hap. II.
PYROTECHNY.
567
Aquatic
h'ire works.
139
140
Vater-roc-
ets.
T41
I pes of
• iiiiuuni-
| tion for
.ter.
142
irizontal
.ter¬
cels.
Aquatic Fireworks.
Works that fport in the water are much efteemed by
molt admirers of fire-works, particularly water-rockets •,
and as they feem of a very extraordinary nature to thofe
who are unacquainted with this art, they merit a parti¬
cular explanation.
Water-rockets, may be made from four ounces to two
pounds. If larger, they are too heavy ; fb that it will
be difficult to make them keep above water without a
cork Boat, which mult be tied to the neck of the cafe ;
but the rockets will not dive fo well with as without
floats.
Cates for thefe are made in the fame manner and pro¬
portion as Iky-rockets, only a little thicker of paper.
When you fill thofe which are driven folid, put in firll
one ladleful of flow fire, then two of the proper charge,
and on that one or two ladles of finking charge, then
the proper charge, then the finking charge again, and
fo on, till you have filled the cafe within three diame¬
ters ; then drive on the compofition one ladleful of clay j
through which make a fmall hole to the charge ; then
fill the cafe, within half a diameter, with corn-powder,
on which turn down two or three rounds of the cafe in
the infide ; then pinch and tie the end very tight; hav¬
ing filled the rockets (according to the above direc¬
tions), dip their ends in melted rofin or fealing-wax, or
elfe fecure them well with greafe. When you fire thofe
rockets, throw in fix or eight at a time j but, if you
would have them all fink, or fwim, at the fame time,
you muft fill them with an equal quantity of compofi¬
tion, and fire them altogether.
Pipes of communication, which may he ufed under
water, mult be a little thicker in the paper than thofe
for land. Having rolled a fufficient number of pipes,
and kept them till dry, waffi them over with drying oil,
and fet them to dry ; but when you oil them, leave
about an inch and a half at each end dry, for joints ;
as if they were wiled all over, when you come to join
them, the parte would not flick where the paper is
greafy ; after the leaders are joined, and the parte dry,
oil the joints. Thefe pipes will lie many hours under
water, without receiving any damage.
To make horizontal wheels for the water, firft get a
large wooden bowl without a handle ; then have an
eight-fided wheel made of a flat board 18 inches diame¬
ter, fo that the length of each fide may be near feven
inches : in all the fides cut a groove for the cafes to lie
in. This wheel being made, nail it on the top of the
bowl; then take four eight-ounce cafes, filled with a
proper charge, each about fix inches in length. Now,
to clothe the wheel with thefe cafes, get forne whitifh-
brown paper, and cut it into flips four or five inches
broad and feven or eight long : thefe flips being parted
all over on one fide, take one of the cafes, and roll one
of the flips of paoer about an inch and a half on its end,
fo that there will remain about two inches and a half of
the paper hollow from the end of the cafe : tie this cafe
on one of the fides of the wheel, near the corners of
which muft be holes bored, through which put the pack¬
thread to tie the cafes : having tied on the firft cafe at
the neck and end, put a little meal-powder in the hol¬
low paper ; then parte a flip of paper on the end of an¬
other cafe, the head of which put into the hollow paper
on the firft, allowing a fufficient dirtance from the tail
Aquatic
Fireworks.
US'
of one to the head of the other for the parted paper to
bend without tearing : tie on the fecond cafe as you did
the firft : and fo on with the reft, except the laft, which
muft be clofed at the end, unlefs it is to communicate
to any thing on the top of the wheel, fuch as fire-pumps
or brilliant fires, fixed in holes cut in the wheel, and
fired by the laft or fecond cafe, as the fancy directs :
fix, eight, or any number, may be placed on the top
of the wheel, provided they be not too heavy for the
bowl.
Before tying on the cafes, cut the upper part of all
their ends, except the laft, a little ftielving, that the fire
from one may play over the other, without being ob-
ftruited by the cafe. Wheel cafes have no clay drove
in their ends, nor pinched, but are always left open, on¬
ly the laft, or thofe which are not to lead fire, which
inuft be well fecured.
For water mines you muft have a bowl with a wheel Water
on it, made in the fame manner as the water-wheel; on- f011165*
ly in its middle there muft be a hole, of the fame diame¬
ter as that of the intended mine. Thefe mines are tin
pots, with ftrong bottoms, and a little more than two
diameters in length: the mine muft be fixed in the hole
in the wheel, with its bottom refting on the bovvlj then
loaded with ferpents, crackers, ftars, fmall water-roc¬
kets, &c. in the fame manner as pots of aigrettes j but
in their centre fix a cafe of Cbinefe fire, or a fmall
gerbe, which muft be lighted at the beginning of the
laft cafe on the wheel. Thefe wheels are to be clothed
as ufual. 144
Bowls for water-globes muft be very large, and the Fire-globes
wheels on them of ten fides: on each fide nail a piece^or ftiewa~
of wood four inches long; and on the outfide of eachter* *
piece cut a groove, wide enough to receive about one-
fourth of the thicknefs of a four-ounce cafe : thefe pieces
of wood muft be nailed in the middle of each face of the
wheel, and fixed in an oblique diredlion, fo that the fire
from the cafes may incline upwards : the wheel being
thus prepared, tie in each groove a four-ounce cafe filled
with a gray.charge; then carry a leader from the tail
of one cafe to the mouth of the other.
Globes for thefe wheels are made of two tin hoops,
with their edges outwards, fixed one within the other,
at right angles, ft he diameter of thefe hoops muft be
rather lefs than that of the wheel. Having made the
globe, drive in the centre of a wheel an iron fpindle,.
which muft Hand perpendicular, and its length four or
fix inches more than the diameter of the globe.
The fpindle ferves for an axis, on which is fixed the
globe, which muft Hand four or fix inches from the
wheel : round one fide of each hoop muft be foldered
little bits of tin, two inches and a half diftance from
each other ; which pieces muft be two inches in length
each, and only faftened at. one end, the other ends be¬
ing left loofe, to turn round the fmall portfires, and hold
them on: thefe portfires muft be made of fuch a length
as will laft out the cafes on the wheel. There need not
be any portfires at the bottom of the globe within four
inches of the fpindle ; as they would have no effeift, but
to burn the wffieel: all the portfires muft be placed per¬
pendicularly from the centre of the globe, with their
mouths outwards; and muft be clothed with leaders, fo
as all to take fire with the fecond cafe of the wheel ;
and the cafes muft burn two at a time, one oppofite the
other. When two cafes of a wheel begin together, two
will
568
Aquatic
Fireworks.
145
Odoriferous
water-bal¬
loons.
146
A fea-fight
with fmall
(hips and
a fire-fhip.
will end together j therefore the two oppofite end cafes
rnuft have their ends pinched and fecured from fire. I he
method of firing fuch wheels is, by carrying a leader
from the mouth of one of the firft cafes to that of the
other j and the leader being burnt through the middle,
will give fire to both at the fame time.
Odoriferous water balloons are made in the fame man¬
ner as air balloons, but very thin of paper, and in dia¬
meter one inch and three-fourths, with a vent of halt
an inch diameter. The fliells being made, and quite
dry, fill them with any of the following compofitions,
which muft be rammed in tight: thefe balloons mull; be
fired at the vent, and put into a bowl of water. Odo¬
riferous works are generally fired in rooms.
Compo/ition I. Saltpetre two ounces, flour of fulphur
one ounce, camphor half an ounce, yellow amber half
an ounce, charcoal-duft three-fourths of an ounce, fait
of benjamin half an ounce, all powdered very fine and
well mixed. •
II. Saltpetre 12 ounces, meal-powder three ounces,
frankincenfe one ounce, myrrh half an ounce, camphor
half an ounce, charcoal three ounces, all moiftened with
the oil of fpike.
III. Saltpetre two ounces, fulphur halt an ounce, an¬
timony half an ounce, amber half an ounce, cedar rafp-
ings one-fourth of an ounce, all mixed with the oil of
roles and a few drops of bergamot.
IV. Saltpetre four ounces, fulphur one ounce, faw-
duft of juniper half an ounce, faw-duft of cyprefs one
ounce, camphor one-fourth of an ounce, myrrh two
drams, dried rofemary one-fourth of an ounce, all moift¬
ened a little with the oil of rofes.-
N. B. Water-rockets may be made with any of the
above compofitions, with a little alteration, to make
them weaker or ftronger, according to the fize of the
cafes.
Having procured four or five fmall flups, of two or
three feet in length, make a number of fmall reports,
which are to ferve for guns. Of thefe range as many as
you pleafe on each fide of the upper decks ^ then at the
head and ftern of each Ihip fix a two-ounce cafe, eight
inches long, filled with a flow portfire compofition ; but
take care to place it in fuch a manner that the fire may
fall in the water, and not burn the rigging : in thefe
cafes bore holes at unequal diftances from one another,
but make as many in each cafe as half the number of
reports, fo that one cafe may fire the guns on one fide,
and the other thofe on the oppofite. The method of
firing the guns is, by carrying a leader from the holes
in the cafes to the reports on the decks 5 you muft make
thefe leaders very fmall, and be careful in calculating
the burning of the flow fire in the regulating cafes, that
more than two guns be not fired at a time. When you
would have a broadfide given,let a leader be carried to
a cracker, placed on the outfide of the (hip } which
cracker muft be tied loofe, or the reports will be too
flow : 'in all the ftiips put artificial guns at the port¬
holes (a).
Having filled and bored holes in two portfires for
PYROTECHNY. Chap. II.
regulating the guns in one (hip, make all the reft exaft- Aquatic
ly the fame j then, when you begin the engagement, ^reworks.
I* 1 1  „ A. . ~ C. iX r-./-I if *■> I -a 11 t-i r r o r» ri 10 w it 11
light one (hip firft, and fet it a failing, and fo on with
the reft, fending them out lingly, which will make them
fire regularly, at different times, without confuhon •, for
the time between the firing of each gun will be equal to
that of lighting the flow fires.
The fire-(hip may be of any fize ; and need not be
very good, for it is always loft in the aftion. To pre¬
pare a (hip for this purpofe, make a portfire equal in fize
with thofe in the other (hips, and place it at the ftern ;
in every port place a large portfire, filled with a very
ftrong compofition, and painted in imitation of a gun,
and let them all be fired at once by a leader from the
flow fire, within two or three diameters of its bottom $
all along both fides, on the top of the upper deck, lay
ftar-compofition about half an inch thick and one broad,
which muft be wetted with thin fize, then primed with
meal-powder, and fecured from fire by palling paper
over it •, in the place where you lay this compofition,
drive fome little tacks with flat heads, to hold it fall to
the deck : this muft be fired juft after the (ham guns,
and when burning will (how a flame all round the (hip :
at the head take up the decks, and put in a tin mortar
loaded with crackers, which mortar muft be fired by a
pipe from the end of the flow fire j the firing of this
mortar will fink the (hip, and make a pretty conclufion.
The regulating portfire of this (hip muft be lighted at
the fame time with the firft fighting (hip..
Having prepared all the (hips for fighting, we (hall
next proceed with the management of them when on
the water. At one end of the pond, juft under the fur-
face of the water, fix two running blocks, at what dif-
tance you choofe the (hips (hould fight j and at the
other end of the pond, oppofite to each of thefe blocks,
under the water, fix a double block; then on the land,
by each of the double blocks, place two fmall wind-
lafles j round one of them turn one end of a fmall cord,
and put the other end through one of the blocks; then
carry it through the fingle one at the oppofite end of
the pond, and bring it back through the double block
again, and round the other windlafs : to this cord, near
the double block, tie as many fmall firings as half the
number of the (hips, at any diftance 5 but thefe firings
tjiuft not be more than two feet long each : make faft
the loofe end of each to a (hip, juft under her bowfprit j
for if tied to the keel, or too near the water, it will
overfet the (hip. Half the drips being thus prepared,
near the other double block fix two more windlaffes, to
which faften a cord, and to it tie the other half of the
(hips as before : when you fire the drips, pull in the cord
with one of the windlaffes, to get all the drips together $
and when you have fet fire to the firft, turn that wind¬
lafs wh^jch draws them out, and fo on with the reft, till
they are all out in the middle of the pond; then, by turn¬
ing the other windlafs, you will draw them back again ;
by which method you may make them change fides, and
tack about backwards and forwards at pleafure. For
the fire-ftrip fix the blocks and windlaffes between the
Caj Reports for thefe and fimilar occafions are made, by filling fmall cartridges with grained powder ; pinch¬
ing them clofe at each end, and, when ufed, boring a hole in the fide, to which is placed a match or leader or
firing them.
PYROTECIINY.
3 Q.
JZj^filche/Z •scil/f i?
Pyrote crocs
/•LATE rrrCL/l
# A* :
CIlHlrrrnTffrillllifT
£r.ji r?:M
KAfifc/u/;7/■),/;, '
PYROTECHNY
r>/;ATX rrrr/A'/.
Jest/ft \
I’Y ROT KCIINY.
Plate cccclvii.
Fig- 70.
Fig. 08
Fig. Op
-\\\\\\;; i fij ’,'1,7
W&.'&n
WlMlfiljjf/
S"
M
mirnm
Mmmmk
Fl 9 74-
ft. Mitch?I Sculpt
r'j
hap. IT.
Aquatic 0|;hers • f0 tliat tvlien Hie fails out, (he will be between
r'lreworks- ot^er Q1jpS ; you muft not let this Ihip advance till
^ the guns at her ports take fire.
•0 fire iky- To fire Jhj-rockets under water, you muft have fttinds
ockets un- jnaJe as ufual, only the rails muft be placed flat inftead
ier water. odgewife, and have holes in them for the rocket-
fticks to go through •, for if they were hung upon hooks,
the motion of the water would throw them off: the
ftands being made, if the pond is deep enough, fink
them at the fides fo deep, that, when the rockets are
in, their heads may juft appear above the furface of the
water •, to the mouth of each rocket fix a leader, which
put through the hole with the ftick ; then a little above
the water muft be a board, fupported by the ftand, and
placed along one fide of the rockets ; then the ends of
the leaders are turned up through holes made in this
board, exaftly oppofite the rockets. By this means
you may fire them fingly or all at once. Rockets may
be fired by this method in the middle of a pond, by a
Neptune, a fwan, a water-wheel, or any thing elfe you
148 choofe.
Neptune in To reprefient Neptune in his chariot, you muft have a
iis chariot. Neptune (made of wood, or bafket work) as big as life,
fixed on a float large enough to bear his weight ; on
which muft be two horfes heads and necks, fo as to feem
riS- 7°* fwimming, as ftiown by fig. 70. For the wheels of the
chariot, there muft be two vertical wheels of black fire,
and on Neptune’s head a horizontal wheel of brilliant
fire, with all its cafes, to play upwards. When this
wheel is made, cover it with paper or pafteboard, cut
and painted like Neptune’s coronet; then let the trident
be made without prongs, but inftead of them, fix three
cafes of a weak gray charge, and on each horfe’s head
put an eight ounce cafe of brilliant fire, and on the
mouth of each fix a ftiort cafe, of the fame diameter,
filled with the white-flame compofition enough to laft
out all the cafes on the wheels : thefe fhort cafes, muft
be open at bottom, that they may light the brilliant
fires *, for the horfes eyes put fmall portfires, and in each
noftril put a fmall cafe half filled with gray charge, and
the reft with portfire compofition.
If Neptune is to give fire to any building on the wa¬
ter •, at his firft fetting out, the wheels of the chariot,
and that on his head, with the white flames on the
horfes heads, and the portfires in their eyes and noftrils,
muft all be lighted at once *, then from the bottom of
the white flames carry a leader to the trident. As Nep¬
tune is to advance by the help of a block and cord, you
muft manage it fo as not to let him turn about, till the
brilliant fires on the horfes and the trident begin ; for
it is by the fire from the horfes (which plays almoft up¬
right) that the building, or work, is lighted *, which
muft be thus prepared. From the mouth of the cafe
which is to be firft fired, hang fome loofe quick-match
to receive the fire from the horfes. Wken Neptune is
only to be fhown by himfelf, without fetting fire to any
other works, let the white flames on the horfes be very
ftiort, and not to laft longer than one cafe of.each wheel,
and let two cafes of each wheel burn at a time.
If you would have fvvans or ducks difcharge roc¬
kets into the water, they muft be made hollow, and of
paper, and filled with fmall wafer rockets, with fome
blowing powder to throw them out: but if this is not
done, they may be made of wood, which will laft many
times. Having made and painted fome fwans, fix them
Vol. XVII. Part II.
P Y Tt O T E C H N Y. 569
on floats : then in the places where their eyes ftiould be, 9ptF^of.
bore holes two inches deep, inclining downwards, and^1^1”^0
149
I Iwans and
1 tucks in
water.
wide enough to receive a fmall portfire j the portfire
cafes for this purpofe muft be made of brafs, two inches
long, and filled with a flow bright charge. In the mid¬
dle of one of thefe cafes make a little hole j then put
the portfire in the eye-hole of the fwan, leaving about
half an inch to projedl out j and in the other eye put
another portfire, with a hole made in it : then in the
neck of the fwan, within two inches of one of the eyes,
bore a hole flantwife, to meet that in the portfire ; in
this hole put a leader, and carry it to a water-rocket,
that muft be fixed under the tail with its mouth upwards.
On the top of the head place two one-ounce cafes, 'four
inches long each, drove with brilliant fire $ one of thefe
cafes muft incline forwards, and the other backwards ;
thefe muft be lighted at the fame time as the water-roc¬
ket \ to do which, bore a hole between them in the top
of the fwan’s head, down to the hole in the portfire, to
which carr) a leader : if the fwan is filled with rockets,
they muft be fired by a pipe from the end of the rvater-
rocket under the tail. When you fet the fwan a fwim¬
ming, light the two eyes.
To make a fire-fountain for the water, firft have a Water fire-
float made of wood, three feet diameter ; then in the ^untam'.
middle fix a round perpendicular poft, four feet high,
and two inches diameter *, round this poft fix -ihree cir¬
cular wheels made of thin wood, without any fpokes.
The largeft of thefe wheels muft be placed within trvo
or three inches of the float, and muft be nearly of the
fame diameter. The fecond wheel muft be two feet two
inches diameter, and fixed at two feet diftance from the
firft. The third wheel muft be one foot four inches dia¬
meter, and fixed within fix inches of the top of the poft :
the wheels being fixed, take 18 four or eight-ounce
cafes of brilliant fire, and place them round the firft
wheel with their mouths outwards, and inclining down¬
wards j on the fecond wheel place 13 cafes of the fame,
and in the fame manner as thofe on the firft j on the
third, place eight more of thefe cafes, in the fame man¬
ner as before, and on the top of the poft fix a gerbe j
then clothe all the cafes with leaders, fo that both they
and the gerbe may take fire at the fame time. Before
firing this work, try it in the water to fee whether the
float is properly made, fo as to keep the fountain up-
nght- . . . . r5i
As the artificial fire-works which we have deferibed, Opticalimi-
require confiderable caution in their preparation and ma- tations of
nagement, and are attended with great expence, at-fire-works.
tempts have been made to imitate fome of the more
fimple kinds by optical delufion, and to give to the ob-
jefts reprefented the appearance of moving fire, though
they be really fixed, and no fire be employed. Thefe
attempts have been tolerably fuccefsful ; and by means
of this invention, a fpeftacle of artificial fire-vrorks may
be apparently exhibited at a trifling expence ; and if the
pieces employed are conftrufted with ingenuity, and
with a proper attention to the rules of perfpe£tive, while
in viewing them we employ glaffes which magnify the
objects, and prevent them from being too diftindlly feen,
a very agreeable illufion will be produced.
The artificial fire-works imitated with moft fuccefs
by this invention, are fixed funs, gerbes, and jets of
fire, cafcades, globes, pyramids, and columns,- moveable
around their axes. To reprefent a gerbe of fire, take
4 C - paper
pyrotechny.
sJ/
Optical paper blackened on both tides, and very opaque j and
Iinitationsof])av|no. delineated on a piece of white paper the ngure
Fireworks. of a ^rbe of ^ apply it to the black paper, and with
^ v the point of a very ikarp penknife make feveral flaihes
Fig. 71. (Plate CCCCLVII. fig. 71.) in it, as 3, 5, or 7, pro¬
ceeding from the origin of the gerbe : thefe lines mult
not be continued, but cut through at unequal intervals.
Pierce thefe intervals with unequal holes made with a
pinking iron, in order to reprefent the fparks of fuch a
gerbe. In Ihort, you muft endeavour to paint, by theie
lines and holes, the well known effedl of the fire of in¬
flamed gunpowder, when it ifiues through a fmall aper-
ture. .
According to the fame principles^ you may delineate
the cafcades (fig. 72.) and jets of fire which you are de-
firous of introducing into this exhibition, which is pure¬
ly optical; and thole jets of fire which proceed from
the radii of funs, either fixed or moveable. It may ea-
fily be conceived, that in this operation tafte mull be
the guide.
If you are defirous of reprefenting globes, pyramids,
or revolving columns, draw the outlines of them on pa¬
per, and then cut them out in a helical form , that is,
cut out fpirals with the point of a penknife, and of a
fize proportioned to that of the piece.
It is to be obferved alfo, that as thefe different pieces
have different colours, they may be eafily imitated by
palling on the back of the paper, cut as here dtfcribed,
very fine filk paper coloured in the proper manner. As
jets, for example, when loaded with Chinefe fire, give
a reddifh light, you muft pafte to the back of thefe jets
tranfparent paper, llightly tinged with red ; and pro¬
ceed in the fame manner in regard to the other colours
by which the different fire-works are diftinguilhed.
When thefe preparations have been made, the next
thing is to give motion, or the appearance of motion, to
this fire, which may be done two ways, according to
circumftances.
If a jet of fire, for example, is to be reprefented,
prick unequal holes, and at unequal diftances from each
other, in a band of paper, fig. 73. and then move this
band, making it afcend between a light and the above
jet 5 the rays of light which efcape through the holes of
the moveable paper will exhibit the appearance of fparks
rifing into the air. It is to be obferved that one part of
the paper muft be whole ; that another muft be pierced
with holes thinly fcattered ; that in another place they
muft be very clofe, and then moderately fo : by thefe
means it will reprefent thofe fudden jets of fire obferved
in fire-works.
To reprefent a cafeade, the paper pierced with holes,
inflead of moving upwards, muft be made to defcend.
This motion may be eafily produced by means of two
rollers, on one of which the paper is rolled up, while it
is unrolled from the other.
Suns are attended with fome more difficulty ; becaufe
in thefe it is neceffary to reprefent fire, proceeding from
the centre to the circumference. The artifice for this
purpofe is as follows.
On ftrong paper defcribe a circle, equal in diameter
to the fun which you are defirous to exhibit, or even
fomewhat larger •, then trace out on this circle two fpi-
rals, at the diftance’ of a line or half a line from each
other, and open the interval between them with a pen¬
knife, in fuch a manner, that the paper may be cut
2.
Chap. ]I„
from the circumference, decreafing in breadth to a cer- Optical
tain diftance from the centre, fig. 74.: cut the remain-^‘^tionsol
der of the circle into fpirals of the fame kind, open lrev*ork^
and clofe alternately •, then cement the paper circle to 1
a fmall iron hoop, fupported by two pieces of iron,
crofting each other in its centre, and adjuft the whole
to a fmall machine, which will fuffer it to revolve round
its centre. If this moveable paper circle, cut in this
manner, be placed before the reprefentation of your fun,
with a light behind it, as foon as it is made to move to¬
wards that fide to which the convexity of the fpirals is
turned, the luminous fpirals, or thofe which afford a paf-
fage to the light, will give, on the image of the radii
or jets of fire of your fun, the appearance of fire in con¬
tinual motion, as if undulating from the centre to the
circumference.
The appearance of motion may be given to columns,
pyramids, and globes, cut through in the manner above
defcribed, by moving in a vertical direttion a band of
paper cut through into apertures, inclined at an angle
rather different from that of the fpirals. By thefe means
the fpeftators will fuppofe that they fee fire continually
circulating and afcending along the fpirals •, and thus
will be produced an optical illufion, in confequence of
which the columns or pyramids will feem to revolve.
We have thus briefly explained the principle on which
artificial fire-works may be imitated 5 and as the tafte of
the artift may fuggeft to him many circumftances which
may improve the reprefentation, and render the illufion
ftronger, we ftiall not enlarge further on the fubjeft,
but Iball conclude this article with a few obfervations
on illuminated prints and drawings, which are fome-
times introduced as accompaniments in thefe imitations
of artificial fire-works.
The mode of preparing thefe illuminations is thus de¬
fcribed in Hutton’s tranflation of Montucla’s Recrea¬
tions. Take fome prints reprefenting a caftle, or palace,
&c. •, and having coloured them properly, cement paper
to the back of tkem, in fuch a manner that they (hall
be only femitranfparent ; then, with pinking irons of
different fizes, prick fmall holes in the places and cn
the lines where the lamps are generally placed, as along
the fides of the windows, on the cornices or balur
ftrades, &c. But care muft be taken to make thefe
holes fmaller and clofer, according to the perfpe&ive
diminution of the figure. With other irons of a larger
fize, cut out, in other places, fome ftronger lights, fo
as to reprefent fire-pots, &c. Cut out alfo the panes in
fome of the windows, and cement to the back of them
tranfparent paper of a green or red colour, to reprefent
curtains drawn before them, and concealing an illumi¬
nated apartment.
When the print is cut in this manner, place it in the
front of a fort of fmall theatre, ftrongly illuminated
from the back part, and look at it through a convex
glafs of a pretty long focus, like that ufed in thofe fmall
machines called optical boxes. If the rules of perfpec-
tive have been properly obferved in the prints, and if
the lights and (hades have been diftributed with tafte,
this fpe£lacle will be highly agreeable. .
Before difmifling this fubjedt, it may not be improper Man^ge.
to point out the moft effedlual means of relieving thofe ment of
burns, to which fire-workers are fo much expofed.burns from
When the burn is firft received, and before bliftersfire-wor5'
arife, the beft applications are oi/ of turpentine, frong
Spiritsy
Chap. II- P Y R O T
Manage- fpirits, re&ified fpirit of tuine, or camphorated fpirit,
ment of nyjtfj which linen rags tnuft be wetted and kept moift on
, the part till the pain abates. If no other remedy can
"'**"-* be procured, imnterfing the part for a long time in cold
water will often afford great relief. When thefe means
have been neglefted, and blifters arife, if thefe are
frxlall, they fhould not be opened j but if large, the wa-
E C H N Y. 57i
ter muft be let out, and the (ore covered with rags, Manage-
fpread with a mixture of linfced oil and lime water, in
the proportion of one part or the former to three of the , ^ ,
latter. We muft remark, however, that in all cafes of
extenfive burns, or where fome very delicate part is in¬
jured, fpeedy recourfe fhould be had to medical aflift-
ance.
P Y R
Pyrotics PYROTICS, in Medicine, cauftics, or remedies
II either a&ually or potentially hot; and which accord-
pyrrho- ingly will burn the flefh, and raife an efchar. See Cau¬
sticity.
PYRRHIC A, in antiquity, a kind of exercife on
horfeback, or a feigned combat, for the exercife of the
cavalry.
^It was thus called from its inventor Pyrrhichus, or
Pyrrhus of Cydonia, who firft taught the Cretans to
march in meafure and cadence to battle, and to ob-
ferve the pace of the Pyrrhic foot.—Others derive
the name from Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles, who infti-
tuted this exercife at the obfequies of his father.—
Ariftotle fays, that it was Achilles himfelf who invent¬
ed it.
The Romans alfo called it Indus Trojanus, “ the Tro¬
jan game and Aulus Gellius, decurfus.—It is doubt-
lefs this exercife that we fee reprefented on medals by
two cavaliers in front running with lances, and the
word decurjio in the exergum.
PYRRHICHIUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry,
a foot confiding of two fyllables, both ftiort;—as,
Dens.—Among the ancients this foot is alfo called pe-
riambus ; by others hegemona.
PYRRHO, a Greek philofopher, born at Elis in
Peloponnefus, flouriftied about 300 B. C. He was the
difciple of Anaxarchus, whom he accompanied as far
as India, where he converfed with the Brachmans and
Gymnofophifts. He had made painting his profeflion
before he devoted himfelf to the ftudy of philofophy.
He eftabliftied a fe<£t whofe fundamental principle was,
That there is nothing true or falfe, right or wrong,
honeft or dithoneft, juft or unjuft $ or that there is no
ftandard of any thing beyond law or cuftoro, and that
uncertainty and doubt belong to every thing, From
this continual feeking after truth and never finding it,
the feft obtained the name of Sceptics or Pyrrhonians,
from the founder, who is faid to have afted upon his
own principles, and to have carried his fcepticifm to fuch
a ridiculous extreme, that his friends were obliged to
accompany him wherever he went, that he might not
be run over by carriages, or fall down precipices. If
this was true, it was not without reafon that he was
ranked among thofe whofe intellefts were difturbed by
intenfe ftudy. But it is treated by a modern writer
as a mere calumny invented by the dogmatifts ; and we
are ftrongly inclined to be of his opinion, (fee Scep¬
tics). Pyrrho died about the 90th year of his age,
when his memory was honoured with a ftatue at A-
thens, and a monument erefted to him in his own
-country.
P Y T
the name of two kings of Epirus. Pyrrhus
H
Pythagoras.
PYRRHUS,
See Epirus.
PYRUS, the PiAR-TREE. See Botany Index; and
for the culture of this fruit, fee Gardening. For an
account of the proceffes followed in making perry, fee
Agriculture.
PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated philofopher of an¬
tiquity, refpefting the time and place of whofe birth
the learned are much divided. Eratofthenes afferts,
that in the 48 th Olympiad *, when he was very young,
he was a vi£tor at the Olympic games. Hence Dr 5
Bentley f determines the date of his birth to be the 4th t Pijfert.
year of the 43d Olympiad •, whilft Lloyd;}:, wTho denies
that the Olympic victor was the fame perfon with the \ chron^of
philofopher, places it about the 3d yeat of the 48th O- Pythago-
lympiad. Mr Dodwell § differs from both, and wifhesr^r.
to fix the birth of Pythagoras in the 4th year of the ? 7’W0 D{f~
52d Olympiad. Of the arguments of thefe learned ^^-Qj^th^age
ters, Le Clerc has given a fummary in the Bibliotheque 0f Phalere-
Choifee, tom. x. p. 81. &c. and from a review of iheusand Py-
whole, it would appear that he was not born earlier \\\?en t^aSoras‘
the 4th year of the 43d Olympiad, or later than the
4th year of the 52d j but in what particular year of
that period his birth took place, cannot with any degree
of certainty be afcertained. It is generally believed
that he was born in the ifland of Samos, and that he
flouriftied about 500 years before Chrift, in the time of
Tarquin the laft king of Rome *. His father Mne- *
farchus, who is thought by fome to have been a lapidary,
and by others a merchant of Tyre, appears to have been cap 1.
a man of fbme diftindtion, and to have beftowed upon
his fon the beft education.
Jamblicus f relates a number of wonderful ftories re- f Vit. Py-
fpedling Pythagoras’s defeent from Jupiter, his b\r\h,thag. a. 6.
and early life •, and reprefents him even in his youth as
a prodigy of wifdom and manly ferioufnefs. But moft
of thefe idle tales confute themfelves, afford nothing of
importance to be depended upon, and only prove the
credulity, carelefsnefs, and prejudice of their author.
Of his childhood and early education we know nothing,
except that he was firft inrtrudled in his own country
by Creophilus, and afterwards in Scyrus by Pherecydes
(fee Pherecydes). According to the cuftom of the
times he was made acquainted with poetry and mufic;
eloquence and aftronomy became his private ftudies,
and in gymnaftic exercifes he often bore the palm for
ftrength and dexterity. He firft diftinguiftied himfelf
in Greece at the Olympic games, where, befidegaining
the prize, he is faid to have excited the higheft admira¬
tion by the elegance and dignity of his perfon, and the
brilliancy of his underftanding.
4 C 2
Soon
p Y T
[ 57
f'ytlwgoras. Soon after his appearance at thefe games, Pythagoras
'l’---.V',*'"' couimenct'd his travels in queft of knowledge. He hrtt
vifited Egypt, where, through the intereit of Polycrates
tyrant of Samos, he obtained the patronage of Amafis
king of Egypt, by whofe influence, combined with his
own afliduity, patience, and perfeverance, he at length
gained the confidence of the priefls ; from whom lie
learned their facred myfteries, theology, and the whole
fyftem of fymbolical learning. In Egypt, too, he be¬
came acquainted with geometry and the true folar fy¬
ftem ; and, before he left that country, made himfelf
mafter of all the learning for which it was fo famed a-
mong the nations of antiquity.
He afterwards vifited Perfia and Chaldea, where
from the Magi he learnt divination, the interpreting
of dreams, and aftronomy. He is likewife faid to have
travelled into India, to have converfed with the Gym-
nofophifts, and to have acquired from them a knowledge
of the philofophy and literature of the eaftj and fuch
was his ardour in the purfuit of fcience, that in queft of
« De Pirn- it, we are told by Cicero *, he croffed many.feas, and
bus, lib. iv. travelled on foot through many barbarous nations.
^ After Pythagoras had fpent many years in gathering
information on every fubje£t, efpecially refpefling the
nature of the gods, the rites of religion, and the immor¬
tality of the human foul, he returned to his native ifland,
and attempted to make his knowledge ufeful by inftitu-
ting a fchool for the inftruttion of his countrymen.
Failing of fuccefs in this laudable undertaking, he re¬
paired to Delos, where he pretended to receive moral
dogmas from the prieftefs of Apollo. He alfo vifited
Crete, where he was initiated into the moft facred my¬
fteries of Greece. He went likewife to Sparta and
Elis, and again aflifted at the Olympic games •, where
in the public affembly he was faluted with the title of
fophiji or wife man, which he declined for one more
humble. See Philology, N° i. and Philosophy,
N° i.
He returned to Samos enriched with mythological
learning and myfterious rites, and again inftituted a
fchool. His myfterious fymbols and oracular precepts
made this attempt more fuccefsful than the former had
been *, but meeting with fome oppofition, er being de-
tedled in fome pious frauds, he fuddenly left Samos, re¬
tired to Magna Grecia, and fettled at Crotona.
Here he founded the Italic feft (fee PHILOSOPHY,
N° 20.) j and his mental and perfonal accomplifhments,
the fame of his diftant travels, and his Olympic crown,
foon procured him numerous pupils. His bold and
manly eloquence and graceful delivery attracted the
moft diflblute, and produced a remarkable change in
the morals of the people of Crotona. His influence
was increafed by the regularity of his own example,
and its conformity to his precepts. He pundlually at¬
tended the temples of the gods, and paid his devotions
at an early hour 5 he lived upon the pureft and moft
innocent food, clothed himfelRike the priefts of Epypt,
and by his continual purifications and regular offerings
appeared to be fuperior in fandftity to the reft of man¬
kind. He endeavoured to affuage the paflions of his
fcholars with verfes and numbers, and made a practice of
compofing his own mind every morning, by plaving on
his harp, and finging along with it the paeans of Thales.
To avoid the temptations of eafe and the feduftions of
2 ] P Y T
idlenefs, bodily exercifes alfo made a confiderablc part of Pythagoras.-
his difcipline. . '
At Crotona he had a public fchool for the general
benefit of the people, in which he taught them their
duty, praifing virtue and condemning vice ; and parti¬
cularly inftru&ing them in the duties of facial life,
Befide this, he had a college in his own houfe, which
he denominated x.6tvt>[&iov, in which there were two clanes
of ftudents, viz. tl&mgoca*, who were alfo called aufcut-
tantes, and 1 he former of thefe were proba¬
tioners, and were kept under a long examen. . A fi-
lence of five years was impofed upon them ; which A-
puleius think's was intended to teach them modefty and
attention •, but Clemens Alexandrinus thinks it was for
the purpofe of abftra&ing their minds from fenfible
objefts, and inuring them to the pure contemplation of
the Deity. The latter clafs of fcholars were called
genuini, pcrfe&i, mathematic^ and, by way of eminence,
Pythagoreans. They alone were admitted to the know¬
ledge of the arcana and depths of Pythagoric difcipline,
and were taught the ufe of ciphers and hieroglyphic
writings.
Clemens obferves, that thefe orders correfponded very
exaftly to thofe among the Hebrews : for in the fchools
of the prophets, there were two claffes, viz. the fons of
the prophets, who were the fcholars, and the doctors or
matters, who were alfo called perfeEU; and among the
Levites, the novices or tyros, who had their quinquen¬
nial exercifes, by way of preparation. Laftly, even
among the profelytes there were two orders •, exoterifcf
or profelytes of the gate ; and intrinfeci or perfecii,
profelytes of the covenant. He adds, it is highly pro¬
bable, that Pythagoras himfelf had been a profelyte of
the gate, if not of the covenant. Gale endeavours to
prove that Pythagoras borrowed his philofophy from
that of the Jews ; to this end producing the authorities
of many of the fathers and ancient authors, and even
pointing out the tracks and footfteps of Mofes in feveral
parts of Pythagoras’s doftrine. But we believe the
learned author was milled by the Chriflian Platonifts.
The authority of Pythagoras among his pupils was
fo great, that it was even deemed a crime to difpute
his word ; and their arguments were confidered as in¬
fallibly convincing, if they could enforce them by add¬
ing, that “ the mailer faid fo an expreflion which af¬
terwards became proverbial in jurare in verba magiftn.
This influence over his fchool was foon extended to the
world, and even his pupils themfelves divided the ap-
plaufe and approbation of the people with their mafter ;
and the rules and legillators of all the principal towns
• of Greece, Sicily, and Italy, boafted of being the dif-
ciples of Pythagoras. To give more weight to his
exhortations, as fome writers mention, Pythagoras re¬
tired into a fubterraneous cave, where his mother fent
him intelligence of every thing which happened during
his abfence. After a certain number of months he
again re-appeared on the earth with a grim and ghailly
countenance, and declared in the alfembly of the people
that he was returned from hell. From fimilar exag¬
gerations it has been alferted that he appeared at the
Olympic games with a golden thigh, and that he could
write in letters of blood whatever he pleafed on a look-
ing-glafs ; and that by fefting it oppofite to the moon,
when full, all the chara6fers which were on the glafs
became
P Y T [ 57
. became legible on the moon’s difc-. iliey alfo relaie,
that by foine magical words he tamed a bear, Hopped
the flight of an eagle, and appeared on the fame day
and at the fame infant in the cities of Crotona and
Metapontum,
At length his Angular do&rines, and perhaps his
flrenuoufly aflerting the rights of the people againft
their tyrannical governors, excited a fpirit of'jealoufy,
and railed a powerful party againlf him j which foon
became fo outrageous as to oblige him to fly for his life.
His friends fled to Rhegium 5 and he himfelf, after
being refufed proteftion by the Locrians, fled to Me¬
tapontum, where he was obliged to take refuge in the
temple of the mufes, and where it is faid he died of
hunger about 497 years before Chrill. Refpe&ing the
the time, place, and manner of his death, however,
there are various opinions, and many think it uncertain
when, where, or in what manner, he ended his days.
After his death his followers paid the fame refpeft to
him as was paid to the immortal gods *, they erected
ftatues in honour of him, converted his houfe at Cro-
torra into a temple at Ceres, appealed to him as a deity,
and fwore by his name.
Pythagoras married Theano of Crotona, or, accord¬
ing to others, of Crete, by whom he had two fons, Te-
lauges and Mnefarchus, who, after his death, took, care
of his fchool. He is faid alfo to have had a daughter
called Damo.
Whether he left any vrritings behind him isdifputed.
It feems probable, however, that he left none, and that
fuch as went under his name jvere written by feme of
his followers. The golden verfes which Hierocles illu-
flrated with a commentary, have been aferibed to Epi-
charmus or Empedocles, and contain a brief fummary
of his popular doctrines. From this circumftance, and
from the mylkrious fecrecy with which he taught, our
information concerning his doftrine and philofophy is
Very uncertain, and cannot always be depended on.
The purpofe of philofophy, according to the fyftem
of Pythagoras, is to free the mind from incumbrances,
and to raife it to the contemplation of immutable truth
and the knowledge of divine and fpiritual objefls. To
bring the mind to this ftate of perfection is a work of
fome difficulty, and requires a variety of intermediate
Heps. Mathematical fcience was with him the firft
Hep to wifdom, becaufe it inures the mind to contem¬
plation, and takes a middle courfe between corporeal
and incorporeal beings. The whole fcience he divided
into two parts, numbers and magnitude; and each of thefe
he fubdivided into two others, the former into arithme¬
tic and mujic, and the latter into magnitude at rejl and in
motion ; the former of which comprehends geometry, and
the latter ajlronomy. Arithmetic he confidered as the
noble A fcience, and an acquaintance with numbers as
the higheft good. He confidered numbers as the princi¬
ples of every thing j and divided them into fcientific and
intelligible. Scientific number is the production of the
powers involved in unity, and its return to the fame ;
number is not infinite, but is the fource of that infinite
divifibility into equal parts which is the property of all
bodies. Intelligible numbers are thofe which exiAed
in the divine mind before all things. They are the mo¬
del or archetype of the world, and the caufe of the ef-
fence of beings. Of the Monad, Duad, Triad, Tetrad,
]
P Y T
and Dccad, various explanations have been given by Pythagoras.
various authorsj but nothing certain or important is '1,1 ~ v
known of them. In all probability, numbers were uied
by Pythagoras as lymbolical reprelentations of the firft
principles and forms of nature, and efpecially of thofe
eternal and immutable eflences which Plato denomina¬
ted ideas} and in this cafe the Monad was the fimple
root from which he conceived numbers to proceed, and
as fuch, analogous to the fimple effence of deity $ from
whence, according to his fyftem, the various properties
of nature proceed.
Mufic followed numbers, and was ufeful in raifing
the mind above the dominion of the paflions. Pytha¬
goras eonfidered it as a fcience to be reduced to mathe¬
matical principles and proportions, and is fa:d to have
difeovered the mufical chords from the circumftance of
feveral men fucceflively ftriking with hammers a piece
of heated iron upon an anvil. This ftory Dr Burney * * Hiftory'
diferedits; but allows, from the uniform teftimony
writers ancient and modern, that he invented the har-^. i.
monical canon or monochord, (fee Monochord). 'IheP' 441*
mufic of the fpheres, of which every one has heard, was
a mofK fanciful doftrine of Pythagoras. It was pro¬
duced, he imagined, by the planets ftriking on the ether
through which in their motion they paffed ; and he con¬
fidered their mufical proportions as exaft, and their har¬
mony perfect.
Pythagoras, as we have already feen, learned geome¬
try in Egypt j but by inveftigating many new theorems,
and by digefling its principles, he reduced it to a more
regular fcience. A geometrical point, which he defines
to be a monad, or unity with pofition, he lays corre-
fponds to unity in arithmetic, aline to two, a fuperfi-
cies to three, and a folid to four. He difeovered fe¬
veral of the propofitions of Euclid ; and on difeovering
the 47th of book ift, he is faid to have offered a heca¬
tomb to the gods; but as he was averfe to animal fa-
crifices, this affertion is furtly falfe. His great progrefs
in aftronomieal fcience has been mentioned elfew here.
See Astronomy, N° 11, 22. and Philosophy, N° 15,
16.
Wifdom, according to Pythagoras, is converfant with
thofe objefts which are naturally immutable, eternal,
and incorruptible} and its end is to aflimilate the hu¬
man mind to the divine, and. to qualify us to join the
affembly of the gods. Aftive and moral philofophy
preferibes rules and precepts for the conduct of life, and
leads us to the pradtice of public and private virtue 
On thefe heads many of his precepts were excellent, and
fome of them were whimfical and ufelefs. Theoreti¬
cal philofophy treats of nature and its origin, and is,
according to Pythagoras, the higheft objedt of itudy.
It included all the profound myfteries which he taught,
of which but little is now known. God he confiders
as the univerfal mind, diffufed through all things, and
the felf-moving principle of all things (nvro^etrnr^oi rut
Trccvrm), and of whom every human foul is a portion *. ^ C{cero ^
It is very probable, that he conceived of the Deity as a Sene^m
fubtle fire, eternal, adlive, and intelligent; which is not§ 2i.
inconfiftent with the idea of ineorporeality, as the an¬
cients underftood that term. This Deity was primarily
combined with the chaotic mafs of paffive matter, but
he had the power of feparating himfelf, and fince the
feparation he has remained diftindt. The learned Cud-
Worth
p Y T [ 574
Pythagoras, worth contends, that Pythagoras maintained a trinity of
' V1 ' hypoftafes in the divine nature, fimilar to the Platonic
triad (fee Platonism). We cannot fay that his argu¬
ments appear to have much force ; but we think, the con-
clufion which he wifhes to eflablifli extremely probable,
as Plato certainly drew his doftrine from fome of the
countries which Pythagoras had vifited before him.
Subordinate to the Deity there were in the Pytha¬
gorean creed three orders of intelligences, gods, demons,
and heroes, of different degrees of excellence and digni¬
ty. Thefe, together with the human foul, were eonfi-
dered as emanations from the Deity, the particles of
fubtle ether alfumingn groffer clothing the farther they
receded from the fountain. Hierocles defines a hero
to be a rational mind united with a luminous body.
God himfelf was reprefented under the notion of mo¬
nad, and the fubordinate intelligences as numbers de¬
rived from and included in unity. Man is confidered
as confiding of an elementary nature and a divine or
rational foul. ■ His foul, a felf-moving principle, is com-
pofed of two parts •, the rational, feated in the brain-} and
the irrational, including the pafikms, in the heart. In
both thefe refpeffs he participates with the brutes,
Avhom the temperament of their body, &c. allows not
to aft rationally. The fenfitive foul perilhes } the other
alfumes an ethereal vehicle, and palfes to the region of
the dead, till fent back to the earth to inhabit fome
other body, brutal or human. See Metempsychosis.
It was unqueftionably this notion which led Pythago¬
ras and his followers to deny themfelves the ufe of flefli,
and te be fo peculiarly merciful to animals of every de-
fcription. Some authors, however, fay, that flefh and
beans, the ufe of which healfo forbade, were prohibited,
becaufe he fuppofed them to have been produced from
the fame putrified matter, from which, at the creation
of the world, man was formed.
. Of the fymbols of Pythagoras little is known. They
have been religioufly concealed 5 and though they have
awakened much curiofity, and occafioned many ingeni¬
ous conjeftures, they {till appear to us dark and tri¬
fling. As a fpecimen we give the following: “ Adore
the found of the whifpering wind. Stir not the fire
with a fword. Turn afide from an edged tool. Pafs
not over a balance. Setting out on a journey, turn not
back, for the furies will return with you. Breed no¬
thing that hath crooked talons. Receive not a fwal-
low into your houfe. Look not in a mirror by the
light of a candle. At a facrifice pare not your nails.
Eat not the heart or brain. Tafte not that which hath
fallen from the table. Break not bread. Sleep not at
noon. When it thunders touch the earth. Pluck not
a crow. Roaft not that which has been boiled. Sail
not on the ground. Plant not a palm. Breed a cock,
but do not facrifice it, for. it is facred to the fun and
moon. Plant mallows in thy garden, but eat them not.
Abftain from beans.”
The following precepts are more important: “ Dif-
courfe not of Pythagorean doftrines without light.
Above all things govern your tongue. Engrave not
the image of God in a ring. Quit not your ftation with¬
out the command of your general. Remember that the
paths of virtue and of vice referable the letter Y. To
this fymbol Perfius refers *, when he fays,
Pythagoras
II
Python.
* Sat. iii.
<6.
] P Y T
Et tibi quce Samios diduxit litera rattoos.
Surgentcm dextro monftravit limite collem.
There has the Samian Y’s inftruftive make
Pointed the road thy doubtful foot fliould take }
There warn’d thy raw and yet unpraftis’d youth,
To tread the riling right-hand path of truth.
The fcantinefs and uncertainty of our information
refpefting Pythagoras, renders a regular and complete
account of his life and doftrines impoflible. A mo¬
dern author f of profound erudition, pronounces him t Ancient
to have been unquejlionably the wifeft man that ever li-^^fy'-
ved, if his mailers the Egyptian prielts mull not be ex-
cepted. This is faying a great deal too much } but
•that he was one of the moll diftinguilhed philofophers
£>f antiquity, or, -as Cicero exprefles it, vir praijlanti
japientia, appears very evident; and his moral charac¬
ter has never been impeached. The mylterious air
•which he threw over his doftrines, and the apparent
inanity of fome of his fymbols, have indeed fubjefted
him to the charge of impollure, and perhaps the charge
is not wholly groundlefs : but when we confider the
age in which he lived, and the nature of the people
with whom he had to deal, who would in all probabi¬
lity have refilled more open innovations, even this will
not appear fo blameable as at firll fight we are apt to
think it } and it is worthy of notice, that the worlt Ho¬
nes of this kind have come down to us in a very que-
ftionable lhape, and with much probability appear to be
falfe.
PYTHAGOREA1SLS, a feft of ancient philofophers,
fo called from being the followers of Pythagoras. See
the preceding article.
PYTHIA, the prieftefs of Apollo at Delphi, by
•whom he delivered oracles. She was fo called from
Pythius, a name of that god, which is faid to have been
given him on account of his viftory over the ferpent
Python.
The Pythia was at firll required to be a young girl,
but in later times Ihe was a woman of 50 years of age.
The firft and molt famous Pythia was Phemonoe. O-
racles were at firlt delivered by her in hexameter verfe.
All the pythias were to be pure virgins, and all of them
delivered their oracles with great enthufiafm and violent
agitations. See Oracle and Delphi.
PYTHIAN GAMES, in Grecian antiquity, fports
Tnftituted nearDelphos in honour of Apollo, on account
of his flaying the ferpent Python. See Apollo.-—
Thefe games, at their firft inllitution, were celebrated
only once in nine years } but afterwards every fifth
year, from the number of the Parnalflan nymphs who
came to congratulate Apollo, and to make him pre¬
sents on his viftory. The viftor was crowned with gar¬
lands.
PYTHON, in fabulous hiftory, a monllrous ferpent,
produced by the earth after Deucalion’s deluge. Juno
being exafperated at Latona, who was beloved by Jupi¬
ter, commanded this ferpent to deltroy her} but flying
from the purfuit of the monller, Ihe efcaped to Delos,
where Ihe was delivered of Diana and Apollo } the latter
of whom at length deftroyed Python with his arrows, in
memory of which viftory the Pythian games were infii-
tuted. See Apollo.
QUA
[ 575 J
QUA
Q
Q
II
CJuadi.
Tare*
ave's
’ft- Bra-
Qor q, the 16th letter and 12th confonant of
5 our alphabet j but is hot to be found either in
> the Greek, old Latin, or Saxon alphabets j and in¬
deed fome would entirely exclude it, pretending that
k ought to be ufed wherever this occurs. However, as
it is formed in the voice in a different manner, it is un¬
doubtedly a diftinft letter: for, in exprefling this found,
the cheeks are contra&ed, and the lips, particularly the
under one, are put into a canularform, for thepaffageof
the breath.
The q is never founded alone, but in conjundHon with
u, as in quality, queJHon, quite, quote, &c. and never
ends any Englifh word.
As a numeral, £) Hands for 500 $ and with a daftt
over it, thus Q, for 500,000.
Ufed as an abbreviature q fignifies quantity, or quan¬
tum. Thus, among phyficians, q. pi. is quantum placet,
i. e. “ as much as you pleafe” of a thing j and q.f. is
quantumfufficit, i. e. “as much as is neceffary.” Q'.E.D.
among mathematicians, is quod erat demonjlrandum, i. ei
“ which was to be demonftratedand Q. E. F. is
quod erat faciendum, i. e. “ which was to be done.”
among grammarians is quaf di&um, i. e. “ as if it
were faid 5” or, “ as who fhould fay.” In the notes of
the ancients, Hands for Quintus, ox ^uintius; Q. B. V.
for quod bene vert at; £). S. S. S. for quee fupra feripta
funt; Q. M. for Quintus Mutius, ox quomodo ; Quint,
for ^uintilius ; and Qusef. for queefor.
QUAB, in Ichthyology, the name of a Ruflian fiflr,
which is faid to be at firfl a tadpole, then a frog, and
at lafl a fifh. Dr Mounfey, who made many inquiries
concerning thefe pretended changes, eonfiders them all
as fabulous. He had opportunity of feeing the fifh it-
felf, and found that they fpawned like other fiflies, and
grew in fize, without any appearances to juflify the re¬
port. He adds, that they delight in very clear water,
in rivers with fandy or flony bottoms,- and are never
found in Handing lakes, or in rivers paffihg through
marfhes or moffy grounds, where frogs choofe mofl to be.
QUABES; are a free people of Africa, inhabiting
the fouthern banks of the river Seflos, and between that
and Sierra Leona. They are under the protection of
the emperor of Manow.
QUACHA, or Quagga. See Equus, Mammalia
Index.
QUACHILTO, in Ornithology, is the name of a
very beautiful Brafilian bird, called alfo yaca-zintli and
porphyria Americanus. It is of a fine blackifh purple
colour, variegated with white; its beak is white while
young, but becomes red as it grows older, and has a
naked fpace as its balls, refembling- in fome fort the
coot; its legs are of a yellowifli green ; it lives about
the waters, and feeds on fifh, yet is a very well tafied
bird. It imitates the crowing of a common cock, and
makes its mufic early in the morning.
QUACK, among phyficians, the fame with empiric.
See Empiric.
QUADI, (Tacitus) j a people ©f Germany, fituated
Quad!
to the fouth-eaH of the mountains of Bohemia, on the
banks of the Danube, and extending as far as the river „
Marus, or March, running by Moravia, which country Quadrant,
they occupied. ' ~~i "
QUADRAGESIMA, a denomination given to lent,
from its confifling of 40 days. See Lent.
QUADRANGLE, in Geometry, the fame with a
quadrilateral figure, or one confifling of four fides and
four angles.
QTJADRANS, the quarter or fourth part of any
thing, particularly the as, or pound.
Quadrans, in Englifh money, the fourth part of a
penny. Before the reign of Edward I. the fmalleft
coin was a Jlerling, or penny, marked with a crofs ; by
the guidance of which a penny might be cut into halves
for a halfpenny, or into quarters or four parts for far¬
things; till, to avoid the fraud of unequal cuttings, that
king coined halfpence and farthings in diflindt round
pieces.
QUADRANT, in Geometry, the arch of a circle,
containing 90°, or the fourth part of the entire peri¬
phery.
Sometimes alfo the fpace or area, included between
this arch and two radii drawn from the centfe to each
extremity therefore, is called a quadrant, or, more pro¬
perly, a quadrantal fpace, as being a quarter of an en¬
tire circle.
Quadrant, alfo denotes a mathematical inflrument,
of great ufe in aflronomy and navigation, for taking the
altitudes of the fun and flars, as alfo for taking angles in
furveying, &c. .
This inflrument is varioufly contrived, and furniftied
with different apparatus, according to the various ufes-
it is intended for ; but they all have this in common,
that they confift of a quarter of a circle, whofe limb i»
divided into 90°. Some have a plummet fufpended
from the centre, and are furniflied with fights to loolc
through.
The principal and moft ufeful quadrants are the com¬
mon furveyingquadrant, aftronomical quadrant, Adams’s
quadrant, Cole’s quadrant, Gunter’s quadrant, Hadley’s
quadrant, borodi&ical quadrant, Sutton’s or Collins’s
quadrant, and the finical quadrant, &e. Of each of which
in order.
I. The common furveying quadrant, is made of brafs,
wood, or any other folid fubftance ; the limb of which
is divided into 90°, and each of thefe farther divided
into as many equal parts as the fpace will allow, either
diagonally or otherwife. On one of the femidiameters
are fitted two moveable fights; and to the centre is
fometimes alfo fixed a label, or moveable index, bearing
two other fights; but in lieu of thefe laft fights there
is fometimes fitted a telefcope : alfo from the centre
there is hung a thread with a plummet; and on the
under fide or face of the inftrument is fitted a ball and
focket, by means of which it may be put into any po-
fition. The general ufe of it is for taking angles in a
vertical plane, comprehended under right lines going
from.
qua
[ 576 ]
Q U A
Quadrant, from the centre of the inftrumcnt, one of which u ho-
    ' rizontal, and the other is direfted to fome vifible point.
But befides the parts already defcnbed, there is he-
quently added on the face, near the centre, a kind ot
compartment, called the quadrat, or geometricalJquare.
This quadrant may be ufed in different fituations :
for obferving heights or depths, its plane muff be diipo-
fed perpendicularly to tire horizon •, but to take horizon¬
tal diftances,its plane is difpofed parallel thereto. Again,
heights and diftances may be taken two ways, viz by
means of the fixed fights and plummet or by the label:
As to which, and the manner of meafunng angles, iee
Geometry and Mensuration..
2. The aftronomical quadrant is a large one, uiually
made of brafs, or wooden bars faced with iron plates *,
having its limb nicely divided, either diagonally or
otherwife, into degrees, minutes, and feconds^ and tur-
nillntd with two telefcopes, one fixed on the fide of the
quadrant, and the other moveable abouf’the centre, by
means of the fcrew. There are alfo dented wheels
which ferve to direft the inftrument to any objedt or
phenomenon.—The ufe of this curious inftrument, in
taking obfervations of the fun, planets, and fixed ftars,
is obvious j for being turned horizontally upon its axis,
by means of the telefcope, till the objed is feen through
the moveable telefcope, then the degrees, &c. cut by
the index give the altitude required. See ASTRONOMY
Index.
3. Cole’s quadrant is a very ufeful inftrument invent¬
ed by Mr Benjamin Cole. It confifts of fix parts, viz.
plate the ftaff AB (fig. I.) *, the quadrantal arch DE 1 three
cccclviii. vanes A, B, C j and the vernier FG. The ftaff is a
u bar of wood about two feet long, an inch and a quarter
broad, and of a fufficient thicknefs,to prevent it. from
bending or warping. The quadrantal arch is alfo of
wood *, and is divided into degrees, and third-parts
of a degree, to a radius of about nine inches •, to its ex¬
tremities are fitted two radii, which meet in the centre
of the quadrant by a pin, round which it eafily moves.
The fight-vane A is a thin piece of brafs, almoft two
inches in height and one broad, placed perpendicularly
on the end of the ftaff A, by the help of two fcrews
pafling through its foot. Through the middle of.this
vane is drilled a fmall hole, through which the coinci¬
dence or meeting of the horizon and folar ipot is to be
viewed. The horizon vane B is about an inch broad,
and two inches and a half high, having a flit cut through
it of near an inch long and a quarter of an inch broad j
this vane is fixed in the centre-pin of the inftrument, in
a perpendicular pofition, by the help of two fcrews paf-
fing through its foot, whereby its pofition with refpeft
to the fight-vane is always the fame, their angles of in¬
clination being equal to 45 degrees. The ftiade-vane
C is compofed of two brafs plates. The one, which
ferves as an arm, is about four inches and a half long,
and three quarters of an inch broad, being pinned at
one end to the upper limb of the quadrant by a fcrew,
about which it has a fmall motion the other end lies
in the arch, and the lower edge of the arm is dire&ed
to the middle of the centre-pin j the other plate, which
, is properly the vane, is about two inches long, being
fixed perpendicularly to the other plate, at about half
an inch diftance from that end next the arch 5 this vane
may be ufed either by its fhade or by the folar fpot
call; by a convex lens placed therein. And, becaufe the
wood-work is often apt to warp or twift, therefore this
vane may be rectified by the help of a fcrew, fo that the
warping of the inftrument may occafion no error in the
obfervation, which is performed in the following man¬
ner : Set the line G on the vernier againft a degree on
the upper limb of the quadrant, and turn the fcrew on
the baekfide of the limb forward or backward, till the
hole in the fight-vane, the centre of the glafs, and the
funk fpot in the horizon-vane, lie in a right line.
To find the fun’s altitude by this inftrument : Turn
your back to the fun, holding the inftrument by the
ftaff with your right hand, fo that it be in a vertical
plane pafling through the fun ; apply your eye to the
fight-vane, looking through that and the horizon-vane
till you fee the horizon } with the left hand Hide the
quadrantal arch upwards, until the folar fpot or ftiade,
call by the fliade-vane, fall direflly on the fpot or flit
in the horizon-vane; then will that part of the quad¬
rantal arch, which is raifed above G or S (according
as the obfervation vefpedled either the folar fpot or
fhade) (how the altitude of the fun at that time. But if
the meridian altitude be required, the obfervation muft
be continued 5 and as the fun approaches the meridian,
the fea will appear through the horizon-vane, and then
is the obfervation finiftied ; and the degrees and mi¬
nutes, counted as before, will give the fun’s meridian
altitude : or the degrees counted from the lower limb
upwards will give the zenith-diftance.
4. Adams’s quadrant differs only from Cole’s qua¬
drant in having an horizontal vane, with the upper
part of the limb lengthened ; fo that the glafs, which
cafts the folar fpot on the horizon-vane, is at the fame
diftance from the horizon-vane as the fight-vane at the
end of the index.
5. Gunter’s quadrant, fo called from its inventor Ed¬
mund Gunter, befides the ufual apparatus of other
quadrants, has a ftereographical projedlion of the
fphere on the plane of the equinoftial. It has alfo
a kalendar of the months, next to the divifions of the
limb.
Ufe of Gunter's quadrant. 1. To find the fun’s me¬
ridian altitude for any given day, or the day of the
month for any given meridian altitude. Lay the thread
to the day of the month in the fcale next the limb ; and
the degree it cuts in the limb is the fun’s meridian al¬
titude. Thus the thread, being laid on the 15th of
May, cuts 590 30', the altitude fought; and, contrari-
ly, the thread, being fet to the meridian altitude, {hows
the day of the month. 2. To find the hour of the day.
Having put the bead, which Aides on the thread, to
the fun’s place in the ecliptic, obferve the fun’s alti¬
tude by the quadrant; then, if the thread be laid over
the fame in the limb, the bead will fall upon the hour
required. Thus fuppofe on the 10th of April, the*
fun being then in the beginning of Taurus, I obferve
the fun’s altitude by the quadrant to be 36°; I place
the bead to the beginning of Taurus in the ecliptic,
and lay the thread over 36° of the limb ; and find the
bead to fall on the hour-line marked three and nine ; ac¬
cordingly the hour is either nine in the morning or three
in the afternoon. Again, laying the bead on the hour
given, having firft re£Hfied or put it to the fun’s place,
the degree cut by the thread on the limb gives the alti ¬
tude. Note, the bead may be redlified otherwife, by
bringing
Quiubart.
QUA [ 577 1 QUA
Quadrant, bringing the thread to the day of the month, and the
— v beafd to the hour-line of 12. 3. To find the fun’s decli¬
nation from his place given, and contrariwife. Set the
bead to the fun’s place in the ecliptic, move the thread
to the line of declination, and the bead will cut the
degree of declination required. Contrarily, the bead
being adjufted to a given declination, and the thread
moved to the ecliptic, the bead will cut the fun’s place.
4. The fun’s place being given, to find his right afcen-
fion, or contrarily. Lay the thread on the fun’s place
in the ecliptic, and the degree it cuts on the limb is the
right afcenfion fought. Contrarily, laying the thread
on the right afcenfion, it cuts the fun’s place in the
ecliptic. 5. The fun’s altitude being given, to find his
azimuth, and contrariwife. Reftify the bead for the
time, as in the fecond article, and obferve the fun’s al¬
titude : bring the thread to the complement of that al¬
titude ; thus the bead will give the azimuth fought,
among the azimuth lines. 6. To find the hour of the
night from fome of the five ftars laid down on the qua¬
drant. (1.) Put the bead to the liar you would ob¬
ferve, and find how many hours it is off the meridian,
by article 2. (2.) Then, from the right afcenfion of
the ftar, fubtraft the fun’s right afcenfion converted in¬
to hours, and mark the difference ; which difference,
added to the obftrved hour of the ftar from the meri¬
dian, (hows how many hours the fun is gone from the
meridian, which is the hour of the night. Suppofe on
the 15th of May the fun is in the 4th degree of Ge¬
mini, I fet the bead to AnRurus; and, obferving his al¬
titude, find him to be in the weft about 520 high, and
the bead to fall on the hour-line of two in the afternoon ;
then will the hour be 11 hours 50 minutes paft noon,
or to minutes (hort of midnight: for 62°, the fun’s
right afcenfion, converted into time, makes four hours
eight minutes ; which, fubtra&ed from 13 hours 58 mi¬
nutes, the right afcenfion of AnRurus, the remainder
will be nine hours 50 minutes ; which added to two
hours, the obferved diftance of Arfturus from the me¬
ridian, (hows the hour of the night to be II hours 50
minutes.
The mural quadrant has been already defcribed under
the article Astronomy. It is a moft important inftru-
ment, and has been much improved by Mr Ramfden,
who has diftinguilhed himfelf by the accuracy of his di-
vifions, and by the manner in which he finifties the
planes by working them in a vertical pofition. He
places the plumb-line behind the inftrument, that there
may be no neceflity for removing it when we take an
ebfervation near the zenith. His manner of fufpending
the glafs, and that of throwing light on the objeft-glais
and on the divifions at the fame time, are new, and im¬
provements that deferve to be noticed. Thofe of eight
feet, which he has made for the obfervatories of Padua
and Vilna, have been examined by Dr Malkelyne j and
the greateft error does not exceed two feconds and a half.
That of the fame fize for the obfervatory of Milan is in
a very advanced ftate. The mural quadrant, of fix
feet at Blenheim, is a moft admirable inftrument. It
is fixed to four pillars, which turn on two.pivots, fo
that it may be put to the north and to the fonth in one
minute. It was for this inftrument Mr Ramfden in¬
vented a method of reftifying the arc of 90 degrees, on
which an able aftronomer had darted fome difficulties j
but by means of an horizontal line and a plumb-line,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
forming a kind df crofs, without touching the circle,
he ftiowed him that there was not an error of a fingle
fecond in the 90 degrees ; and that the difference was
occafioned by a mural quadrant of Bird, in w hich the
arc of 90 degrees w'as too great by feveral feconds, and
which had never been rectified by fo nice a method as
that of Mr Ramfden.
But the quadrant is not the inftrument which ftands
higheft in Mr Ramfden’s opinion j it is the complete
circle : and he has demonftrated to M. de la Lande,
that the former muft be laid afide, if we would arrive at
the utmoft exaftnefs of which an obfervation is capable.
His principal reafons are: 1. The leaft variation in the
centre is perceived by the two diametrically oppofite
points. 2. The circle being worked on the turn, the
furface is always of the greateft accuracy, which it is
impoflible to obtain in the quadrant. 3. We may al¬
ways have two meafures of the fame arc, which will
ferve for the verification of each other. 4. The firft
point of the divifion may be verified everyday with the
utmoft facility. 5. The dilatation of the metal is uni¬
form, and cannot produce any error. 6. This inftru¬
ment is a meridian glafs at the fame time. 7. It alfo
becomes a moveable azimuth circle by adding a hori¬
zontal circle beneath its axis, and then gives the refrac¬
tions independent of the menfuration of time.
6. Hadley’s quadrant is an inftrument of vaft utility
both in navigation and practical afironornv. It derives
its name from Mr Hadley, who firft publiftied an ac¬
count of it, though the firft thought originated with
the celebrated Dr Hooke, and was completed by Sir
Ifaac Newton (fee Astronomy, N° 32. and alfo N° 17.
and 22.). I he utility of this quadrant arifes from the
accuracy and precifion with which it enables us to de¬
termine the latitude and longitude j and to it is naviga¬
tion much indebted for the very great and rapid advances
it lias made of late years. It is eafy to manage, and of
extenfive ufe, requiring no peculiar fteadinefs of hand,
nor any fuch fixed bafis as is neceffary to other aftro-
nomical inftruments. It is ufed as an inftrument for
taking angles in maritime furveying, and with equal fa¬
cility at the mart head as upon the deck, by which its
fphere of obfervation is much extended ; for fuppofing
many iflands to be vifible from the mart head, and only
one from deck, no ufeful obfervation can be made by
any other inftrument. But by this, angles may be ta¬
ken at the mart head from the one vifible objeft with
great exa&nefs; and further taking angles from
heights, as hills, or a fhip maft’s head, is almoft the
only way of defcribing exactly the figure and extent of
fhoals.
It has been objected to the ufe of this inftrument for
furveying, that it does not meafure the horizontal angles,
by which alone a plan can be laid down. This obje&ion,
however true in theory, may be reduced in pra<fticeby a
little, caution ; and Mr Adams has given very good di-
re<ff ions for doing fo.
Notwith(landing, however, the manifeft fuperiority
of this inftrument over thofe that were in ufe at the
time of its publication, it was many years before the
failors could be perfuaded to adopt it, and lay afide
their imperfect and inaccurate inftruments, fo great is
the difficulty to remove prejudice, and emancipate the
mind from the fiavery of opinion. - No inftrument has
undergone, fmce the original invention, more changes
4 D than
Quadrant®
QUA
[ 578 ]
QUA
than the quadrant of Hadley 5 of the various altera¬
tions, many had no better foundation than the caprice
of the makers, who by thefe attempts have often ren¬
dered the inftrument more complicated in conftiuaion,
and more difficult in ufe, than it was in its original
^3It is an effential property of this inftrument, derived
from the laws of refleaion, that half degrees on the arc
anfwer to whole ones in the angles meafured : hence an
oftant, or the eighth part of a circle, or 45 degrees on
the arch, ferves to meafure 90 degrees •, and fextants
■will meafure an angular diftance of 120 degrees, though
the arqh 'of the inftrument is no more than 60 degrees.
It is ft;om this property that foreigners term that in¬
ftrument an oRant, which we. ufually call a quadrant,
and which in eff«a it is. This property reduces in¬
deed confiderably the bulk of the inftrument: but at
the fame time it calls for the utmoft accuracy in the
divifions, as every error on the arch is doubled m the
obfervation. . ,
Another effential, and indeed an invaluable, proper¬
ty of this inftrument, whereby it is rendered peculiarly
advantageous in marine obfervations, is, that it is not
liable to be difturbed by the (hip’s motion; for provid¬
ed the mariner can fee diftinitly the two objefts in the
field of his inftrument, no motion nor vacillation of the
fhip will injure his obfervation. _ _
Thirdly, the errors to which it is liable are readily
difcovered and eafily reaified, while the application and
ufe of it is facile and plain.
To find whether the two furfaces of any one ot the
reflecting glaffes be parallel, apply your eye at end
of it, and obferve the image of fome objeCt reflected
very’obliquely from it; if that image appear Angle,
and well-defined about the edges, it is a proof that the
furfaces are parallel: on the contrary, if the edge of
the refleded images appear raided, as if it threw a
(hadow from it, or feparated like two edges, it is a
proof that the two furfaces of the glafs are inclined to
each other : if the image in the fpeculum, particularly
if that image be the fun, be viewed through a fmall te-
lefcope, the examination will be more perfed.
To find whether the furface of a refleding glafs be
plane. Choofe two diftant objeds, nearly on a level
with each other : hold the inftrument in an horizontal
pofition, view the left-hand objed diredly through the
tranfparent part of the horizon-glafs, and move the in¬
dex till the refleded image of the other is feen below it
in the filvered part; make the two images unite juft
at the line of feparation, then turn the inftrument round
flowly on its own plane, fo as to make the united images
move along the line of feparation of the horizon-glafs.
If the images continue united without receding from
each other, or varying their refpedive pofitio'n, the re¬
fleding furface is a good plane.
To find if the two furfaces of a red or darkening glafs
are parallel and perfedly plane. This muft be done by
means of the fun when it is near the meridian, in the fol¬
lowing manner : hold the fextant vertically, and dired
the fight to fome objed in the horizon, or between you
and the (ky, under the fun ; turn down the red glafs and
move the index till the refleded image of the fun is in
eontad with the objed feen diredly : fix then the index,
and turn the red glafs round in its fquare frame ; view
the fun’s image and objed immediately, and if the fun’s
a
image is neither raifed nor depreffed, but continues in Quadrant,
contad with the objed below, as before, then the fur-' ' * ^
faces of the darkening glafs are true.
For a more particular defcription of Hadley’s qua-
drant, and the mode of ufing it, fee Navigation,
Book II. chap. i. *
This inftrument has undergone feveral improvements
fince its firft invention, and among thefe improvers muft
be ranked Mr Ramfden. He found that the effentiai
parts of the quadrant had not a fufficient degree of fo-
lidity; the fridion at the centre was too great, and
in general the alidada might be moved feveral minutes
without any change in the pofition of the mirror ; the
divifions were commonly very inaccurate, ^nd Mr Ramf¬
den found that Abbe de la Caille did not exceed the
truth in eftimating at five minutes the error to which
an obferver was liable in taking the diftance between
the moon and a ftar ; an error capable of producing a
miftake of 50 leagues in the longitude. On this ac¬
count Mr Ramfden changed the principle of conftruc-
tion of the centre, and made the inftrument in fuch a
manner as never to give an error of more than half a
minute ; and he has now brought them to fuch a de¬
gree of perfedion as to warrant it not more than, fix
feconds in a quadrant of fifteen inches. Since the time
of having improved them, Mr Ramfden has conftrufted
an immenfe number; and in feveral which have been
carried to the Eaft Indies and America, the deficiency
has been found no greater at their return .than.it had
been determined by examinations before their being ta¬
ken out. Mr Ramfden has made them from 15 inches
to an inch and a half, in the latter of which the minutes
are eafily diftinguiffiable ; but he prefers for general ufe
thofe of 10 inches, as being more eafily handled than
the greater, and at the fame time capable of equal ac¬
curacy. See Sextant.
A great improvement was alfo made in the con-
ftru&ion of this quadrant by Mr Peter Dollond, fa¬
mous for his invention of achromatic telefcopes. The
glaffes of the quadrants ffiould be perfeft planes, and
have their furfaces perfeftly parallel to one another. By
a pradice of feveral years, Mr. Dollond found out me¬
thods of grinding them of this form to great exadl-
nefs ; but the advantage which (hould have arifen from
the goodnefs of the glaffes was often defeated by the
index-glafs being bent by the frame which contains it.
To prevent this, Mr Dollond contrived the frame fo,
that the glafs lies on three points, and the part that
preffes on the front of the glafs has alfo three points op-
pofite to the former. Thefe points are made to confine
the glafs by three fcrews at the back, a£ling di.iecily
oppofite to the points between which the glafs is pla¬
ced. The principal improvements, how.ever, are in the
methods of adjufting the glaffes, particularly for the
back-obfervation. The method formerly praftifed tor
adjufting that part of the inftrument by means of the
oppofite horizons at fea, was attended with fo many
difficulties that it was fcarcely ever ufed : for fo little
dependence could be placed on the obfervations taken
this way, that the bed Hadley’s lextants, made for the
purpofe of obferving the diftances of the moon from the
fun or fixed ftars, have been always made without the
horizon-glafs for the back-obfervation ; for want ot
- which, many valuable obfervations of the fun and moon
have been loft, when their diftance exceeded 120 de¬
grees.
QUA
Quadrant* grees. To make the adjuftment of the back-obferva-
*—tion eafy and exa£t, he applied an index to the back
horizori-glafs, by which it may be moved in a parallel
pofition to the index-glafs, in order to give it the two ad-
juftments in the fame manner as the fore horizon-glafs
is adjufted. Then, by moving the index to which the
back horizon-glafc is fixed exa&ly 90 degrees (which
is known by the divifions made for that purpofe), the
glafs will thereby be fet at right angles to the index-
glafs, and will be properly adjufted for ufej and the
obfervations may be made with the fame accuracy by
this as by the fore-obfervation. To adjuft thehorizon-
glafles in the perpendicular pofition to the plane of the
inftrument, he contrived to move each of them by a
fingle fcrew, which goes though the frame of the qua¬
drant, and is turned by means of a milled head at the
back; which may be done by the obferver while he is
looking at the object. To thefe improvements alfo
he added a method invented by Dr Malkelyne, of pla¬
cing darkening-glaffes behind the horizon-glafles. Thefe,
which ferve for darkening the objedt feen by diredl
vifion, in adjufting the inftrument by the fun or moon,
he placed in fuch a manner as to be turned behind the
fore horizon-glafs, or behind the back horizon-glafs:
there are three of thefe glaffes of different degrees of
darknefs.
We have been the more particular in our defcription
and ufe of Hadley’s quadrant, as it is undoubtedly the
beft hitherto invented.
7. Horodidlical quadrant, a pretty commodious in¬
ftrument, lb called from its ufe in telling the hour of
the day.—Its conftrudtion is this : From the centre of
the quadrant, C, fig. 3. whofe limb AB is divided into
90°, defcribe feven concentric circles at intervals at
pleafure; and to thefe add the figns of the zodiac, in
the order reprefented in the figure. Then applying a
ruler to the centre C and the limb AB, mark upon
the feveral parallels the degrees correfponding to the
altitude of the fun when therein, for the given hours j
conneft the points belonging to the fame hour with a
curve line, to which add the number of the hour. To
the radius C A fit a couple of fights, and to the centre
of the quadrant C tie a thread with a plummet, and
upon the thread a bead to Aide. If now the thread be
brought to the parallel wherein the fun is, and the qua¬
drant directed to the fun, till a vifual ray pafs through
the fights, the bead will fhow the hour} for the plum¬
met, in this fituation, cuts all the parallels in the de¬
grees correfponding to the fun’s altitude. Since the
bead is in the parallel which the fun defcribes, and
through the degrees of altitude to which the fun is ele¬
vated every hour there pafs hour lines, the bead muft
Ihow the prefent hour. Some reprefent the hour-lines
by arches of circles, or even by ftraight lines, and that
without any fenfible error.
8. Sutton’s or Collins’s quadrant (fig. 4.) is a ftereo-
graphic proje£Hon of one quarter of the fpbere be¬
tween the tropics, upon the plane of the ecliptic, the
eye being in its north pole: it is fitted to the latitude
of London. The lines running from the right hand
to the left are parallels of altitude; and thofe crofting
them are azimuths. The leffer of the two circles
bounding the proje&ion, is one-fourth of the tropic of
Capricorn; the greater is one-fourth of that of Cancer.
The two ecliptics are drawn from a point on the left
E 579 1
QUA
?• 3'
M-
edge of the quadrant, with the charades of the figns Quadrant,
upon them; and the. two horizons are drawn from the' ■"v""1
fame point. The limb is divided both into degrees and
time ; and, by having the fun’s altitude, the hour of
the day may be found here to a minute. The qua-
drantal arches next the centre contain the kalendar of
months; and under them, in another arch, is the fun’s
declination. On the projection are placed feveral of
the moft noted fixed ftars between the tropics; and the
next below the projection is the quadrant and line of
lhadows. To find the time of the fun’s rifing or fel¬
ting, his amplitude, his azimuth, hour of the day, &c»
by this quadrant: lay the thread over the day and the
month, and bring the bead to the proper ecliptic, either
of fummer or winter, according to the feafon, which is
called then, moving the thread, bring the bead
to the horizon, in which cafe the thread will cut the
limb in the time of the fun’s rifing or fetting before or
after fix; and at the fame time the bead will cut the
horizon in the degrees of the fun’s amplitude.—Again,
obferving the fun’s altitude with the quadrant, and fup-
pofing it found 450 on the fifth of May, lay the thread
over the fifth of May, bring the bead to' the fummer
ecliptic, and carry it to the parallel of altitude 450; in
which cafe the thread will cut the limb at 550 ij', and
the hour will be feen among the hour-lines to be either
41' part nine in the morning, or 19' paft two in the af¬
ternoon.—-Laftly, the bead among the azimuths (hows
the fun’s diftance from the fouth 50° 41'. But note,
that if the fun’s altitude be lefs than what it is at fix
o’clock, the operation muft be performed among thofe
parallels above the upper horizon, the head being recti¬
fied to the winter ecliptic.
9. Sinical quadrant (fig. 5.) confifts of feveral con-Fig.
centric quadrantal arches, divided into eight equal parts
by radii, with parallel right lines crofting each other
at right angles. Now any one of the arches, as BC,
may reprefent a quadrant of any great circle of the
fphere, but is chiefly ufed for the horizon or meridian.
If then BC be taken for a quadrant of the horizon,
either of the fides, as AB, may reprefent the meridian;
and the other fide, AC, will reprefent a parallel, or line
of eaft and weft: and all the other lines, parallel to AB,
will be alfo meridians; and all thofe parallel to AC,
eaft and weft lines, or parallels.—Again, the eight fpa-
ces into which the arches are divided by the radii, repre¬
fent the eight points of the compafs in a quarter of the
horizon; each containing li° 15'. The arch BC is
likewife divided into 90°, and each degree fubdivided
into 1 2, diagonal-wife. To the centre is fixed a thread,
which, being laid over any degree of the quadrant, ferves
to divide the horizon.
If the finical quadrant be taken for a fourth part of
the meridian, one fide thereof, AB, may be taken for
the common radius of the meridian and equator; and
then the other, AC, will be half the axis of the world.
The degrees of the circumference, BC, will reprefent
degrees of latitude; and the parallels to the fide AB,
affumed from every point of latitude to the axis AC,
will be radii of the parallels of latitude, as likewife the
fine complement of thofe latitudes.
Suppofe, then, it be required to find the degrees b£
longitude contained in 83 of the leffer leagues in the
parallel of 48°; lay the thread over 48° of latitude on
the circumference, and count thence the 83 leagues on
4 ^
qua
t 580 ]
QUA
Quadrant. AB, beginning at A ; this will terminate in H, allow-
1. ,   ing every fmall interval four leagues. Then tracing out
the parallel HE, from the point H to the thread j the
part AE of the thread (hows that 125 greater or equx-
no£Hal leagues make 6o° 1> anc^ therefore that the 83
leirer leagues AH, which make the difference of longi¬
tude of the courfe, and are equal to the radius of the
parallel HE, make 6o° 15' of the faid parallel.
If the (hip fails an oblique courfe, fuch courfe, be-
fides the north and fouth greater leagues, gives leffer
leagues eafterly and wefterly, to be reduced to degrees
of longitude of the equator. But thefe leagues being
made peither on the parallel of departure, nor on that
of arrival, but in all the intermediate ones, we muft
find a mean proportional parallel between them. To
find this, we have on the inftrument a fcale of crofs la¬
titudes. Suppofe then it were required to find a mean
parallel between the parallels of 4O0 and 6o° ; with
your compaifes take the middle between the 40th and
60th degree on this fcale : the middle point will termi¬
nate againft the 51ft degree, which is the mean parallel
required.
The principal ufe of the finical quadrant is to form
triangles upon, fimilar to thofe made by a fiiip’s way
with the meridians and parallels •, the fides of which
triangles are meafured by the equal intervals between
the concentric quadrants and the lines N and S, E and
: and every fifth line and arch is made deeper than
the reft. Now, fuppofe a (hip to have failed 1 50 leagues
north-eaft, one-fourth north, which is the third point,
and makes an angle of 330 44' with the north part of
the meridian : here are given the courfe and diftance
failed, by which a triangle may be formed on the in¬
ftrument fimilar to that made by the (hip’s courfe ; and
hence the unknown parts of the triangle may be found.
Thus, fuppofing the centre A to reprefent the place of
departure, count, by means of the concentric circles along
the point the (hip failed on, viz. AD, 150 leagues:
then in the triangle AED, fimilar to that of the (hip’s
courfe, find AE~difference of latitude, and DErrdif-
ference of longitude, which muft be reduced according
to the parallel of latitude come to.
Fig. 6. 10. Gunner’s quadrant (fig. 6.), fometimes called
gunner's fquare, is that ufed for elevating and pointing
cannon, mortars, &c. and confifts of two branches ei¬
ther of brafs or wood, between which is a quadrantal
arch divided into 90 degrees, beginning from the (horter
branch, and furnifhed with a thread and plummet, as
reprefented in the figure.—The ufe of the gunner’s
quadrant is extremely eafy; for if the longeft branch
be placed in the mouth of the piece, and it be elevated
till the plummet cut the degree neceffary to hit a propo-
fed objeft, the thing is done. Sometimes on one of the
furfaces of the long branch are noted the divifion of dia¬
meters and weights of iron bullets, as alfo the bores of
pieces.
^UALRANT of Altitude, is an appendage of the arti¬
ficial globe, confiding of a lamina, or flip of brafs, the
length of a quadrant of one of the great circles of the
globe, and graduated. At the end, where the divifion
terminates, is a nut rivetted on, and furnifhed with a
fcrew, by means whereof the inftmment is fitted on the
meridian, and moveable round upon the rivet to all
joints of the horizon.—Its ufe is to ferve as a fcale in
4t
Quadra.
ture.
meafuring altitudes, amplitudes, azimuths, &c. See Quadrant
Astronomy.
QUADRANTAL, in Antiquity, the name of a
veffel in ufe among the Romans for the meafuring of.
liquids. It was at firft called amphora; and afterwards
quadrantal, from its form, which was Iquare every way
like a die. Its capacity was 80 librae, or pounds of
water, which made 48 fextaries, two urn*, or eight
congii.
QUADRAT, a mathematical inftrument, called alfo
a Geometrical Square, and Lute of Shadows : it is fre¬
quently an additional member on the face of the com¬
mon quadrant, as alfo on thofe of Gunter’s and Sutton’s
quadrants.
Quadrat, in Printing, a piece of metal ufed to fill
up the void fpaces between words, &c. There are qua¬
drats of different fizes •, as m-quadrats, n-quadrats, &c.
which are refpe&ively of the dimenfions of thefe letters,
only lower, that they may not receive the ink.
QUADRATIC equations, in Algebra, thofe
wherein the unknown quantity is of two dimenfions, or
raifed to the fecond power. See Algebra.
QUADRATRIX, in Geometry, a mechanical line,
by means whereof we can find right lines equal to the
circumference of circles, or other curves, and their fe-
veral parts.
QUADRATURE, in Geometry, denotes the fqua-
fing, or reducing a figure to a fquare. TL hus, the find¬
ing of a fquare, which (hall contain juft as much fur-
face or area as a circle, an ellipfis, a triangle, &c. is
the quadrature of a circle, ellipfis, &c. I he quadra¬
ture, efpecially among the ancient mathematicians, was
a great poftulatum. The quadrature of re&ilineal fi¬
gures is eafily found, for it is merely the finding their
areas or furfaces, i. e. their fquares ; for the fquares of
equal areas are eafily found by only extra&ing the roots
of the areas thus found. The quadrature of curvilinear
fpaces is of more difficult inveftigation ; and in this re-
fpeft extremely little was done by the ancients, except
the finding thequadrature of the parabola by Archimedes.
In 1657, Sir Paul Neil, Lord Brouncker, and Sir Chrif-
topher Wren, geometrically demonftrated the equality
of feme curvilinear fpaces to re£Hlinear fpaces; and foon
after the like was proved both at home and abroad of
other curves, and it was afterwards brought under an
analytical calculus $ the firft fpecimen of which was
given to the public in 1688 by Mercator, in a demon-
ftration of Lord Brouncker’s quadrature of the hyper¬
bola, by Dr Wallis’s reduflion of a fraction into an in¬
finite feries by divifion. Sir Ifaac Newton, however,,
had before difcovered a method of attaining the quan¬
tity of all quadruple curves analytically by his fluxions
before 1668. It is difputed between Sir Chriftopher
Wren and Mr Huyghens which of them firft difcovered
the quadrature of any determinate cycloidal fpace. Mr
Leibnitz afterwards found that of another fpace ; and in
1669 Bernoulli difcovered the quadrature of an infinity
of cycloidal fpaces both fegments and fe&ors, &c. See
Squaring the Circle.
Quadrature, in Aflronomy, that afpeft of the moon
when (he is 90° diftant from the fun > or when (he is in
a middle point of her orbit, between the points of con-
junftion and oppofition, namely, in the firft and third
quarters. See Astronomy Index.
QUADRATUS,,
QUADRANT.
Plate rrrr/Arw.
Fig 6 .
Gicuiers Qumlrunt .
Fig .J.
Fig. f'.
Sirttous Q iiailrjmf.
QUA [ 5Si ] QUA
;jua<3ratus QUADRATUS, in Anatomy, p. name given to feve-
ll _ ral mufcles on accoynt of their fquare figure. See A-
j^iadnlle. NATOMy) Table of the Mufcles.
QUADREL, in Building, a kind of artificial ftone,
fo called from its being perfectly fquare. The quadrels
are made of a chalky earth, &c. and dried in the lhade
for two years. Thefe were formerly in great requeft
among the Italian architects.
OUADRIGA, in Antiquity, a car or chariot drawn
by four horfes. On the reverfes of medals, we fre¬
quently fee the emperor or Victory in a quadriga, hold¬
ing the reins of the horfes j whence thefe coins are,
among the curious, called nummi quadrigati, and viBo-
riati.
Q^UADRI LATERAL, in Geometry,n figure whofe
perimeter confifts of four fides and four angles j whence
it is alfo called a quadrangular figure.
QUADRILLE, a little troop or company of cava¬
liers, pompoufly dreffed, and mounted for the perform¬
ance of caroufals, jufts, tournaments, runnings at the
ring, and other gallant divertifements.
Quadrille, a game played by four perfons, writh
40 cards; which are the remains of a pack after the
four tens, nines, and eights are difearded ; thefe are
dealt three and three, and one round four, to the right-
hand player ; and the trump is made by him that plays
with or without calling, by naming fpades, clubs, dia¬
monds, or hearts, and the fuit named is trumps. If the
perfon who names the trump Ihould miftake, and fay
fpades inftead of clubs, or if he name two fuits, the firft
named is the trump.
In this game the order of the cards, according to their
natural value, is as follows : of hearts and diamonds,
king, queen, knave, ace, deuce, three, four, five, fix, feven;
in all 10 : of fpades and clubs, king, queen, knave, feven,
fix, five, four, three, deuce ; in all 9. The reafon why
the ace of fpades and ace of clubs are not mentioned, is,
becaufe they are always trumps in whatever fuit that is
played. The ace of fpades being always the firlt, and
the ace of clubs the third trump, for the cards ranked
according to their value when trumps ftand in the fol¬
lowing order.
Hearts and diamonds, SPADILL, or the ace of fpades-;
MANILL, the feventh of the two red fuits ; BASTO, the
ace of clubs ; FONTO, the ace of hearts and diamonds ;
king, queen, knave, deuce, three, four, five, fix ; in all 12.
Spades and clubs, spadill, the ace of fpades, manill,
the deuce of fpades and clubs, BASTO the ace of clubs,
king, queen, knave, feven, fix,five, four, three; m all 11.
It is here to be obferved, that the card which is manill
and the fecond trump, is always the lowed in its fuit
when not trumps; and that the ace of hearts or dia¬
monds, which when trump is above the king, is below
the knave when not trump.
There are three matadores ; fpadill, manill, and ha¬
llo j the privilege of which is, that when the player
has no other trumps but them, and trumps are led, he
fs not obliged to play them, but may play what card
he thinks proper, provided, however, that the trump
led is of an inferior rank j but if fpadill (hould be led,
he that has manill or baflo only is obliged to play it;
it is the fame of manill ballo, with refpefl to the lupe-
rior maladore always forcing the inferior. Though there
are properly but three matadores, neverthelefs, all thofe
trumps W'hich follow the three firft without interruption,
are likewife called matadores j but the three firft only
enjoy the privilege above mentioned.
Each perfon is to play as he judges moft convenient
for his own game. He is not to encourage his friend
to play j but each perfon ought to know what to do
when it is his turn to play. The (takes confift of feven
equal mils or controls, as they are fometimes called,
comprifing the ten counters and fifties, which are given
to each player. A mil is equal to ten fifti, and each fi(h
to ten counters: the value of the fifh is according to the
players agreement, as alfo the number of tours, which-
are generally fixed at ten, and marked by turning the
corners of a card.
If the cards (hould happen not to be dealt right, or
that there (hould be two cards of the fame fort, as
two deuces of fpades, for example, there muft be a
new deal \ provided it is difeovered before the cards
are all played. The cards muft likewife be dealt over
again in cafe a card is turned in dealing, as it might
be of prejudice to him who (hould have it, and of
courfe if there (hould be. feveral cards turned. There
is no penalty for dealing wrong, he who does fo muft
only deal again.
When each player has got his ten cards, he that ia
on the right hand of the dealer, after examining his.
game, and finding his hand fit to play, alks if they
play ; or if he has not a good hand, he paffes, and fo
the (econd, third, and fourth. All the four may pafs j.
but he that has fpadill, after having fliown or named
it, is obliged to play by calling a king. Whether
the deal is played in this manner, or that one of the
players has aftced leave, nobody choofing to play without
calling, the eldeft hand muft begin the play, firft na¬
ming the fuit, and the king which he calls ; he who
wins the trick plays another card, and fo of the reft till
the game is finifhed. The tricks then are counted j and
if the ombre, that is, he who (lands the game, has to¬
gether with him who is the king called, fix tricks, they
have won and are paid the game, the confolation, and
the matadores, if they have them, and divide what is up¬
on the game, and the beads if there are any. But if
they make only five tricks, it is a remife, and they are
beaded, what goes upon the game, paying to the other
players the confolation and the matadores. If the tricks
are equally divided betwixt them, they are likewife bead¬
ed $ and if they make only four tricks between them, it
is a remife j if they make lefs they lofe codill (a),
and in that cafe they pay to their adverfaries what they
(hould have received if they had wmn j that is, the
game, the confolation, and the matadores, if they have
them, and are beaded what is upon the game : they
who win codill, divide the (lakes. The bead and every
thing elfe that is paid, is paid equally betwixt the
two lofers ; one half by him that calls, and the other half
by him that is called, as well in cafe of codill as a re¬
mife j „
(a) Codill is when thofe who defend the pool make more tricks than they who ftand the game j which is call- -
winning the codill..
QufldriJltj.
L m1
QUA t 58
Quadrille, mife : unlefs the ombre does not make three tricks, in
* which cafe he that is called is not only exempted trom
paying half the bead, but alfo the game, the coniolation,
and the matadores if there are any, which the ombre
in that cafe pays alone $ and as well in cafe or a cod 11
as a remife. This is done in order to oblige players
not to play games that are unreafonable. There is ne-
verthelefs, one cafe in which if the ombre makes only
one trick, he is not beaded alone, and that is, when
not having a good hand he paffes, and all the other
players have paffed likewife ; he having fpadill is obliged
to play. Here it would be Unjud to oblige him to make
three or four tricks 5 in this cafe, therefore, he that is
called pays one half of the lofings. For which rea on
he that has fpadill with a bad hand, diould pafs, that
if he is afterwards obliged to play by calling a king
(which is called forced fpadill), he may not be beaded
alone. He that has once paffed cannot be admitted
to play ; and he that has alked leave cannot refufe to
play, unlefs any one (hould offer to play without call-
ing. c
He that has four kings, may call a queen to one ot
his kings, except that which is trump. He that wants
one or more kings, may call one of thofe kings ; but
in that cafe, he mud make fix tricks alone, and confe-
quently he wins or lofes alone. ’I he king of that fuit
in which he plays cannot be called. No one (hould
play out of his turn, although he is not beaded for fo
doing. If he who is not the elded hand has the king
called, and plays fpadill, manill, or bado, or even the
king called in order to (how that he is the friend, ha¬
ving other kings that he fears the ombre diould trump,
he is not to be allowed to go for the vole ; he is even
beaded, if it appears to be done with that intent. It
is not permitted to fhow a hand though codill may al¬
ready be won ; that it may be feen whether the ombre
is beaded alone. If the ombre or his friend fhows
their cards before they have made fix tricks, thinking
that they have made them, and there appears a pofii-
bility of preventing their making them, the other
players can oblige them to play their cards as they think
proper.
A player need only name his fuit when he plays,
without calling a king. He who plays without calling
mud make fix tricks alone to win $ for all the other
players are united againd him, and they are to do what
they can to prevent his winning. He who plays with¬
out calling, is admitted to play in preference to him
who would play with calling ; however, if he that has
afked leave will play without calling, he has the pre¬
ference of the other who would force him. Thefe are
the two methods of play without calling that are called
forced.
As he who plays without calling does not divide the
winnings with any perfon, he confequently, when he
lofes, pays all by himfelf: if he lofes by remife he is
beaded, and pays each of the other players the confo-
lation, the fans appeller (which is commonly, but im¬
properly, called the fans prendre'), and the matadores
if there are any *, if he lofes codill he is likewife bead¬
ed and pays to each playpr what he would have re¬
ceived from each if he had won. They who win co¬
dill divide what there is j and if there are any coun¬
ters remaining, they belong to him of the three who
iball have fpadill or the highed trump the next deal. It
2 ] QUA
is the fame with regard to him who calls one of his own Quadrille,
kings $ he wins alone or lofes alone as in the other cafe, » 1 -J
except the fans appeller, which he does not pay if he
lofes, or receive if he wins, although he plays alone.
If he plays fans appeller, though he may have a fure
game, he is obliged to name his fuit; which if he ne-
gledts to do, and diows his cards, and fays 44 I play fans
appeller j” in that cafe either of the other players can
oblige him to play in what fuit he pleafes, although he
diould not have one trump in that fuit.
He who has aiked leave is not permitted to play fans
appeller, unlefs he is forced •, in which cafe, as was
faid before, he has the preference of the other that
forces him.
A player is not obliged to trump when he has none
of the fuit led, nor play a higher card in that fuit if
he has it, being at his option although he is the lad
player, and the trick diould belong to the ombre $ but
he Is obliged to play in the fuit led if he can, other-
wife he renounces. If he feparates a card from his
game and (hows it, he is obliged to play it, if by not
doing it the game may be prejudiced, or if he can give
any intelligence to his friend ; but efpecially if it diould
be a matadore.—He that plays fans appeller, or by
calling himfelf, is not fubjeft to this law. He may
turn the tricks made by the other players, and count
what has been played as often as it is his turn to play,
but not otherwife. If indead of turning a player’s tricks,
he turns and fee his game, or diows it to the other
players, he is beaded, together with him whofe cards
he turned $ and each of them mud pay one half of the
bead.
If any one renounces, he is beaded as often as he
has'renounced and it is detedled j but a renounce is not
made till the trick is turned. If the renounce is difeo-
vered before the deal is finidied, and has been detrimen-:
tal to the game, the cards mud be taken up again, and
the game replayed from that trick where the renounce
was made ^ but if the cards are all played, the bead is
dill made, and the cards mud not be replayed •, except
there {hould be feveral renounces in the fame deal : then
they are to be played again, unlefs the cards {hould be
mixed. If feveral beads are made in the fame deal,
they all go together, unlefs it is otherwife agreed at the
beginning of the party *, and when there are feveral
beads, the greated always goes fird.
A great advantage accrues from being elded hand at
quadrille, which often renders it very difagreeable to the
red of the players, being obliged to pafs with a good
hand unlefs they choofe to play alone ; and when it hap¬
pens that the elded hand having alked leave, the fecond
player has three matadores, feveral trumps in back, and
all fmall cards, he cannot then even play alone $ and
having no chance of being called, he mud pafs with this
good hand. On account of which, this method has
been thought expedient to remedy this defeft of the
game ; each player having an opportunity of availing
himfelf of the goodnefs of his game, by adding to the
ufual method of playing the game that of the media-
teur, and the favourite fuit.
The fird thing to be obferved is that of drawing for
places, which is done in this manner: One of the
players takes four cards *, a king, a queen, a knave,
and an ace *, each player draws one of thefe cards ; and
commonly he who comes in lad, draws fird. The per-
I Quadrille,
j^uadripaf-
QUA [583
fon 'vvlio draws the king fits where he pleafes, the queen
at his right hand, the knave next the queen, and the
ace on the left of the king. The king draws the fa¬
vourite fuit. The number of cards and perfons is the
fame at this game as the other, and is played in the
fame manner.
The favourite fuit is determined by drawing a card
out of the pack, and is of the fame fuit, during the whole
party, of the card fo drawn.
A king is the mediateur, which is demanded of the
others by one of the players, who has a hand he ex-
pe£b to make five tricks of •, and through the afliftance
of this king he can play alone and make fix tricks.
In return for the king received, he .gives what card
he thinks proper with a fifh ; but muft give two fifh if
it is in the favourite fuit. He who alks by calling in the
favourite fuit, has the preference to him who afks by
calling in another ; he who alks with the mediateur, has
the preference to him who alks by calling in the favou¬
rite fuit, and by playing alone is obliged to make fix
tricks to win. He who alks with the mediateur in the
favourite fuit, has the preference to him who alks with
the mediateur in any other fuit, and is obliged to play
alone, and to make fix tricks.
If fans prendre is played in any other fuit than the
favourite, he who plays it has the preference to him
who alks only, or with the mediateur, or even he who
plays in the favourite fuit with the mediateur 5 and the
fans prendre in the favourite fuit has the preference to
all other players whatever.
The only difference between this method of playing
the game and the other is, that when one of the players
demands the mediateur he is obliged to play alone, and
to make fix tricks, as if he played fans prendre. In this
cafe he Ihould judge from the ftrength of his hand,
whether the aid of the king will enable him to play
alone or not.
With the mediateur and without the favourite fuit it
is played in this manner. The game is marked and
played the fame as in common, except that a filh extra¬
ordinary is given to him who plays the mediateur, and
to him who plays fans prendre $ that is, he who wins
the mediateur receives 13 counters from each \ and if
he lofes bv remife he pays 12 to each; and 13 if by
codill. The winner of fans prendre receives 17 coun¬
ters from each *, and if by remife he lofes, he pays 16
to each, and 17 if by codill.
The vole with the mediateur receives one fifh only,
as at common quadrille. The beafts are alfo the fame as
the common game. The laft game is generally played
double, and is called paulans ; but for thofe who choofe
to play a higher game, they may play the double colour,
which is called the Turk, and is double of the favourite
fuit. There is alfo a higher game than this, called the
au6de) which is paying whatever is agreed to him who
happens to hold the two aces in hiv hand.
We have omitted many things refpefling the mode
of marking the game, and playing the vole, becaufe
thefe are different in different cafes, and are to be learn¬
ed only by praftice. The game itfelf is a very infe¬
rior one ; but he who wifhes to know more of it, may
confult Hoyle’s games improved by James Beaufort, Efq.
from which we have, with very little alteration, taken
this article*.
QUADRIPARTITION, the dividing by four, or
I QUA
into four equal parts. Hence comes the term quadri- Quadripa*-
partite, the fourth part, or fomething divided into four. tmon „
QUADRUPEDS, in Zoology ; thofe animals which
have four limbs or legs proceeding from the trunk of *y n... ■<
their body. See Mammalia.
QUADRUPLE, four-fold, or fomething taken four
times, or multiplied by four, on which account it is the
converfe of quadripartition.
QUiESTOR, fee Questor.
QUAGGA, or Quacha. See Equus, Mammalia;
Index.
QUAIL'. See Tetrao, Ornithology Index.
Quails are to be taken by means of the call during
their whole wooing time, which lafts from April to
Auguft. The proper times for ufing the call are at
funrifing, at nine o’clock in the morning, at three in
the afternoon, and at funfet j for thefe are the natural
times of the quail’s calling. The notes of the cock
and hen quail are very different; and the fportfman who
expefls to fucceed in the taking them muff be expert in
both : for when the cock calls, the anfwer is to be made
in the hen’s note j and when the hen calls, the anfwer
is to be made in the cock’s. By this means they will
come up to the perfon, fo that he may, with great eafe,
throw the net over them and take them. If a cock-quail
be fingle, on hearing the hen’s note he will immediately
come; but if he have a hen already with him, he will
not forfake her. Sometimes, though only one quail an-
fwers to the call, there will three or four come up \ and
then it is beft to have patience, and not run to take up
the firft, but ftay till they are all entangled, as they
will foon be,.
The quail is a neat cleanly bird, and will not run
much into dirty or wet places : in dewy mornings, they
will often fly inftead of running to the call; and in this
cafe, it is beft to let them go over the net, if it fo hap¬
pens that they fly higher than its top ; and the fportf¬
man then changing fides, and calling again, the bird
will come back, and then will probably be taken in the
net.
The calls are to be made of a fmall leather purfe,
about two fingers wide, and four fingers long, and
made in the fhape of a pear ; this is to be fluffed half¬
full of horfe-hair, and at the end of it is to be placed a
fmall whittle, made of the bone of a rabbit’s leg, or
fome other fuch bone : this is to be about two inches
long, and the end formed like a flageolet, with a little
foft wax. This is to be the end fattened into the
purfe 5 the other is to be clofed up with the fame wax,
only that a hole is to be opened with a pin, to make
it give a diftinfl and clear found. To make this
found, it is to be held full in the palm of the hand,
with one of the fingers placed over the top of the wax }.
then the purfe is to be preffed, and the finger is to
(hake over the middle ef it, to modulate the found it
gives into a fort of (hake. This is the moft ufeful call j,
for it imitates the note of the hen quail, and feldom
fails to bring a cock to the net if there be one near the
place.
The call that imitates the note of the cock, and is
ufed to bring the hen to him, is to be about four inches
long, and above an inch thick $ it is to be made of a
piece of wire turned round and curled, and covered
with leather j and one end of it muft be clofed up with
a piece of flat wood, about the middle of which there
inuft
qua
"%iail, muft be a fmall thread or ftrap of leather, and at the
Quakers. ot]ier en(] js to be placed the fame fort of pipe, made
l'*^“ ' of bone, as is ufed in the other call. The noife is made
by opening and clofing the fpiral, and gives the fame
found that the cock does when he gives the hen a fignal
that he is near her. #
QUAKERS, a religious fociety, which took its rife
in England about the middle of the 17th century, and
rapidly found its way into other countries in Europe,
and into the Englifti fettlements in North America.—
The members of this fociety, we believe, called them-
felves at firft feehers, from their feeking the truth *, but
after the fociety was formed, they alfumed the appella¬
tion of friends. The name of quakers was given to
them by their enemies ; and though an epithet of re¬
proach, feems to be flamped upon them indelibly.
Their founder is generally believed to have been George
Fox, an illiterate flioemaker (fee George Fox'), but this
opinion has been lately controverted. An ingenious
* Ses writer * having found, or fancied, a fimilarity of fenti-
Month. ments among the ancient Druids and modern Quakers,
SePt feems to think that Fox muft have been nothing more
1793) art. S-t|)an a tooj empi0yed by certain deifts to pave the way
for their fyftem of natural religion,. by allegorizing the
diftinguilhing articles of the Chriftian faith.
It muft be confeffed, for experience will not allow it
to be denied, that extremes in religion are very apt to
beget each other; and if the deifts alluded to reafoned
from this faft, they could not have pitched upon a tool
fitter for their purpofe than George Fox. From his
works ft ill extant he appears to have been one of the
moft extravagant and abfurd enthufiafts that ever lived,
and to have fancied himfelf, in his apoftolic chara&er,
fomething infinitely fuperior to man. In a book called
News coming out of the North, (p. 15.), he fays of him¬
felf, “ I am the Door that ever was, the fame Chrift
yefterday, to-day, and for ever.” And in the intro-
duftion to his Battle-door for Teachers and Profeffhrs,
he fays, “ All languages are to me no more than duft,
who was before languages were.” But one of the
moft extraordinary and blafphemous things that he ever
wrote, is an anfwer to the Prote&or, who had required
him to promife not to difturb his government as then
eftabliftied. It is as follows :
“ I who am of the world called G : F: doth deny
the carrying or drawing any carnal fword again ft any,
or againft thee O: C: or any man, in the prefence of
the Lord I declare it, God is my witnefs, by wkom I
am moved to give this forth for the truth’s fake, from
him whom the world calls G: Fox, who is the fon of
God, who is fent to ftand a witnefs againft all violence
and againft the works of dafknefs, and to turn the peo¬
ple from darknefs to light, and to bring them from the
occafion of the war and from the occafion of the magi-
ftrates fword, which is a terror to the evil doer, which
a£ts contrary to the light of the Lord Jefus Chrifl;
^ u A
which is a praife to them that do well; which is a pro- Quakers.,
te£Uon to them that do well, and not the evil ; and ""““v—"•<
fuch foldiers as are put in place no falfe aecufers muft
be, no violence muft. do, but be content with their
wages : and that magiftrate bears not the fword in vain,
from under the occafion of that fword do I Lek to bring
people : my weapons are not carnal but fpiritual, and
my kingdom is not of this world; therefore with carnal
weapon I do not fight, but am from thofe things dead,
from him who is not of this world, called of the world
by the name of G: F: and this I am ready to feal with
my blood ; this I am moved to give forth for the truth’s
fake, who a witnefs ftands againfi: all unrighteoufnefs,
and all ungodlinefs, who a fufferer is for the righteous
feed’s fake, waiting for the redemption of it, who a
crown that is mortal feeks not, for that fadeth away j
but in the light dwells which comprehends that crown,
which light is the condemnation of all fuch, in which
light I witnefs the crown that is immortal, which fades
not away from him who to all your fouls is a friend,
for eftablifhing of righteoufnefs, and clearing the land
of evil doers, and a witnefs againft all the wicked in¬
ventions of man, and murderer’s plots, which anfw'er
fliall be with the light in all your confidences, which
makes no covenant with death ; to which light in you
all I fpeak, and am clear, G: F: who a new name hath,
which the world knows not (a).”
The Quakers, however, did not long entruft the de¬
fence of their principles to fuch finfelefs enthufiafts as
George Fox: They were joined by a number of learned,
ingenious, and pious men, who new-modelled their
creed ; and though they did not bring it to what is ge¬
nerally deemed the Chriftian ftandard, they fo reformed
it as that its tenets do not {hock common fenfe, nor the
duties prefiribed fiandalize a man of piety. The chief
of thefe reformers were George Keith, the celebrated
Penn, and our countryman Barclay. Keith was indeed
excommunicated for the liberties which he took with
the great apoftle ; but we have not a doubt but his
writings contributed to the moderation of Penn, and
to the elegant and mafterly apology of Barclay. From
that apology we felefted the fummary of their opinions
which was given in the former edition of this work ;
but they have lately publiftied fuch a fummary them-
felves, of which the reader will be pleafid with the
following ab ft raft :
They tell us, that about the beginning of the
17th century a number of men, diffatisfied with all
the modes of religious worfhip then known in the
world, withdrew from the communion of every vi-
fible church to feek the Lord in retirement. Among
thefe was their honourable elder George Fox, who
being quickened by the immediate touches of di¬
vine love, could not fatisfy his apprehenfions of duty
to God without direfting the people where to find
the like confolation and inftruftion. In the courfe of
1 584 1
(a) We have tranfcribed this letter from the theological works of Mr Leflie, where it is preferved in its ori¬
ginal form. The Quakers, after the death of their apoftle, expunged from their edition of it the words which
we have printed in Italics ; aftiamed, as we hope, of the blafphemy imputed to them : but that Mr Leflie’s copy
is authentic, is thus attefted by two of the friends, who faw Fox deliver it to the proteftor’s meffenger : “ We
are witneffes of this teftimony, whofe names in the flelh are, Tho. Adam.
Rob. Craven."
QUA
[ 535 ]
QUA
Quakers, his travels, he met with many feeking perfons in cir-
—' cmnftanees fimilar to his own, and thefe readily recei¬
ved his teitimony. 'They then give us a fhort account
of their fufferings and different fettlementsj and with a
degree of candour which does them infinite credit, they
vindicate Charles II. from the charadter of a perfe-
cutorj acknowledging, that though they fuffered much
during his reign, he gave as little countenance as he
could to the feverities of the legiflature. They even
tell us, that he exerted his influence Uj refcue their
friends from the unprovoked and cruel perfecutions of
the New England fanatics; and they fpeak with be¬
coming gratitude of the difterent acts paffed in their fa¬
vour during the reigns of William and Mary, and
George I. They then proceed to give us the following
account of their dodtrine:
“ We agree with other profeffors of the Chriftian
name, in the belief in one eternal God, the Creator and
Preserver of the univerfe ; and in Jefus Chrift his Son,
the Mefliab, and Mediator of the new covenant (Heb.
xii. 24.).
“ When we f[\eak of the gracious difplay of the love
of God to mankind, in the miraculous conception, birth,
life, miracles, death, refurredlion, and afcenfion of our
Saviour, we prefer the ufe of fuch terms as we find in
Scripture; and, contented with that knowledge which
divine wifdom hath feen meet to reveal, we attempt not
to explain thofe myfleries which remain under the veil;
neverthelefs, we acknowledge and affert the divinity of
Chrift, who is the wifdom and power of God unto falva-
tion (1 Cor. i. 24.).
“ To Chrift alone we give the title of the Word of
God (John i. 1.) and not to the. Scriptures; although
we highly efteem thefe facred writings, in fubordination
to the Spirit (2 Pet. i. 21.), from which they were gi¬
ven forth; and we hold, with the apoftle Paul, that
they are able to make wife unto falvation, through faith
which is in Chrift Jefus (2 Pirn. iii. 15.).
“ We reverence thofe moft excellent precepts which
are recorded in Scripture to have been delivered by our
great Lord, and we firmly believe that they are pradi-
cable, and binding on every Chriftian; and that in the
life to come every man will be rewarded according to
his works (Mat. xvi. 27.). And farther, it is our be¬
lief, that, in order to enable mankind to put in pradice
thefe facred precepts, many of which are contradidory
to the unregenerate will of man (John i. 9.), every man
coming into the world is endued with a meafure of the
light, grace, or good Spirit of Chrift; by which, as it
is attended to, he is enabled to diftinguifh good from
evil, and to corred the diforderly paflions and corrupt
propenfities of his nature, which mere reafon is alto¬
gether infufficient to overcome. For all that belongs
to man is fallible, within the reach of temptation ; but
this divine grace, which comes by Him who hath over¬
come the world (John xvi. 33.) thofe who hum¬
bly and fincerely feck it, an all-fufficient and prefent
help in time of need. By this the fnares of the enemy
are deteded, his allurements avoided, and deliverance
is experienced through faith in its effedual opera¬
tion; whereby the foul is tranflated out of the king¬
dom of darknefs, and from under the power of Satan,
into the marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of
God.
“ Being thus perfuaded that man, without the Spirit
You. XVII. Part II.
of Chrift inwardly revealed, can do nothing to the gio- Quakers,
ry of God, or to effed his own falvation; we think this -\r“—
influence efpecially neceffary to the performance of the
higheft ad of which the human mind is capable, even
the worthip of the Father of lights and ot fpirits, in
fpirit and in truth; therefore we confider as obilruc-
tions to pure worftiip, all forms which divert the at¬
tention of the mind trom the fecret influence of this
undion from the Holy One (l Johnii. 20, 27.). Yet,
although true worftiip is not confined to time and place,
we think it incumbent on Chriftians to meet often to¬
gether (Heb. x. 25.) in teftimony of their dependence
on the heavenly Father, and for a renewal of their fpi-
ritual ftrefigth: neverthelefs, in the performance of wor¬
ftiip, we dare not depend for our acceptance with Him,
on a formal repetition of the words and experiences of
others; but we believe it to be our duty to ceafe from
the adivity of the imagination, and to wait in filence
to have a true fight ot our condition bellowed upon us:
believing even a fingle figh (Rom. viii. 26.) ariling
from fuch a fenfe of our infirmities, and of the need we
have of divine help, to be more acceptable to God, than
any performances, however fpecious, which originate in
the will of man.
“ From what has been faid refpeding worfhip, it fol¬
lows, that the miniftry we approve muft have its ori¬
gin from the fame fource ; for that which is needful for
a man’s own diredion, and for his acceptance with God
(Jer. xxiii. 30, to 32.), muft be eminently fo to enable
him to be helpful to others. Accordingly, we believe
the renewed afliftance of the light and power of Chrift:
to be indifpenfably neceffary for all true miniftry : and
that this holy influence is not at our command, or to
be procured by ftudy, but is the free gift of God to his
chofen and devoted fervants.—From hence arifes our
teftimony againft preaching for hire, and in contradic¬
tion'to Chriit’s pofitive command, “ Freely ye have re¬
ceived, freely give” (Mat. x. 8.) ; and hence our con-
feientious refufal to fupport fuch miniftry by tithes or
other means.
“ As we dare not encourage any miniftry but that
which we believe to fpring from the influence of the .
Holy Spirit, fo neither dare we attempt to reftrain this
influence to perfons of any condition in life, or to the
male fex alone ; but, as male and female are one in
Chrift, w?e allow fuch of the female fex as wre believe
to be endued with a right qualification for the mini¬
ftry, to exercife their gifts for the general edification of
the church : and this liberty we efteem to be a pecu¬
liar mark of the gofpel difpenfation, as foretold by the
prophet Joel (Joel ii. 28, 29.), and noticed by the apof¬
tle Peter ( A£ts ii. 16, 17.).
“ There are two ceremonies in ufe amongft moft pro¬
feffors of the Chriftian name ; Water-baptifm, and what
is termed the Lord’s Supper. The firft of thefe is gene¬
rally efteemed the effential means of initiation into the
church of Chrift ; and the latter of maintaining commu¬
nion with him. But as we have been convinced, that
nothing fhort of his redeeming power, inwardly reveal¬
ed, can fet the foul free from the thraldom of fin, by
this power alone we believe falvation to be effected. We
hold that as there is one Lord and one faith (Eph. iv.
5.), fo his baptifm is one in nature and operation ; that
nothing fhort of it can make us living members of his
myftical body ; and that the baptifm with water, admi-
4 E niftered
QUA t 5
^Quakers, niftered by his fore-runner John, belonged, as the latter
—  confefl'ed, to an inferior and decreafmg difpenfation
(John iii. 30-)*
“ With refpeft to the other rite, we believe that
communion between Chrift and his church is not main¬
tained by that nor any other external performance, but
only by a real participation of his divine nature (2 Pet-
i. 4.) through faith ; that this is the fupper alluded
to in the Revelation (Rev. iii. 20.), “ Behold l ftand
at the door and knock, if any man bear my voice, and
open the door, I will come in to him, and willfup with
him, and he with me-,” and that where the fubftance
is attained, it is unneceffary to attend to the firadow,
which doth not confer grace, and concerning which
opinions fo different, and .animofities fo violent, have
arifen.
“ Now, as we thus believe that the grace of God,
which comes by Jefus Chrift, is alone fufticient for fal-
vation, we can neither admit that it is conferred on a
few only, whilft others are left rvithout it 3 nor, thus, af-
ferting its univerfality, can we limit its operation to a
partial cleanfing of the foul from fin, even in this life.
We entertain worthier notions both of the power and
goodnefs of our heavenly Father, and believe that he
doth vouchfafe to afiift the obedient to experience a to¬
tal furrender of the natural will to the guidance of his
pure unerring Spirit 3 through whofe renewed affiftance
they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto holinefs, and
to ftand perfeft in their prefent rank (Mat. v. 48.3 Eph.
iv. 13.3 Col. iv. 12.).
“ There are not many of our tenets more generally
known than our teftimony againft oaths and againft
war. With refpeft to the former of thefe, we abide
literally by Chrift’s pofitive injunftion, delivered in his
fermon on the mount, “ Swear not at all” (Mat. v.
* Set Oath. *, From the fame facred collection of the moft
excellent precepts of moral and religious duty, from the
example of our Lord himfelf (Mat. chap. v. 39, 44, &c.
ch. xxvi. 52, 53.3 Luke xxii. 51.3 John xviii. 11.), and
from the correfpondent convictions of his Spirit in our
hearts, we are confirmed in the belief that wars and
fightings are, in their origin and effcCts, utterly repug¬
nant to the Gofpel, which ftill breathes peace and good¬
will to men. We alfo are clearly of the judgment, that
if the benevolence of the Gofpel were generally preva¬
lent in the minds of men, it wmuld effectually prevent
them from opprefling, much more from enflaving, their
brethren, (of whatever colour or complexion), for whom,
as for themfelves, Chrift died 5 and would even influence
their conduct in their treatment of the brute creation,
which would no longer groan the victims of their ava¬
rice, and of their falfe ideas of pleafure.
“ Some of our tenets have in former times, as hath
been Ihown, fubjeCted our friends to much fufferingfrom
government, though to the falutary purpofes of govern¬
ment our principles are a fecurity. They inculcate
fubmiflion to the laws in all cafes wherein confcience is
not violated. But we hold, that as Chrift’s kingdom
is not of this world, it is not the bufinefs of the civil
xnagiftrate to interfere in matters of religion ; but to
86 ] -QUA
maintain the external peace and good order of the com- Quaker*,
munity. We therefore think perfecution, even in the v—
fmalleft degree, unwarrantable. We are careful in re¬
claming our members not to be concerned in illicit trade,
nor in any manner to defraud the revenue.
“ It is well known that the fociety, from its firft ap¬
pearance, has difufed thofe names of the months and
days which, having been given in honour of the heroes
or falfe gods of the heathens, originated in their flat¬
tery or fuperftition 3 and the cuftom of fpeaking to a
fingle perfon in the plural number (b), as having ari¬
fen alfo from motives of adulation. Compliments, iu-
perfluity of apparel and furniture, outward fhows of re¬
joicing and mourning, and obfervation of days and
times, we efteem to be incompatible with the fimplicity
and fincerity of a Chriftian life 3 and public diverfions,
gaming, and other vain amufements of the world, we
cannot but condemn. J hey are a wafte of that time
which is given us for nobler purpofes, and divert the
attention of the mind from the fober duties of life, and
from the reproofs of inftruCtion, by which we are guided
to an everlafting inheritance.
“ To conclude, although we have exhibited the fe-
veral tenets which diftinguiih our religious fociety, as
obje&s of our belief, yet w-e are fenfible that a true and
living faith is not produced in the mind of man by his
own effort 3 but is the free gift of God (Eph. ii. 8.)
in Chrift Jefus, nouriflied and increafed by the progref-
five operation of his Tpirit in our hearts, and our pro¬
portionate obedience (John vii. lyO- Iherefore, al¬
though, for the prefervation of the teftimonies given us
to bear, and for the peace and good order of the fo¬
ciety, we deem it neceffary that thofe who are admit¬
ted into memberftiip with us, flrould be previoufly con¬
vinced of thofe doftrines which we efteem effential 3 yet
we require no formal fubfcription to any articles, either
as the condition of memberfliip, or to qualify for the
fervice of the church. We prefer the judging of men
by their fruits, in a dependence on the aid of Him
who, by his prophet, hath promifed to be “ a fpirit
of judgment to him (hat fitteth in judgment” (Ifaiah
xxviii. 6.). Without this, there is a danger of re¬
ceiving numbers into outward communion, without
any addition to that fpiritual ftieepfold, whereof our
bleffed Lord declared himfelf to be both the door
and the ffepherd (John x. 7, II.), that is, fuch as
know his voice, and follow him i» the paths of obe¬
dience.”
Such are the do&rines of this people as we find them
ftated in a fmall pamphlet lately prefented by themfelves
to the public 3 and in the fame tradl they give the fol¬
lowing account of their difcipline.
“ In the pradlice of difcipline, we think it indifpen-
fable that the order recommended by Chrift himfelf be
invariably obferved : (Matth. xviii. 15* to I7-)- * ^
thy brother (hall trefpafs againft thee, go and tell him
his fault between thee and him alone : if he (hall hear
thee, thou haft gained thy brother 5 but if he will not
hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in
the mouth of two or three witneffes every word may
be
(b) Speaking of this cuftom, Fox fays t “ When the Lord fent me into the world, he forbade me to put off my
hat to any j and I was required to thee and thou, all men and women.” Journal, p. 24.
QUA
(Jaakers. be eftabJidied •, and if he fhall negleA to hear them, tell
it unto the church.’ ,
“ To etfed: the falutary purpofes of difcipline, meet¬
ings were appointed, at an early period of the fociety,
which, from the times of their being held, were called
quarterly meetings. It was afterwards found expedient
to divide the diftricts of thole meetings, and to meet
more often ; whence arwfe monthly meetings, fubordi-
nate to thofe held quarterly. At length, in 1669, a year¬
ly meeting was eftablilhed, to fuperintend, aflitl, and
provide, rules for the whole ; previous to which, gene¬
ral meetings had been occafionally held.
“ A monthly meeting is ufually compofed of feveral
particular congregations, fituated within a convenient
diftance of each other. Its bufinefs is to provide for
the. fubfiftence of their poor, and for the education of
their offspring : to judge of the fincerity and fitnefs of
perfons appearing to be convinced of the religious prin¬
ciples of the fociety, and defiring to be admitted into
memberfbip ; to excite due attention to the difcharge
of religious and moral duty ; and to deal with difor-
derly members. Monthly meetings alfo grant to fuch
of their members as remove into other monthly meetings,
certificates of their memberthip and condud j without
which they cannot gain memberfhip in fuch meetings.
Each monthly meeting is required to appoint certain
perfons under the name of overfeers, who are to take
care that the rules of our difcipline be put in pradice ;
and when any cafe of complaint or dilbrderly condud
comes to their knowledge, to fee that private admoni¬
tion, agreeable to the gofpel rule before mentioned, be
given previoufly to its being laid before the monthly
meeting.
“ When a cafe is introduced, it is ufual for a fmall
committee to be appointed to vifit the offender, to en¬
deavour to convince him of his error, and to induce him
to forfake and condemn it. If they fucceed, the perfon
is by minute declared to have made fatisfadion for the
offence j if not, he is difowned as a member of the fo¬
ciety.
“ In difputes between individuals, it has long been the
decided judgment of the fociety that its members fhould
not fue each other at law. It therefore enjoins all to
end their differences by fpeedy and impartial arbitration,
agreeable to rules laid down. If any refufe to adopt
this mode, or, having adopted it, to fubmit to the a-ward,
it is the diredion of the yearly meeting that fuch be dif¬
owned.
“ To monthly meetings alfo belongs the allowing of
marriages ; for our fociety hath always fcrupled to ac¬
knowledge the exclufive authority of the priefts in the
folemnization of marriage. Thofe who intend to mar¬
ry, appear together and propofe their intention to the
monthly meeting; and if not attended by their parents
or guardians, produce a written certificate of their con-
fent, figned in the prefence of witneffes. The meeting
then appoints a committee to inquire whether they are
clear of other engagements refpeding marriage ; and
if at a fubfequent meeting, to which the parties alfo
[ 587 J
Qua
come and declare the continuance of their intention, no Quaker*,
objections are reported, they have the meeting’s con- —v—-*
fent to folemnize their intended marriage. This is
done in a public meeting for worfhip ; towards the
clofe whereof the parties Hand up, and folemnly take
each other for huflband and wife. A certificate of the
proceedings is then publicly read, and figned by the
parties, and afterwards by the relations and others as
witneffes. Of fuch certificates the monthly meeting
keeps a record 5 as alfo of the births and burials of its
members, A certificate of the date, of the name of
the infant, and of its parents, figned by thofe prefent
at the birth, is the fubjett of one of thefe laft-men-
tioned records ; and an order for the interment, coun-
terfigned by the grave-maker, of the other. The
naming of children is without ceremony. Burials are
alfo conduced in a Ample manner. The body, follow¬
ed by the relations and friends, is fometimes, previoufly
to interment, carried to a meeting ; and at the grave
a paufe is generally made j on both which oceafions it
frequently falls out that one or more friends prefent have
fomewhat to exprefs for the edification of thofe who at¬
tend ; but no religious rite is confidered as an effential
part of burial.
“ Several monthly meetings eompofe a quarterly meet-
ing. At the quarterly meeting^ are produced written
anfwers from the monthly meetings, to certain queries
refpe&ing the condud of their members, and the meet¬
ing’s cafe over them.. The accounts thus received are
digefted into one, which is fent, alfo in the form of an¬
fwers to queries, by reprefentatives, to the yearly meet¬
ing.—Appeals from the judgment of monthly meetings
are brought to the quarterly meetings 5 whole bu fin el's
alfo it is. to a Hi ft in any difficult cafe, or where remiffnefs
appears in the care of the monthly-meetings over the in¬
dividuals who compofs them.
“ The.yearly meeting has the general fuperintendance
of the fociety in the country in which it is eftabliffied (c) ;
and therefore, as the accounts which it receives dif-
cover the ftate of inferior meetings, as particular exi¬
gencies require, or as the meeting is impreffed with a
fenfe of duty, it gives forth its advice, makes fuch
regulations as appear to be requifite, or excites to the
obfervance of thole already made ^ and fometime?
appoints committees to vifit thofe quarterly meetings
which appear to be in need of immediate help. Ap¬
peals from the judgment of quarterly meetings are
here finally determined ; and a brotherly correfpon-
dence, by epiftles, is maintained with other yearly
meetings.
“ In this place it is proper to add, that as we believe
women may be.rightly called to the work of the mini-
ftry, we alfo think, that to them belongs a (hare in the
fupport of our Chriftian difcipline ; and that fome parts
of it, wherein their own fex is concerned, devolve on
them with peculiar propriety. Accordingly they have
monthly, quarterly, and yearly meetings of their own
fex, held at the fame time and in the fame place with
thofe of the men ; but feparately, and without the power
4 E 2 of
(c) There are feven yearly meetings, viz. ift, London, to which come reprefeittatives from Ireland ; 2d, New-
England ; 3d, New-York ; 4th, Pennfylvanig and New-Jerfey j 5th, Maryland ; 6th, Virginia : 7th, the Carolina?
and Georgia. '
QUA [ 588 ]
of making rules : and it may be remarked, that during
the perfections, which in the laft century occafioned
the imprifonment of fo many of the men, the cart of
the poor often fell on the women, and was by them fa-
tisfaftorily adminitfered. . , „ . r •
“ In order that thofe who are in the fituation of mi-
nifters may have the tender fympathy and counfel ot
thofe of either fex, who, by their experience in he
work of religion, are qualified for that fervice , the
monthly meetings are advifed to fele& fiich, undt. tie
denomination of elders. Thefe, and mimfters approved
by their monthly meetings (d), have meetings peculiar
to themfelves, called meetings of mimiters and elders,
in which they have an opportunity of exciting each
other to a difcharge of their feveral duties, and of ex¬
tending advice to thofe who may appear weak, without
any needlefs expofure. Thefe meetings are generally
held in the compafs of each monthly, quarterly, and
yearly meeting. They are conduaed by rules pre-
fcribed by the yearly meeting, and have no authority to
make any alteration or addition to them. The members
of them unite with their brethren in the meetings for
difcipline, and are equally accountable to the latter tor
their condua. r j-
“ It is to a meeting of this kind held in London,
called the fecond-day morning-meeting, that the revifal
of manufcripts concerning our principles, previoufly to
publication, is intrufted by the yearly meeting held in
London *, and alfo the granting, in the intervals of the
yearly meeting, certificates of approbation to iuch mi-
nifters as are concerned to travel in the work of the
miniftry in foreign parts. When a vifit of this kind
doth not extend beyond Great Britain, a certifi¬
cate from the monthly meeting of which the mini-
fter is a member is fufficient •, if to Ireland, the con¬
currence of the quarterly meeting is alfo required.
Regulations of fimilar tendency obtain in other yeaily
meetings. # ,
“ The yearly meeting held in London, in the year
tby5, appointed a meeting to be held in that city, for
the purpofe of advifing and affifting in cafes of fuffer-
ing for confcience fake, w'hich hath continued with
great ufe to the fociety to this day. It is compofed
of friends under the name of correfpondents, chofen by
the feveral quarterly meetings, and who refide in or
near the city. The fame meetings alfo appoint mem¬
bers of their own in the country as correfpondents, who
are to join their brethren in London on emergency.
The names of all thefe correfpondents, previous to their
being recorded as fuch, are fubmitted to the approba¬
tion of the vearly meeting. Thofe of the men who are
approved minifters are alfo members of this meeting,
which is called the meeting for fufferings ; a name arifing
from its original purpofe, which is not yet become en¬
tirely obfolete.
“ The yearly meeting has intruded the meeting for
fufferings with the care of printing and diftributing
Quakers,
Quality.
QUA
books, and with the management of its flock ; and
confidered as a (landing committee of the yearly t
meeting, it hath a general care of whatever may arife, * J
during the intervals of that meeting, affeaing the focie¬
ty, and requiring immediate attention : particularly of
thofe circumfiances which may occafion an application
to government.
“ There is not in any of the meetings which have
been mentioned any prefident, as we believe that Di¬
vine Wifdom alone ought to prefide; nor hath any mem¬
ber a right to claim pre-eminence over the reft. The
office of clerk, with a few exceptions, is undertaken
voluntarily by fume member as is alfo the keeping
of the records. Where thefe are very voluminous,
and require a houfe for their depofite (as is the cafe in
London, where the general records of the fociety in
Great Britain are kept), a clerk is hired to haye the
care of them *, but except a few clerks of this kind,
and perfons who have the care of meeting-houfes,. none
receive any ftipend or gratuity for their fervices in our
religious fociety.”
It is remarkable, that all the fettlements of the Eu¬
ropeans in America, except the Quaker fettlement of
Pennfylvania, were made by force of arms, with very lit¬
tle regard to any prior title in the natives, fl he kings
of Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, together with
the States of Holland, then the only maritime powers,,
gave grants of fuch parts of America as their people
could lay hold on, ftudying only to avoid interference
with their European neighbours. But Mr Penn, being
a Quaker, did not think his power from King Chas. II. a
fufficient title to the country fince called Pennfyhanta:
He therefore afiembled the fachems or princes then in
that country, and purchafed from them the extent of
land that he wanted. The government of this province
is moftly in the hands of the Quakers, who never have
any quarrels with the natives. When they defire to ex¬
tend their fettlements, they purthafe new lands of the
fachems, never taking any thing from them by force.
How unlike is this conduft to that of the Spaniards, who
murdered millions of the natives of Mexico, Feira Iir-
ma, Peru, Chili, &c. , M r ,. 1
QUALITY is a word which, as ufed in philotophi-Qua];ty
cal difquifitions, cannot be explained by any periphrafis. charade-
  . . « • nr* 1 1 •«.  /l 1— riypn DV
That which is expreffed by it muft be brought into the nzed by^
immediate view of the fenfes or intelleft, and the name
properly applied, or he who is a ftranger to the word
will never be made to comprehend its meaning. An-
ftotle, who treated it as a general conception, fecond in
order among the ten predicaments or categories (fee Ca¬
tegory), gives feveral characters of it ; but though they
are all in fome refpeas juft, no man could from them,
without other affiftance, learn what quality is. Thus he
tells us'*, 'tirctffii HccvTiBTVf xttla r« 7i6i«v } Efrt2i%w‘ « pri?tl.ei
& TO pecXMv Kxt TO Wlo, TX TTOix. And again, ‘Opcix hsylb. M'
« xvoxotx xcp.x (XOVXS rx? TrotoTtflx; teyiTXi cpoiov yx% tlt£ov 45-
tltpa ovk edit xxl’ ov2(v, y> xx6 0 ttoioy sdltVp
(d) “ Thofe who believe themfelves required to fpeak in meetings for worffiip, are not immediately acknow
ledged as minifters by their monthly meetings j but time is taken for judgment, that the meeting may be fatish
of their call and qualification. It will fometimes happen, that fuch as are not approved will
as minifters, to the grief of their brethren^ but much forbearance is ufed towards thefe, before th ip
of the meeting is publicly teftified.”
4
Quality.
i
Nothing
known but
isualities.
3
Important
dittindtions
of quality,
QUA [58
When a man comprehends, by means of his fenfes
and intelleft, what it is which the word quality denotes,
he will indeed perceive that the firft of thefe charafters
is applicable to fome qualities and not to others ; that
the fecund is more applicable to quantity than to quality •,
and that it is only the third which can with propriety
be confidertd as the general chara&eriftic of this predi¬
cament. Thus when we have learned by our fenfe of
fight that whitenefs is a quality of fnow, and blachnefs of
coal •, and by means of observation and reflexion, that
wifdom is a quality of one man and folly of another—we
muft admit that the fenfible quality of the fnow is con¬
trary to that of the coal, and the intelledlual quality of
wifdom contrary to that of folly. There is, however,
no contrariety between wifdom and whitenefs or black-
tie fs, nor between hardnefs or fftnefs and any particular
colour ; for fenfible and intelledual qualities can never
be compared ; and it is not eafy, if poflible, to make a
comparifon between qualities perceptible only by diffe¬
rent fenfes : Nay, among qualities perceptible by the
fame fenfe, we often meet with a difference where there
is no contrariety •, for though the figure of a cube is dif¬
ferent from that of a fphere, and the figure of a fquare
from that of a circle, the fphere is not contrary to the
cube, nor the circle to the fquare.
His fecond chara&eriftic of this genus is ftill lefs pro¬
per than the firft. It is indeed true that fome qualities
admit of intenfion and remifiion ; for fnow is whiter than
paper, and one woman is handfomer than another ; but
of the fpecies of quality called figure we cannot predi¬
cate either tnore or lefs. A crown-piece may have as
much of the circular quality in it as the plane of the
equator, and a mufket-bullet as much of the fphencal
quality as the orb of the fun. It is indeed a property
of all quantity to admit of intenfion and remifiion ; and
therefore this ought to have been given as the charac¬
ter not of the fecond but of the third category. See
Quantity.
That it, is only from a comparifon of their qualities
that things are denominated like or unlike, or that one
thing cannot rcfemble another but in fome quality, is in¬
deed a juft obfervation. We know nothing direftly but
qualities fenfible and intelkaual (fee Metaphysics,
N° 149, 150, 151, and 227) \ and as thefe have no re-
femblance to each other, we conclude that body or mat¬
ter, the fubjedft of the former, is a being unlike mind,
the fubjeft of the latter. Even of bodies themfelves we
can fay, that one is like or unlike another only by vir¬
tue of their qualities. A ball of ivory referable* a ball
of fnow in its figure and colour, but not in its coldnefs or
hardnefs ; a ball of lead may referable a ball of fnow in
its figure and coldnefs, but not in its colour ; and a cube
of ivory refembles not a ball of lead either \n figure, co¬
lour, or coldnefs. The mind of a brute refembles that of
a man in its powers of fenfation and perception, but does
not referable it in the powers of volition and reafomngj
or at lead the refemblance, in this latter inftance, is
very flight. All bodies referable one another in being
folid and extended, and all minds in being more or lefs
aftive. Likenefs or unlikenefs therefore is the univerfal
charadfteriftic of the category quality.
Ariftotle has other fpeculations refpe&ing quality,
which are worthy of notice. He diftinguithes between
qualities which are effential and thofe which are acciden¬
tal; between qualities which are natural and thofe
9 1 QUA
which are acquired; and he fpeaks of the qualities of -
capacity and thofe of completion. Extension ^figure in v
general are qualities effential to all bodies : but a parti¬
cular extenfion, fuch as an inch or an ell, and rA particu¬
lar figure, fuch as a cube or a fphere, are qualities acci¬
dental to bodies. Among the natural qualities of glafs
it is one to tranfmit objects of vifion ; but to enlarge
thefe objefts is an adventitious or acquired quality. I he
fame qual’tv may be natural \n one fubftance, as attrac¬
tion in the magnet 5 and acquired in another, as the
fame attraction in the magnetic bar. Docility. may be
called a quality natural to the mind of man, fcience an
acquired one. To unde.rftand what he means by quali¬
ties of capacity and completion, it may be fufficient to ob-
ferve that every piece of iron has the qualities of a ra¬
zor in capacity, becaufe it may be converted into fieel,
and formed into a razor : when it is fo formed, it hau,
in the language of this fage, the quality of a razor in
completion. Among the qualities of capacity and comple¬
tion, the moft important, and what may lead to intereft-
ing fpeculations, is the reafoning faculty of man. A
capacity of reafoning is effential to the human mind *,
but the completion of this capacity or a£lual reafoning is
not, otherwife infants and perfons afleep would be ex¬
cluded from the human fpecies. . ^
Mr Locke has puzzled his readers, and perhaps him-overlooked
felf, with a queftion refpeding the fpecies of an idiot by Locke,
or changeling, whom he pronounces to be fomething
between a man and a brute *. It is not often that we * Book iv.
feel ourfelves inclined to regret Locke’s ignorance ofck 4- § I3
Ariftotle’s diftinClions •, but we cannot help thinking, ^
that had the Britifti philofopher attended to the Stagy-
rite’s account of qualities in capacity and qualities in
completion, this perplexing queftion would never have
been ftarted. It is juftly obferved in the Effay on Hu¬
man Underftanding, that of real effences we know no¬
thing : but that every man felefts a certain number of
qualities which he has always perceived united in certain
beings •, and forming thefe into one complex conception,
gives to thii conception a fpecific name, which he ap¬
plies to every being in which he finds thofe qualities ^
united. This is undoubtedly the procefs of the mind in Strange
forming genera and fpecies ; and as the excellent author confe-
refufes the name of man to the changeling, it is obvious
that the complex conception, to which he gives that
name, muft imply rationality or the allual ex ere ife of rea-
fon. But this limitation will exclude many beings from
the fpecies man, whom Mr Locke certainly confidered as
men and women. Not to mention infants and perfons
in found fleep, how ftiall we clafs thofe who, after having
lived 30 or 40 years in the full exercife of reafon, have
been fuddenly or by degrees deprived of it by fome dif-
order in the brain ?
From Marlb’rough’s eyes the ftreams of dotage flow j
And Swift expires a driveller and a {how. Johnson.
But were the hero and the wit in thofe deplorable cir-
cumftances excluded from the human fpecies, and claffed
between men and brutes ? No furely •, they were both
acknowledged to be men, becaufe they were known to
have the quality of reafon in what Ariftotle would have
called capacity. Their dotage and drivelling originated
from fome diforder in their bodies, probably in the re¬
gion of the brain ; and Locke himfelf contends that no
defeft in body is fufficient to degrade a perfon from the
rank
-Quality
I! '
Quang-
. ping-fou.
6
Fallacy of
his doc¬
trine re-
fpe£ling
the human
fpecies.
True doc¬
trine.
Q, U A [ 590
rank of manhood. Again, lunatics have the exercife of
.reafon, except at new and full moon. Are thefe un¬
happy beings fometimes men andfometimes a fpecies by
. themfelves between men and brutes ?
It appears, therefore, that not the aFhial exercife of
reafon, but reafon in capacity, ought to be included in
the complex conception to which we give the fpecific
name of man, as fome of the greateft men that ever lived
have been during parts of their lives deprived of the
power of aBual reafoning. This, however, it will be
laid, does not remove the difficulty ; for the occafional
exercife of reafon in lunatics, and the great exertions of
it in fuch men as Swift and Marlborough, fhow that
they had it in capacity at all times ; whereas we have no
evidence that changelings have even a capacity of rea¬
foning at any time, fince they never do a rational a£Hon,
nor ever utter a fentence to the purpofe. That we have
no direEl and pojitive evidence of the tninds of change¬
lings being capable of reafoning, were they fupplied
with proper organs, mutt be granted j but the probabi¬
lities of their being fo are many and great. We know
by experience that the adtual exercife of reafon may be
interrupted by an occafional and accidental preifure on
the brain : and therefore we cannot doubt but that if
this preiTure were rendered permanent by any wrong
configuration of the tkull given to it in the womb, or
in the aft of being born into the world, an infant, with
a mind capable of realoning by means of proper organs,
would by this accident be rendered, through the whole
of life, an idiot or changeling. That idiotifm is caufed
by fuch accidents, and is not the quality of an inferior
mind occafionally given to a human body, will at leaft
feem probable from the following confiderations.
It does not appear that an animal body can live and
move but while it is actuated by fome mind. Whence
then does the unborn infant derive its mind ? It mull be
either immediately from God, or ex traduce from its
parents ; but if the mind of man be immaterial, it can¬
not be ex traduce. Now, as idiots are very few in num¬
ber when compared with the rational part of the human
fpecies, and as God in the government of this world
affs not by partial but by general laws; we muff con¬
clude that the law which he has eftabliffied refpefling
the union of mind and matter, is, that human bodies
fhall be animated with minds endowed with a capacity
of reafoning, and that thofe who never exert this capa¬
city are prevented by fome fuch accident as we have
affigned.
For a further account of qualities, why they are fup-
pofed to inhere in fome fubjeft, together with the ufual
diffin&ion between the primary and fecondary qualities
of matter, fee Metaphysics, Part II. chap. i.
Chemical QUALITIES, thofe qualities principally in¬
troduced by means of chemical experiments, as fumiga¬
tion, amalgamation, cupellation, volatilization, precipi¬
tation, &c.
Quality, is alfo ufed for a kind of title given to
certain perfons, in regard of their territories, figniories,
or other pretenfions.
QUANGA. See Capra.
QUANG-ping-fou, a city in China, is fituated in
the. northern part of the province of Pe-tcheli, between
the provinces of Chang-tong and Ho-nan, and has nine
cities of the third clafs dependent on it j all its plains
are well watered by rivers. Among its temples, there
S \
1 ■ QUA
is one dedicated to thofe men who, as the Chincfe Quan<?.
pretend, difcovered the fecret of rendering themfelves P*'\e-fou
immortal. ||
QUANGSI, a province of China, bounded on the ,^uai‘tlty^
north by Koe-Tcheau and Hu-Quang ; on the call, by ' ^
Yunan and Ouantong •, on the fouth, by the fame and
Tonquin; and on the weft, by Yun-nan. It produces
great plenty of rice, being watered by feveral large ri¬
vers ; and containing 10,000,000 of inhabitants. The
fouthern part is a ftat country, and well cultivated ; but
the northern is full of mountains covered with trees. It
contains mines of all forts; and there is a gold-mine
lately opened. The capital town is Quie-ling.
A very fingular tree, fays Grofier, grows in this
province; inftead of pith, it contains a foft pulp, which
yields a kind of Hour : the bread made of it is faid to
be exceedingly good. Befides paroquets, hedgehogs,
porcupines, and rlfinocerofes, a prodigious number of
wild animals, curious birds, and uncommon infedls, are
found here.
This province contains 12 cities of the firft clafs,
and 80 of the fecond and third.
QUANG-tong, a province of China, bounded on
the eaft by Kiang-fi and Fokien ; on the fouth, by the
ocean; and on the weft, by Tonquin. This province
is diverfified by valleys and mountains ; and yields trvo
crops of corn in a year. It abounds in gold,jewels, filk,
pearls, tin, quickfilver, fugar, brafs, iron, fteel, faltpetre,
ebony, and feveral forts of odoriferous wrood ; befides
fruits of all forts proper to the climate. They have a
prodigious number of ducks, vvhofe eggs they hatch in
ovens ; and a tree, whofe wood is remarkably hard and
heayy, and thence called iron-wood. The mountains
are covered with a fort of ofiers which creep along the
ground, and of which they make balkets, hurdles, matts,
and ropes.
Although the climate of this province is warm, the
air is pure, and the people arerobuft and healthy. They
are very induftrious ; and it muft be allowed that they
poffefs in an eminent degree the talents of imitation : if
they are only ftiown any of our European works, they
execute others like them with the moil furprifing exact-
nefs. This province fuffered much during the civil
wars; but at prefent it is one of the moft flourifhing
in the empire; and, as it is at a great diftance from
court, its government is one of the moft important.
This province is divided into ten diftri&s, which con¬
tain ten cities of the firft clafs, and 84 of the fecond and
third. Canton is the capital town. x
QUANTITY, as explained by the great Englifir Quantity
lexicographer, is that property of any thing which
may be increafed or diminiffied. This interpretation of
the word is certainly juft, and for the purpofes of com¬
mon converfation it is fufficiently determinate ; but the
man of fcience may expert to find in a work like ours
a definition of tile thing fignified. This, however, can¬
not be given him. A logical definition confifts of the
genus under which the thing defined is ranked, and the
fpecijic difference (fee Logic, N° 20, &c.) ; but quan¬
tity is ranked under no genus. In that fchool where
fuch definitions were moft valued, it was confidered as
one of the ten categories, or general conceptions, under '
which all the objedls of human apprehenfion were muf*
tered, like foldiersin an army (fee Category and Phi¬
losophy, N° 22.). On this account!, even Ariftotle
himfelf,
QUA
[ 591 ]
QUA
Quantity, himfelf, who delighted in definitions, and was not eafi-
ly deterred from a favourite purfuit, could not confilt-
larade- ently with his own rules attempt to define quantity. He
ized by characterizes it, however, in feveral parts of his works:
briftotle. and particularly in th* 15th chapter of the 4th book of
his metaphyfics, where he gives the following account
of the three firft categories : TcrSlx y,iv wv f-tict v ovcnx.
CttOlCt
ij puce tex di, uv ra Trerov esc
“ Things
Freed-
. 34. edit,
jib.
are the fame of which the SUBSTANCE is one ; fwrilar,
of which the QUALITY is one ; equal, of which the
QUANTITY is one. Again, he tells us*, that the chief
character idle of quantity is, that it may be denominated
equal and unequal.
That any man can become wifer by reading fuch de-
feriptions as thefe, none but an idolater of Ariftotle
will fuppofe. There is, indeed, no periphrafis by
which we can explain what is meant by quantity to
thofe who have not previoufly formed fuch a notion.—
All that can be done by making the attempt is only to
fettle language, by dating exaCHy the cafes in which
we ufe this word in the greated conformity to general
cudom ; for there is a laxnefs or carelefsnefs of expref-
fion in the language of mod men, and our notions are
frequently communicated by fpeech in a way by no
means precife ; fo that it is often a great chance that
the notions excited in the mind of the hearer are
not exaCt counterparts of thofe in the mind of the
fpeaker. *
The underdandings of men differ in nothing more re¬
markably than in their power of abdraClion, and of ra¬
pidly forming conceptions fo general and fimple as not
to be clogged with didinguifhing circumdances, which
may be different in diderent minds while uttering and
hearing the fame words: and it is of great confequence
to a man of fcientific habits, either to cultivate, if pof-
fible, this talent, or to fuperfede its ufe, by dudioufly
forming to himfelf notions of the mod important univer-
fals in his own courfe of contemplation, by careful ab-
draClion of every thing extraneous. His language by
this means becomes doubly indruClive by its extreme
precifion ; and he will even judge with greater certainty
of notions intended to be communicated by the more flo-
venly language of another perfon.
We cannot fay that there is much ambiguity in the
general ufe of the term quantity: But here, as in all
other cafes, a love of refinement, of novelty, and fre¬
quently of vanity, and the wilh of appearing ingenious
and original, have made men t?»ke advantage of even
the fmall latitude with which the carelefs ufe of the
word will furnifh them, to amufe themfeves and the
public by giving the appearance of fcience to empty
founds.
ofubjed Mathematics is undoubtedly employed in difeovering
«i nathe- and dating many relations of quantity ; and it is in this
‘ kalrea-category alone that any thing is contemplated by the
H ng-
mathematician, whether in geometry, arithmetic, or al¬
gebra. Hence mathematics has been called the fcience
of quantity. The fimplicity of the objefl of the ma¬
thematician’s contemplation, and the unparalleled di-
ftin&nefs with which he can perceive its modifications,
have enabled him to eredl a body of feienee, eminent
not only for its certainty, but alfo for the great length
to which he can carry his reafonings without danger of
error j and the intimate connexion which this fcience
has with the artg of life, and the important fervices.
which it has performed, have procured it a mod refpeft- Quantity,
able place in the circle of the fciences.. Ingenious men *'
have availed themfelves of this pre-eminence of mathe¬
matics, and have endeavoured to procure refpeft for
their difquifitions on other fubje&s, by prefenting them
to the public as branches of mathematical fcience, and
therefore fufceptible of that accuracy and certainty
which are its peculiar boad. Our moral affediions, our
fenfations, our intellectual powers, are all fufceptible of
augmentation and diminution, are conceivable as greater
and lefs when dated together, and are familiarly fpoken
of as admitting of degrees of comparifon. We are
perfectly well underdood when we jay that one pain,
heat, grief, kindnefs, is greater than another 3 and as
this is the didinguilhing characteridic of quantity, and
as quantity is the fubject of mathematical difeudion, we
fuppofe that thefe fubjects may be treated mathemati¬
cally. Accordingly, a very celebrated and excellent
philofopher* has laid, among many things of the fame *Z)r Fr/?;/-
kind, that the greatnefs of a favour is in the direft c'u Hut chin-
compound ratio of the fervice performed and the dig-A2,
nity of the performer, and in the inverfe ratio of the me-is
rit and rank of the receiver 3 that the value of a cha-improperly
radler is in the compound ratio of the talents and virtue, introduced
&c. 3 and he has delivered a number of formal propo-int<? ot^er
fitions on the mod intereding quedions in morals, couchA’^e<^S'
ed in this mathematical language, and even expreffed by
algebraic formulae. But this is merely play, and conveys
no indru&ion. We underdand the words 3 they con¬
tain no abfurdity 3 and in as far as they have a fenfe, we
believe the propofitions to be true. But they give no
greater preeifion to our fentiments than the more ufual
exprellions would do. If we attend clofely to the
meaning of any one of fuch propofitions, we fliall find
that it only expreffes fome vague and indidined notions
of degrees of thofe emotions, fentiments, or qualities,
which would be jud as well conceived by means of the
expreffions of ordinary language 3 and that it is only
by a fort of analogy or refemblance that this mathema¬
tical language conveys any notions whatever of the fub-
jea?-
The objecd of contemplation to the mathematician is Hie ma-
not whatever is fufceptible of greater and lefs, but whatthemaii-
is meafurable; and mathematics is not the fcience oftiancon-
magni tude, in its moft abdraeded and.general aceepta-teijnPlates
lion, but of magnitude which can be meafured. It is,tnicsThlu.
indeed the science of measure, and whatever is.are mea-
treated in the way of menfuration is treated mathema-fura^e-
tically. Now, in the difeourfe of ordinary life and
ordinary men, many things are called quantities which
we cannot or do not meafirre. This is the cafe in the
infiances already given of the affeedions of the mind, .
pleafure, pain, beauty, wifdom, honour, &c. We do
not fay that they are incapable of meafure 3 but we
have not yet been able to meafure them, nor do we
think of meafuring them when wre fpeak rationally and
ufefully about them. We therefore do not confider
them mathematically 3 nor can we introduce mathema¬
tical precifion into our difcudions of thefe fubjecds till
we can, and actually do, meafure them. Perfons who
are precife in their expreflion will even avoid fuch phrafes
on thefe fubjecds as fuppofe, or ftricdly exprefs, fuch
meafurement. We fli6uld be much embarrafied how to
anfwer the queftion, How much pain does the tooth¬
ache give you juft now 5 and how much is it eafier fince
yefterday ?
q U A [ 59
quantity, ydlertlay ’ Yet the anfwer (if we had a meafure)
v   would be as eafy as to the queftion, How many guineas
did you win at cards ? or how much land have you
bought ? Nay, though we fay familiarly, “ I know
welf how much fuch a misfortune would afft& you,”
and are underftood when we fay it, it would be awk¬
ward language to fay, “ 1 know well the quantity of
your grief.” It is in vain, therefore, to expe£t mathe¬
matical precifion in our difcourfe or conceptions of quan¬
tities in the moft abftrafted fenfe. Such precifion is
confined to quantity which may be and is meafured (a).
It is only trifling with the imagination when we employ
mathematical language on fubje&s which have not this
property. _ . ...
It will therefore be of fome fervice in fcience to dii-
criminate quantities in this view •, to point out what are
,5 fufceptible of meafure, and what are not.
Meafuring What is meafuring ? It is one of thefe two things:. It
explained, js either finding out fome known magnitude of the thing
meafured, which we can demonftrate to be equal to it ;
or to find a known magnitude of it, which being ta¬
ken fo many times {hall be equal to it. 1 he geometer
meafures the contents of a parabolic fpace when he ex¬
hibits a parallelogram of known dimenfions, and demon-
ftrates that this parallelogram is equal to the parabolic
fpace. In like manner, he meafures the folid contents
of an infinitely extended hyperbolic fpindle, when he
exhibits a cone of known dimenfions, and demonftrates
that three of thefe cones are equal to the fpindle.
In this procefs it will be found that he actually fub-
divides the quantity to be meafured into parts of which
it confifts, and ftates thefe parts as a&ually making up
the quantity, fpecifying each, and affigning its boun¬
daries. He goes on with it, piece by piece, demon-
ilrating the refpeftive equalities as he goes along, till he
has exhaufted the figure, or confidered all its parts.—
When he meafures by means of a fubmultiple, as when
he {hows the furface of a fphere to be equal to four of
its great circles, he flops, after having demonftrated the
equality of one of thefe circles to one part of the fur-
face : then he demonftrates that there are other three
parts, each of which is precifely equal to the one he
has minutely confidered. In this part of the procefs he
exprefsly afligns the whole furface into its diftinft por¬
tions, of which he demonftrates the equality.
But there is another kind of geometrical meafurement
which proceeds on a very different principle. The geo¬
meter conceives a certain individual portion of his figure,
whether line, angle, furface, or folid, as known in re-
fpeft to its dimenfions. He conceives this to be lifted
from its place, and again laid down on the adjoining
part of the figure, and that it is equal to the part which
it now covers ; and therefore that this part together
with the firft is double of the firft : he lifts it again, and
lays it down on the next adjoining part, and affirms that
this, added to the two former, make up a quantity tri¬
ple of the firft. He goes on in this way, making fimi-
2 ] q u a
lar inferences, till he can demonftrate that he has in this Quantity,
manner covered the whole figure by twenty applications, '
and that his moveable figure will cover no more ; and
he affirms that the figure is twenty times the part em¬
ployed.
This mode is precifely fimilar to the manner of prac¬
tical meafurement in common life; we apply a foot-rule
fuceeffively to two lines, and find that 30 applications
exhauft the one, while it requires 35 to. exhault the ?
other. We fay therefore, that the one line is 30 and Euclid’s
the other 35 feet long; and that thefe two lines are to^^F0-
each other in the ratio of 30 to 35. . Having meafured po
two ffiorter lines by a fimilar application of a flick of an
inch long 30 times to the one and 35 times to the other,
we fay that the ratio of the two firft lines is the fame
with that of the two laft. Euclid has taken this method
of demonftrating the fourth propofition of the firft book
of his celebrated elements.
But all this procefs is a fi&ion of the mind, and it is
the fiction of an impoffibility. It is even inconceivable,
that is, we cannot in imagination make this application
of one figure to another; and we prefume to fay, that,
if the elements of geometry cannot be demonftrated in
fome other way, the fcience has not that title to pure,
abftraft, and infallible knowledge, which is ufually al¬
lowed it. We cannot fuppofe one of the triangles lifted
and laid on the other, without fuppofing it fomething
different from a triangle in abJlraBo. The individuality
of fuch a triangle confifts folely in its being in the pre-
cife place where it is, and in occupying //$«/ portion of
fpace. If we could diftintfly conceive otherwife, we
ffiould perceive that, when we have lifted the triangle
from its place, and applied it to the other, it is gone
from its former place, and that there is no longer a tri¬
angle there. This is inconceivable, and fpace has al¬
ways been acknowledged to be immoveable. There is
therefore fome logical defed in Euclid’s demonftration.
We apprehend that he is labouring to demonftrate, or
rather illuftrate, a fimple apprehenfion. This indeed is
the utmoft that can be done in any demonftration (fee
Metaphysics, N° 82.): but the mode by which he
guides the mind to the apprehenfion of the truth of
his fourth propofition is not confiftent either with puie
mathematics or with the laws of corporeal nature. The
real procefs, as laid down by him, teems to be this.
We fuppofe fomething different from the abftraft tri¬
angle ; fome thing that, in conjunaion with other pro¬
perties, has the property of being triangular, with cer¬
tain dimenfions of two of its fides and the included an¬
gle. It has avowedly another property, not effential to,
£nd not contained in, the abftraa notion of a triangle,
viz. mobility. We alfo fuppofe it permanent in fhape
and dimenfions, or that although, during its motion, it
does not occupy the fame fpace, it continues, and all its
parts, to occupy an equal fpace. In fhort, our concep¬
tion is very mixed, and does not perceptibly differ from
our conception of a triangular piece of matter, where
(a) To talk intelligibly of the quantity of a pain, we ffiould have fome ftandard by which to mea ure 1 ;
fome known degree of it fo well afcertained, that all men, when talking of it, ffiould mean the fame t ingj-
And we ffiould be able to compare other degrees of pain with this, fo as to perceive diftinflly, not on y u e er
they exceed or fall ffiort of it, but alfo how much, or in what proportion ; whether by an half, or a t , or a
tenth. Reid.
QUA [ 593 ] QUA
iQuantity, the triangle is not the fubjeft, but an adjunct, a quali-
 ty. And tvhen we fuppofe the application made, we
are not in fad fuppofing two abftrad triangles to coin¬
cide. This we cannot do with any thing like diftind-
nefs; for our diflind conception now is, not that of two
triangles coinciding, but of one triangle being now ex¬
actly occupied by that moveable thing which formerly
occupied the other. In (bort, it is a vulgar meaiurement,
reltrided by fuppofitions which are inadmiffible in all
aftual meafurements in the prefent univerfe, in which
no moveable material thing is known to be permanent,
either in fhape or magnitude.
1 his is an undeniable confequence of the principle of
univerfal gravitation, and the compreflibility of every
kind of tangible matter with, which we are acquainted.
Remove the brafs rule but one inch from its place; its
gravitation to the earth and to the reft of the univerfe is
immediately changed, and its dimenfions change of con¬
fequence. A change of temperature will produce a fimi-
lar effedt; and this is attended to and confidered in all
nice menfurations. We do the belt we can to allure our-
felves that our rule al ways occupies a fenfibly equal fpace;
and we mult be contented with chances of error which
we can neither perceive nor remove.
We might (were this a proper place) take notice of
fome other logical defeds in the reafoning of this cele¬
brated propofition : but they are befide our prefent pur-
pofe of explaining the different modes of mathematical
meafurement, with the view of difcovering that circum-
itance in which they all agree, and which (if the only
g one) mult therefore be the charaderiltic of menfuration.
he cha- We think that the only circumltance in which all
fteriftic modes of menfuration agree, or the only notion that is
enfurf *°unc* "1 t'iem aI1> ls» tliat the quantity is conceived as
‘ confining of parts, diftinguifhable from each other, and
feparated by aflignable boundaries ; fo that they are at
once conceived feparately and jointly. We venture to
afiert that no quantity is diredly meafured which we
cannot conceive in this way, and that fuch quantities
only are the immediate objeds of mathematical contem¬
plation, and fhould be diftinguilhed by a generic name.
Let them be called Mathematical quantities.
Extension, Duration, Number, and Proportion,
have this charaderiilic, and they are the only quantities
which have it. Any perfon will be convinced of the firfl
affertion by attending to his own thoughts when con¬
templating thefe notions. He will find that he conceives
every one of them as made up of its own parts, which
are diftinguifhable from each other, and have aftign-
able boundaries, and that it is only in confequence of
involving this conception that they can be added to
or fubtraded from each other; that they can be multi¬
plied, divided, and conceived in any proportion to each
other.
He may perhaps find confiderable difficulty in acqui¬
ring perfedly diftind notions of the menfurability, and
the accuracy of the modes of menfuration. He will find
that the way in which he meafures duration is very fimi-
lar to that in which he meafures fpace or extenfion.
He does not know, or does not attend to, any thing
which hinders the brafs foot-rule in his hand from con-
tmuing to occupy equal fpaces during his ufe of it, in
meafuring the diftance of two bodies. In like manner
he feleds an event which nature or art can repeat con¬
tinually, and in which the circumftances which contri-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
bute to its accomplithment are invariably the fame, or Quantity,
their variations and their effeds are infenfible. He con- 1
eludes that it will always occupy an equal portion of
time for its accomplifliment, or always laft an equal
time. Then, obferving that, during the event whofe
duration he wifties to meafure, this ftandard event is ac-
complilhed 294- times, and that it is repeated 3654-
times during the accompliihment of another event, he
affirms that the durations of thefe are in the ratio of 294.
to 3654. It is thus (and with the fame logical defed
as in the meafuring a line by a brafs rod) that the aftro-
nomer meafures the celeftial revolutions by means of the
rotation of the earth round its axis, or by the vibrations
of a pendulum.
We are indebted for moft of the preceding obferva-
tions to Dr Reid, the celebrated author of the Inquiry
into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common
Senfe, and of the Effays on the Intelledual and Adive
Powers of Man. He has publilhed a differtation on
this fubjed in the 45th volume of the Philofophical
Tranfadions, N° 489, which we recommend to our
philofophical readers as a performance eminent for pre-
cifion and acutenefs. If we prefume to differ from
him in any trivial circumftance, it is with that de¬
ference and refped which is due to his talents and his
worth.
Dr Reid juftly obferves, that as nothing has proper-Character
tion which has not either extenfion, duration, or num-°* mathe-
ber, the charaders of mathematical quantity may be re- m!Uh al
ftrided to thefe three. He calls them PROPER quanti-fiU inUt
ties, and all others he calls IMPROPER. We believe
that, in the utmoft precifion of the Englifii language,
this denomination is very appofite, and that the word
quantity derived from quantum, always fuppofes mea- IO
furement : But the word is frequently ufed in cafes Other
where its original is not kept in view, and we ufe other quantities
Avords as fynonymous Avith it, Avhen all menfuration, that,can~
Avhether poffible or not, is out of our thoughts. Accor- (i°iered mal
ding to pradice, therefore, the jus at norma thematical—
there feems to be no impropriety in giving this name, ty-
in our language at leaft, to whatever can be conceived
as great or little. There is no impropriety in faying that
the pain occafioned by the ftone is greater than that of
the toothache; and Avhen Ave fearch for the category to
which the affertion may be referred, we cannot find any
other than quantity. We may be allowed therefore to
fay, Avith almoft all our feientific countrymen, that every
thing is conceivable in refped of quantity which avc can
think or fpeak of as greater and lefs; and that this no¬
tion is the charaderiftic of quantity as a genus, Avhile
meafurablenefs is the charaderiftic of mathematical quan¬
tity as a fpecies.
But do Ave not meafure many quantities, and confider
them mathematically, Avhich have not this charaderiftic
of being made up of their own diftinguilhable parts ?
Whatelfe is the employment of the mechanician, when
fpeaking of velocities, forces, attradions, repulfions,
magnetic influence, chemical affinity, &c. &c. ? Are
not thefe mathematical fciences ? And if the precifion
and certainty of mathematics arife from the nature of
their fpecific objed, are not all the claims of the mecha¬
nician and phyfical aftronomer ill-founded pretenfions *
Thefe queftions require and deferve a ferious anfwer.
It is moft certain that Ave copfider the notions which
are expreffed by thefe terms velocity, force, denfity, and
4 F ' the
Quantity.
ii
Velocity,
force, uen-
fity, how
meafured.
QUA L 594
the like, as fufceptible of meafure, and we confider for
them mathematically. . r i
Some of thefe terms are nothing but names tor rela¬
tions of meafurable quantity, and only require a little re-
fleaion to (how themfelves fuch. Velocity is one of
thefe. It is only a name expreffing a relation between
the fpace defcribed by a moving body and the time
which elapfes during its defcription. Certain moderate
rates of motion are familiar to us. What greatly ex¬
ceeds this, fuch as the flight of a bird when compared
with our walking, excites our attention, and this excels
gets a name. A motion not fo rapid as we are familiar
with, or as we wifli, alfo gets a name; becaufe in this
the excefs or defed may intereft us. We wilh for the
flight of the hawk ; we chide the tardy pace of our mei-
feno-er: but it is fcientific curiofity which firft confiders
this*relation as a fepai'vte object of contemplation, and
the philofopher muft have a name for it. He has not
formed a new one, but makes life of a word of common
language, whofe natural meaning is the combination of
a great fpace with a fliort time. Having once appro-
] QUA
proper and immediate fubjefts of mathematical dif- Quantity,
cuflion : But there are many words which are expreflive ‘ J
of things, or at leaft of notions, to which this way of
confidering them will not apply. All thofe affe£tions or
qualities of external bodies, by which they are concei¬
ved to aft on each other, are of this kind : Impulsive
FORCE, WEIGHT, CENTRIPETAL AND CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE, MAGNETICAL, ELECTRICAL, CHEMICAL AT¬
TRACTIONS AND REPULSIONS ; in fliort, all that we
confider as the immediate caufes of natural phenome¬
na. Thefe we familiarly meafure, and confider mathe¬
matically. ^ r. “
What was faid on this fubjeft in the article PHYSiCS^0^5.^-
will give us clear conceptions of this procefs of. the phenome;
mind. Thefe forces or caufes are not immediate objeftsr!<.
priated it, in his fcientific vocabulary, to this very ge¬
neral ufe, it lofes with him its true fignific-ation. Tardi¬
ly would have done juft as well, though its true mean¬
ing is diametrically oppofite ; and there is no greater
impropriety in faying the tardity of a cannon bullet than
in faying the velocity of the hour-hand of a watch. Ve¬
locity is a quality or affeftion of motion, the notion of
which includes the notions of fpace and duration (two
mathematical quantities), and no other. It doe^ not
therefore exprefs a mathematical quantity itfelf, but a
relation, a combination of two mathematical quantities
of different kinds ; and as it is meafurable in the quan¬
tities fo combined, its meafure muft be a unit of its own
kind, that is, an unit of fpace as combined with an unit
of time.
Density is another word of the fame kind, exprei-
fing a combination of fpace with number. Denfa: arbo-
ves means trees {landing at a fmall diftance from each
other ; and the word is ufed in the fame fenfe when we
fay that quickfilver is denfer than water. The exp.ref-
fion always fuggefts to the reflefting mind the notions
of particles and their diftances. We are indeed fo habi¬
tuated to complicated views of things, that we can fee
remote conneftions with aftonifliing rapidity ; and a
very few circumftances are fufficient for leading forward
the mind in a train of inveftigation. Common difcourfe
is a moft wonderful inftance of this. It is in this way
that we fay, that we found by weighing them that in¬
flammable air had not the fixth part of the denfity of
common air. Suppofing all matter to confift of equal
atoms equally heavy, and knowing that the weight of a
bladder of air is the fum of the rveights of all the atoms,
and alfb knowing that the vicinity of the atoms is in a
certain proportion of the number contained in a given
bulk, we affirm that common air is more than fix times
denfer than inflammable air ; but this rapid decifion is
entirely the effeft of habit, which makes us familiar
with certain groupes of conceptions, and we inftantan-
eoufly diftinguifti them from others, and thus think and
difcourfe rationally. The Latin language employs the
freqiiens to exprefs both the combination of fpace
and number, and that of time ^nd number.
There-are perhaps a few more words which exprefs
combinations of mathematical quantities of different
kinds; and the correfponding ideas or notions are there-
3
of contemplation, and are known only % and fa the
phenomena which we confider as their effefts. I he
phenomenon is not only the indication of the agency of
any caule, and the charafteriftic of its kind, but the
meafure of its degree. The neceffary circumftances in
this train of human thought are, ift, Lhe notion of the
force as fomething fufceptible of augmentation and dimi¬
nution. 2d, The notion of an infeparable conneftion
of the force with the effeft produced, and of every de¬
gree of the one with a correfponding degree of the other.
From thefe is formed the notion that the phenomenon
or effeft is the proper mealure of the force or caufc. Ah
this is ftriftly logical.
But when we are confidering thefe fubjefts mathe¬
matically, the immediate objefts of our contemplation
are not the forces which we are thus treating.. It is
not their relations which we perceive, and which we
combine with fuch complication of circumftances and
certainty of inference as are known in all other fei-
ences: by no means ; they are the phenomena only,
which are fubjefts of purely mathematical difeuffion.
They are motions, which involve only the notions of
fpace and time ; and when we have finiftied an accurate
mathematical inveftigation, and make our affirmation
concerning the forces, we are certain of its trutn, be¬
caufe vie fuppofe the forces to have the proportions and
relations, and no other, which we obferve in the pheno¬
mena. Thus, after having demonftrated, by the geo¬
metrical comparifon of the lines and angles and furtaces
of an ellipfe, that the momentary defleftionof the moon
from the tangent of her orbit is the 3600th part of the
fimultaneous defleftion of a ftone from the tangent of its
parabolic path ; Newton affirms, that the force by which
a particle of the moon is retained in her orbit is the
3600th part of the wTeight of a particle of the ftone ;
and having farther ftiown, from faft and obfervation,
that thefe momentary defleftions are inverfely as the
fquares of the diftances from the centre of the earth, he
affirms, that all this is produced by a force which varies
its intenfity in this manner.
Now all this inveftigation proceeds on the two fuppo-
fitions mentioned above, and the meafures of the forces
are in faft the meafures of the phenomena. The whole
of phyfical aftronomy, and indeed the whole of mecha¬
nical philofophy, might be taught and underftood, with¬
out ever introducing the word force, or the notion w hich
it is fuppofed to exprefs : for our mathematical reafon-
ings are really about the phenomena, which are fubjefts
purely mathematical.
The precifion, therefore, that we prefume to affirm
to attend thefe inveftigations, arifes entirely from the
meafurable
QUA
[ 595 ]
QUA
Quantity.
13
[eafures
: centri-
ital force.
14
equifites
fuch
eafures.
jntrover-
between
e Cartel!,
is and
sibnitzi-
is on this
bjed.
meafarable nature of the quantities which are the real
' objects of our contemplation, and the fuitablenefs and
propriety of the meafures which we adopt in our com-
parifons.
Since, then, the phenomena are the immediate fub-
je£b of our difcuffion, and the operating powers are on¬
ly inferences from the phenomena confidered as effefts,
the quantity aferibed to them muft alfo be an inference
from the quantity of the effe£t, or of fome circumftance
in the offeft. The meafure, therefore, of the caufe, or
natural power or force, cannot be one of its own parts j
for the whole and the part are equally unperceived by
us. Our meafure, therefore, mull be a meafure of fome
interefting part, or of the only interefting part of the
phenomenon. It is therefore in a manner arbitrary, and
depends chiefly on the intereft we take in the phenome¬
non. It muft, however, be fettled with precifion, fo that
all men in ufing it may mean the fame thing. It mult
be fettled, therefore, by the defeription of that part or
circumftance of the phenomenon which is charafteriflic
of the natural power. This defeription is the definition
of the meafure.
Thus Newton aflumes as his meafure of the centri¬
petal force, the momentary deviation from uniform
rectilineal motion. Others, and fometimes Newton him-
felf, aflumes the momentary change of velocity, which
again is meafured by twice this deviation. Thefe mea¬
fures, being thus feleCted, are always proper in a mathe¬
matical fenfe ; and if ftriftly adhered to, can never lead
us into any paralogifm. They may, however, be phyfl-
cally wrong : there may not be that indifloluble con¬
nexion between the phenomenon and the fuppofed caufe.
But this is no mathematical error, nor does it invalidate
any of our mathematical inferences: it only makes them
ufelefs for explaining the phenomenon by the principle
which we adopted ; but it prepares a modification of the
phenomenon for fome more fortunate application of phy-
fical principles.
All that can be defired in the definitions or deferip-
tions of thefe meafures is, that they may not deviate
from the ordinary ufe of the terms, becaufe this would
always create confufion, and occafion mi flakes. Dr
Reid has given an example of an impropriety of this
kind, which has been the fubjeX of much debate among
the Avriters on natural philofophy. We mean the mea¬
fure of the force inherent in a body in motion. Def-
cartes, and all the writers of his time, affumed the ve¬
locity produced in a body as the meafure of the force
which produces it ; and obferving that a body, in con-
fequence of its being in motion, produces changes in
the ftate or motion of other bodies, and that thefe
changes are in the proportion of the velocity of the
changing body, they aflerted that there is in a moving
body a vis INSITA, an INHERENT FORCE, and that this
is proportional to its velocity; faying that its force is
twice or thrice as great, when it moves twice or thrice
as fall at one time as at another. But Leibnitz obfer-
ved, that a body which moves twice as faft, rifes four
times as high, againft the uniform aXion of gravity j
that it penetrates four times as deep into a piece of uni¬
form clay that it bends four times as many fprings, or
a fpring four times as ftrong, to the fame degree ; and
produces a great many effeXs which are four times
greater than thofe produced by a body which has half
the initial velocity. If the velocity be triple, quadru¬
ple, &c. the effeXs are nine times, 16 times, &c. greater j Quantity.
and, in Ihort, are proportional, not to the velocity, but '"“’"'“v
to its fquarc. This obfervation had been made before
by Dr Hooke, who has enumerated a prodigious variety
of important cafes in which this proportion of effcX is
obferved. Leibnitz, therefore, affirmed, that the force
inherent in a moving body is proportional to the fquare
of the velocity.
It is evident that a body, moving w'ith the fame ve¬
locity, has the fame inherent force, whether this be em¬
ployed to move another body, to bend fprings, to rife in
oppofition to gravity^, or to penetrate a mafs ot foft mat¬
ter. Therefore thefe meafures, which are fo widely dif¬
ferent, while each is agreeable to a numerous clafs of
faXs, are not meafures of this fomething inherent in the
moving body which vre call its force, but are the mea¬
fures of its exertions when modified according to the
circumftances of the cafe j or, to fpeak ftill more cau-
tioufly and fecurely, they are the meafures of certain
clafles of phenomena confequent on the aXion of a mo¬
ving body. It is in vain, therefore, to attempt to fup-
port either of them by a demonftration. The meafure
itfelf is nothing but a definition. The Cartefian calls
that a double force which produces a double velocity
in the body on which it aXs. The Leibnitzian calls
that a quadruple force which makes a quadruple pene¬
tration. The reafonings of both in the demonftration of
a propofition in dynamics may be the fame, as alfo the
refult, though exprefled in different numbers.
But the two meafures are far from being equally pro¬
per : for the Leibnitzian meafure obliges us to do conti¬
nual violence to the common ufe of words. When two
bodies moving in oppofite direXions meet, flrike each
other, and flop, all men will fay that their forces are
equal, becaufe they have the bell left of equality which
wre can devife. Or when two bodies in motion ftrike
the parts of a machine, fuch as the oppofite arms of a le¬
ver, and are thus brought completely to reft, we and all
men will pronounce their mutual energies by the inter¬
vention of the machine to be equal. Now, in all thefe
cafes, it is well known that a perfeX equality is found
in the produXs of the quantities of matter and velocity.
Thus a ball of two pounds, moving with the velocity
of four feet in a fecond, will flop a ball of eight pounds
moving with the velocity of one foot per fecond. But
the followers of Leibnitz fay, that the force of the firft
ball is four times that of the fecond.
All parties are agreed in calling gravity a uniform
or invariable accelerating force j and the definition
which they give of fuch a force is, that it always pro¬
duces the fame acceleration, that is, equal accelerations
in equal times, and therefore produces augmentations of
velocity proportionable to the times in which they are
produced. The only effeX aferibed to this force, and
confequently the only thing which indicates, charaXe-
rifes, and meafures it, is the augmentation of velocity.
What is this velocity, confidered not merely as a ma¬
thematical terra, but as a phenomenon, as an event, a
produXion by the operation of a natural caufe ? It
cannot be conceived any other way than as a determi¬
nation to move on for ever at a certain rate, if nothing
fliall change it. We cannot conceive this very clearly.
We feel ourfelves forced to animate, as it were, the
body, and give it not only a will and intention to move
in this manner, but a real exertion of fome faculty in
4 F 2 confequend?
QUA
Quantity, confequence of this determination of mind.
'•~~v  eonfcious of fuch a train of operations in ourielves j.and
the laft ftep of this train is the exertion or energy of
fome natural faculty, which we, in the utmoft propriety
of language, call force. By fuch analogical conception,
we fuppofe a fomething, an energy, inherent in the mo¬
ving body ; and its only office is the production and
continuation of this motion, as in our own cafe. Sci¬
entific curiofity was among our latefi; wants, and lan¬
guage was formed long before its appearance : as we
formed analogical conceptions, we contented ourfelves
with the words already familiar to us, and to this fome¬
thing we gave the name Force, which expreffed that
energy in ourfelves which bears fome refemblance (in
office at leaf!) to the determination of a body to move
on at a certain rate. This fort of allegory pervades tire
whole of our conceptions of natural operations, and we
can hardly think or fpeak of any operation without a
language, which fuppofes the animation of matter. And,
in the prefent cafe, there are fo many points of refem¬
blance between the effects of our exertions and the ope¬
rations of nature, that the language is moft expreffive,
and has the ftrongeft appearance of propriety. By ex¬
erting our force, we not only move and keep in motion,
but w'e move other bodies. Juft fo a ball not only moves,
but puts other bodies in motion, or penetrates them,
&c.—This is the origin of that conception which fo
forcibly obtrudes itfelf into our thoughts, that there is
inherent in a moving body a; force by which it produces
changes in other bodies. No fuch thing appears in the
fame body if it be not in motion. We therefore con¬
clude, that it is the production of the moving force,
whatever that has been. If fo, it muft be conceived
as proportional to its producing caufe. Now this force,
thus produced or exerted in the moving body, is only
another way of conceiving that determination which we
call velocity, when it is conceived as a natural event.
We can form no other notion of it. The vis infita, the
determination to move at a certain rate, and tire velo¬
city, are one and the fame thing, confidered in different
relations.
Therefore the vis inf to corpori movent i, the determi¬
nation to move at a certain rate, and the velocity, ftiould
have one and the fame raeafure, or any one of them may
be taken for the meafure of the other. The velocity
being an objeft of perception, is therefore a proper
meafure of the inherent force ; and the propriety is
more evident by the perfeft agreement of this ufe of the
words with common language. For we conceive and
exprefs the aftion of gravity as uniform, when we think
and fay that its effe&s are proportional to the times of
its aCtion. Now all agree, that the velocity produced
by gravity is proportional to the time of its aCtion. And
thus the meafure of force, in reference to its producing
caufe, perfedly agrees with its meafure, independent of
this conftderation.
But this agreement is totally loft in the Leibnitzian
doCtrine ; for the body which has fallen four times as
fer, and has fuftained the aCtion of gravity twice as long,
is faid to have four times the force..
The quaintnefs and continued paradox of expreffion
which this meafure of inherent force leads us into,
would have quickly exploded it, had it not been that
Its chief abettors were leagued in a keen and acrimo¬
nious warfare with the Britifti mathematicians who fup-
id
Vis into.
[ ’596 1 QUA
We are ported the claim of Sir Ifaac Newton to the invention Quantity.
of fluxions. They rejoiced to find in the elegant wri- v—
tings of Huyghens a phyfical principle of great extent,
fuch as this is, which could be fet in comparifon with
fome of the wonderful difeoveries in Newton’s Princi-
pia. The fad:, that in the mutual adion of bodies on
each other the produd of the maffes and the fquares
of the velocities remain always the fame (which they
c-a\\ \\iZ confervatio virium vivaruin) is of almoft uni-Confervat-
verfal extent; and the knowledge of it enabled them to virium vi
give ready and elegant folutions of the moft abftrufe and varun1,
intricate problems, by whkb they acquired a great and
deferved celebrity. Dr Robert Hooke, whofe obferva-
tion hardly any thing efcaped, was the firft (long before
Huyghens) who remarked *, that in all the cafes of the * Micogre,
gradual produdion and extindion of motion, the fenfible
phenomenon is proportional to the fquare of the produ-g_c. inj,js
ced or extinguiihed velocity. Pofthu-
John Bernoulli brought all thefe fads together, andmous
fyftematized them according to the principle advanced"01^’
by Huyghens in his treatife on the centre of ofcillation.
He and Daniel Bernoulli gave moft beautiful fpecimens
of the prodigious ufe of this principle for the folution
of difficult phyfical problems in their differtations on
the motion and impulfe of fluids, and on the commu¬
nication of motion. It wras however very early objeded
to them (we think by Marquis Poleni), that in the cob
lifion of bodies perfedly hard there was no fueh confer-
vaiio virium vivarum; and that, in this cafe, the forces
muft be acknowledged to be proportional to the velo¬
cities. The objedions were unanfwerable.—But John
Bernoulli evaded their force, by affirming that there
were and could be no bodies perfedly hard. This was
the origin of another celebrated dodrine, on which l8
Leibnitz greatly plumed himfelf, THE Law OF CoN-Lawofcon
TINUITY, viz. that nothing is obferved to change ab-tinuity.
ruptly, or per faltum. But no one will pretend to fay
that a perfedly hard body is an inconceivable thing; on
the contrary7, all will allow that foftnefs and- compref-
fibility are adjund ideas, and not in the leaft neceffary
to the conception of a particle of matter, nay totally
incompatible with our notion of an ultimate atom.
Sir Ifaac Newton never could be provoked to en¬
gage in this difpute. He always confidered it as a wil¬
ful abufe of words, and unworthy of his attention. He
guarded againft all poffibrlity of cavil, by giving the
moft precife and perfpicuous definitions of thofe meafures
of forces, and all other quantities which he had occafion jp
to confider, and by carefully adhering to them. And Great fupe
in one propofition of about 20 lines, viz. the 39th
of the ift book of the Principia, he explained everyA
phenomenon adduced in fupport of the Leibnitzian doc¬
trine, {bowing them to be immediate confequences
of the adion of a force meafured by the velocity which
it produces or extinguiibes. There it appears tliat the
heights to which bodies will rife in oppofition to the
uniform adion of gravity are as the fquares of the initial
velocities: So are the depths to which they will pene¬
trate uniformly refilling matter : So is the number of
equal fprings which they will bend to the fame degree,
&c. &c. &c. We have had frequent occafion to men¬
tion this propofition as the moft extenfively ufeful of all
Newton’s difeoveries. It is this which gives the imme¬
diate application of mechanical principles to the exph^
nation of natural phenomena. It is inceffantly employed
in
QUA [ 597 1 QUA
Quantity, in every problem by the very perfons who hold by the
iQuaran- other meafure of forces, although fuch conduft is virtu-
tl”e’ , ally giving up that meafure. They all adopt, in every
inveftigation the two theoremsy/=z;,andfs — vv; both
of which fuppofe an accelerating force/"proportional to
the velocity v which it produces by its uniform aftion
during the time t, and the theoremy^fs — v‘‘ is the
39th I. Princip. and is the confervatio virium vivarum.
This famous difpute (the only one in the circle of
mathematical fcience) has led us fomewhat afide. But
we have little more to remark with refpeft to meafurable
quantity. We cannot fay what varieties of quantity are
fufceptible of ftrifl meafure, or that it is impoffible to
give accurate meafures of every thing fufceptible of aug¬
mentation and diminution. We affirm, however, with
confidence, that pain, pleafure, joy, &c. are not made
up of their own parts, which can be contemplated fe-
parately : but they may chance to be affbeiated by na¬
ture with fomething that is meafurable j and we may
one day be able to aflign their degrees with as much
precifion as we now afcertain the degrees of warmth by
the expanfion of the fluid in the thermometer. There
is one fenfe in which they may all be meafured, viz.
numerically, as Newton meafures den-fity, vis matrix,
&.c. We can conceive the pain of each of a dozen of
men to be the fame. Then it is evident that the pain
of eight of thefe men is to that of the remaining four as
two to one ; but from fuch menfuration ^ve do not fore¬
fee any benefit likely to arife.
Of ANT IT Y, in Grammar, an affection of a fyllable,
whereby its meafure, or the time wherein it is pronoun¬
ced, is afcertained : or that which determines the fylla¬
ble to be long or fhort.
Quantity is alfb the object of profody, and diftin-
guifhes verfe from profe*, and the economy and arrange¬
ment of quantities, that is, the diftribution of long and
Ihort fyllables, makes what we call the. number. See
Poetry, Part III.
The quantities are uled to be diftjnguiffied, among
grammarians, by the characters % fliort, as per j and ~,
long, as rbs. There is alfo a common, variable, or du¬
bious quantity y that is, fyllables that are at one time ta¬
ken for fhort ones, and at another time for long ones j
as the firft fyllable in Atlas, patres, &c.
QUARAN TINE, is a trial which {hips muff un¬
dergo when fufpeCted of a peftilential infeftion. It
may be ordered by the king, with advice of the privy-
council, at fuch times, and under fuch regulations, as
he judges proper. Ships ordered on quarantine muff
repair to the place appointed, and muff continue there
during the time prefcribed (generally fix weeks) ; and
muff have no intercourfe with the ffiore, except for
neceffary provifions, which are conveyed with every
poflible precaution. When the time is expired, and
the goods opened and expofed to the air as directed, if
there be no appearance of infection, they are admitted
to port.
Ships infeCted with the peffilence muff proceed to St
Helen’s Pool, in the Scilly iflands, and give notice of
their fituation to the cuftomhoufe officers, and wait till
the king’s pleafure be known.
Perlons giving falfe information to avoid performing
quarantine, or refufing to go to the place appointed, or
2
efcaping, alfo officers appointed to fee quarantine per- Quaran-.
formed, deferting their office, negleCting their duty, or
giving a falfe certificate, fuffer death as felons. Quarries.
Goods from Turkey, or the Levant, may not be land- w—y——J
cd without licenfe from the king, or certificate that they
have been landed and aired at fome foreign port. See
Plague.
QUARLES, Francis, the fon of James Quarles
clerk to the board of green .cloth, and purveyor to
Queen Elizabeth, was born in 1592. He was educated
at Cambridge j became a member of Lincoln’s Inn*, and
was for fome time cup-bearer to the queen of Bohe¬
mia, and chronologer to the city of London. It was
probably on the ruin of her affairs that he went to Ire¬
land as fecretary to Arehbifhop Uiher j but the troubles
in that kingdom forcing him to return, and not find¬
ing affairs more at peace in England, fome difquiets
he met with were thought to haxe haftened his death*
which happened in 1644. •^3 works both in profe
and verfe are numerous, and were formerly in great
efteem, particularly his Divine Emblems : but the ob-
folete quaintnefs of his ftyle has caufed them to fall into
negledt, excepting among particular claffes of readers.
“ The memory of Quarles, fays a late-author, has been
branded with more than common abufe, and he feems Beav-
have been cenfured merely from the -want of being read.
If his poetry failed to gain him friends and readers, his ijjjj poetry*
piety ffiould at leaf! have fecured him peace and good¬
will. He too often, no doubt, miflook the enthu-
fiafm of devotion for the infpiration of fancy : to mix
the waters of Jordan and Helicon in the fame cup,
was referved for the hand of Milton ; and for him, and
him only, to find the bays of Mount Olivet equally
verdant with thofe of Parnaffus. Yet, as the effufions
of a real poetical mind, however thwarted by unto-
wardnefs of fubjeft, will be feldom rendered totally
abortive, we find in Quarles original imagery, rtriking
fentiment, fertility of expreffion, and happy combina¬
tions ; together with a compreflion of ftyle that me¬
rits the obfervation of the writers of verfe. Grofs defi¬
ciencies of judgment, and the infelicity of his fubje&s,
concurred in ruining him. Perhaps no circumtiance
whatever can give a more complete idea of Quarles’s
degradation than a late edition of his Emblems 5 the
following paffage is extracted from the preface : ‘ Mr
Francis Quarles, the author of the Emblems that go
under his name, was a man of the moft exemplary piety,
and had a deep infight into the myfteries of our holy
religion. But, for all that, the book itfelf is written
in fo old a language, that many parts of it are fcarcel/
intelligible in the prefent age; many of his phrafes are
fo affe&ed, that no perfon who has any tafte for read¬
ing can perufe them with the leaft degree of pleafure ;
many of his expreffions are harfti, and fometimes ■whole
lines are included in a parenthefis, by which the mind
of the reader is diverted from the principal objeft. His
Latin mottos under each cut can be of no fervice to an
ordinary reader, becaufe he cannot underftand them..
In order, therefore, to accommodate the public with an
edition of Quarles’s Emblems properly modernifed, this
work was undertaken.* Such an exhibition of Quarles
is chaining Columbus to an oar, or making John Duke
of Marlborough a train-band corporal.”
QUARRIES, a name commonly given to an ex¬
traordinary cavern under the city of Paris, the exift--.
encsv
QUA [598
Quarries, ence of which is known to few even of the inhabitants,
' pnd many of thofe who have heard of it conhder the
-whole as an idle ftory. Mr White vifited this cavern in
1784, having, with many others, obtained leave (which
is very cautioufly granted) to infpe& it, accompanied
by guides with torches. He gives the following account
of it in the fecond volume of the Manchefter Tranfac-
tions. “ At the entrance by the Obfervatoire Royal, the
path is narrow for a confiderable way ; but foon we en¬
tered large and fpacious ftreets, all marked with names,
the fame as in the city •, different advertifements and
bills were found, as we proceeded, pafted on the walls,
fo that it had every appearance of a large town fwal-
lowed up in the earth.
“ The general height of the roof is about nine or ten
feet *, but in fome parts not lefs than 30 and even 40.
In many places there is a liquor continually dropping
from it, which congeals immediately, and forms a fpecies
of tranfparent {tone, but not fo fine and clear as rock
cryftal. As we continued our peregrination, we thought
ourfelves ia no fmall danger from the roof, which we
found but indifferently propped in fome places with
wood much decayed. Under the houfes, and many of
the ftreets, however, it feemed to be tolerably fecured
by immenfe {tones fet in mortar j in other parts, where
there are only fields or gardens above it, it was totally
unfupported for a confiderable fpace, the roof being
perfedtly level, or a plain piece of rock. After tra-
verfing about two miles, we again defcended about 2o
fteps, and here found fome workmen in a very cold and
damp place, propping up a moft dangerous part, which
they were fearful would give way every moment. The
path is here not more than three feet in width, and the
roof fo low, that we were obliged to ftoop confiderably.
“ On walking fome little diftance farther, we entered
into a kind of faloon cut out of the rock, and faid to be
exa&ly under the Eglife de St Jacques. This was illu¬
minated with great tafte, occafioned an agreeable fur-
prife, and made us all ample amends for the danger and
difficulty we had juft before gone through. At one end
was a reprefentation in miniature of fome of the principal
forts in the Indies, with the fortifications, draw-bridges,
&c. Cannons were planted with a couple of foldiers to
each ready to fire. Centinels were placed in different
parts of the garrifon, particularly before the governor’s
houfe •, and a regiment of armed men was drawn up in
another place with their general in the front. The
whole was made up of a kind of clay which the place
affords, was ingenioufly contrived, and the light that
was thrown upon it gave it a very pretty effeft.
“ On the other fide of this hall was a long table fet
out with cold tongues, bread, and butter, and fome of
the beft Burgundy I ever drank. Now every thing was
hilarity and mirth ; our fears were entirely difpelled,
and the danger we dreaded the moment before was now
no longer thought of. In ftiort, we were all in good
fpirits again, and proceeded on our journey about two
miles farther, when our guides judged it prudent for us
to afcend, as we were then got to the fteps which lead
up to the town. We here found ourfelves fafe at the
Val de Grace, near to the Englifh Benedi&ine convent,
without the leaft accident having happened to any one
of the party. We imagined we had walked about two
French leagues, and were abfent from the furface of the
earth betwixt four and five hours.
] QUA
“ There were formerly feveral openings into the Quarries,
quarries, but the two I have mentioned, viz. the Obfer- Qua.rry.
vatory and the Val de Grace, are, I believe, the only v—
ones left 5 and thefe the infptftors keep conftantly lock¬
ed, and rarely open them, except to ftrangers particu¬
larly introduced, and to workmen who are always em¬
ployed in fome part by the king. The police thought
it a neceffary precaution to fecure all the entrances into
this cavern, from its having been formerly inhabited
by a famous gang of robbers, who infefted the country
for many miles round the city of Paris.
“ As to the origin of this quarry, I could not, on the
ftridleft inquiry, learn any thing fatisfadlory •, and the
only account I know publiflred is the following contain¬
ed in the Tableaux de Paris, noitvcllc edition, tome /pre¬
mier, chapitre yme, page 1 ime.
“ For the firft building of Paris it was neceffary to
get the {tone in the environs 5 and the confumption of
it was very confiderable. As Paris was enlarged, the
fuburbs were infenfibly built on the ancient quarries, fo
that all that you fee without is effentially wanting in the
earth for the foundation of the city : hence proceed the
frightful cavities which are at this time found under the
houfes in feveral quarters. They ftand upon abyffes.
It would not require a very violent ftiock to throw back
the ftones to the place from whence they have been
raifed with fo much difficulty. Eight men being fwal-
lowed up in a gulf of 150 feet deep, and fome other
lefs known accidents, excited at length the vigilance of
the police and the government, and, in fa£l, the build¬
ings of feveral quarters have been privately propped up ;
and by this means a fupport given to thefe obfcure fub-
terraneous places which they before wanted.
“ All the fuburbs of St James’s, Harp-ftreet, and
even the ftreet of Tournon, ftand upon the ancient
quarries j and pillars have been erefted to fupport the
weight of the houfes. What a fubjeft for reflexions,
in confidering this great city formed and fupported by
means abfolutely contrary ! Thefe towers, thefe fteeples,
the arched roofs of thefe temples, are fo many figns to
tell the eye that what we now fee in the air is wanting
under our feet.”
QUARRY, a place under ground, out of which are
got marble, freeftone, flate, limeftone, or other matters
proper for building. See Strata.
Some limeftone quarries in Fife are highly worthy
the attention of the curious, on account of an amaziug
mixture of organized marine produXions found in them.
One of this kind was opened about the year 1759, at a
farm called Enderteel, in the neighbourhood of Kirkal-
dy, belonging to General St Clair.
The flakes of the ftone, which are of unequal thick-
nefs, moft of them from eight to ten inches, lie hori¬
zontally, dipping towards the fea. Each of thefe
flakes, when broken, prefents to our view an amazing
colleXion of petrified fea bodies, as the bones of fifties,
ftalks of fea-weed, vaft quantities of {hells, fuch as
are commonly found on thofe coafts, befides feveral
others of very uncommon figures. In fome places
the {hells are fo numerous, that little elfe is to be feen
but prodigious clufters or concretions of them. In
the uppermoft ftratum the {hells are fo entire, that the
outer cruft or plate may be fcraped off with the finger;
and the ftalks of the fea-weed have a darkifli colour,
not that gloffy whitenefs which they have in the heart
of
QUA t 599 ] QUA
Quarry of the quarry. The fmalleft rays or veins of the fliells
II are deeply indented on the done, like the impreflion
.Kiartation- Qf a feal upon wax. In fhort, no fpot at the bottom
" of the ocean could exhibit a greater quantity of fea-
bodies than are to be found in this folid rock ; for we
have the Ikeletons of feveral fillies, the antctincz or
feelers of lobfters, the roots and llalks of fea-weeds, with
the very capfulce which contain the feed. The place
where all thefe curiofities are found is on an eminence
about an Englilh mile from the fea ; and as the ground
is pretty deep the whole way, it may be 2oo feet higher
at lead.
There are two or three things to be remarked here.
I. That among all the bodies we have mentioned,
there are none but what are fpecifically heavier than
water. This holds fo condantly true, that the fea-weed,
which fioats in water when the plant is entire, has been
dripped of the broad leaves, which make it buoyant,
before it has been lodged here. 2. The Ihells have been
all empty 5 for the double ones, as thofe of the Hat kind,
are always found fingle, or with one fide only. 3. The
rock feems to have been gradually deferted by the fea,
and for a long time, wadied with the tides •, for the up¬
per furface is all eaten, and hollowed in many places like
an honey-oomb, juft as we obferve in fiat rocks expofed
every tide to the accefs and recefs of the waters. See
the article Sea.
Quarry, or Quarrel, among glaziers, a pane of glafs
cut in a diamond form.
Quarries are of twro kinds, fquare and long; each of
which are of different fizes, expreffed by the number
of the pieces that make a foot of glafs, viz. eighths,
tenths, eighteenths, and twentieths: but all the fizes
are cut to the fame angles, the acute angle in the
fquare quarrels being 770 19', and 67° 21' in the long
ones.
Quarry, among hunters, is fometimes ufed for a
part @f the entrails of the bead taken, given by way of
reward to the hounds.
Quarry, in falconry, is the game which the hawk
is in purfuit of, or has killed.
QUART, a meafure of capacity, being the fourth
part of fome other meafure. The Englifh quart is the
fourth part of the gallon, and contains two pints.
The quart of the Romans was the fourth part of their
congius. The French have various quarts, befides their
quart or pot confiding of two pints, and are didinguifh-
ed by the whole of which they are quarters; as quart
de rmid, and quart de boiffeau.
QUARTAN, a meafure containing the fourth part
of fome other meafure.
Quartan, a fpecies of intermitting fever. See
Medicine Index.
QUART ATI ON, is an operatidn by which the
quantity of one thing is made equal to a fourth part of
the quantity of another thing. Thus when gold alloyed
with filver is to be parted, we are obliged to facilitate
the aflion of the aquafortis, by reducing the quantity of
the former of thefe metals to one fourth part of the
■whole mafs ; which is done by fufiiciently increafing the
quantity of the filver, if it be necedary. This opera¬
tion is called quartation, and is preparatory to the part¬
ing 5 and even many authors extend this name to the
operation of parting. See Ores, Analyjis of.
QUARTER, the fourth part of any thing, the frac- ^ Quarter,
tional expredion for which is v
Quarter, in weights, is generally ufed for the
fourth part of an hundred weight avoirdupois, or
28 lb.
Ufed as the name of a dry meafure, quarter is the
fourth part of a ton in weight, or eight budiels.
Quarter, a term in the manege. To work from
quarter to quarter, is to ride a horfe three times in upon
the firft of the four lines of a fquare; then changing
your hand, to ride him three times upon the fecond :
and fo to the third and fourth 5 always changing hands,
and obferving the fame order.
Quarters, with refpeft to the parts of a horfe, is
ufed in various fenfes : thus the dioulders and fore-legs
are called the fore-quarters, and the hips and hinder-legs
the hind-quarters. The quarters of a horfe’s foot are
the fides of the coffin, comprehending between the toe
and the heel: the inner quarters are thofe oppofite to
one another, facing from one foot to the other; and thefe
are always weaker than the outfide quarters, which lie
on the external fides of the coffin. Fa/fe-quarters, are
a cleft in the horn of a horfe’s hoof, extending from the
coronet to the dioe. A horfe is faid to be quarter-cajl
when for any diforder in the coffin we are obliged to
cut one of the quarters of the hoof.
Quarter, in AJlronomy, the fourth part of the moon’s
period : thus, from the new moon to the quadrature is
the fird quarter; from this to full moon, the fecond
quarter, &c.
Quarter, in Heraldry, is applied to the parts or
members of the fird divifion of a coat that is quartered,
or divided into four quarters.
Franc QUARTER, in Heraldry, is a quarter fingle
or alone; which is to poflefs one fourth part of the
field. It makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a
coat.
Quarter of a Ship, that part of a fhip’s fide which
lies towards the dern; or which is comprehended be¬
tween the aftmoft end of the main chains and the fides
of the ftern, where it is terminated by the quarter-
pieces.
Although the lines by which the quarter and bow
of a fhip, with refpefl; to her length, are only imagi¬
nary, yet experience appears fufficiently to have afcer-
tained their limits: fo that if we were to divide the
diip’s fides into five equal portions, the names of each
fpace would be readily enough exprefied. Thus the
firft, from the ftern, would be the quarter ; the fecond,
abaft the middiips ; the third, the middnps; the fourth,
before the midftiips; and the fifth, the bow. Whether
thefe divifions, which in reality are fome what arbitrary,
are altogether improper, may be readily difcovered by
referring to the mutual fituation or approach of two
adjacent veffels. The enemy boarded us on the lar¬
board fide ! Whereabouts ? Abaft the middiips, before
the middiips, &c.
Fig. 1. reprefents a geometrical elevation of a quar- pjate
ter of a 74 gun drip. A the keel, with a the falfe keel cccclviii,
beneath it. B the ftern-poft.. DD the quarter-gallery, fig* I*
with its balluftrades and windows. EE the quarter*
pieces, which limit and form the outlines of the ftern.
F the taffarel, or upper pieces of the ^lern. FG the
profile of the dern, with its galleries. H the gun-ports
of
e
Quarter.
U A [ <5oo ] QUA'
h the gun-ports of the upper and quarter-uiaders of the army to meet him next morning,
Fig. 2, 3.
Q
of the lower deck , u _ _
quarter-deck. I the after-part of the mizen channel.
K the wing tranfom. KG the lower counter. LB the
ftation of the deck tranfom. L(£ the after-part of the
main-wale. DR the after-part of the channel-wale, pa¬
rallel to the main-wale. SU the (heer-rail, parallel to
both wales. T t the rudder. A t F the rake of the
{tern. P it the drift-rails. TU the after-part of the
load water-line; kkl the curve of the. leveral decks
correfponding to thofe repxefented an the head. Bee the
article Head.
As the marks, by which vefiels of different conflruc-
tions are diftinguifhed from each other, are generally
more confpicuous on the flern or quarter than may other
part, we have reprefented feme of the quarters, which
afl'ume the moft different fhapes, and form the greatefl
.. contraft with each other. Fig. 2. fhows the item and
quarter of a.Dutch flight. Fig. 3. the flern and quar¬
ter of a cat. ;Fig. 4. is the Hern and quarter of a com'-
inon galley. Fig. 5. exhibits the quarter of a firfl-rate
galley, otherwife called a galleajje. Fig. 6. the quarter
of a Dutch dogger, or galliot. Fig. 7. reprefents the
flern and quarter of a floop of war.
The quarters of all other fhips have a near affinity to
thofe above exhibited. Thus all fhips of the line, and
Eaft-Indiamen, are formed with a quarter little differing
from the principal figure in this plate. Xebecs have
quarters nearly refembling thofe of .galleaffes, only fome-
what higher. Hagboats and pinks approach the figure
of cats, the former being a little broader in the ftern,
and the latter a little narrower •, and the Herns and quar¬
ters of cats feem to be derived from thofe of fly-boats.
The Herns of Dutch doggers and galliots are indeed fin-
gular, and like thofe of no other modern veffel : they
have neverthelefs a great refemblance to the fhips of the
ancient Grecians, as reprefented in medals and other
monuments of antiquity.
On the Quarter, may be defined an arch of the ho¬
rizon, contained between the .line prolonged from the
{hip’s Hern and any diflant objefl, as land, ffiips, &c.
Thus if the (hip’s keel lies on an eafl and weft line, the
ftern being weftward, any diftant obje£t perceived on
the north-weft or fouth-weft, is faid to be on the lar¬
board or ftarboard quarter.
^UARTER-Bill, a roll, or lift, containing the diffe¬
rent ftations, to which all the officers and crew of the
ihip are quartered in the time of battle, and the names
of all the perfons appointed to thofe ftations. See
Quarters.
^UARTER-MaJler, an officer, generally a lieute¬
nant, whofe principal bufinefs is to look after the
quarters of the foldiers, their clothing, bread, am¬
munition, firing, &.c. Every regiment of foot and ar¬
tillery has a quarter-mafter, and every troop of horfe
one, who are only warrant-officers, except in the
Blues.
^UARTER-MaJler-General, is a confiderable officer
in the army ; and fhould be a man of great judgment
and experience, and well (killed in geography. His
duty is to mark the marches and encampments of an
army : he ftiould know the country perfedtly well,
with its rivers, plains, marfhes, woods, mountains, de¬
files, paffages, &c. even to the fmalleft brook. Prior
to a march, he receives the order and route from the
commanding general, and appoints a place for the
with whom he marches to the next camp ; w'here being
come, and having viewed the ground, he marks out to
the regimental quarter-mafters the ground allowed each
regiment for their camp : he choofes the head-quarters,
and appoints the villages for the generals of the army’s
quarters : he appoints a proper place for the encamp¬
ment of the train of artillery : he conducts foraging
parties, as likewife the troops to cover them againlt af-
faults, and has a fhare in regulating the wdnter-quarters
and cantonments.
QUARTER-Netting, a fort of net-work, extended along
the rails on the upper part of a (hip’s quarter. In a
(hip of war thefe are always douole, being fupported
by iron cranes, placed at proper diftances. The inter¬
val is fometimes filled with cork,, or old fails j but chief¬
ly w ilh the hammocks of the lailors, io as to form a pa¬
rapet to preventihe execution of the enemy’d fmall arms
in battle.
^UARTEli-Seffions, a general court held quarterly by Blackfl.
the juftices of peace of each county. This court is Common,
appointed by Hat. 2 Hen. V. c. 4. to be in the firftvo^iv‘
week after Michaelmas-day ; the firft week after the^* 2^1’
Epiphany ; the firft week after the clofe of Eafter j and
in the week after the tranflation of Saint Thomas a
.Becket, or the-7th of July. The court is held before
two or more juftices of the geace, one of whom muft
be of the quorum. The jurifdiftion of this court by
34 Ed. III. c. 1. extends to the trying and determining
of all felonies and trefpafles whatfoever, though they
feldom, if ever, try any greater offence than fmall fe¬
lonies within the benefit of clergy, their commiffion
providing, that if any cafe of difficulty arifes, they
(hall not proceed to judgment, but in the prefence of
one of the juftices of the courts of king’s bench or
common pleas, or one of the judges of affize. And
therefore murderers and other capital felons are ufu-
ally remitted for a more folemn trial to the affizes.
They cannot alfo try any new created offence, without
exprefs power given them by the ftatute which creates
it. But there are many offences, and particular mat¬
ters, which by particular ftatutes belong properly to
this jurifdiftion, and ought to be profecuted in this
court j as, the fmaller mifdemeanors againft the public
or commonwealth, not amounting to felony, and efpe-
eially offences relating to the game, highways, alehoufes,
baftard children, the fettlement and provifion for the
poor, vagrants, fervants wages, apprentices, and popiftx
recufants. Some of thefe are proceeded upon by in¬
dictment, and others in a fummary way by motion and
order thereupon j which order may, for the moft; part,
unlefs guarded againft by particular ftatutes, be remo¬
ved into the court of king’s bench, by writ of certiorari
facias, and be there either quaffied or confirmed. The
records or rolls of the feffions are committed to the cuf-
tody of a fpecial officer, denominated \\ie cujlos rotu-
lorum. In moft corporation towns there are quarter-fef-
fion^ kept before juftices of their own, within their re-
fpeCtive limits, which have exaftly the fame authority
as the general quarter-feffions of the county, except in
very few inftances : one of the moft confiderable of
which is the matter of appeals from orders of removal
of the poor, which, though they be from the orders
of corporation juftices, muft be to the feffions of the
county, by 8 and 9 Will. ill. c. 30. In both corpo¬
rations
QUA [ 60
rations and countries at large, there is fometimes kept a
fpecial or petty feflion, by a few juftices, for difpatch-
ing fmaller bufinefs in the neighbourhood between
the times of the general feffions, as for licenfing ale-
houfes, palling the accounts of parilh-officers, and the
like.
^UARTER-Staff, a long Half borne by forellers, park-
keeper, &c. as a badge of their office, and occalionally
ufed as a weapon.
(QUARTERS, a name given at fea to the feveral fta-
tions where the officers and crew of a ffiip of war are
polled in aftion. See War, Part II.
The number of men appointed to manage the ar¬
tillery is alwrays in proportion to the nature of the
guns, and the number and condition of the ffiip’s
crew. They are, in general, as follow, when the
ffiip is well manned, fo as to fight both fides at once oc-
eafionally :
Pounder. No. of men.
To a 42 - l?
32 - l3
24 - 11
18-9
12 - 7
Pounder. No of men.
To a 9 - 6
6 - J
4 - 4
3-3
This number, to which is often added a boy to bring
powder to every gun, may be occafionally reduced,
and the guns neverthelefs well managed. The number
of men appointed to the fmall arms, on board his Ma-
jelly’s Ihipsand Hoops of war, by order of the admiralty,
are,
Piate of the fhip. No. of men to the fmall arms.
ift - - 150
2d - - 120
3d of 80 guns - 100
— of 70 guns - 80
4th of 60 guns - 70
4th of 50 guns - 60
5th - - 50
6th - - 40
Sloops of war - 30
The lieutenants are ufually Rationed to command the
different batteries, and direct their efforts againft the
enemy. The mailer fuperintends the movements of
the ffiip, and whatever relates to the fails. The boat-
fwain, and a fufficient number of men, are Rationed to
repair the damaged rigging j and the gunner and car¬
penter, wherever neceffary, according to their refpeftive
offices.
The marines are generally quartered on the poop
and forecafile, or gang-way, under the direction of
their officers j although, on fome occafions, they af-
fiR at the great guns, particularly in diflant cannon¬
ading.
Quarters, at a liege, the encampment upon one of
the principal paffages round a place befieged, to pre¬
vent relief and convoys.
Head Quarters of an Army, the place where the
commander in chief has his quarters. I he quarters of
generals of horfe are, if poffible, in villages behind the
right and left wdngs, and the generals of foot are often
'in the fame place : but the commander in chief ffiould
be near the centre of the army.
QUARTERS of Refrefhment, the place or places where
Vol. XVII. Part II.
1 ] QUA
troops that have been much haraffed are put to recover Quarter*
themfelves during fome part of the campaign.
Intrenched QUARTERS, a place fortified with a ditch  
and parapet to lecure a body of troops.
Winter QUARTERS, fometimes means the fpace of
time included between leaving the camp and taking the
field j but more properly the places where the troops are
quartered during the winter.
The firR bufinefs, after the army is in winter-quar¬
ters, is to form the chain of troops to cover the quarters
well; which is done either behind a river, under cover
of a range of flrong jpoRs, or under the protection
of fortified towns. Huffars are very ufeful on this fer-
vice.
It ffiould be obferved, as an invariable maxim, in
winter-quarters, that your regiments be difpofed in
brigades, to be always under the eye of a general offi¬
cer and, if poffible, let the regiments be fo difiri-
buted, as to be each under the command of its own
chief.
QUARTILE, an afpeft of the planets tv hen they
are at the diRance of 90° from each other, and it is de~
noted by the charaCler □ .
QUARTERING, in Heraldry, is dividing a coat in¬
to four or more quarters, or quarterings, by parting,
couping, &.c. that is, by perpendicular and horizontal
lines, &c.
QUARTO-DECIMANS, an ancient fed in the Chrif-
tian church, who taught that Eafier' ffiould always be
celebrated according to the cuffom of the Jews, on the
fourteenth day of the moon in the month of March,
whenfoever that day fell out. And hence they derived
their name quarto-decirnani, q. d. Fourteenthers. The
Afiatics w'ere mightily attached to this opinion, pre¬
tending that it was built on the authority of St John,
who was their apoflle 5 and Pope ViClor could never
bring them to obedience in this article, though he was
upon the point of excommunicating them : but it is
more probable he contented himfelf with menaces. Sec
Easter.
QUARTZ, a mineral compofed chiefiy of filiceous
earths. See Mineralogy Index.
QUASHING, in Lave, the overthrowing and an¬
nulling a thing.
QUASI-CONTRACT, in the civil law, an aCl with¬
out the RriCl form of a contraft, but yet having the
force thereof. In a contraft there muR be the mutual
confent of both parties, but in ^quaf-contract one party
may be bound or obligated to the other, without having
given his confent to the aft whereby he is obliged. For
example: I have done your bufinefs, in your abfence,
without your procuration, and it has fucceeded to your
advantage. I have then an aftion againfi you for the re¬
covery of what I have diffiurfed, and you an aftion
againR me to make me give an account of my admini-
ftration, which amounts to a quafi-contraEd.
QuASI-Crime, or Quafi-deliB, in the civil law, the
aftion of a perfon who does damage, or evil, involunta¬
rily. The reparation of quafi-crimes confifls in making
good the damages, with intereR.
QUASS, a fermented liquor drunk in Ruffia. See
Peasant.
QUASSIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the de-
candria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under
the 14th order, GntinaleS. See Botany Index.
4 G QUATUOR,
Q U E
Quatuorvir Q U AT UOR V1R, in antiquity, formerly writ ten 1111.
II Vir, a Roman magiftrate, who had three colleagues
Quebec. him in the fame adminiftratioir, and had the
~~~'t ^ care of conducting and fettling the colonies fent into the
provinces. There were nlfo quatuorviri appointed to
infpefl and take care of repairs, &c.
OU AVER, in Mt/Jic, a meafure of time equal to half
a crotchet, or an eighth part of a femibreve.
QUAY. See Key.
gdJEBEC, a handfome and large town of North
America, and capital of Canada. The firft place taken
notice of upon landing here is a fquare of an irregular
figure, with well-built houfes on each fide; on the back
of which is a rock j on the left it is bounded by a fmall
church j and on the right are two rows of houfes, pa¬
rallel to each other. There is another between the
church and the harbour ; as alfo another long row on
the fide of the bay. This may be looked upon as a
kind of fuburb j and between this and the great ftreet
35 a very ifeep afcent, in which they have made ileps
for the foot paffengers to go up. ' This may be called
the Upper Town, wherein is the biihop’s palace j and
between two large fquares is a fort where the gover¬
nor lodges. The Recolets have handfome houfes over-
againd it, and on the right is the cathedral church :
over-againft this is the Jefuits college, and between
♦ hem are well built houfes 5 from the fort run two
flreets, which are croffed by a third, and between thefe
are a church and a convent. In the fecond fquare are
two defcents to the river of St Charles. The Hotel
Dieu is in the midway ; and from thence are fmall
boufes, which reach to the houfe of the intendant. On
the other fide of the Jefuits college, where the church
Bands, is a pretty long flreet in which is a nunnery.
Almoft all the houfes are built of Bone, and there are
' about 7000 inhabitants •, the fort is a handfome build¬
ing, but ntB quite finifhed. Quebec is not regularly
fortified : but it cannot be eafily taken 5 for the harbour
is flanked with two baBions, which at high tides are
almoB level with the water. A little above one of the
baftions is a demi-baBion, partly taken out of the rock ;
and above it, on the fide of the gallery of the fort, is
a battery of 25 pieces of cannon : Bill above this is a
fquare fort called the citadel; and the ways from one
fortification to another are difficult to pafs. To the
left of the harbour, on the fide of the road, there are
large batteries^of cannon, and fome tnortars ; befides
thefe, there are feveral other fortifications not very
eafy to be deferibed. In 1711 the Britiffi fitted out a
fleet with a defign to conquer Canada, which failed
on account of the raffinefs of the admiral j who, con¬
trary to the advice of his pilot, went too near the
Seven ifles, and fo loft his largeft (hips, and 3000 of
his beft foldiers. It is about 300 miles north-weft
of B oft on in New-England. On Oftober, 18. 1759,
it was taken by the Britifh under the command of Ge¬
neral Wolfe, who loft his life in the battle, after he
had the fatisfaclion to know that our troops were vic¬
torious. Admiral Saunders commanded a fquadron of
men of war, and did immenfe fervice in reducing this
place ; there being not a man in the navy but what was
aftive on this occafion, not excepting the Tailors belong¬
ing to the tranfport vefiels. After this valuable acqui-
fiiion, all Canada came under the jurifdiiftion of the
Q U E
crown of Great Britain. W. Long. 69. 48. N. Lat. 46. Quebec
55. ^ II
OUEDA, a kingdom of Afia, in the peninfula be-
yond the Ganges, and near the ftraits of Malacca. The <■ y
king is tributary to Siam. The principal town is of the
fame name, and faid to contain about 8000 inhabitants.
It has a harbour, and is 300 miles north of Malacca.
E. Long. 100. 5. N. Lat. 7. 5.
OUEDLINGBURG, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Upper Saxony, and on the confines of t he duchy
of Brunfwick. Here is a famous abbey, whofe abbel's
is a princefs of the empire, and who fends deputies to
the diets. Her contingent is one horfeman and ten
footmen. The inhabitants of the town live by brewing,
hufbandry, and feeding of cattle. It is 10 miles foulh-
eaft of Halberftadt, and 32 weft of Bernberg. E. Long.
11. 34. N. Lat. 52. I.
QUEEN, a woman who holds a crown fingly.
The title of queen is alfo given by way of courtefy
to her that is married to a king, who is called by way
of diftindlion queen confort; the former being termed
queen-regent. The widow of a king is alfo ca’led queen,
but with the addition of dowager. See RoTAL Fa-
mihj.
i^UEEN Charlotte'1 s Sound is fituated at the northern
extremity of the fouthern Bland of New Zealand, near
Cook’s Strait, lying in 41. 6. of fouth latitude, and
174. 19. of eaft longitude. The climate of this found
is much more mild than at Dufky, Bay ; and though
there is not fuch plenty of wild fowl and fifh, the de-
fed! is fufficiently compenfated by the abundance of ex¬
cellent vegetables. The hills about the found confift
'moftly of an argillaceous ftone of a greenifli gray, or
bluiffi or yellowifti brown colour. A green talkous
or nephritic (by the jewellers called jade') is likewife
very common, together with horn-flone, fhingle, feveral
forts of flinty ftones and pebbles, fome loofe pieces of
bafaltes, ftrata of a compadl mica or glimmer, with par¬
ticles of quartz. Hence, Mr Forrefter thinks, there
is reafon to believe that this part of New Zealand con¬
tains iron-ore, and perhaps feveral other metallic fub-
ftances. The country is not fo fteep as at Dulky Bay,
and the hills near the fea arq generally inferior in
height, but covered with forefts equally intricate and
impenetrable. Captain Cook fowed the feeds of many
vegetables in this place, that have ufeful and nutritive
roots. He fowed alfo corn of feveral forts, beans, kid¬
ney-beans, and peafe. The dogs here are of the long¬
haired fort, with pricked ears, and refemble the common
ffiepherd’s cur, but they are very ftupid animals. They
are fed with fiffi, and even dogs fleffi, and perhaps hu.
man flefh, which the natives alfo eat. Captains Cook
and Furneaux left on thefe Blands a boar and two fows,
with a pair of goats, male and female, with fome geefe?
in order to benefit the natives and future generations
of navigators. They left likewife among them a num¬
ber of brafs medals gilt, on one fide of which was
the head of his prefent Majefty, with the infeription
“ George III. King of Great Britain, France, and Ire¬
land,” &.c. On the reverfe, a reprefentation of two men
of war, with the names Refolution and Adventure_-Over
them 5 and on the exergue, “ Sailed from England March
MDCCLXXII.”
^UEEN-Gold, is a royal duty or revenue belonging
t 602 ]
Q U E
[ 603 ]
Q U E
Queen-
Gold
Queens-
t'erry.
to every queen of England during lier marriage to the
king, payable by perfons in this kingdom and Ireland,
on divers grants of the king by way of fine and oblation,
&c. being one full tenth, part above the entire fines, on
pardons, contrafls, or agreements, which becomes a real
debt to the queen, by the name of aurum regincc, upon
the party’s bare agreement with the king for his fine,
and recording the fame.
^UEEN's-County, a divifion of the province of Lein-
fter in Ireland-, fo called from the popifh Queen Mary,
in whofe reign it was firfi; made a county by the earl of
Suifex, then lord-deputy. It is bounded on the fouth
by Kilkenny and Catherlogh: by King’s county on the
north and weft ; part of Kildare and Catherlogh on the
eaft and part of Tipperary on the weft. Its greateft
length from north to fouth is 35 miles, and its breadth
near as much but it is unequal both ways. This coun¬
try was anciently full of bogs and woods, though now
pretty well enclofed and cultivated. The number of
inhabitants amounts to 82,000 ; and it fends two mem¬
bers to the imperial parliament.
Queen-Bee. See Bee, N° 3, &c.
QUEENBOROUGH, a town of the ifle of Shep-
pey in Kent, which fends two members to parliament,
though confifting only of about 100 low brick houfes,
and fcarce 350 inhabitants. The chief employment of
the people here is oyfter-dredging -, eyfters being very
plentiful, and of a fine flavour. E. Long. O. 45. N.
Lat. 51. 25. . .
QUEENSFERRY, which isfometiraes denominated
South Queensferry, is a royal borough in the {hire of
Linlithgow, on the coaft of the frith of Forth, about
9 miles to the weft ward of Edinburgh. It obtained
the name from Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore,
who was in the habit of frequenting the paffage of the
frith at this place, and was the principal patronefs of
the town. It is a fmall place, confiding of no more
than one irregular ftreet, the houfes of which are fmall,
and chiefly inhabited by people who lead a feafaring
life. The principal manufacture is that of foap, begun
in the year I'j’jo, which from 17^3 *7^9 was a
trade of confiderable extent, the works being then four
in number, and paying about xo,oool. annually of ex-
cife duty.
The (hipping of the port has confiderably declined ;
and at prefent the chief confequence of the place may
be regarded as arifing from the ferry over the irith of
Forth, which is very much frequented. I he river
here is about two miles broad, and on each fide has
convenient landing places. 1 he paflage is both fafe
and expeditious, and, with the exception o( a very
few cafes, may be had at all times. It is one of five
boroughs that fend a member to the Britifti or Im¬
perial parliament, the other four being Stirling, ^ur^_
fermline, Inverkeithing, and Culrofs. The paiifti is
of very fmall extent, being confined to the borough.
It is an ereiftion in the parilh of Dalmeny, which took
place in the year 1636. R he inhabitants were 505
in the year 1792. . . . r
Queknsferry, North, a village in Fifeftnre, fitu-
ated on the Forth, direttly oppofite to the borough
of Queensferry, between which there are regular paf¬
fage boats. It lies in the parifti of Dunfermline, but is
annexed, quoadfacra, to the parith of Inverkeithing,
The inhabitants in 1793 were 3x2.
QUEI-LING-FOU, the capital of the province of Quei-hug-
Quangfi in China, has its name from a flower called l’u
quei, which grows on a tree refembling a laurel} it ex- Quercus.
hales fo fweet and agreeable an odour, that the whole ——v ■■-ii'
country around is perfumed with it. It is fituated onGrojier's
the banks of a river, which throws itfelf into the Ta- G^’eT^L01i
ho ; but it flow's with fuch rapidity, and amidit fo nar- (jChr,a,
row valleys, that it is neither navigable nor of any uti¬
lity to commerce. This city is large, and the whole
of it is built almoft after the model of our ancient for-
treffes •, but it is much inferior to the greater part of the
capitals of the other provinces. A great number of
birds are found in the territories belonging to it, the
colours of which are fo bright and variegated, that the
artifts of this country, in order to add to the luftre ‘
of their filks, interweave with them fome of their fea¬
thers, which have a fplendour and beauty that cannot
be imitated. Quei-ling has under its jurifdiftion two
cities of the fecond clafs and feven of the third.
Quei, in NaturalHijlory, is a name given by the Chi-
nefe to a peculiar earth found in many parts of the eaft.
It is of the nature of an indurated clay, .and in fome de¬
gree approaches to the talks, as our fteatites and the ga-
iaclites do. It is very w'hite and abfterfive, ufed by
the w'omen of China to take off fpots from the fkin,
and render it foft and fmooth, as the Italian ladies ufe
talk of Venice. They fometimes ufe the fine powder
of this flone dry, rubbing it on the hands and face after
walking ; fometimes they mix it in pomatum.
QUELPAERF, an ifland in the mouth of the chan¬
nel of Japan, fubjeiff to the king of Corea. Before the
laft voyage of the unfortunate La Peroufe, this ifland
was only known to the Europeans by the wreck of the
Dutch (hip Sparrow-hawk, in the year 1635. Some of
the crew of this (hip were kept prifoners for about 18
years, during which period they were often feverely
treated ; but having found means to efcape to .lapan,
and from thence to Batavia, they at laft arrived in fafety
at Amfterdam. La Peroufe difeovered the ifland on
the 2iftofMay 1787, the fouth point of.which is in
N. Lat. 330 14', and E. Long. 124° xj' from Paris. t
The land has a gradual. Hope towards the fea, which
makes the habitations affume the appearance of an am¬
phitheatre. The foil appeared to be highly cultivated,
and the divifions of fields were perceived by the aflift-
ance of glaffes, which afforded a convincing proof of an
extenfive population. It is unfortunately inhabited by
a people who are prohibited from all intercourfe with,
ftrangers, and who make flaves of all thofe who have
the misfortune to fuffer (hipwreck on their coafts.
QUERCI, a province of Guienne in France •, boun¬
ded on the north by Limofin, on the eaft by Kouergue
and Auvergne, on the fouth by Upper Languedoc, and
on the weft by Agenois and Pcrigord. It is divided
into Upper and Lower ; and is fertile in corn, wine,
and fruits. Cahors is the capital tow n.
QUERCUS, a genus of plants, belonging to the mo-
noeeia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 50th order, Amentacece. See Botany Index.
The robur, or common Englifh oak, grow's from a-
bout 60 or 70 to 100 feet high, with a prodigious large
trunk, and monftrous fpreading head ; oblong leaves,
broadeft towards the top, the edges acutely finuated,
having the angles obtufe. There is a variety, having
the leaves finely ftriped with white. This fpecies grows
4 G 2 in
Q U E [ 604 ] Q U E
C^uercus. Jn great abundance all over England, in woods, forefts,
and hedge-rows ; is naturally of an amazing large
growth, there being accounts of fome above TOO feet
Itature, with wonderful large trunks and fpreading
heads ; and is fuppofed to continue its growth many
centuries.
The fuber, or cork-tree, grows 30 or 40 feet high,
having a thick, rough, fungous, cleft bark, and oblong-
oval undivided ferrated leaves, downy underneath. 1 his
fpecies furnifhes that ufeful material cork •, it being the
bark of the tree, which becoming of a thick fungous na¬
ture, under which, at the fame time, is formed a new
bark, and the old being detached for ufe, the tree ftill
lives, and the fucceeding young bark becomes alfo of the
fame thick fpongy nature in fix or feven years, fit for
barking, having likewife another frelh bark forming un¬
der it, becoming cork like the others in the like period
of time •, and in this manner thefe trees wonderfully fur-
nilli the cork for our ufe, and of which is made the corks
for bottle®, bungs, for barrels, and numerous other ufeful
articles. The tree grows in great plenty in Spain and
Portugal, and from thefe countries we receive the cork.
The Spaniards burn it, to make that kind of light black
we call Spanifh black, ufed by painters. Cups made of
cork are faid to be good for he&ical perfons to drink out
of. The Egyptians made coffins of cork j which being
lined with a refinous compofition, preferved dead bodies
uncorrupted. The Spaniards line Hone-walls with it,
which not only renders them very warm, but correfts
the moiflure of the air.
Oak-trees, of all the above forts, may be employed in
gardening to diverfify large ornamental plantations in
out-grounds, and in forming clumps in fpacious lawns,
parks, and other extenfive opens * the evergreen kinds
in particular have great merit for all ornamental pur-
pofts in gardens. But all the larger growing kinds, both
deciduous and evergreens, demand efleem principally as
firfi-rate foreft-trees for their timber. The Englifh oak,
however, claims precedence as a timber-tree, for its pro¬
digious height and bulk, and fuperior worth of its wood.
Every pofleffor of confiderable eftateS ought therefore to
be particularly affiduous in raifing woods of them, which
is effefted by fowing the acorns-either in a nurfery and
the plants tranfplanted where they are to remain, or
fowed at once in the places where they are always to
Hand. All the forts will profper in any middling foil
and open fituation, though in a loamy foil they are ge¬
nerally more profperous : how'ever, there are but few
foils in which oaks will not grow ; they will even thrive
tolerably in gravelly, fandy, and clayey land, as may be
obferved in many parts of this country of the common
oak.
The oak is of the utmoft importance to Britain, and
its cultivation deferves the utmoft attention. Much,
therefore, to the honour of the members of the London
Societi/ for encouraging Arts, Manufactures, and Com¬
merce, they have excited particular attention to it; and
many excellent obfervations, drawn from pra£Hce, will
be found in their Tranfaftions.
The propagation of the ftriped-leaved varieties of
the common oak, and any particular variety of the
other fpecies, muft be effedted by grafting, as they
will not continue the fame from feed : the grafting may
be performed upon any kind of oakling-ftocks raifed
from the acorns, and train them for ftandards like the Querent
others.
The oak is remarkable for its flownefs of growth,
bulk, and longevity. It has been remarked that the
trunk has attained to the fize only of 14 inches in dia¬
meter, and of fome to 20, in the fpace of fourfeore years.
As to bulk, wre have an account of an oak belonging
to Lord Powis, growing in Broomfield wood, near
Ludlow in Shropfiiire, in the year 1764, the trunk of
which meafured 68 feet in girth, 23 in length, and
which, reckoning 90 feet for the larger branches, con¬
tained in the whole 1455 feet of timber, round mea-
fure, or 29 loads and five feet, at 50 feet to a load.
The Greendale oak, &c. we have already mentioned
(fee Oak). In the opinion of many, the Cowthorp oak
near Wetherby in Yorkfhire is the father of the foreft.
Dr Hunter, in his edition of Evelyn, has given an en¬
graving of it. Within three feet of the furface he fays
it meafures 16 yards, and clofe to the ground 26. In
1776, though in a ruinous condition, it was 85 feet
high, and its principal limb extended 16 yards from the
bole. The foliage was very thin. If this meafurement
were taken as the dimenfion of the realflem, the fize of
this tree would be enormous; but, like moft very large
trees, its ftem is fhort, fpreading wide at the bafe, the
roots rifing above the ground like buttreffes to the
trunk, which is fimilar not to a cylinder but to the fru-
ftum of a cone. Mr Marftiam fays, “ I found it in
1768, at four feet, 40 feet fix inches ; at five feet, 36
feet fix inches: and at fix feet, 32 feet one inch.” In
the principal dimenfions then, the fsc-e of the Jlem, it is
exceeded by the Bentley oak ; of which the fame writer
gives the following account: “ In 1759 the oak in Holt-
Foreft, near Bentley, was at feven feet 34 feet. There
is a large excrefcence at five and fix feet that would ren¬
der the meafure unfair. In 1778, this tree was increa-
fed half an inch in 19 years. It does not appear to be
hollow, but bv the trifling increafe I conclude it not
found.” Thefe dimenfions, however, are exceeded by
thofe of the Boddington oak. It grows in a piece
of rich grafs land, called the Old Orchard Ground, be¬
longing to Boddington-Manor Farm, lying near the
turnpike-road between Cheltenham and Tewkfbury, in
the Vale of Gloucefter. The ftem is remarkably col-
lefted at the root, the fides of its trunk being much
more upright than thofe of large trees in general ; and
yet its circumference at the ground is about 20 paces:
meafuring with a two-foot rule, it is more than 18
yards. At three feet high it is 43 feet, and where
fmalleft, i. e. from five to fix feet high, it is 36 feet.
At fix' feet it fwells out larger, and forms an enormous
head, which has been furniftied with huge, and probably
extenfive, arms. But time and the fury of the wind
have robbed it of much of its grandeur; and the great-
eft extent of arm in 1793 was eight yards from the
ftem.
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for May 1794 we
have an account of an oak tree growing in Penlhurft
park in Kent, together with an engraving. It is called
the Bear or Bare oak, from being fuppofed to refemble
that which Camden thought gave name to the county •
of Berkftiire. The tradition at Penlhurft is that it is
the very tree planted on the day that the celebrated Sir
Philip Sydney was born. “ Some late writers (fays
Q U E . [
Quercus. Mr Rawlet) have queftioned this, and think that to have
—■’Vbeen a different tree, which was cut down feme years
ago, and was indeed much larger than this. I. remem¬
ber being once in the hollow of the prefent oak with
the late Sir John Cullum •, and his opinion then was,
that its antiquity was greater than the period afligned.
But, I affure you, the tradition of this place is conftant
for this tree •, and, in confirmation of it, an old lady of
94 years of age, now living, has told me, that all the
tenants ufed to furnifh themfelves with boughs from
this tree, to flick in their hats, whenever they went to
meet the earls of Leicefler, as was always the cuflom
to do at the end of the park when they came to refide
at their feat here. This fine old oak flands upon a plain
about 500 yards from their venerable manfion, near a
large piece of water called Lancut-well. Ben Jonfon
and Waller have particularly noticed it; and from the
diftinguifhed owners of this place, it may be truly faid
to Hand on claffic ground. Within the hollow of it
there is a feat, and it is capable of containing five or fix
perfons with eafe. The bark round the entrance was
fo much grown up, that it has lately been cut away to
facilitate the accefs. The dimenfions of the tree are
thefe:
Feet.
35
27
24
73
6
Inches.
6
6
Girth clofe to the ground
Ditto one foot from ditto
Ditto five feet from ditto
Height taken by fhadow
Girth of loweft, but not largefl, limb
With refpeft to longevity, Linnaeus gives account of
an oak 260 years old : but we have had traditions of
fome in England (how far to be depended upon we
know not) that have attained to more than double that
age. Mr Marfliam, in a letter to Thomas Beevor, Efq.
Bath Papers, vol. i. p. 79, makes fome very ingenious
calculations on the age of trees, and concludes from the
increafe of the Bentley oak, &c. that the Fortworth
chefnut is 1100 years old.
Befides the grand purpofes to which the timber is
applied in navigation and archite<Flure, and the bark in
tanning of leather, there are other ufes of lefs confe-
quence, to which the different parts of this tree have
been referred. The Highlanders ufe the bark to dye
their yarn of a brown colour, or, mixed with copperas,
of a black colour. They call the oak the king of all the
trees in the for eft; and the herdfman w'ould think him-
felf and his flock unfortunate if he had not a ftaff of it.
The acorns are a good food to fatten fwine and tur¬
keys •, and, after the fevere winter of the year I7°9’
the poor people in France were miferably conftrained
to eat them themfelves. There are, however, acorns
produced from another fpecies of oak, which are eaten
to this day in Spain and Greece, with as much plea-
fure as chefnuts, without the dreadful compulfion of
hunger.
QyERCUS Marina, the Sea Oak, in Botany, the name
of a broad-leaved dichotomous fea-fucus. It is not
agreed, among the late botanifts, what was the fea-
oak of Theophraftus j and the moft ancient botanifts,
Clufius and Caefalpinus, fuppofe it to have been a fpe¬
cies of the (hrubby coralline; but that feems by no
means to have been the cafe, fince I heophraftus fays his
fea-oak had a long, thick, and flefhy leaf j whence we
605 ] Q U E
may much more naturally conclude it to have been of
the fucus clafs.
QUERIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the tri- 1
andria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 22d order, Caryophyllei. See Botany Index.
QUESNE, Abraham du, marquis of Quefne, ad¬
miral of the naval forces of France, and one of the
greateft men of the 17th century, was born in Norman¬
dy in 1610. He contributed to the defeating of the
naval power of Spain before Gattari; was dangeroufly
wounded before Barcelona in 1642, and on other occa-
fions: he went into the fervice of the Swedes, and be¬
came vice-admiral; gave the Danes an entire defeat,
killed their admiral, and took his ftiip. He was recal¬
led into France in 1647, an<^ commanded the fquadron
fent to Naples. The fea-affairs of France being much
fallen, he fitted out divers fhips for the relief of the
royal army that blocked up Bourdeaux j which was the
principal caufe of the furrender of the town. He was
very fortunate in the laft wars of Sicily, where he beat
the Dutch thrice, and De Ruyter was killed. He alfo
obliged the Algerines to fue in a very humble manner
for peace from France. In fliort, Alia, Africa, and
Europe, felt the effefts of his valour. He was a Pro-
teftant j yet the king beftowed on him the land of
Bouchet, and to immortalize his memory gave it the
name of that great man. He died in 1688.
QUESTION, in Logic, a propofition ftated by way
of interrogation.
Question, or Torture. See Rack.
QUESTOR, or Quaestor, in Roman antiquity,
an officer who had the management of the public trea-
fure.
The queftorfhip was the firft office any perfon could
bear in the commonwealth, and have a right to fit in the
fenate.
At firft there were only two; but afterwards two
others were created, to take care of the payment of
the armies abroad, of felling the plunder, booty, See.
for which purpofe they generally accompanied the con-
fuls in their expeditions; on which account they were
called peregrini, as the firft and principal two were called
urbani.
The number of queftors was afterwards greatly in-
creafed. They had the keeping, of the decrees of the
fenate : and hence came the two offices of queflor prin-
cipis, or augufli, fometimes called candidatus principis,
whofe office refembled in moft refpe&s that of our fe-
cretaries of ftate, and the queflor palatii, anfwering in a
great meafure to our lord-chancellor.
QUEUE, in Heraldry, fignifies the tail of a beaft j
thus, if a lion be borne with a forked tail, he is blazoned
double-queued.
^UEUE d'Aronde, or Swallow''s Tail, in Fortification,
a detached or outwork, the fides of which open towards
the champaign, or draw clofer towards the gorge. Single
or double tenailles are of this kind, and fome hornworks,
the fides of which are not parallel, but narrow at the
gorge, and open at the head, refembling a fwallow’s
tail. When the fides are lefs than the gorge, the work
is called centre queue d'aronde.
^UEUE d'Aronde, in carpentry, a method of jointing,
alfo called dove-tailing.
QUEVEDO de Villegas, Francisco, a celebra¬
ted Spanifli poet, born at Madrid in 1570. He was
defeended
Quercus
II
Quevedo.
jQuevedo,
tj>uick.
Q U I
defcended from a noble family, and was made a knight
of St James'; but was thrown into prifon by order of
Count Olivarez, whofe adminiftration he fatirized in
his verfes, and was not fet at liberty till after that mi-
^116^;? difgrace. £)uevedo wrote fome heroic, lyric,
and facetious poems. He alfo compofed feveral trea¬
ties on religious fubjefts, and has tranllated fome au¬
thors into Spanilh. He died in 1644. Ihe moll known
of his works are, I - The Spanith Parnaflus. 2. Ihe
Adventurer Bufcon. 3* Villons of Hell Reformed, &c.
Quevedo was one of the greatcft fcholars and molt emi¬
nent poets of his time. His youth was fpent in the
fervice of his country in Italy, where he diftinguilhed
himfelf with the utmoft fagacity and prudence. _His
moral difcourfes prove his found do&rine and religious
fentiments, while his literary pieces difplay his infinite
judgment and refined tafte. His great knowledge of
Hebrew is apparent from the report of the hiftorian
Mariana to the king, requefting that Quevedo might
revife the new edition of the Bible of Arias Montanus.
His tranflations of Epi&etus and PhocyTides, with his,
imitations of Anacreon, and other Greek authors, {how
how well he was verfed in that language : that he was
a Latin fcholar, his confiant correfpondence, from the
age of twenty, with Lipfius, Chifflet, and Scioppius,
will fufficiently illuftrate. As a poet, he excelled both
in the ferious and burlefque ftyle, and was Angularly
happy in that particular turn we have fince admired in
Butler and Swift. His library, which confided of about
five thoufand volumes, was reduced at his death to
about two thoufand, and is preferved in the convent of
St Martin at Madrid.
QUICK, or Quickset Hedge, among gardeners, de¬
notes all live hedges, of whatever fort of plants they are
compofed, to dillinguifti them from dead hedges ; but in
a more drift fenfe of the word, it is redrained to thofe
planted with the hawthorn, under which name thole
young plants or fets are fold by the nurfery-gardeners
who raife them for fale.
The following method of propagating the common
white thorn for hedges is recommended by Mr Taylor
of Modon near Mancheder, in a letter addreffed to the
Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. After
premifing that we have fuccefsfully repeated the experi¬
ment, we drall give the account of the procefs in his
own words.
“ Every one of you, I think, will allow that fences
are material objefts to be attended to in agriculture ;
you mud alfo be convinced that there is no plant in this
kingdom of which they can fo properly be made as the
cratcegus oxyacantha Linn eel, or common white thorn.
In confi quence of my being convinced of this, I have
been induced to make a few experiments to effeft the
better propagation of that valuable plant ; the refult of
which, along with fpecimens of my fuccefs, I beg leave
to fubmit to your infpeftion.
“ In the year 1801, I had occafion to purchafe a
quantity of thorns, and finding them very dear, I was
determined to try fome experiments, in order if pofiible
to raife them at a lels expence. I tried to propagate
them from cuttings of the^branches, but with little or
no fuccefs. I likewife tried if pieces of the root would
grow ; and I cut from the thorns which I had purchaf-
ed about a dozen of fuch roots as pleafed me, and plant¬
ed them in a border along with thofe I had bought.
5
Q u 1
To my great adonidnnent, not one of them died ; and Quick,
in two years they became as good thorns as the average “v—"
of thofe I had purchafed. The thorns I purchafed were
three years old when I got them. In April 1802, I
had occafion to move a fence, from which I procured
as many roots of thorns as made me upwards of two
thoufand cuttings, of which I did not lofe five in the
hundred.
“ In the fpring of 1803, I likewife planted as many
cuttings of thorn roots as I could get. In 1804, £
did the fame ; and this year I (hall plant many thou-
fands.
“ I have fent for your infpeftion fpecimens of the
produce of 1802, 1803, and 1804, raifed after my me¬
thod, with the bed; I could get of thofe raifed from
haws in the common way, which generally lie one year
in the ground before they vegetate. They are exaftly
one, two, and three years old, from the day they were
planted.—I was fo pleafed with my fuccefs in raifing fo
valuable an article to the farming intereft of this king¬
dom, at fo trifling an expence (for it is merely that of
cutting the roots into lengths and planting them), that
I was determined to make it known to the world, and
could think of no better method than communicating it
to your fociety ; and fhould you fo far approve of this
method of railing thorns, as to think me entitled to any
honorary reward, I {hall receive it with gratitude, but
fliall feel myfelf amply repaid for any trouble I have
been at, ftiould you think it worthy a place in the next
volume of your Tranfaftions.
“ The method of raifing the thorns from roots of the
plant, is as follows.
“ I would advife every farmer to purchafe a hundred
or a thoufand thorns, according to the fize of his farm,
and plant them in his orchard or garden, and when they
have attained the thicknefs of my three-year-old fpeci¬
mens, which is the fize I always prefer for planting in
fences, let him take them and prune the roots in the
manner I have pruned the fpecimen fent you, irom
which he will upon an average get ten or twelve cut¬
tings from each plant, which is as good as thorns of the
fame thicknefs ; fo that you will eaiily perceive that in
three years he will have a fucceflion of plants fit for ufe,
which lie may if he plcafes increafe tenfold every time
he takes them up.
“ The fpring (fay in all April) is the beft time to
plant the cuttings, which muft be done in rows half a
•yard afunder, and about four inches from each other in
the row ; they ought to be about four inches long, and
planted with the top one-fourth of an inch out of the
ground, and well faflened ; otherwife they will notfuc-
ceed fo well.
“ The reafon why I prefer fpring to autumn for
planting the roots, h, that were they to be planted in
autumn, they would not have got fufficient hold of the
ground before the frolt fet in, which would raife them
all from the ground ; and, if not entirely deftroy the
plants, would oblige the farmer to plant them afrefli.
“ I have attached the produce of my three-year-old
fpecimen to the plants it came from, cut in the way I
always praftife ; on the thick end of the root I make
two, and on the other end one cut, by which means the
proper end to be planted uppermoft, which is the thick
one, may eafily be known.
“ Although I recommend the roots to be planted in
April,
[ 606 ]
Q U I [ 60
Quick April, yet the farmer may, where he pleafes, take up
i! the thorns he may want, and put the roots he has prun-
buickfilver. ^ |n(.0 pan(j or mouldy where they will keep until
he has leifure to cut them into proper lengths for plant¬
ing ; he will likewife keep them in the fame way until
planted.
“ The great advantage of my plan is : firft, that in
cafe any one has raifed from haws a thorn with remark¬
ably large prickles, of vigorous growth, or poffeffing
any other qualification requifite to make a good fence,
he may propagate it far better and fooner, from roots,
than any other way. Secondly, in three years he may
raife from roots a better plant than can in fix years be
raifed from haws, and with double the quantity of
roots •, my three-year-old fpecimen would have been
half as big again, had I not. been obliged to move all
my cuttings the fecond year after they were planted.
“ It would not be a bad way, in order to get roots, to
plant a hedge in any convenient place, and on each fide
trench the ground two yards wide, and two grafts deep •,
from which, every two or three years, a large quantity
of roots might be obtained, by trenching the ground
over again, and cutting away what roots were found,
which would all be young and of a proper thicknefs.”
QJLJICKLIME, a general name for all calcareous fub-
ftances when deprived of their fixed air ; fuch as chalk,
limeftone, oyfter-lhells, &c. calcined. See Lime, Che¬
mistry, for an account of the properties and combina¬
tions of lime.
QUICKSILVER, or Mercury, one of the metals,
and fo fufible that it cannot be reduced to a folid date
but at a degree of cold, equal to 40 below o of Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer. For the method of extracting
quiekfilver from its ore, &c. fee ORES, ReduBion of.
For the various preparations, &c. fee CHEMISTRY and
Materia Medica Index ; and for the natural hiftory
of the ores of quickfilver or mercury, fee Mineralog y
Index.
Mines of quickfilver are very rare, infomuch that, ac¬
cording to the calculations of Hoffman, there is 50 times
more gold got every year out of the mines than mercury
and its ores. But Dr Lewis, in his notes upon Newmann,
fays, that Cramer fufpeCts that Hoffman only meant five
times inflead of 50 ; but neither the Latin nor the Eng-
li(h edition of this author expreffes any fuch thought; on
the contrary, he adopts the fame opinion ; and only adds,
that mercury is much more frequently met with than is
commonly believed ; but being fo volatile in the fire, it
often flies off in the roafting of ores, and efcapes the at- ,
tention of metallurgifts.
According to Newmann, the mines of Idria have pro¬
duced at the rate of 231,778 pounds weight of mercury
per annum ; but thofe of Almaden in Spain produce
much more. The chemifts of Dijon inform us, that .
their annual produce is'five or fix thoufand quintals, or
between five and fix hundred thoufand pounds weight.
In the year 1717 there were , upwards of 2,500,000
pounds of quickfilver lent from them to Mexico, for the
amalgamation of the gold and filver ores of that coun-
try.
At Guan^avelica in Brafil the annual produce ot the
mines, according to Bomare, amounts to one million of
pounds, which are carried overland to Lima, thence to
Arica, and laffly to Potofi for the fame purpofe.
Befides thefe mines there are others in Brafil near
7 1. Q u T.
Villa Rica, where fuch a quantify of cinnabar, and na- Quickfilver.
tive running mercury, are found near the iurface of the ' *
earth, that the black Haves often colled it in good quan¬
tities, and fell it for a trifling price to the apothecaries;
but none of thefe mines have ever been worked or taken
notice of by the owners. Gold naturally amalgamated
with mercury is likewife met with in the neighbourhood
of that place ; and it is faid that almoft all the gold
mines of that country are worked out by limply walliing
them out wdlh running water, after reducing into pow¬
der the hard ores, which are fornetimes imbedded in
quartzofe and rocky matrices.
In the duchy of Deux Pouts and in the Lower Au-
ftria the quickfilver flows from a fchiftofe or ftony ma-
trice, and is probably, fays Mr Kirwan, mixed with
fome other metal, as its globules are not perfedly fphe-
rical. The mines of Friuli are all in fimilar beds or
llrata. The metal is likewife found vifibly diffufed
through maffes of clay or very heavy Hone, of a white,
red, or blue colour ; of which la ft kind are the mines of
Spain, fome of Idria, and of Sicily. Mafcagni found
fluid quickfilver, as ’well as native cinnabar and mineral
ethiops, near the lake of Travale in the duchy of Sien¬
na ; but the quantity was fo fmall as not to be worth
the expence of working. On the other hand, the fol¬
lowing mines afford profits to the owners after cle aring
all expences, viz. thofe at Krerhnitz in Hungary } at
Horowitz in Bohemia j Zorge in Saxony ; Wolffteim,
Stahlberg, and Moefchfeld in the Palatinate. Mercury
is alfo brought from Japan in the Eaft Indies $ but the
gieateft part of what is fold in Europe as Japan einnaT
bar F faid to be manufadlured in Holland. '
Lemery, Por * , and others, lay down fome external
marks by which thofe places are diftinguiftied where
there are mines of quiekfilver, viz. thick vapours like
clouds arifing in the months of April and May ; the
plants being much larger and greener than in other
places; the trees feldom bearing flowers or fruit, and
putting forth their leaves more flowly than in other
places; but, according to Newmann, thefe marks are
far from being certain. They are not met with in all
places where there is quickfilver, and are obferved in
places where there is none. Abundance of thefe.cloudy
exhalations are met with in the Hartz foreft in Ger¬
many, though no mercury has ever been found there j
to which we may • add, that though vaft quantities of
mercurial ores are found at Almaden in Spain, none of
the above-mentioned indications are there to be met
with.
Native mercury was formerly fought from the mines
of Idria with great avidity by the alchemifts for the pur¬
pofe of making gold ; and others have fhowed as ridi¬
culous an attachment to the Hungarian cinnabar, fup-
pofing it to be impregnated witlr gold; nay, we are in¬
formed by Newmann, that not only the cinnabar, anti¬
mony, and copper of Hungary, but even the vine trees
of that country, were thought to be impregnated with
the precious metal. Not many years ago a French che-.
mift advertifed that he had obtained a confiderable quan¬
tity of gold from the afhes of vine twigs and ftems, as
well as of the garden foil where they grew : but the
falfehood of thefe affertions was demonftiated by the
count de Lauragais to the fatisfaftion of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences.
The redufHon of mercury into a folid ftate, fo that
it.
Q, U I [ 608 ] Q U I
Ouicllilver ;t miellt be employed like fflver, was anotbcr favourite Molinoi, a Spanilb prieft, is lire reputed author of Qmetilb
II alchemical purfuit. But all proceffes and operations of Quietifmthough the Illuminati m Spain had certain-    
Quietifts. th;s klnd fa Newmann> if they have mercury in them, ly taught fomething like it before. The fentiments of
*■ ^ are no 0ther than hard amalgams. When melted lead Molinos were contained in a book which he publiflied
or tin are iuft becoming confident after fufion, if a dick at Rome in the year 168 r, under the title of the Spi-
be thrud into the metal, and the hole filled with quick- ritual Guide; for which he was cad into prilon in
diver, as foon as the whole is cold, the mercury is found 1685, and where he publicly renounced the errors of
{olid. Macquer informs us, that mercury becomes equal- which he was accufed. 1 his folemn recantation, how-
ly folid by being expofed to the fumes of lead. Mau- ever, was followed by a fen tepee of perpetual impnlon-
rice Hoffman, as quoted by Newmann,even gives a pro- ment, and he died in pnfiin in the year 1696. Moli-
cefs for reducing mercury, thus coagulated, to a date of nos had numerous difciplesin Italy, Spam, .trance, and
malleability, viz. by repeatedly melting and quenching the Netherlands. . One of the principal patrons and
it in linfeed oil. Thus, he tells us, we obtain a metal propagators of Quietifm in France ivas Mane Bouvi-
which can be formed into rings and other utenfils. But eres de la Mothe Guyon, a woman of fadnon, remark-
here the mercury is entirely didipated by the repeated able for goodnefs of heart and regularity of manners j
fufions, and nothing but the original lead is left. Wal- but of an unfettled temper, and fubjeit to be drawn
lerius, after mentioning drong {oap-leys, or caudic lixi- away by the fedu&ion of a warm and unbridled fancy,
vium, and fome other liquors proper for fixing quick- She derived all ideas of religion from the feelings of
filver, tells us, that by means of a certain gradatory wa- her own heart, and deferibed its nature to others as fhe
ter, the compofition of which he learned from Creuling felt it herfelf. . Accordingly her religious fentiments
de Aureo Vel/ere, he could make a coagulum of mercury made a great noife in the year 1687 •, and they were de-
whenever he pleafed, of fuch confidency that great part dared unfound, after accurate invedigation, by ieveral
of it would refid cupellation •, but what this gradatory men of eminent piety and learning, and profcfledly con-
water was, he has not thought proper to lay before the futed, in the year 1697, by the celebrated Bofluet.
public. Hence arofe a controverfy of greater moment between
OUICK-imatch, among artillery men, a kind of the prelate lad mentioned and Fenelon archbifhop of
-combudible preparation formed of three cotton drands Cambray, who feemed difpofed to favour the lydepn of
drawn into length, and dipped in a boiling compofi- Guyon, and who in 1697 publiibed a book containing
tion of white-wine vinegar, faltpetre, and mealed pow- v feveral of her tenets. Fenelon s book, by means of
der. After this immerfion it is taken out hot, and laid Boffuet, was condemned in the year ^1699, by Innocent
in a trough where fome mealed powder, moidened with XII. and the fentence of condemnation was read by Fe-
fpiritsof wine, is thoroughly incorporated into the twids nelon himfelf at Cambray, who exhorted the people to
of the cotton, by rolling it about tin vein. Thus pre- refpeft and obey the papal decree. Notwithdanding
pared, they are taken out feparately, and drawn through this feeming acquiescence, the archbiihop perfided to
mealed powder; then hung upon a line and dried, by the end of his days in the fentiments, which, in obedi-
which they are fit for immediate fervice. ence to the order of the pope, he retrafted and condemn-
QUID pro Quo, in Law, q. d. “ what for what,” ed in a public manner,
denotes the giving one thing of value for another : or A fe£t fimilar to this had appeared at Mount Athos
the mutual confideration and performance of both par- in Theffaly, near the end of the 14th century, called
ties to a contrail. Hejychctfls, meaning the fame with Quietids. ihey
Quid pro quo, or Qui pro quo, is alfo ufed in phyfic were a branch of the mydics, or thofe more perfeft
to exprefs a midake in the phyfician’s bill, where quid monks, who, by lung and intenfe contemplation, endea-
is wrote for quo, i. e. one thing for another ; or of the voured to arrive at a tranquillity of mind free from every
apothecary in reading quid for quo, and giving the pa- degree of tumult and perturbation. . In conformity to
tient the wrong medicine. Hence the term is in the ge- an ancient opinion of their principal doftors. (who
neral extended to all blunders or midakes committed in thought there was a celedial light concealed in the
medicine, either in the prefeription, the preparation, or deeped retirements of the mind), they ufed to fit every
application of remedies. day, during a certain fpace of time, in a folitary corner,
QUIDDITY, QuidDitas, a barbarous term ufed with their eyes eagerly and immoveably fixed upon the
in the fchools for ejfence. The name is derived hence, middle regions of the belly, or navel; and beaded, that
that it is by the effence of a thing that it is a tale quid, while they remained in this podure, they found, in ef-
fuch a quid, or thing, and not another. Hence what is fedl, a divine light beaming forth from their foul, which
eflential to a thing is faid to be quiddative. diffufed through their hearts inexprefiible fenfations. of
QUIETISTS, a religious fedl, famous towards the pleafure and delight. To fuch as inquired vvhat kind
clofe of the lad century. They were fo called from a of light this was, they replied, by way of illudration,
kind of abfolute red and inadtion, which they fuppofed that it was the glory of God, the fame celedial radiance
the foul to be in when arrived at that date of perfedlion that furrounded Child during his transfiguration on the
which they called the unitive life ; in which date they Mount, Barlaam, a monk of Calabria, from whom the
imagined the foul wholly employed in contemplating its Barlaamites derived their denomination, dyled the monks
God, to whole influence it was entirely fubmidive ; fo who adhered to this inditution Maffahans Kuchites;
that he could turn and drive it where and how he would, and he gave them alfo the new name of Umbilicani.
In this date, the foul no longer needs prayers, hymns, Gregory Palamas, arehbifhop of I heflalonica, defended
&c* being laid, as it were, in the bofom and betiveen their caufe againd Barlaam, who was condemned in a
the arms of its God, in whom it is in a manner fwallow- council held at Condantinople in the year 1341.—See
„ Fenelon's Max, des Saints, ■
q U I [ 609 ] Q U I
; i t^uietifm The Mahometans feem to be no ftrangers to quietlfra.
II They expound a paffage in the 17th chapter of the Ko-
[ _ “m‘ .fran. viz. “ O thou foul which art at reft, return unto
the Lord, &c.” of a foul which, having, by purfuing
thy concatenation of natural caufes, raifed itfelf to the
knowledge of that being which produced them and
cxifts of neccflity, refts fully contented, and acquiefces
in the knowledge, &c. of him, and in the contempla¬
tion of his perfection.
QUILLET, Claude, an eminent Latin poet of
the 17th century, Was born at Chinon, in Touraine,
and praClifed phyfic there with reputation : but ha¬
ving declared againft the pretended poffeffion of the
nuns of Loudun, in a manufcript treatife, the original
of which was depoftted in the library of the Sorbonne,
he was obliged to retire into Italy, where he became fe-
cretary to the marlhal d’Eftrees, the French ambaffador
at Rome. In 1655, Quillet having publilhed in Holland
a Latin poem, entitled Callipadia, under the name of
Galvidins Lcetus, he there inferted fome verfes againft
the cardinal Mazarine and his family j but that cardi¬
nal making him fome gentle reproaches, he retrenched
what related to the cardinal in another edition, and
dedicated it to him, Mazarine having, before it was
printed, given him an abbey. He died in 1661, aged
59, after having given Menage all his writings, and
500 crowns to pay the expence of printing them j
but the abbe took the money and papers, and publifti-
•ed none of them. His Callipcedia, or the art of get¬
ting beautiful children, has been tranflated into Englilh
verfe.
QUILLS, the large feathers taken out of the end
of the wing of a goofe, crow, &c. They are denomi¬
nated from the order in which they are fixed in the
>wing; the fecond and third quills being the belt for
writing, as they have the largeft and roundeft barrels.
Crow-quills are chiefly ufed for drawing. In order to
harden a quill that is foft, thruft the barrel into hot
afhes, ftirring it till it is foft, and then taking it out,
prefs it almoft flat upon your knee with the back of a
penknife, and afterwards reduce it to a roundnefs with
your fingers. If you have a number to harden, fet wa¬
ter and alum over the fire, and while it is boiling, put
in a handful of quills, the barrels only, for a minute,
and then lay them by.
QUIN, James, a celebrated performer on the Eng-
lifh ftage, was born at London in 1693. was *n"
tended for the bar 5 but preferring Shakefpeare to the
ftatutes at large, he on the death of his father, when
It was neceffary for him to do fomething for himfelf, ap¬
peared on the ftage at Drury-lane. In 1720, he firft
difplayed his comic powers in the charaCler of Falftaff,
and foon after appeared to as great advantage in Sir
John Brute j but it was upon Booth’s quitting the ftage
that Quin appeared to full advantage, in the part of
Cato. He continued a favourite performer until the
year 1748, when, on fome difguft between him and Mr
Rich the manager, he retired to Bath, and only came
up annually to a£t for the benefit of his friend Ryan j
until the lofs of two front teeth fpoiled his utterance
for the ftage. While Mr Quin continued upon the
ftage, he conftantly kept company with the greateft
geniufes of the age. He was well known to Pope and
Swift; and the earl of Chefterfield frequently invited
Vox, XVII. Part II.
him to his table : but there was none for whom he en- Qll'D
tertained a higher efteem than for the poet Thomfon,
the author of the Seafons, to whom he made himfelf cemvin.
known by an aft of generofity that does the greateft y~—
honour to his charafter; and for an account of which
fee our life of Thomson. Mr Quin’s judgment in the
Englifh language recommended him to his royal high-
nefs Frederick prince of Wales, who appointed him to
inftruft his children in fpeaking and reading with a
graceful propriety ; and Quin being informed of the
elegant manner in which his prefent Majefty delivered
his firft gracious fpeech from the throne, he cried out in
a kind of ecftafy, “ Ay—I taught the boy to fpeak !”
Nor did his majefty forget his old tutor; for, foon after
his acceflion to the throne, he gave orders, without any
application being made to him, that a genteel pennon
Ihould be paid to Mr Quin during his life. Mr Quin
indeed, was not in abfolute need of this royal benefac¬
tion ; for, as he was never married, and had none but
diftant relations, he funk 2000I. which was half his
fortune, in an annuity, for which he obtained 200I. a
year; and with about 2000I. more in the funds, lived
in a decent manner during the latter part of his life at
Bath, from whence he carried on a regular correfpon-
dence with Mr Garriek, and generally paid a vifit to
his friends in the metropolis once a-year, when he con¬
ftantly paffed a week or two at Mr Garrick’s villa at
Hampton. He died of a fever in 1766.
QUINARIUS, was a fmall Roman coin equal to -
half the denarius, and confequently worth about three¬
pence three farthings of our money. See Money. It
was called quinarius, becaufe it contained the value of
five afles, in the fame manner as the denarius was named
from its containing ten.
QUINAUT, Philip, a celebrated French poet,
born of a good family at Paris in 1635. He cultivated
poetry from his infancy, and 16 dramatic pieces of hi*
were afted between the years 1653 and 1666. In the
mean time, Quinaut was not fo much devoted to poetry
but that he applied himfelf to the fludy of the law; and
made his fortune by marrying the widow of a rich mer¬
chant to whom he had been ufeful in his profefljon.
Quinaut afterwards turned his attention to the compo-
fing of operas, which were fet to mufic by the famous
Lully ; and Lully was charmed with a poet whofe verfes
were not too nervous to yield to the capricious airs of
mufic. He died in 1688, after having for many years
enjoyed a handfome ponfion from Louis XIV.: and
we are told he was extremely penitent in his laft illnefs
for all thofe of his compofitions which tended to infpire
love and pleafure.
QUINCE, in Botany. See Cydonia.
QUINCUNX, in Roman antiquity, denotes any
thing that confifts of five-twelfths of another ; but par¬
ticularly of the as.
Quincunx Order, in Gardening, is a plantation of
trees, difpofed originally in a fquare confifting of five
trees, one at each corner, and a fifth in the middle ;
which difpofition, repeated again and again, forms a re¬
gular grove, wood, or wildernefs.
QUINDECAGON, in Geometry,■& plain figure with
15 fides and 15 angles.
QUINDECEMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, a col¬
lege of 15 magiftrates, whofe bufinefs it was to prefide
4 H over
Q U I [ 61
(Qainde- over the facrifices. They were alfo the interpreters of
cemviri t^e SybiFs books; which, however, they never confult-
0 ed but by an exprefs order of the fenate.
> . ^UINQUAGENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, an
officer who had the command of 50 men.
QUINQVAGESIMA SUNDAY, Shrove Sunday, fo
called as being about the 50th day before Eafter.
QUINQU ATRIA, or Quinquatrus, was a feftival
kept at Rome in honour of Minerva, which began on
the 18th of March, or, as others will have it, on the
ipth, and lafted five days. On the firll day they offer¬
ed facrifices and oblations without the effufion of blood ;
the fecond, third, and fourth, were fpent in (hows of
gladiators ; and on the fifth day they went in proceffion
through the city. Scholars had a vacation during the
folemnity, and prefented their maflers at this time with
a gift or fee, called Minerva/. Boys and girls ufed now
to pray to the goddefs Minerva for wifdom and learning,
of which (he had the patronage. Plays were atted, and
deputations held, at this feaft, on fubjefts of polite li¬
terature. The quinquatria were fo called, becaufe they
lafted for five days. There feems to be a ftrong re-
femblance betwixt this feftival and the panathenaea of
the Greeks.
QUINQUENNALIS, in Roman antiquity, a magi-
ftrate in the colonies and municipal cities of that empire,
who had much the fame office as the aedile at Rome.
QUINQUEREMIS, in the naval architedure of
the ancients, is a name given to a galley which had five
rows of oars. They divided their veffels in general in-
* See Poly- to monocrota and polycrota *. The former had only one
srota, tjre Gf rowers ; the latter had feveral tires of them,
from two or three up to 20, 30, or even 40 ; for fuch a
vellel we have an account of in the time of Philopater,
which required no lefs than 4000 men to row it.
Meibom has taken off from the imaginary improba¬
bility of there ever having been fuch a veffel, by redu¬
cing the enormous height fuppofed neceffary for fuch £
number of rows of oars and men to work them, by find¬
ing a better way of placing the men than others had
thought of. The quinqueremes of the ancients had
420 men in each ; 300 of which were rowers, and the
reft foldiers. The Roman fleet at Meffina confifted of
330 of thefe (hips ; and the Carthaginian, at Lilyboeum,
of 350 of the fame fize. Each veffel was 150 feet
long. Thus 130,000 men were contained in the one,
and 150,000 in the other, with the apparatus and pro-
vifions neceffary for fuch expeditions as they were intend¬
ed for. This gives fo grand an idea of the ancient na¬
val armaments, that fome have queftioned the truth of
the hiftory : but we find it related by Polybius, an hi-
ftorian too authentic to be queftioned, and who expreffes
his wonder at it while he relates it.
QUINQUEVIRI, in Roman antiquity, an order of
five priefts, peculiarly appointed for the facrifices to the
dead, or celebrating the rites of Erebus.
QUINQUINA. See Cinchona, Botany and Ma¬
teria Medica Index.
QUINSY, or Quinzy. See Medicine, N° 177 
183.
QUINTEN, a town of France, in Bretagne, with
a handfome caftle. It is feated in a valley near the ri¬
ver Guy. and near a large foreft of the fame name, eight
miles fouth of St Brieux, and 200 weft of Paris. It had
o ] q u 1
formerly the title of a duchy. W. Long. 2. 40. N. Quintei>
Lat. 48. 26. 11
QUINTESSENCE, in Chemiflry, a preparation con-
fifting of the effential oil of fome vegetable fubftance, 'r"~
mixed and incorporated with fpirit of wine.
Quintessence, in Alchemy, is a myfterious term,
fignifying the fifth or laft and higheft effence of power
in a natural body.—Or when divefted of its alchemiftical
fignification, and employed to exprefs fomething that is
intelligible, the word denotes merely the higheft ftate of
purification in which any body can be exhibited.
QUINTAL, the weight of 100 lbs. in moft coun-.
tries, but in England it is the cwt. or 112 lbs. Quin¬
tal was formerly ufed for a weight of lead, iron, or other
common metal, ufually equal to 100 lbs. at fix fcores to
the hundred.
QUINTILE, in Ajlronomy, an afpe£t of the planets
when they are 72 degrees diftant from one another, or
a fifth part of the zodiac.
QU1NTILI ANUS, Marcus Fabius, a celebrated
Latin orator, and the moft judicious critic of his time,
was a native of Calagurris, or Calahorra, in Spain ; and
was the difciple of Domitius Afer, who died in the year
59. He taught rhetoric at Rome for 20 years with
great applaufe : and not only laid down rules for fpeak-
ing, but exhibited his eloquence at the bar. Some au¬
thors imagine, but with little foundation, that he arri¬
ved at the confuHhip ; but it is more certain that he was
preceptor to the grandfons of the emperor Domitian’s
After. There is (till extant his excellent work, intitled,
InJUtutiones Oratorice, which is a treatife of rhetoric in
I 2 books; where his precepts, judgment, and tafte, are
juftly admired. Thefe inftitutions were found entire by
Poggius, in an old tower of the abbey of St Gal, and
not in a grocer’s (hop in Germany as fome authors have
afferted. There is alfo attributed to Quintilian a dia¬
logue De caujis corruptee eloquentice; but it is more
commonly aferibed to Tacitus. The beft editions of
Quintilian’s works are thofe of Mr Obreight, publiftied
at Strafhurg in 2 vols 4to, in 1698, and of M. Cap-
peronier, in folio. There is an Englifh tranilation by
Mr Guthrie.
Quintilian had a fon of the fame name, on whom he
beftows great praifes. This fon ought not to be con¬
founded with Quintilian the father, or rather the grand¬
father, of him who is the fubjeft of this article, and who
wrote 145 declamations. Ugolin of Parma publiftied
the firft 136 in the 15th century; the nine others were
publiftied in 1563 by Peter Ayrault, and afterwards by
Peter Pithou in 1580. There have alfo been 19 other
declamations printed under the name of Quintilian the
Orator ; but, in the opinion of Voflius, they were writ¬
ten neither by that orator nor his grandfather.
QUINTILIANS, a fefl of ancient heretics, thus
called from their prophetefs Quintilia. In this feft the
women were admitted to perform the facerdbtal and epif-
copal functions. They attributed extraordinary gifts to.
Eve for having firft eaten of the tree of knowledge;
told great things of Mary the lifter of Mofes, as having
been a prophetefs, &.c. They added, that Philip the
deacon had four daughters, who were all propheteffes,
and were of their fedi. In thefe affemblies it was ufual
to fee the virgins entering in white robes, perfonating
propheteffes.
QUINTIN
Q, U I [6
j^uintia Q^UINTIN MATSYS, alfo called the Farrier of Ant-
II werp, famous for being transformed, by the force of
^ul"tes‘ . love, from a blackfmith to a painter. He had followed
the trade of a blackfmith and farrier for near twenty
years; when falling in love with a painter’s daughter
who was very handfome, and dilliked nothing but his
trade, he quitted it, and betook himfelf to painting, in
which he made very great progrefs. He was a diligent
and careful imitator of ordinary life, and fucceeded bet¬
ter in reprefenting the defefls than the beauties of na¬
ture. Some hiftorical performances of this mailer deferve
commendation, particularly a Defcent from the Crofs, in
the cathedral at Antwerp : but his bell known piflure
is that of the two Mifers in the gallery at Windfor. He
died in 1529.
QUINTINIE, John de la, a celebrated French
gardener, born at Poi&iers in 1626. He was brought
up to the law 5 and acquitted himfelf fo well at the bar
as to acquire the efteem of the chief magiftrate. M.
Tamboneau, prefident of the chamber of accounts, en¬
gaged him to undertake the preceptorlhip of his only
fon, which Quintinie executed entirely to his fatisfac-
tion ; applying his leifure hours to the ftudy of writers
on agriculture, ancient and modern, to which he had a
Itrong inclination. He gained new lights by attending
his pupil at Italy ; for all the gardens about Rome be¬
ing open to him, he failed not to add practice to his the¬
ory. On his return to Paris, M. Tamboneau gave up
the management of his garden entirely to him; and
Quintinie applied fo clofely to it, that he became fa¬
mous all over France. Louis XIV. erefled a new of¬
fice purpofely for him, that of direftor of the royal fruit
and kitchen gardens $ and thefe gardens, while he lived,
were the admiration of the curious. He lived to a good
old age j we have not learned the time of his death ; his
Directions for the management of Fruit and Kitchen
Gardens have been much efteemed.
QUINTUS Calaber, a Greek poet, who wrote a
large Supplement to Homer’s Iliad, in 14 books, in
which a relation is given of the Trojan war from the
death of Heftor to the deflruftion of Troy. It is con-
jeftured, from his ftyle and manner, that he lived in the
fifth century. Nothing certain can be collefted either
concerning his perfon or country. His poem was firft
made known by Cardinal Beffarion, who difcovered it
in St Nicolas’s church, near Otranto in Calabria ; from
whence the author was named Qinntus Calaber. It was
firft publilhed at Venice by Aldus, but it is not faid in
what year. 1
QUINTUS Curtius. See Curtius.
QUINZY, QuiNSEY, or Angina Pefloris. See ME¬
DICINE, ^403.
QUIRE of Paper, the quantity of 24 fheets.
QUIRINALIA, in antiquity, a feaft celebrated a-
mong the Romans in honour of Romulus.
QUIRITES, in Roman antiquity. In confequence
of the agreement entered into by Romulus and 1 atius
king of the Sabines, Rome was to retain its name, taken
from Romulus, and the people were to be called
les, from Cures, the principal town of the Sabines, a
name ufed in all public addrefles to the Roman people.
•—Dion. Hal. fays, that each particular citizen was
to be called Romanus, and the colleflive body of them
^uirites ; yet it appears by this ancient form of words
u] <4 u I
ufed at funerals, Ol/us ^uiris letho datus <?/?, that each
private citizen was alfo called ^uiris.
The origin of the word ^uirites, which was at firft
peculiar to the Sabines, and became, in Romulus’s time,
the general name of the inhabitants of Rome, has been
much fought for; and the moft probable account antiqui¬
ty gives us of it, is this : The word ^uiris, according
to Plutarch and fome others, fignified in the Sabine
language, both “ a dart,” and “ a warlike deity armed
with a dart.” It is uncertain whether the god gave
name to the dart, or the dart to the god. But be that
as it will, this -^uiris, or ^uirinus, was either Mars or
fome other god of war j and the worlhip of Quirts con¬
tinued in Rome all Romulus’s reign : but after his death
he was honoured with the name Quirinus, and took the
place of the god Quiris.
QUIRK, in a general fenfe, denotes a fubtilty or art¬
ful diftinflion.
Quirk, in building, a piece of ground taken out of
any regular ground-plot, or floor: thus, if the ground-
plot were oblong or fquare, a piece taken out of a cor¬
ner to make a court or yard, &c. is called a quirb.
QUISQUALIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 31ft order, Vepreculce. See Botany Index.
QUITO, a town of South America, in Peru (fee
Peru), feated between two chains of high mountains
called Cordillera de los Andes, on much higher ground
than the reft of habitable Peru. It is 300 yards higher
than the level of the fea according to the exafteft ob-
fervations. The town is 1600 yards long and 1200
broad, and is the feat of a bifhop. It contains about
35,000 inhabitants, one-third of whom are originally
Spaniards. Among the inhabitants are fome perfons of
high rank and diilindlion, defcended either from the
original conquerors, or perfons who at different times
came from Spain invefted with fome lucrative poft.
The number of thefe, however, is but fmall. The com¬
monalty, befides Spaniards, confift of Meftizos, Indians,
and Negroes ; but the laft are not proportionally numer¬
ous. Merchandifes and commodities of all forts are ex¬
tremely dear, partly on account of the difficulty of
bringing them.
There are feveral religious communities at Quito,
and two colleges or univerfities governed by Jefuits and
Dominicans.
The principal courts held -at Quito are that of the
royal audience, which confifts of the prefident, who is
governor of the province with regard to law affairs ;
four auditors, who are at the fame time civil and cri¬
minal judges ; a royal fifeal, who, befides the caufes
brought before the audience, takes cognizance of every
thing relating to the revenue ; and an officer ftyled the
proteElor of the Indians, who folicits for them, and when
they are injured pleads in their defence. The next is
the treafury, the chief officers of which are an account¬
ant, a treafurer, and a royal fifeal. The tribunal of
the Croifade, which has a commilfary, who is generally
fome dignitary of the church, and a treafurer. There
is alfo a treafury for the effects of perfons deceafed : an
inftitution eftablifhed all over the Indies, for receiving
the goods of thofe whofe lawful heirs are in Spain, in
order to fecure them from thofe accidents to which
they might be liable in private hands. There is like-
4 H 2 wife
QUO [ 61
Quito wife a commiflarv of the inquifition, with an alguazil-
il,. major and familiars, appointed by the inquifition of Li-
Quotidme tna> The corporation confifis of a corregidor, two
W~”V ordinary alcaldes, chofen annually, and regidores. The
latter fuperintend the eleflion of the alcaldes, which
is attended with no fmall difturbance, the people being
divided into two parties, the Creoles and Europeans.
QUITTER-BONE. See Farriery, N° 347.
QUIT-RENT (quietns redditus, i. e. “ quiet rent,”)
is a certain fmall rent payable by the tenants of manors,
in token of fubjeftion, and by which the tenant goes
quiet and free. In ancient records it is called ’white vent^
becaufe paid in filver money, to diftinguifh it from rent-
corn, &c.
PUOAD HOC, is a term ufed in the pleadings and
arguments of lawyers ^ being as much as to fay, As to
this thing the law is fo and fo.
QUOIN, or Coin, on board a fhip, a wedge faf-
tened on the deck clofe to the breech of the carriage of
a gun, to keep it firm up to the ftiip’s fide. Cantic
quoins are (hort three-legged quoins put between calks
to keep them fteady.
Quoins, in ArchiteElure, denote the corners of brick
or done walls. The word is particularly ufed for the
Hones in the corners of brick buildings. When thefe
Hand out beyond the brick-work, their edges being
chamfred off, they are called rujlic quoins.
QUOTIDIAN, any thing which happens every
Quotient;
2 ] QUO
day. Hence, when the paroxyfms of an ague recur Quotidian,
every day, it is called a quotidian ague. See Medicine, *'
N° 161—164.
QUOTIDIANA deceptiva. See Medicine,
N° 150.
QUORUM, a word frequently mentioned in our fta-
tutes, and in commifiions both of juftices of the peace
and others. It is thus called from the words of the
commiffion, quorum A. B. unum ejfe volumus. For an
example, where a commiffion is directed to feven per-
fons, or to any three of them, whereof A. B. and C. D.
are to be two > in this cafe, they are faid to be of
the quorum, becaufe the reft cannot proceed without
them : fo a juftice of the peace and quorum is one with¬
out whom the reft of the juftices in fome cafes cannot
proceed.
QUOTIENT, in Arithmetic, the number refulting
from the divifion of a greater number by a fmaller,
and which ftiows how often the fmaller is contained in
the greater, or how often the divifor is contained in
the dividend. The word is formed from the Latin quo-
ties ; q. d. How often is fuch a number contained in
fuch another ?
In divifion, as the divifor is to be dividend, fo is
unity to the quotient Thus the quotient of 12 divided
by 3 is 4 •, which is thus difpofed, 3) 12 (4 quotient.
See Arithmetic.
R.
ft, "O or rq a liquid confonant, being the 17th letter of
Rai). iV 5 our alphabet. Its found is formed by a guttural
extrufion of the breath vibrated through the mouth,
with a fort of quivering motion of the tongue drawn
from the teeth, and canulated with the tip a little ele¬
vated towards the palate. In Greek words it is fre¬
quently afpirated with an h after ifj as in rhapfody, rhe¬
toric, &c. otherwife it is always followed by a vowel at
the beginning of words and fyllables.
In the notes of the ancients, R. or RO. fignifies
Roma, R. C. Rothana civitas ; R. G. C. ret gerendae
caufa ; R. F. E. D. re Be faRum et dtRum; R. G. F.
regis filius \ R. P. res puhlica, or Romani prtneipes, and
R. R. R. F. F. F. res Roman a ruet ferro, fame, jiamma.
Ufed as a numeral, R anciently flood for 80 ; and
with a dafh over it thus k, for 80,000; but the Greek
#», g, with a fmall mark over it, fignified 100; with the
fame mark under it, it denoted 1000 X !0 j thus ^
fignifies 100,000. In the Hebrew numeration 1 de¬
noted 200 : and with two horizontal points over it
1000 X200 i thus '1=: 200,000.
In the preferiptions of phyficians, R or ]$> ftands for
recipe, i. e. “ take.”
RAAB, a town of Lower Hungary, capital of Ja-
yern, with a caftle and a bilhop’s fee. It is a ftrong
frontier bulwark againft the Turks, and has two bridges, jjaaj,
one over a double ditch, and another that leads towards ||
Alba Regalis. The furrounding country is plain, and Rabat,
there is nothing that feems to command it but a fmall -
hill at fome diftance, which is undermined and may be
blown up. It was taken by Amurath III. with the
lofs of 20,000 men ; but was furprifed foon after by-
Count Palfi, who killed all the Turks that were found
therein. It is feated at the confluence of the rivers Rab
and Rabnitz, not far from the Danube, 32 miles weft of
Gran, and 55 fouth-eaft of Vienna. E. Long. 17. 25*
N. Lat. 47. 48.
RABAC, a fmall port on the Arabian coaft of the
Red fea, in N. Lat. 22° 35' 40", by Mr Bruce’s ac¬
count. The entry to the harbour is from the E. N. E.
and is about a quarter of a mile broad. I he port ex¬
tends about tw'o miles in length to the eaftward. The
mountains are about three leagues to the north, and the
town about four miles north by eaft from the entrance
to the harbour. The water is good, and all fhips may
be fupplied here from the wells which are in the neigh¬
bourhood of the town. The countfy is bare and uncul¬
tivated ; but from the appearance of it, and the frelhnefs
of the water, Mr Bruce fuppofes that it fometimes rains
among the mountains here, which is the more probable
as it is confiderably within the tropic.
RABAT, a large and handfome fea-port town of
Africa,
R A B [6
Rabat Africa, in the kingdom of Fez and province of Trcme-
II fen. It has fine mofques and handfome palaces, and is
.iabbinifts peate(j at mouth of the river Burrigrig, almoft in the
^ v mid-way between Fez and Tangier. W. Long. 5. 28.
N. Lat. 34. 40. _
Rabat, together with Sallee, which is oppofite to it,
was formerly famous for fitting out piratical veffels ;
but the late emperor Sidi Mahomet fubdued them both,
and annexed them to the empire*, fince which time the
harbour of Rabat has been fo filled with the fand wa(hed
in by the fea as to render it unfit to carry on fuch pira¬
cies in future.
The town of Rabat, whofe walls inclofe a large fpace
of ground, is defended on the fea-fide by three forts to¬
lerably well finifhed, which were erected fome little time
ago by an Englilh renegado, and furnilhed with guns
from Gibraltar. The houfes in general are good, and
many of the inhabitants are wealthy. The. Jews, who
are very numerous in this place, are generally in better
circumftances than thofe of Larache or Tangier, and
their women are extremely beautiful.
The caftle, which is very extenfive, contains a ftrong
building, formerly ufed by the late emperor as his prin¬
cipal treafury, and a noble terrace, which commands an
extenfive profpe£t of the town of Sallee, the ocean, and
all the neighbouring country. There are alfo the ruins
of another caftle, which is faid to have been built by
Jacob Almanzor, one of their former emperors, and of
which at prefent very little remains but its walls, con¬
taining within them fome very ftrong magazines for
powder and naval ftores. On the outfide ofthefe walls
is a very high and Iquare tower, handfomely built of cut
ftone, and called the tower of Ha/fen. From the work-
manftiip of this tower, contrafied with the other build¬
ings, a very accurate idea may be formed how greatly
the Moors have degenerated from their former fplendour
and tafte for architecture.
RABBETTING, in Carpentry, the planing or cut¬
ting of channels or grooves in boards, &e.
In Ihip-carpentry, it fignifies the letting in of the
planks of the (hip into the keel; which, in the rake and
fun of a fhip, is hollowed away, that the planks may
join the clofer.
RABBI, or Rabbins* a title which the Pharifees and
doCtors of the law among the Jews affumed, and literally
fignifies majlers or excellents.
There were feveral gradations before they arrived at
the dignity of a rabbi; which was not conferred till
they had acquired the profoundeft knowledge of the
law and the traditions. It does not, however, appear
that there was any fixed age or previous examination
neceffary; but when a man had diftinguilhed himfelf by
his fkill in the written and oral law, and paffed through
the fubordinate degrees, he was faluted a rabbin by the
public voice.
Among the modern Jews, for near "joo years part,
the learned men retain no other title than that oi rabbi,
or rabbins; they have great refpeft paid them, have the
firft places or feats in their fynagogues, determine all
matters of controverfy, and frequently pronounce upon
civil affairs; they have even power to excommunicate
the difobedient.
RABBINISTS, among the modern Jews, an appel¬
lation given to the doClrine of the rabbins concerning
3 ] R A B
traditions, in opposition to the Caraites; who rcjeCi all Rabbinift*
traditions. See CaRAITE. _ Rabbit.
RABELAIS, Francis, a French writer famous for
his facetioufnefs, was born at Chinon in Touraine about
the year 1483. He was firft a Francifcan friar; but
quitting his religious habit, ftudied phyfic at Montpelier,
where he took his doftor’s degree. It is faid, that the
chancellor du Pratt having abolifhed the privileges of
the faculty of phyfic at Montpelier by a decree of the
parliament, Rabelais had the addrefs to make him re¬
voke what he had done; and that thofe who were made
doftors of that univerfity wore Rabelais’s robe, which
is there held in great veneration. Some time after, he»
came to Rome, in quality of phyfician in ordinary to
Cardinal John du Bellay archbifhop of Paris. Rabelais is
faid to have ufed the freedom to jeer Pope Paul III. to
his face. He had quitted his religious connections for
the fake of leading a life more agreeable to his tafte ;
but renewed them on a fecond journey to Rome, when
he obtained, in 1536, a brief to qualify him for hold¬
ing ecclefiaftical benefices; and, by the intereft of his
friend Cardinal John du Bellay, he was received as a fe-
cular canon in the abbey of St Maur near Paris. His
profound knowledge in phyfic rendered him doubly ufe-
ful; he being as ready, and at le'aft as well qualified, to
prefcribe for the body as for the foul: but as he was a
man of wit and humour, many ridiculou^things are laid
to his charge, of which he was quite innocent. He
publilhed feveral things; but his chief performance is
a ftrange incoherent romance, called the Hi/lonj of Gur-
gantua andPantagrue/, being a fatire upon priefts, popes,
fools, and knaves of all kinds. This work contains a
wild, irregular profufion of wit, learning, obfcenity,
low concits, and arrant nonfenfe ; hence the ftirewd-
nefs of his fatire, in fome places where he is to be un¬
der ftoocf, gains him credit for thofe where no mean¬
ing is difcoverable. Some allufions may undoubtedly
have been fo temporary and local as to be now quite
loft: but it is too much to conclude thus in favour of
every unintelligible rhapfody; for we are not without
Englifh writers of great talents, whofe fportive geniufes
have betrayed them into puerilities, no lefs incoherent at
the times of writing than thofe of Rabelais appear above
two centuries after. He died about 1553*
RABBIT,inZoo/c^y. SeeLepus,Mammalia//;^.
The buck rabbits, like our boar cats, will kill the
young ones if they can get at them; and the does in the
warrens prevent this, by covering their ftocks, or nefts,
with gravel or earth, which they clofe fo artificially up
with the hinder part of their bodies, that it is hard to
find them out. They never fuckle their young ones at
any other time than early in the morning and late at
night ; and always, for eight or ten days, clofe up the
hole at the mouth of the neft, in this careful manner,
when they go out. After this they begin to leave a
fmall opening, which they increafe by degrees ; till at
length, when they are about three weeks old, the mouth
of the hole is left wholly open that they may go out ;
for they are at that time grown big enough to take care
of themfelves, and to feed on grafs.
People who keep rabbits tame for profit, breed them
in hutches; but thefe muft be kept very neat and clean,
elfe they will be always fubjefl to difeafes. Care muft
be taken alfo to keep the bucks and does apart till the
latter
Rabbit.
R A B [
latter have juft kindled •, then they are to be turned to
J the bucks again, and to remain with them till they ftiun
and run from them.
The general dire&ion for the choofxng of tame rab¬
bits is, to pick the largeft and faireft ; but the breeder
fhould remember that the fkins of the filver-haired ones
fell better than any other. The food of the tame rab¬
bits may be cole wort and cabbage-leaves, carrots, parf-
neps, apple-rinds, green corn, and vetches, in the time
of the year j alfo vine-leaves, graft, fruits, oats, and
oatmeal, milk-thiftles, fow-thiftles, and the like : but
■with thefe moift foods they muft always have a propor¬
tionable quantity of the dry foods, as hay, bread, oats,
bran, and the like, otherwife they will grow pot-bellied,
and die. Bran and grains mixed together have been
alfo found to be very good food. In winter they will
■ eat hay, oats, and chaff, and thefe may be given them
three times a-day 5 but when they eat green things, it
muft be obferved that they are not to drink at all, for it
would throw them into a dropfy. At all other times a
very little drink ferves their turn, but that muft always
be frefh. When any green herbs or graft are cut for
their food, care muft be taken that there be no hem¬
lock among it; for though they will eat this greedily
among other things when offered to them, yet it is hid¬
den poifon to them.
Rabbits are fubjeft to two principal infirmities.
Firft, the rot, which is caufed by giving them too large
a quantity of greens, or from giving them frefh gather¬
ed with the dew or rain hanging in drops upon them.
Exceft of mdifture always caufes this difeafe. The
greens therefore are always to be given dry •, and a fuf-
ficient quantity of hay, or other dry food, intermixed
with them, to take up the abundant moifture of their
juices. On this account the very beft food that can be
given them, is the fhorteft and fweeteft hay that can be
got, of which one load will ferve 200 couples a year j
and out of this ftock of 200, 200 may be eaten in the
family, 20O fold in the markets, and a fufficient num¬
ber kept in cafe of accidents.
The other general difeafe of thefe creatures is a fort
of madnefs : this may be known by their wallowing and
tumbling about with their heels upwards, and hopping
in an odd manner into their boxes. This diftemper is
fuppofed to be owing to the ranknefs of their feeding ;
and the general cure is the keeping them low, and gi¬
ving them the prickly herb called tare thiflle to eat.
The general computation of males and females is,
- that one buck-rabbit will ferve for nine does : fome al¬
low 10 to one buck ; but thofe who go beyond this al¬
ways fuffer for it in their breed.
Wild rabbits are either to be taken by fmall cur-dogs,
or by fpaniels bred up to the fport; and the places of
hunting thofe who ftraggle from their burrows, is under
clofe hedges or bulhes, or among corn fields and frefti
paftures. The owners ufe to courfe them with fmall
greyhounds ; and though they are feldom killed this
way, yet they are driven back to their burrows, and
and prevented from being a prey to others. The com¬
mon method is by nets called purfe-nets, and ferrets.
The ferret is fent into the hole to fetch them out ; and
the purfe-net being fpread over the hole, takes them as
they come out. The ferrets mouths muft be muffled, and
then the rabbit gets no harm. For the more certain ta-
: king of them, it may not be improper to pitch up a hay-
R A B
614 ]
net or two, at a fmall diftance from the burrows that are
intended to be hunted : thus very few of the number'
that are attempted will efcape.
Some who have no ferrets fmoke the rabbits out of
their holes with burning brimftene and orpiment. This
certainly brings them out into the nets ; but then it is
a very troublefome and offenfive method, and is very
detrimental to the place, as no rabbit will for a long
time afterwards come near the burrows which have been
fumed with fuch ingredients.
The following obfervations on the breeding and ma¬
nagement of rabbits and fome other animals appear t®
us to be of fuch importance, that we (hall give them a
place in the words of the author.
“ In my travels through America,” fays the author,
“ I have often been furprifed that no attempt has been
made to introduce, for the purpofe of propagation, that
ufeful little animal, the warren rabbit, of fuch vaft im¬
portance to the hat manufactory of England. It is chief¬
ly owing to the fur of this animal that the Englifti hats
are fo much efteemed abroad. It is a fa£t well known
amongft the hatters, that a hat compofed of one half of
coney wool, one-fixth old coat beaver, one-fixth pelt
beaver, and one-fixth Vigonia wool, will wear far pre¬
ferable to one made all of beaver, as it will keep its
ftiape better, feel more firm, and wear bright and black
much longer.
“ The value of the coney wool, the produce of the
united kingdom only, is not left, I will venture to fay,
than 250,000!. per annum ; but the quantity is much
diminifhed, owing to the banilhment and perfecution
they meet with on every fide, and fo many fmall war¬
rens taken in for grain land $ in confequence of which
it is time that fome proteftion fhould be afforded, if
poflible, to that important branch of Britifh manufac¬
tory (in which coney wool is ufed) from fuffering any
inconvenience in the want of fo eflential an article, and
the accomplilhment of this grand objeCl I conceive per¬
fectly eafy.
“ General Obfervations.—When I fpeak of the war¬
ren rabbit, I have to obferve, that there are in England,
as well as in moft parts of Europe, three other kinds,
viz. the tame rabbit, of various colours, the fur of which
is of little value, except the white j the fhock rabbit,
which has a long fhaggy fur of little value 5 the bufh
rabbit, like thofe of America, v'hich commonly fits
■as a hare, and the fur of which is of a rotten inferior
quality.
“ To return to the warren rabbit.—There are two
forts in refpeft to colour, that is, the common gray,
and the filver gray, but little or no difference in refpeCl:
to the ftrength and felting qualities of the fur. The
nature of this animal is to burrow deep in fandy ground,
and there live in families, nor will they fuffer one from
a neighbouring family to come amongft them without
a fevere conteft, in which the intruders are generally
glad to retire with the loft of part of their coat, un¬
left when purfued by an enemy, when they find protec¬
tion.
“ It is fcarcely worth while for me to mention a
thing fo generally known, viz. that rabbits, particularly
thofe of the warren, are the moft prolific of all other
four-footed animals in the world ; nor do I apprehend
any difficulty would attend the exporting this little
quadruped with - fafety to any diftance, provided it
was
HiviAit
H A B [ 615 ] RAC
Stabbit.' was kept dry, and regularly fupplied with clean fweet
food, and a due regard to the cleanlinefs of the boxes or
places of confinement.
“ Twelve or fifteen pair of thefe valuable animals
taken to Upper Canada, and there enclofed within a
fmall fpace of ground fuitable to their nature, but fur-
nilhed with a few artificial burrows at the firft by way
of a nurfery, fpread over thofe now ufelefs plains, iflands,
and peninfulas, fo well calculated to their nature, would,
I will make bold to fay, the eighth year after their in-
trodu&ion, furnilh the Britilh market with a valuable
raw material, amounting to a large fum, increafing
every year with aftonifhing rapidity, fo as to become,
in a few years, one amongft the firft of national ob-
je&s.
“ It may be fuppofed by fome, that the above projeft
is magnified beyond poflibility, or even probability;
but the ferious attention I have paid to the fubjeft,
thefe many years part, as to all points for and againft,
leaves no room to accufe myfelf of being too fanguine ;
for, if properly managed a few years at the firft, I
cannot find a Angle thing likely to interrupt their pro-
grefs.
“ Some idea of the aftoniflving increafe of the rabbit
may be had from the following fa&s :
“ An old doe rabbit will bring forth young nine times
in one year, and from four to ten each time j but to al¬
low for cafualties, ftate the number at five each litter.
In nine months - 45
The females of the firft litter will bring forth five
times, the proportion of which is 2\ females pro¬
duce .... 62
Thofe of the fecond litter four times produce 50
Ditto of ditto third ditto three ditto ditto 37
Ditto of ditto fccond ditto two ditto ditto 25
Total in one year from one pair 219
“ The third female race of the old dam, and the fe¬
cond of the firft litter, feldom breed the firft year, but
are early breeders in the fpring following, when we
might expeft an increafe of the whole in proportion to
the firft: pair, if properly attended to and protected.
“It is generally allowed, that hares are not more
than one-fourth as prolific as rabbits, notwithftanding,
agreeable to an experiment tried by Lord Ribblefdale,
who enclofed a pair of hares for one year, the offspring
was (as I have been credibly informed) 68 : thefe ani¬
mals, could they be exported to Upper Canada with fafe-
ty, and there protefted within enclofures for a few years, .
would foon after fpread over a large extent of country :
the fur is nearly as valuable as that of the rabbit.
“ In that part of Upper Canada within the 45 degrees
of north latitude^ and the fouthern and weftern boun¬
daries, the climate is nearly the fame as that of Eng¬
land, a little hotter a few days in fummer, and a little
colder a few days in winter, agreeable to Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, which I have paid great attention to for
fome years, comparing the fame with the obfervations
of the Ehglifh.
“ The increafe of moft animals appears much greater
in proportion in America than in England, mankind
not excepted : that of fheep is very apparent to thofe
that pay attention to their breeding flock, which gives
me hopes, that in a few years we fhall be able to pay Rabbit
for our woollen cloths in wool. Finding the effect of 11^
foil and climate fo falutary to fheep, &c. it may be rea- . ^ ’ .
fonably fuppofed, that rabbits will anfwer the moft fan¬
guine expeftations, as I underftand the wool of the fheep
retains all its nature the fame as in England, particu¬
larly its ftrength, and felting qualities among the hat¬
ters, which affures me that rabbit wool from thofe bred
in Upper Canada will do the fame ; and there are fome
millions of acres within the latitude and boundaries
which I have before defcribed, fuited to the nature of
the warren rabbit; nor do I apprehend that the wolves,
foxes, &c. of Upper Canada will be half fo deftru£iive
as the poachers in England.
“ The guanaco, or camel fheep of South America, no
doubt will be a national object at fome future period.
This is a tame, domeftic animal, very hardy, and ufed
with much cruelty by the natives in travelling over the
mountains with their burthens 5 it fhears a fleece of wool
of from 2lb. to 31b. which is of dufky red on the back ^
on the Aides inclined to white, and under the belly quite
white; its texture is very fine, yet ftrong; its felting
qualities very powerful, and is worth, when ready for
ufe, from five to fifteen fhillings per pound. This ani¬
mal would no doubt thrive, and do well in England,
Upper Canada, and in particular I fhould fuppofe in
New Holland.
“ The beaver be propagated to great advantage
in Scotland, Ireland, and northern parts of England.
It is an animal, when tamed, very familiar, and will
eat bread and milk, willow-fticks, elm bark, 8cc. and
no doubt, might be imported with fafety ; but as thefe
two laft-mentioned animals are not likely to be attended
to immediately, I ftiall fay no more refpefling them for
the prefent *.,r * Tranf of
RABIRIUS, C. a Roman knight, who lent an im-^•/or
menfe fum of money to Ptolemy Auletes king of Egypt. coum8e~
The monarch afterwards not only refufed to repay him, g£c>
but even confined him, and endangered his life. Rabi-for 1807.
rius-efcaped from Egypt with difficulty j but at his re¬
turn to Rome he was accufed by the fenate of having
lent money to an African prince for unlawful purpofes.
He was ably defended by Cicero, and acquitted with
difficulty.—There was a Latin poet of the fame name
in the age of Auguftus. He wrote a poem on the
victory which the emperor had gained over Antony at
A&iurn. Seneca has compared him to Virgil for ele¬
gance and majefty; but Quintilian is not fo favourable
to his poetry.—And there was an architeft in the reign
of Domitian called Rabirius. He built a celebrated pa¬
lace for the emperor, of which the ruins are ftill feen at
Rome.
RACCOON. See Ursus, Mammalia Index.
RACE, in general, fignifies running with others in
order to obtain a prize, either on foot, or by riding on
horfeback, in chariots, &c.
The race was one of the exercifes among the ancient
Grecian games, which was performed in a courfe con¬
taining I2y paces 5 and thofe who contended in thefe
foot-races were frequently clothed in armour. Cha¬
riot and horfe-races alfo made a part of the ancient
games.
Races were knorvn in England in very early times.
Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II.
mentions the great delight that the citizens of London
took
‘ R A C [61
Race, took in the diverfion. But by his words, it appears not
Racine. ^ jjave been defigned for the purpofes of gaming, but
v merely to have fprung from a generous emulation of
Ihowing a fuperior Ikill in horfemanfhip.
Races appear to have been in vogue in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, and to have been carried to fuch ex-
cefs as to injure the fortunes of the nobility. I he fa¬
mous George earl of Cumberland is recorded to have
wafted more of his eftate than any of his anceftors,
and chiefly by his extreme love to horfe-races, tiltings,
and other expenfive diverfions. It is probable that the
parfimonious queen did not approve of it j for races are
not among the diverfions exhibited at Kennelworth by
her favourite Leicefter. In the following reign, places
were allotted for the fport. Croyden in the fouth, and
Garterly in Yorkfhire, were celebrated eourfes. Cam¬
den aifo fays, that in 1607 there were races near York,
and the prize was a little golden bell. See Racing.
Race, in genealogy, a lineage or extra&ion continued
from father to fon. See Descent.
RACINE, John, a celebrated French poet, member
of the French academy, treafurer of France in the gene¬
rality of Moulins, and fecretary to his majelty, was
born at Ferre Milqn in 1639. a f‘ne g6™118
for the belles lettre's, and became one of the firft poets
of the age. He produced his Tliebaide when but very
young, and afterward other pieces, which met with
♦ great fuccefs, though they appeared when Corneille was
in his higheft reputation. In his career, however, he did
not fail to meet with all that oppofition which envy and
cabal are ever ready to fet up againft a fuperior genius.
It was partly owing to a chagrin from thiscircumftance
that he took a refolution to quit the theatre for ever ;
although his genius v'as ftill in full vigour, being not
more than 38 years of age. But he had alfo imbibed in
his infancy a deep fenfe of religion } and this, though it
‘had been fmothered for a while by his connexions with
the theatre, and particularly with the famous aXrefs
Champmelle, whom he greatly loved, and by whom he
had a fon, now at length broke out, and bore down all
before it. In the firft place, he refolved not only to
write no more plays, but to do a rigorous penance for
thofe he had written ; and he aXually formed a defign
of becoming a Carthufian friar. His religious direc¬
tor, however, a good deal wifer than he, advifed him to
think more moderately, and to take meafures more fuit-
able to his charaXer. He put him upon marrying, and
fettling in the world : with which propofal this humble
and traXable penitent complied ; and immediately took
to wife the daughter of a treafurer of France for Ami¬
ens, by whom he had feven children.
He had been admitted a member of the French aca¬
demy in 1673, in the room of La Mothe le Vayer de-
ceafed •, but fpoiled the fpeech he made upon that oc-
cafion by pronouncing it with too much timidity. In
1677, he was nominated with Boileau, with whom he
was ever in ftriX friendlhip, to write the hiftory of
Louis XIV. ; and the public expeXed great things from
two writers of their diftinXion, but were difappointed.
Boileau and Racine, after having for fome time laboured
at this work, perceived that it was entirely oppofite to
their genius.
He fpent the latter years of his life in compofing a
hiftory of the houfe of Port-Royal, the place of his
education, which, however, though finely drawn up,
6 ] RAC
as many have aiTertcd, has not been publilhed. Too Raeme,
great fenfibility, fay his friends, but more properly an , IGeing,
impotence of fpirit, Ihortened the days of this poet.—
Though he had converfed much with the court, he had
not learned the wifdom, which is ufually learned there,
of difguifing his real fentiments. Having drawn up a
well-reafoned and well-written memorial upon the mife-
rles of the people, and the means of relieving them, he
one day lent it to Madame de Maintenon to read ; when
the king coming in, and demanding what and whofe it
was, commended the zeal of Racine, but difapproved
of his meddling with things that did not concern him,
and laid with an angry tone, “ Becaufe he knows how
to make good verfes, does he think he knows every
thing ? And would he be a minifter of ftate, becaufe
he is a great poet ?” Thefe words hurt Racine greatly :
he conceived dreadful ideas of the king’s difpleafure $
and his chagrin and fears brought on a fever, of which
he died the 22d of April 1699.
The king, who was fenfible of his great merit, and
always loved him, fent often to him in his illnefs j and
finding after his death that he had more glory than rich¬
es, fettled a handfomc penfion upon his family.—There
is nothing in the French language written with more wit
and elegance than his pieces in profe. Befides his plays,
feveral of his letters have been publiihed ; he alfo wrote
fpiritual fongs, epigrams, &.c. Racine’s ivorks were
printed at Amfterdam in 1722, in 2 vols i2mo, and the
next year a pompous edition was printed in 2 vols
quarto.
Rx^CING, the riding heats for a plate, or other pre¬
mium. See Plate. The amufement of horfe-racing,
which is now fo common, was not unknown among the
great nations of antiquity, nor wholly unpraXifed by our
anceftors in Britain, as we have already mentioned in
the article Race. In 1599, private matches between
gentlemen, who were their own jockies and riders, were
very common } and in the reign of James I. public races
were eftabliftied at various places, when the difcipline,
and mode of preparing the horfes for running, See. were
much the fame as they are now. The moft celebrated
races of that time were called bell-courfes, the prize of
the conqueror being a bell: hence, perhaps, the phrafe
bearing the bell, when applied to excellence, is derived.
In the latter end of Charles I.’s reign, races were per¬
formed in Hyde-Park. Newmarket was alfo a place for
the fame purpofe, though it was firft ufed for hunting.
Racing was revived foon after the Reftoration, and
much encouraged by Charles II. who appointed races
for his own amufement at Dachet Mead, when he refided
at Windfor. Newmarket, however, now became the
principal place. The king attended in perfon, eftablifh-
ed a houfe for his own accommodation, and kept and
entered horfes in his own name. Inftead of bells, he
gave a filver bowl or cup value ICO guineas •, on which
prize the exploits and pedigree of the fuccefsful horfe
were generally engraved. Inftead of the cup or bowl,
the royal gift is now a hundred guineas. William III.
not only added to the plates, but even founded,an aca¬
demy for riding j and Queen Anne continued the boun¬
ty of her anceftors, adding feveral plates herfelf. George
I. towards the end of his reign, difeontinued the plates,
and gave in their room a hundred guineas. An aX
was paffed in the 13th year of the reign of George II.
for fupprefling races by poneys and other fmall and weak
horfes,
RAC [6
horfes, &c. by which all matches for any prize under
tlie value of 50I. are prohibited, under a penalty of
200I. to be paid by the owner of each horfe running,
and tool, by fuch as advertife the plate j and by which
each horfe entered to run, if five years old, is obliged
to carry ten ftones j if fix, eleven ; and if feven, twelve.
It is alfo ordained, that no perfon (hall run any horfe at
a courfe unlefs it be his own, nor enter more than one
horfe for the fame plate, upon pain of forfeiting the hor-
{es; and alfo every horfe-race muft be begun and ended
in the fame day. Horfes may run for the value of 50I.
with any weight, and at any place, 13 Geo. II. cap. 19.
18 Geo. II. cap. 34. Pennant’s Britifh Zoology, vol. i.
p. 6, &c.. Berrenger’s Hiftory and Art of Horfeman-
Ihip, vol. i. p. 185, &c. At Newmarket there are two
courfes, the long and the round : the firft is exa&ly four
miles and about 380 yards, i. e. 7420 yards. The fe-
cond is 6640 yards. Childers, the fwifteft horfe ever
known, has run the firil courfe in feven minutes and a
half, and the fecond in fix minutes forty feconds ; which
is at the rate of more than forty-nine feet in a fecond.
But all other horfes take up at lead feven minutes and
fifty feconds in completing the-firft and longed courfe,
and feven minutes only in the (horted, which is at the
rate of more than forty-feven feet in a fecond. And it
is commonly fuppofed that thefe courfers cover, at every
bound, a fpace of ground in length about twenty-four
Englidi feet. Race-horfes have for fome time been an
objeid of taxation.
RACHITIS, the Rickets. See Medicine In¬
dex.
RACK, Edmund, a perfon well known in the lite¬
rary world by his attachment to, and promotion of, a-
gricultural knowledge : he was a native of Norfolk, a
Quaker. His education was common, and he was ap¬
prenticed originally to a (hopkeeper : his fociety was
fele£t in this fituation, and by improving himfelf in
learning, his converfation was enjoyed by a refpedfable
acquaintance. He wrote many eflfays, poems, and let¬
ters, and fome few controverfial traids. At length he
fettled, about his 40th year, at Bath in 1775, and was
foon introduced to the mod eminent literati of that
place, among whom Dr Wilfon and Mrs Macaulay
highly edeemed him. for his integrity and abilities. In
1777 Ife publifhed Mentor’s Letters, a moral work,
which has run through many editions. But this year
he gained great celebrity by his plan of an agricultural
fociety, which was foon adopted by four counties. He
dill further advanced his fame by his papers in the Far¬
mer’s Magazine, and his communications in the Bath
Society’s papers ; a work remarkable for its ingenuity
and fpirit. His lad engagement was in the Hidory of
Somerfetdrire, where the topographical parochial fur-
veys were his. This work, in 3 vols 4to, was publidi-
ed in 1791, by his colleague the Reverend Mr Collin-'
fon.—Mr Rack died of an adhma in February 1787,
aged 52.
Rack, an engine of torture, furnidied with pulleys,
cords, &c. for extorting confefiion from criminals.—
The trial by rack is utterly unknown to the law of
England : though once, when the dukes of Exeter and
Suffolk, and other miniders of Henry VI. had laid a
defign to introduce civil law into this kingdom as
the rule of government; for a beginning thereof they
eredded a rack for torture, which was called in derifiou
Vol. XVII. Part II.
17 ] RAD
the duke of Exeter’s daughter, and dill remains in the
Tower of London, where it was occafionally ufed as
an engine of date, not of law, more than once in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth. But when, upon the affaf-
fination of Villiers duke of Buckingham, by Felton, it
was propofed in the privy council to put the affadin to
the rack in order to difcover his accomplices ; the
judges, being confulted, declared unanimuudy, to their
own honour and the honour of the Engliih law, that
no fuch proceeding was allowable by the laws of Eng*
land. It feems adonilhing that this ufage of admini-
dering the torture (hould be faid to arife from a ten-
dernefs to the lives of men; and yet this is the reafon
given for its introdudlion in the civil law, and its fub-
fequent adoption, by the French and other foreign na¬
tions, viz. becaufe the laws cannot endure that any man
(hould die upon the evidence of a falfe or even a fingle
witnefs, and therefore contrived this method that inno¬
cence diould manifed itfelf by a dout denial, or guilt
by a plain confedion; thus rating a man’s virtue by the
hardinefs of his conditution, and his guilt by the fenfi-
bility of his nerves. The marquis Beccaria, in an ex-
quifite piece of raillery, has propofed this problem, with
a gravity and precifion that are truly mathematical :
“ The force of the mufcles and the fenfibility of the
nerves of an innocent perfon being given ; it is requi¬
red to find the degree of pain neceffary to make him
confefs himfelf guilty of a given crime.” See Act of
Faith, Inquisition, and Torture.
Rack, a fpirituous liquor made by the Tartars of
Tongufla. This kind of rack is made of mare’s milk,
which is left to be four, and afterwards didilled twice
or thrice between tivo earthen pots clofely dopped j
whence the liquor runs through a fmall wooden pipe.
This liquor is more intoxicating than brandy didilled
from wine.
Rack, or Arack. See Arack.
To RACK Wines, &c. To draw them off from their
lees, after having dood long enough to ebb and fettle.
Hence rack-vintage is frequently ufed for the fecond
voyage our wine-merchants ufed to make into Fiance
for racked wines.
RACKOON, a fpecies of urfus. See Ursus, Mam¬
malia Index.
RACONI, a populous town of Italy, in Piedmont,
feated in a pleafant plain, on the road from Savillan to
Turin, on the rivers Grana and Macra. It belongs to
the prince of Carignan, who has a handfome calilt here.
It is fix miles from Savillan, and fix from Carignan.
E. Long. 7. 46. N. Lat. 44. 39.
RADCLIFFE, Dr John, an Englidi phyfician of
great eminence in his time, born at Wakefield in
Yorkdiire in 1650. He was educated at Oxford, and
enrolled himfelf upon the phyfieal line ; but it was re¬
markable that he recommended himfelf more by his
ready wit and vivacity, than by any extraordinary ac-
quifitions in learning. He began to pradlife at Oxford
in 1675; but never paid any regard to ellablifhed rules,
which he cenfured whenever he thought fit, with great
freedom . and acrimony ; and as this drew all the old
practitioners upon him, he lived in a continual (late of
hoftility with them. Neverthelefs, his reputation in-
creafed with his experience; fo that, before he had been
two years in bufincfs, his pra&ice was very extenfive
among perfons of high rank. In 1684 he removed to
4 I London,
Rack
11.
R.adcliffe.
RAD [ 61
RadcliHe London, and fettled in Bon-ftroot, Covent Garden,
H where in lefs than a year he got into great employment.
Radnor. In tjie princefs Anne of Denmark made him
V ' her phyfician : yet when her hufband and die joined
the prince of Orange, Radcliffe, either not choofmg to
declare himfelf, or unwilling to favour the meafures then
in agitation, excufed himfelf from attending them, on
the plea of the'multitude of his patients. Neverthelefs,
he was often fent for to King William and other great
perfonages, though he did not incline to oe a courtier.
He incurred fome cenfure for his treatment of Queen
Mary, who died of the fmallpox $ and foon after loft his
place about the princefs Anne, by his attachment to his
bottle. He alfo totally loft the favour of King William
by his uncourtly freedom } for, in 1699, when the
king (bowed him his fwollen ankles, while the reft of his
body was emaciated, and alked him what he thought of
them ? “ Why truly I would not have your majefty’s
two legs for your three kingdoms,” replied Radcliffe.
He continued increafing in bufinefs and infolence as
long as he lived, continually at war with his brethren
the phyficians j who confidered him in no other light
than that of an adlive ingenious empiric, whom conftant
pradice had at length brought to fome degree of (kill
in his prcfeflion. He died in 1714; and if he never
attempted to write any thing himfelf, has perpetuated
his memory by founding a fine library at Oxford, to
preferve the writings of other men.
RADI ALIS, the name of two mufcles in the arm.
See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
RADIANT, in Optics, is any point of a vifible ob-
jett from whence rays proceed.
RADIATED flowers, in Botany, are fuch as
have feveral femiflofcules fet round a di(k, in form of a
radiant (far •, thofe which have no fuch rays are called
difcous flowers.
RADIATION, the a cl of a body emitting or dif-
fufing rays of light all round as from a centre.
RADICAL, in general, fomething that ferves as a
balls or foundation. Hence phyficians talk much of
a radical moifture. In grammar, we give the appella¬
tion radical to primitives, in contradillin&ion to com¬
pounds and derivatives. Algebraifts alfo fpeak of the
radical fign of quantities, which is the chara£ter expref-
fing their roots.
RADICLE, that part of the feeds of all plants
which upon vegetating becomes their root, and is dif-
coverable by the microfcope. See Plant.
RADISH. See Raphanus, Botany Index; and for
the mode of culture, fee Gardening Index.
RADIUS, in Geometry, the femidiameter of a circle,
or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumfe¬
rence.
In Trigonometry, the radius is termed the whole fine,
or fine of 90°. See SlNE.
Radius, in Anatomy, the exterior bone of the arm,
defcending along with the ulna from the elbow to the
wrift.
RADNOR, the county town of Radnorftiire, in
South Wales, diftant from London about 150 miles.
It is fituated near the fpringhead of the river Somergil,
in a fruitful valley at the bottom of a hill, where there
are ftieep grazing in abundance. It is a very ancient
borough-town, whofe jurifdiflion extends near 12 miles
round : the government of it is veiled in a bailiff and
4
8 ] RAG
25 burgeffes ) and the population in 1801 was nearly Radnor
2000. Though it is the county-town, the aflizes are II
held at Prefteign : it has one privilege, however, that , ag0^
is very extraordinary, befides that of fending one mem¬
ber to parliament; and that is, it keeps a court of pleas
for all add ions, without being limited to any particular
fum. It was formerly fenced with a wall and ftrnng
eaftle •, but both were in a great meafure demoliftied
by Owen Glendower, when he affumed the title of
Prince of Wales, upon the depofition of King Richard
II. W. Tong. 2. 45. N. Lat. 52. 10.
RADNORSHIRE, a county of South Wales, is
bounded on the north by Montgomeryftiire j on the
eaft by Shropshire and Herefordfhire j on the fouth and
fouth-weft by Brecknockftiire ; and on the weft by Car-
diganfhire ; extending 30 miles in length and 25 in
breadth. This county is divided into fix hundreds, in
which are contained three market-towns, 52 parifties,
about 3160 houfes, and 19,050 inhabitants. It is feat-
ed in the diocefe of Hereford, and fends two members
to parliament, one for the county and one for the town
of Radnor. ' The air of this county is in winter cold
and piercing. The foil in general is but indifferent;
yet fome places produce corn, particularly the eaftern
and fouthern parts ; but in the northern and weftern,
which are mountainous, the land is chiefly (locked with
horned cattle, ftieep, and goats.
RADIX. See Root.
RAFT, a fort of float, formed by an affemblage of
various planks or pieces of timber, faftened together
fide by fide, fo as to be conveyed more commodioufly
to any (hort diftance in a harbour or road than if they
were feparate. The timber and plank with which
merchant-ftiips are laden, in the different parts of the
Baltic fea, are attached together in this manner, in or¬
der to float them off to the (hipping.
RAFTERS, in building, are pieces of timber which,
(landing by pairs on the reafon or railing piece, meet
in an angle at the top, and form the roof of a building.
See Architecture.
Rowley RAGG, a variety of whinftone or green-
done of a du(ky or dark gray colour, with many fmalt
(Lining cryftals, having a granular texture, and ac¬
quiring an ochry cruft by expofure to the air.
RAGMAN’s roll, Re&ius Ragimundrs roll, fo
called from one Ragimund a legate in Scotland, who
calling before him all the beneficed clergymen in that
kingdom, caufed them on oath to give in the true va¬
lue of their benefices ", according to which they u’ere
afterwards taxed by the court of Rome ; and this roll,
among other records, being taken from the Scots by
Edward I. was redelivered to them in the beginning of
the reign of Edward III.
RAGOUT, or RaGOO, a fauce, or feafoning, intend¬
ed to roufe the appetite when loft or languiftiing.
This term is alfo ufed for any high-feafoned di(h pre¬
pared of flefti, fi(h, greens, or the like : by (tewing them
with bacon, fait, pepper, cloves, and the like ingredients.
We have ragouts of celery, of endive, afparagus, cock’s-
combs, giblets, craw fi(h, &c.
The ancients had a ragout called garum, made of
the putrified guts of a certain fi(h kept till it diffolved
into a mere fanies, which was thought fuch a dainty,
that, according to Pliny, its price equalled that ef the
richeft perfumes.
r RAGSTONE,.
R A I
agftone
Rain.
RAGSTONE, a coarfe kind of fandftone 'winch is
ufed as a whetftone for coarfe cutting tools. It is found
in the hills about Newcatfle, and many other parts of
England, where there are large rocks of it.
RAGULED, or Ragged, in Heraldry, jagged or
knotted. This term is applied to a crofs formed of the
trunks of two trees without their branches, of which
they Ihow only the flumps. Ragu/ed differs from in¬
dented, in that the latter is regular, the former not.
RAGUS A, an ancient town of Sicily, in the Val di-
Noto, near the river Maulo, i 2 miles north of Modica.
E. Long. 14. 59. N. Lat. 37. o.
Ragusa, a city of Dalmatia, and capital of Ragu-
fen. It is about two miles in circumference, is pretty
well built, and flrong by fituation, having an inaccef-
fible mountain on the land-fide, and on the fide of the
fea a flrong fort. It has an archbifhop’s fee and a re
public, and has a doge like that of Venice, but he con¬
tinues a month only in his office. It carries on a con-
fiderable trade with the Turks, and is 60 miles north-
weft of Scutari, and no north of Brindiii. E. Long.
18. 10. N. Lat. 42. 50.
RAGUSEN, a territory of Europe in Dalmatia,
lying along the coaft of the gulf of Venice, about 55
miles in length, and 20 in breadth. It was formerly
a republic under the protection of the Turks and Vene¬
tians, but has fallen under the dominion of the French.
Ragufa is the capital to\yn.
RAJA, or Rajah, the title of the Indian black
princes, the remains of thofe who ruled there before the
Moguls. Some of the rajas are faid to preferve their
independency, efpecially in the mountainous parts j but
moft of them pay an annual tribute to the Mogul. The
Indians call them rai; the Perfians, raian, in the plural j
and our travellers rajas, or ragias.
Raja, the Ray-Fi/h, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifties
belonging to the cartilaginous order.
RAIANIA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
cecia clafsj and in the natural method ranking under the
Iith order, Sarmentace<e. See Botany Index.
RAIETEA, one of the South fea iftands, named
alfo Uliet£a.
RAIL. See Rallus, Ornithology Index.
RAILLERY, according to Dr Johnfon, means flight
fatire, or fatirical merriment ; and a beautiful writer
of the laft century compares it to a light which dazzles,
and which does not burn. It is fometimes innocent and
pleafant, and it fhould always be fo, but it is moft fre¬
quently offenfive. Raillery is of various kinds; there is
a ferious, fevere, and good-humoured raillery ; and there
is a kind which perplexes, a kind which offends, and a
kind which pleafes.
To rally well, it is abfolutely neceffary that kindnefs
run through all you fay j and you muft ever preferve
the charafter of a friend to fupport your pretenfions to
be free with a man. Allufions to paft follies, hints to
revive what a man has a mind to forget for ever, fhould
never be introduced as the fubjeCts of raillery. Ihis is
not to thruft with the fkill of fencers, but to cut with
the barbarity of butchers. But it is below the character
of men of humanity and good-breeding to be capable
of mirth, while there is any in the company in pain and
diforder.
RAIN, the defcent of water from the atmofphere
in the form of drops of a confiderable fize. By this
[ 619 1
RAI
eircumftance it is diftinguifhed from dew and fog : in ^
the former of which the drops are fo fmall that they
are quite invifible 5 and in the latter, though their fize
be larger, they feem to have very little more (pecific
gravity than the atmofphere itfelf, and may therefore
be reckoned hollow fpherules rather than drops. Some
of the more general faCts relative to the phenomena of
rain have been already given under Meteorology.
We fhall here add tome account of the fpeculations of
philofophers on the fame fubjeCt, in attempting to ac¬
count for thofe phenomena.
It is univerfally agreed, that rain is produced by the
water previoufly abforbed by the heat of the fun, or
otherwife, from the terraqueous globe, into the atmo¬
fphere j but very great difficulties occur when we begin
to explain why the water, once fo clofely united with
the atmolphere, begins to feparate from it. We cannot
afcribe this feparation to cold, fince rain often takes
place in very w’arm weather •, and though we ftiould
fuppofe the condenfation owing to the fuperior cold of
the higher regions, yet there is a remarkable faCI which
will not allow us to have recourfe to this fuppofition.
It is certain that the drops of rain increafe in fize con-
fiderably as they defcend. On the top of a hill, for in-
ftance, they will be fmall and inconfiderable, forming
only a drizzling fhower; but at the bottom of the fame
hill the drops will be exceffively large, defcending in
an impetuous rain j which (hows that the atmofphere
is difpofed to condenfe the vapours, and aClually does
fo, as well where it is warm as where it is cold.
For feme time the fuppofitions concerning the caufe
of rain were exceedingly infufficient and unfatisfac-
tory. It was imagined, that when various congeries
of clouds were driven together by the agitation of
the winds, they mixed, and run into one body, by
which means they were condenfed into water. The
coldnefs of the upper parts of the air alfo was thought
to be a great means of collefting and condenfing the
clouds into water ; which, being heavier than the air,
muft neceffarily fall down through it in the form of
rain. The reafon why it falls in drops, and not in
large quantities, was faid to be the refiftance of the air ;
whereby being broken, and divided into fmaller and
fmaller parts, it at laft arrives to ys in fmall drops. But
this hypothefis is entirely contrary to almoft all the
phenomena : for the rveather, when coldeft, that is, in
the time of fevere froft, is generally the moft ferene j
the moft violent rains alfo happen where there is little
or no cold to condenfe the clouds j and the drops of
rain, inftead of being divided into fmaller and fmaller
ones, as they approach the earth, are plainly increafed
in fize as they defcend.
Dr Derham accounted for the precipitation of the
drops of rain from the veficulae being full of air, and
meeting with an air colder than they contained, the
air they contained was of ponfequence contradled into
a fmaller fpace ; and confequently the watery (hell ren¬
dered thicker, and thus fpecifically heavier, than the
common atmofphere. But it has been ftiown, that
the veficulm, if fuch they are, of vapour, are not filled
with air, but with fire, or heat j and confequently,
till they part with this latent heat, the vapour cannot
be condenfed. Now, cold is not always fufficient to
effefl this, fince i.n the moft fevere frofts the air is very
often ferene, and parts with little or none cf its vapour
4^2 for
Ram.
R A I '[ 620 ] R A I
Piain. for a very confiderable time. Neither can we admit
—the winds to have any confiderable agency in this mat¬
ter, fince we find that blowing upon vapour is fo far
from condenfmg it, that it unites it more clofely with
the air, and wind is found to be a great promoter of
evaporation.
According to Rohault, the great caufe of rain is the
heat of the air 5 which, after continuing for fome time
near the earth, is raifed on high by a wind, and there
thawing the fnowy villi or flocks of half-frozen vefi-
culae, reduces them to drops; which, coah icing, de-
fcend. Here, however, we ought to be informed by
what means thefe veficulae are fufpended in their half-
frozen flate ; fince the thawing of them can make but
little difference in their fpecific gravity, and it is cer¬
tain that they afeended through the air not in a frozen
but in an aqueous date.
Ur Clarke and others aferibe this defeent of the rain
rather to an alteration of the atmofphere than ot the
veficulae ; and fuppofe it to arife from a diminution of
the eladic force of the air. This eladicity, which,
they fay, depends chiefly or wholly upon terrene ex¬
halations, being weakened, the atmofphere finks un¬
der its burden, and the clouds fall. Now, the little
veficles being once, upon the defeent, will continue there¬
in, notwithdanding the increafe of refidance they
every moment meet with. For, as they all tend to the
centre of the earth, the farther they fall, the more
coalitions they will make ; and the more coalitions,
the mhre matter will there be under the fame furface ;
the furface increafing only as the fquares, but the (od¬
dity as the cubes ; and the more matter under the fame
furface, the lefs refidance will there be to the fame mat¬
ter. Thus, if the cold, wind, &c. add early enough
to precipitate the afcendlng veficles before they are ar¬
rived at any confiderable height, the coalitions being
but few, the drops will be proportionably fmall ; and
thus is formed a dew. If the vapours be more copious,
and rife a little higher, we have a mid or fog. A
little higher dill, and they produce a fmall rain ; if
they neither meet with cold nor wind, they form a
heavy thick dark Iky. This hypothefis is equally un-
fatisfadflory with the others ; for, granting that the de¬
feent and condenfation of the vapours are owing to a di¬
minution of the atmofphere’s eladicity, by what is this
diminution occafioned ? To fay that it is owing to ter¬
rene exhalations, is only folving one difficulty by ano¬
ther ; fince, we are totally unacquainted both with the
nature and operation of thefe exhalations. Befides,
let us fuppofe the caufe to be what it will, if it afts
equally and at once upon all the vapour in the air, then
all that vapour mud be precipitated at once ; and thus,
indead of gentle ffiowers continuing for a confiderable
length of time, we dmuld have the mod violent water-
fpouts, continuing onlv for a few minutes, or perhaps
feconds, which, indead of refreffiing the earth, would
drown and lav wade every thing before them.
Since philofophers have admitted the elefiric fluid
to fueh a large ffiare in the operations of nature, al-
, mod all the natural phenomena have been accounted
for by the aftion of that duid ; md rain, among others,
has been reckoned an effeft of ileflricity. But this
Ayord, unlef" i be explained, makes us no vvif r than
we were before ; the phenomena of artifii ial eleflricity
having been explained on principles which could fcarce
apply m any degree to the eleftricity cf nature : and Raia.
therefore all the folution we can obtain of the natural’-“—•v—; ^
appearances of which we fpeak, comes to this, that rain
is occafiontd by a moderate eledlrification, hail and fnow
by one more violent, and thunder by the mod violent
of all ; but in what manner this eledrification is occa¬
fioned, has not yet been explained. The principles of
eltdrkily neceffary to be attended to in the folution of
the phenomena under confideration are the following :
1. The eledric fluid and folar light are the fame lub-
dances in two diderent modifications.
2. Eledricity is the motion of the fiuid when running,
or attempting to run, in a continued dream from one
place to another : heat is when the fluid has no ten¬
dency but to vibrate outwards and inwards to and from
a centre ; or at lead when its dreams converge to a
point or focus.
3. The fluid ading as ekdricity, like water, or any
other fluid, always tends to the place where there is
lead refidance.
On thefe three principles may the phenomena of at-
molpherical ekdricity, and the defeent of rain by its
means, be explained as follows :
1. 'I he light or heat of the fun, ading in that pe¬
culiar manner which we call heat, unites itfelf with
the moidure of the earth, and forms it into vapour,
which thus becomes fpecifically lighter than air, and
of confequence afeends in the atmofphere to a certain
height.
2. Befides the quantity of light which is thus united
to the water, and forms it into vapour, a very confider¬
able quantity enters the earth, where it affumes the na¬
ture of ekdric fluid.
3. As the earth is always full of that fluid, every
quantity which enters mud difplace an equal quantity
which is already there.
4. This quantity which is difplaced mud efcape ei¬
ther at a ditlance from the place where the other en¬
ters, or very near it.
5. At w'hatever place a quantity of eledrxc matter
efcapes, it mud eledrify the air above that place
where it has efcaped ; and as a confiderable quantity
of light mud always be refltded from the eatth into
the atmofphere, where it does not combine with the
aqueous vapour, we have thence another fource of
eledricity to the air ; as this quantity mud undoubt¬
edly affume the adion of ekdrie fluid, efpeciaily af¬
ter the adion ot the tun has cealed. Hence, the rea-
fon why in ferene weather the atmofpherical eledricity
is always drongett, and rather more to in the night than
in the day.
6. From thefe confiderations, we fee an evident rea-
fon why there mud commonly be a difference between
the ekdricity of the earth and that of the atmofphere,
excepting when an earthquake is about to cniue. The
conlequence of this mud be, that as the adion of the
folar light continues to bring down the ekdric matter,
and the earth continues to dikbarge an equal quantity
of it into the atmofphere, tome part of the aimufphere
mud at lad become overloaded with it, and attempt to
throw it back into the earth. This attempt will be
vain, until a vent is found for the ekdricity at fome
other place ; and as foon as this happens, the ekdrified
atmofphere begins to throw oft its fuperfluous ekdricity,
and the earth to receive it. As the atmofphere itfelf
i
w
11 A I
Rain, is a bad conduftor, and the more fo the drier it is, the
—v——' ele&ric matter attacks the fmall aqueous particles which
are detained in it by means of the latent heat. Thefe
being unable to bear the impetus of the fluid, throw out
their latent heat, which eafily efcapes, and thus makes a
kind of vacuum in the elettrified part of the atmofphere.
The confequences of this are, that the aqueous par¬
ticles being driven together in large quantity, at laft
become vifible, and the Iky is covered with clouds j at
the fame time a wind blows against thefe clouds, and,
if there is no reliftance in the atmolphere, will drive
them away.
7. But if the atmofphere all round the cloud is ex¬
ceedingly electrified, and the earth is in no condition
to receive the fuperfluous fluid excepting in that place
which is directly under the cloud, then the whole elec¬
tricity of the atmofphere for a vatt way round will tend
to that part only, and the cloud will be eleftrified to
an extreme degree. A wind will now blow againlt the
cloud from all quarters, more and more of the vapour
will be extricated from the air by the eledtric matter,
and the cloud will become darker and thicker, at the
fame time that it is in a manner ftationary, as being a61:-
ed upon by oppofite winds ; though its fize is enlarged
with great rapidity by the continual fupplies of vapour
brought by the winds.
8. The vapours which were formerly fufpended in-
vifibly by means of the latent heat are now fufpended
vifibly by the ele&ric fluid, which will not let them
fall to the earth, until it is in a condition to re¬
ceive the eledlric matter defcending with the rain.—
It is eafy to fee, however, that thus every thing is
prepared for a violent florm of thunder and lightning
as well as rain. The furface of the earth becomes
electrified from the atmofphere : but when this has con¬
tinued for fome time, a zone of earth confiderably be¬
low the furface acquires an electricity oppofite to that
of the clouds and atmofphere ; of eonfequenee the elec¬
tricity in the cloud being violently preffed on all fides,
will at lait burft 'out towards that zone where the re¬
finance is leaft, as explained under the article Light-
king.—The vapours now having loft that which fup-
ported them, will fall down in rain, if there is not a
fufficient quantity of eleftric matter to keep them in
the fame ftate iti which they were before : but if this
happens to be the cafe, the cloud will inftantly be
charged again, while little or no rain will fall ; and
hence very violent thunder fometimes takes place with¬
out any rain at all, or fuch as is quite inconfiderable in
quantity,
9. When the eleClricity is lefs violent, the rain will
defcend in vaft quantity, efpecially after every flalh of
lightning ; and great quantities of eleCtric matter will
thus be conveyed to the earth, infomuch that lometimes
the drops have been obferved to fhine as if they were
on fire, which has given occafion to the reports of fiery
rain having fallen on certain occafions. If the quantity
of eleClric matter is fmaller, fo that the rain can convey
it all gradually to the ground, there will be rain with¬
out any thunder; and the greater the quantity of eleClri-
city the mere violent will be the rain.
From this account of the caufes of rain, we may fee
the reafon why in warm climates the rains are excef-
five, and for the moft part accompanied wdth thunder;
for there the eleClricity of the atmofphere is immenfely
R A I
greater than it is with us. We may alfo fee why in Rain-
certain places, according to the fituation of moun-
tains, feas, &.c. the rains will be greater than in others,
and like wife why fome parts ol the world are exempt¬
ed from rain altogether ; but as a particular difcullion
of thefe would neceflfariiy include an explanation of
the caufes and phenomena of i HUNGER, we ihall for
this reafon refer the whole to be treated of under that
article.
Whether this theory be juft, however, it would be too
afluming in us to fay. It may admit of difpute, for we
mult grant that in the very belt fyftems, though an oc¬
currence fo frequent, the theory of rain is but very im¬
perfectly underitood. Dr Hutton, whofe Ipeculations
are always ingenious, though generally extraordinary,
and much out of the common way, has given a new
theory of rain in the firft volume of the Tranfactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. It is well known
that atmofpheric air is capable of diffolving, with a
certain degree of heat, a given quantity of water. The
Doftor afeertains the ratio of the diffolving pow’er of
air, in relation to water, in different degrees of heat ;
and fhows, that by mixing a portion of tranfparent humid
warm air with a portion of cold air, the mixture becomes
opake, and part of the water will be precipitated ; or,
in other words, the vapour will be condenfed into rain.
The ratio which he ftates, however, does not appear to
us to be fupported by experience. Whether the elec¬
tricity of the air changes in confequence of its depofiting
the water diffolved in it, or the change is a caufe of this
depofition, muft remain uncertain ; but, in either view,
there muft be an agent different from heat and cold, fince
the changes in thefe refpeCIs do not in other operations
change the ftate of eleChicity. Dr Hutton fuppofes
that heat and folution do not increafe by equal incre¬
ments ; but that, in reality, if heat be fuppofed to in¬
creafe by equal increments along aftraight line, folution
will be expreffed by ordinates to a curve whofe convex
fide is turned towards that line. That the power of
folution is not increafed in the fame ratio with heat, is,
however, hypothetical, except when we rife pretty high
in the fcale, when its proportional increafe is a little
doubtful ; and it is not, in this paper, fupported by ex¬
periment. The condenfation of the breath in air is not
an obfervation in point, except in air already faturated
with vapour. It can amount, in any view, to no more
than this, that to render it vifible, the heat nmft be di-
minifhed in a greater proportion than can be com pen-
fated by the power of folution in the body of air, in
which the portion expired is at firft immerftd. To ex¬
plain rain from this eaufe, we muft always fuppofe a
conftant diminution of heat to take place at the mo¬
ment of the condenfation of the vapour ; but we actu¬
ally find that the change from a fiate of vapour to the
fluid ftate is attended with heat; fo that rain muft at
once oppofe its own caufe, and continued rains would
be impoflible, without calling in the aid of other caufes.
From Ills own fyftem, Dr Hutton endeavours to ex¬
plain the regular and irregular feafons of rain, either
refpefting the generality of its appearance, or the re¬
gularity of its return. And to obviate the apparent ex¬
ceptions of the theory, from the generality of rain,
he explains the proportional quantities of rain, and adds
a comparative eftimate of climates, in relation to rain,
with the meteorological obfervations made in our own
climate»
F 621 ]
R A I [622
climate. As his principle is at leafl infufficient, and we
think erroneous, it would be ufelefs, even were this a
proper place for it, to purfue tbefe various branches,
which muft partake of the errors of the fyitem. In thele
branches we ought to obferve, that there are feveral ju
obfervations, mixed with errors, becaufe evaporation and
condenfation muit at lad be the great balls or every the¬
ory : the miftakes arife from not being aware of all
the caufes, and mifreprefenting the operation of thoie
which do exift.
In a work entitled Thoughts on Meteorology, vol. 11.
M. de Lucconfiders very particularly the grand pheno¬
menon of rain, and the numerous circumftances connect¬
ed with it. He examines the feveral hypothefes with
confiderable care ; but thinks them, even if admiflible,
utterly infufficient to account for the formation of rain.
The grand queltion in this inquiry is, what becomes of
the water that rifes in vapour into the atmofphere •, or
what date it fubfids in there, between the time of its
evaporation and its falling down again in rain. If it
continues in the date of watery vapour, or fuch as is
the immediate produft of evaporation, it mud poflefs the
didinaive charades effential to that fluid: it mud make
the hygrometer move towards humidity, in propor¬
tion as the vapour is more or lefs abundant in the air :
on a diminution of heat, the humidity, as drown by the
hygrometer, mud increafe *, and on an increafe of the
heat the humidity mud diminiffi •, and the introduaicn
of other hygrofcopic fubdances, drier than the air, mud
have the fame effea as an augmentation of heat. T hefe
are the properties of watery vapour, on every hypothelis
of evaporation j and therefore all the water that exids in
the atmofphere without poffeffing thefe properties, is no
longer vapour, but mud have changed its nature.
M. de Luc {hows, that the water which forms rain,
though it has ever been confidered and reafoned upon as
producing humidity, does not pofrefs thefe properties,
and mud therefore have paflfed into another date. As
he thinks that the vapour paffes into an invifible date in
the interval between evaporation and its falling again in
rain, and that in that date it is not fenfible to the hy¬
grometer, he confiders the laws of hygrology as infuffi¬
cient for explaining the formation of rain *, but he does
not pretend to have difcovered the immediate caufe of
the formation of clouds and rain. If it is not in the im¬
mediate produCt: of evaporation that rain has its fource;
if the vapours change their nature in the atmofphere, fo
as no longer to be fenfible to the hygrometer, or to the
eye •, if they do not become vapour again till clouds ap¬
pear •, and if, when the clouds are formed, no alteration
is perceived in the quality of the air—we mud acknow¬
ledge it to be very probable, that the intermediate date
of vapour is no other than air—and that the clouds do
not proceed from any didinCt fluid contained in the at¬
mofphere, but from a decompofition of a part of the air
itfelf, perfeClly fimilar to the red.
It appears, to us at lead, that M. de Luc’s mode of
reafoning on this fubjeCl agrees better with the pheno¬
mena than Dr Hutton’s. The DoCtor, however, thinks
differently, and publiffied anfwers to the objections of
M. de Luc with regard to his theory of rain; to which
M. de Luc replied in a letter which was printed in the
Appendix to the 8id volume of the Monthly Review:
but it would extend our article beyond its due bounds,
to give a view of this controverfy.
] . R A I
As to the general quantity of rain that falls, and its
proportion in feveral places at the fame time, and in the v
fame place at feveral times, we have many obfervations,
journals, &c. in the Memoirs of the French Academy,
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, &c. Upon meafuring,
then, the rain falling yearly, its depth, at a medium, and
its proportion in feveral places, is found as in the follow¬
ing table :
At Townley, in Lancalhire, obferved by Mr Inches.
Townley . _ -
LTpminfler, in Effex, by Dr Derham - 19^
Zurich, in Swifferland, by Dr Scheuchzer 32^
Pifa, in Italy, by Dr Mich. Ang. Tilli - 43^
Paris, in France, by M. de la Hire - 19
Lifle, in Flanders, by M. de Vauban - 24
Rain.
At Upminder.
1700 19 Inch. .03
18 .69
20 .38
23 *99
15 .80
16 .93
1701
1702
I7°3
1704
1705
At Paris.
21 Inch. .37
27
n
18
21
J4
•77
•45
•51
.20
.82
From the Meteorological Journal of the Royal Socie¬
ty, kept by order of the prefident and council, it ap¬
pears that the whole quantity of rain at London, in
each of the years fpecified below, was as follows,
viz. Inches.
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
26
24
20
25
20
26
J7
.328
.083
•354
•37l
•772
•785
The quantity of rain in the four following years at Lon¬
don was Inches.
In 1789 - * 21 .976
1790 - - 16 .052
1791 - - 15 -310
1792 - - 19 .489
Proportion of the Rain of the feveral Seafons to one an¬
other.
1708
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
June
[Depth at
Pifa.
Inch.
6 .41
3 .28
2 .65
I .25
3 -33
4 -9°
Half
Year
21 .82
Depthat
Upminl.
Infch.
See Philofophical TranfaClions abridged, vol. iv. part ii.
p. 81, &c. and alfo Meteorological Journal of the Royal
Society, publiffied annually in the Philofophical Iranf-
a£tions.
As to the ufe of rain, we may obferve, that it moi-
R A I [ 62.3 ] R A I
Rain. ftens and foftens the earth, and thus fits it for affording
“—v nourilhment to plants; by falling on high mountains, it
carries down with it many particles ofloofe earth, which
ferve to fertilize the furrounding valleys, and purifies
the air from noxious exhalations, which tend in their
return to the earth to meliorate the foil; it moderates
the heat of the air; and is one means of fupplying foun¬
tains and rivers. However, vehement rains in many
countries are found to be attended with barrennefs and
poornefs of the lands, and miicarriage of the crops in
the fucceeding year: and the reafon is plain; for thefe
exceflive ftorms wafh away the fine mould into the ri¬
vers, which carry it into the fea, and it is a long time
before the land recovers itfelf again. The remedy to
the famine, which fome countries are fubjedf to from
this fort of mifchief, is the planting large orchards and
groves of fuch trees as bear efculent fruit; for it is an
old obfervation, that in years, when grain fucceeds
world, thefe trees produce molt fruit of all. It may
partly be owing to the thorough moilfening of the earth,
as deep as their roots go by thefe rains, and partly to
their trunks flopping part of the light mould carried
down by the rains, and by this means furnifhing them-
felves with a coat of new earth.
Preternatural RAINS. We have numerous accounts,
in the hiftorians of our own as •well as other countries,
of preternatural rains; fuch as the raining of flones, of
dull, of blood, nay, and of living animals, as young
frogs, and the like. We are not to doubt the truth of
what thofe who are authors of veracity and credit relate
to us of this kind, fo far as to fuppofe that the falling
of ftones and dull never happened; the whole miftake
' is, the fuppofing them to have fallen from the clouds:
but as to the blood and frogs, it is very certain that they
never fell at all, but the opinion has been a mere decep¬
tion of the eyes. Men are extremely fond of the mar¬
vellous in their relations ; but the judicious reader is to
examine ftri611y whatever is reported of this kind, and
is not to fuffer himfelf to be deceived.
There are two natural methods by which quantities
of ftones and dull may fall in certain places, without
their having been generated in the clouds or fallen as
rain. The one is by means of hurricanes: the wind
which we frequently fee tearing off the tiles of houfes,
and carrying them to confiderablediftances, being equal¬
ly able to take up a quantity of ftones, and drop them
again at fome other place. But the other which is much
' the moft powerful, and probably the mod ufual way,
is for the eruptions of volcanoes and burning mountains
to tofs up, as they frequently do, a vaft quantity of
ftones, allies, and cinders, to an immenfe height in the
air: and thefe, being hurried away by the hurricanes-
and impetuous winds which ufually accompany thofe
eruptions, and being in themfelves much lighter than
common ftones, as being half calcined, may eafily be
thus carried to vaft diftances; and there falling in pla¬
ces where the inhabitants know nothing of the occafion,
they cannot but be fuppofed by the vulgar to fall on
them from the clouds. It is well known, that, in the
great eruptions of /Etna and Vefuvius, Ihowers of afhes,
dull, and fmall cinders, have been feen to obfeure the
air, and overfpread the furface of the fea for a great
way, and cover the decks of Ihips; and this at fuch a
diftance, as it Ihould appear fcarce conceivable that they
ftieuld have been carried to ; and probably, if the ac¬
counts of all the Ihowers of thefe fubftances mentioned ^ain
by authors be collected, they will all be found to have
fallen within fuch diftances of volcanoes; and if com¬
pared as to the time of their falling, will be found to
correfpond in that alfo with the eruptions of thofe
mountains. We have known inftances of the allies from
Vefuvius having been carried thirty, nay, forty leagues,
and peculiar accidents may have carried them yet far¬
ther. It is not to be fuppofed that thefe Ihowers of
ftones and dull fall for a continuance in the manner of
Ihowers of rain, or that the fragments or pieces are as
frequent as drops of water ; it is fufficient that a num¬
ber of ftones, or a quantity of duft, fall at once on a
place, w?here the inhabitants can have no knowledge of
the part from whence they came, and the vulgar will
not doubt their dropping from the clouds. Nay, in
the canton of Berne in Swiflerland, the inhabitants ac--
counted it a miracle that it rained earth and fulphur up-
pon them at a time that a fmall volcano terrified them; ,
and even while the wind was fo boifterous, and hurri¬
canes fo frequent, that they faw almoft every moment
the duft, fand, and little ftones torn up from the furfacc
of the earth in whirlwinds, and carried to a confiderable
height in the air, they never confidered that both the
fulphur thrown up by the volcano, and the duft, &c.
carried from their feet mull fall foon after fome where.
It is very certain that in fome of the terrible ftorms of
large hail, where the hailftones have been of many
inches round, on breaking them there have been found
what people have called Jlones in their middle; but
thefe obfervers needed only to have waited the diffolving
of one of thefe hailftones, to have feen the ftone in its
centre difunite alfo, it being only formed of the parti¬
cles ofloofe earthy matter, which the water, exhaled by
the fun’s heat, had taken up in extremely fmall‘moN-
culae with it ; and this only having ferved to give an
opaque hue to the inner part of the congelation, to which
the freezing of the water alone gave the apparent hard-
nefs of ftone.
The raining of &W/has been ever accounted a more
terrible fight and a more fatal omen than the other pre¬
ternatural rains already mentioned. It is very certain
that nature forms blood nowhere but in the veflels of
animals; and therefore Ihowers of it from the clouds are
by no means to-be credited. Thofe who fuppofe that
what has been taken for blood has been adlually feen
falling through the air, have had recourfe to dying in-
fe£ls for its origin, and fuppofe it the eggs or dung of
certain butterflies difeharged from them as they were
high up in the air. But it feems a very wild conjec¬
ture, as we know of no butterfly whofe excrements or
eggs are of fuch a colour, or whofe abode is fo high,
er their flocks fo numerous, as to be the occafion of
this.
It is moft; probable that thefe bloody waters were
never feen falling; but that people feeing the Handing
waters blood-coloured, were affured, from their not
knowing how it ftiould elfe happen, that it had rained
blood into them. A very memorable inftance of this
took place at the Hague in the year 1670. Swam¬
merdam, who relates it, tells us, that one morning the.
whole town was in an uproar on finding their lakes and
ditches full of blood, as they thought: and having been
certainly full of water the night before, they agreed it
muft have rained blood in the night: but a certain phy--
fician-s
R A I
[ 624 ]
R A I
T5ain. lician went down to one of the canals, and taking home
■—' a quantity of this blood-coloured water, he examined it
by the microfcope, and found that the water was water
ftill, and had not at all changed its colour •, but that it
was full of prodigious fwarms of fmall red animals, all
alive, and very nimble in their motions, whofe colour
and prodigious number gave a red tinge to the whole
body of the water they lived in, on a lefs accurate in-
fpeftion. The certainty that this was the cafe, did not
however perfuade' the Hollanders to part with the mi¬
racle : they prudently ooncluded, that the hidden ap¬
pearance of fuch a number of animals was as great a
prodigy as the raining of blood would have been ; and
are affured to this day, that this portent foretold the
fcene of war and deftruftion which Louis XIV. after¬
wards brought into that country, which had before en¬
joyed 40 years of uninterrupted peace.
The animals which thus colour the water of lakes and
ponds are the pul ices arborefcentes of Swammerdam, or
the water-fleas with branched horns. Thefe creatures
are of a reddilh-yellow or flame colour : they live about
the Tides of ditches, under weeds, and among the mud;
and are therefore the lefs vifible, except at a certain
time, which is in the end or beginning of June : it is at
this time that thefe little animals leave their recefles to
float loofe about the water, to meet for the propagation
of their fpecies, and by that means become vifible in
the colour they give the water. This is vifible, more
or lefs, in one part or other of almofl: all Handing wa¬
ters at this feafon j and it is always at this feafon that
the bloody waters have alarmed the ignorant.
The raining of frogs is a thing not lefs wonderful in
the accounts of authors who love the marvellous, than
thofe of blood or Hones; and this is fuppofed to happen
fo often, that there are multitudes who pretend to have
been eye-witnefles of it. Thefe rains of frogs always
happen after very dry feafons, and are much more fre¬
quent in the hotter countries than in the cold ones.
In Italy they are very frequent ; and it is not uncom¬
mon to fee the flreets of Rome fwarming both with
young frogs and toads in an inflant in a flrower of rain ;
they hopping everywhere between the people’s legs as
they walk, though there was not the leafl appearance of
them before. Nay, they have been feen to fall through
the air down upon the pavements. This feems a flrong
circumflance in favour of their being rained down from
the clouds; but, when flridtly examined, it comes to
nothing : for thefe frogs that are feen to fall, are always
found dead, lamed, or bruifed by the fall, and never
hop about as the refi ; and they are never feen to fall,
except clofe under the walls of houfes, from the roofs
and gutters of Avhich they have accidentally flipped
d«wn. Some people, who love to add to flrange things
yet Hranger, affirm that they have had the young frogs
fall into their hats in the midff of an open field ; but
this is idle, and wholly falfe.
Others, who cannot agree to their falling from the
clouds, have tried to folve the difficulty of their fudden
appearance, by fuppofing them hatched out of the egg,
or fpawn, by thefe rains. Nay, fome have fuppofed
them made immediately out of the duff : but there are
unanfwerable arguments againff all thefe fuppofitions.
Equivocal generation, or the fpontaneous production of
animals out of duff, is now wholly exploded. The fall
from the clouds muff deflroy and kill thefe tender and
foft-bodied animals : and they cannot be at this time
hatched immediately out of eggs ; becaufe the young u
frog does not make its appearance from the egg in form,
but has its hinder legs enveloped in a fkin, and is what
we call a tadpole ; and the young frogs are at leaff 100
times larger at the time of their appearance, than the
egg from which they thould be hatched.
It is beyond a doubt, that the frogs which make their
appearance at this time, were hatched and in being long
before : but that the dry feafons had injured them, and
kept them lluggiffily in holes or coverts ; and that all
the rain does, is the enlivening them, giving them new
fpirits, and calling them forth to feek new' habitations,
and enjoy the element they were deffined in great part
to live in. Theophraftus, the greateff of all the natu-
ralifts of antiquity, has affirmed the fame thing. We
find that the error of fuppofing thefe creatures to fall
from the clouds was as early as that author’s time ; and
alfo that the truth, in regard to their appearance, was
as early known ; though, in the ages fince, authors have
taken care to conceal the truth, and to hand down to us
the error. We find this venerable fage, in a fragment
of his on the generation of animals which appear on a
fudden, bantering the opinion, and aflerting that they
were hatched and living long before. The world owes,
however, to the accurate Signior Redi the great proof
of this truth, which Theophraffus only has affirmed :
for this gentleman, differing fome of thefe new-appear¬
ing frogs, found in their ffomachs herbs and other half-
digeffecl food ; and, openly fliowing this to his credu¬
lous countrymen, afked them whether they thought that
nature, which engendered, according to their opinion,
thefe animals in the clouds, had alfo been fo provident
as to engender grafs there for their food and nourifli-
ment ?
To the raining of frogs we ought to add the raining
of grafshoppers and fvcujls, which have fometimes ap¬
peared in prodigious numbers, and devoured the fruits
of the earth. There has not been the leaff pretence for
the fuppofing that thefe animals defcended from the
clouds, but that they appeared on a fudden in prodigi¬
ous numbers. The naturalift, who know.s the many
accidents attending the eggs of thefe and other the like
animals, cannot but know that fome feafons will prove
particularly favourable to the hatching them, and the
prodigious'number of eggs that many infefls lay could
not but every year bring us fuch abundance of the young,
were they not liable to many accidents, and had not pro¬
vident nature taken care, as in many plants, to continue
the fpecies by a very numerous flock of feeds, of which
perhaps not one in 500 need take root in order to con¬
tinue an equal number of plants. As it is thus alfo in
regard to infers, it cannot but happen, that if a favour¬
able feafon encourage the hatching of all thofe eggs, a
very fmall number of which alone was neceflary to
continue the fpecies, we muff, in fuch feafons, have a
proportionate abundance of them. There appeared
about 50 years ago, in London, fuch a prodigious fwarm
of the little beetle called the lady-cow, that the very
polls in the ftreets were everywhere covered with them.
But thanks to the progrefs of philofophy among us, we
had nobody to affert that it rained cow-ladies, but con¬
tented ourfelves with faying that it had been a favour¬
able feafon for their eggs. The prodigious number of
a fort of grub which did vaft mifchief about the fame
period
Rain.
H A I
Rain, period among the corn and grafs by eating off their
—y—roots, might alio have been fuppofed to proceed from
its having rained grubs by people fond of making every
thing a prodigy; but our knowledge in natural hiftory
affured us, that thefe were only the hexapode worms of
the common hedge-beetle called the cockchafer.
The raining of fifhes has been a prodigy alfo much
talked of in France, where the ifreets of a town at feme
diftance from Paris, after a terrible hurricane in the
nig ht, which tore up trees, blew down houfes* &o. were
found in a manner covered with fiihes of various fizes.
Nobody here made any doubt of thefe having fallen from
the clouds j nor did the abfurdity of fiili, of five or fix
inches long, being generated in the air, at all ftartle the
people, or fhake their belief in the miracle, till they
found, upon inquiry, that a very well-ftocked fifh-pond,
which flood on an eminence in the neighbourhood, had
been blown dry by the hurricane, and only the great
fifh left at the bottom of it, all the fmaller fry having
been toffed into their flreets.
Upon the whole, all the fuppofed marvellous rains
have been owing to fubftances naturally produced on
the earth, and either never having been in the air at
all, or only carried thither by accident.
In Silefia, after a great dearth of wheat in that coun¬
try, there happened a violent ftorm of wind and rain,
and the earth was afterwards covered, in many places,
with fmall round feeds. The vulgar cried out that Pro¬
vidence had fent them food, and that it had rained mil¬
let : but thefe were, in reality, only the feeds of a fpe-
cies of veronica, or fpeedwell, very common in that
country ■, and avhofe feeds being juft ripe at that time,
the wind had diflodged them from their capfulesj and
fcattered them about. In our own country, we have
hiftories of rains of this marvellous kind, but all fabu¬
lous. It was once faid to rain wheat in Wiltfhire; and
the people were all alarmed at it as a miracle, till Mr
Cole fhowed them, that what they took for wheat was
only the feeds or kernels of the berries of ivy, which be¬
ing then fully ripe, the wind had diflodged from the
fides of houfes, and trunks of trees, on which the ivy
that produced them crept.
And we even once had a raining of fifties near the
coaft of Kent in a terrible hurricane, with thunder and
lightning. The people who faw fmall fprats ftrewed
all about afterwards, would have it that they had fallen
from the clouds; but thofe who confidered how far the
high winds have been known to carry the fea-water, did
not wonder that they fliould be able to carry fmall fifti
with it fo fmall a part of the way.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1782, we have
the following account of a preternatural kind of rain
by Count de Gioeni: “ The morning of the 24th in-
ftant there appeared here a moft fingular phenomenon.
Every place expofed to the air was found wet with
a coloured cretaceous gray water, which, after evapora¬
ting and filtrating away, left every place covered with
it to the height of two or three lines j and all the iron-
■work that was touched by it became rufty.
“ The public, inclined to the marvellous, fancied va¬
rious caufes of this rain, and began to fear for the ani¬
mals and vegetables.
“ In places where rain-water was ufed, they abftain-
ed from it: fome fufpedfting vitriolic principles to be
'VOL. XVII. Part II.
R A I
mixed with it, and others predi&ing fume epidemical
diforder.
“ Thofe wjio had obferved the explofions of Etna 20
days and more before, vvere inclined to believe it^origi-
nated from one of them.
“ The ftiower extended from N. N. E. to S. | S. W=
over the fields, about 70 miles in a right line from the
vertex of Etna.
“ There is nothing new in volcanoes having thrown
up fand, and allb ftones, by the violent expanfive force
generated within them, which fand has been carried by
the wind to diftant regions.
“ But the colour and fubtilty of the matter occafion-
ed doubts concerning its origin ; which increafed from
the remarkable circumftance of the water in which it
came incorporated ; for which reafons fome other prin¬
ciple or origin was fufpe£ted. ,
“ It became, therefore, neceffary by all means to af-
certain the nature of this matter, in order to be convin¬
ced of its origin, and of the effects it might produce.
This could not be done without the help of a chemical
analyfis. To do this then with certainty, I endeavour¬
ed to collefl this rain from places where it was moft
probable no heterogeneous matter would be mixed with
it. I therefore chofe the plant called brajjica capitatay
which having large and turned up leaves, they contain¬
ed enough of this coloured water : many of thefe I emp¬
tied into a veffel, and left the contents to fettle till the
water became clear.
“ This being feparated into another veffel, I tried it
with vegetable alkaline liquors and mineral acids j but
could obferve no decompofition by either. I then eva¬
porated the water in order to reunite the fubftances that
might be in folution *, and touching it again with the
aforefaid liquors, it fliowed a flight effervefcence with
the acids. When tried with the fyrup of violets, this
became a pale green ; fo that I was perfuaded it con¬
tained a calcareous fait. With the decodlion of galls no
precipitation was produced.
“ The matter being afterwards dried in the ftiade, it
appeared a very fubtile fine earth, of a cretaceous co¬
lour, but inert, from having been diluted by the rain.
“ I next thought of calcining it with a flew fire, and
it affumed the colour of a brick. A portion of this
being put into a crucible, I applied to it a ftronger heat j
by which it loft almoft all its acquired colour. Again,
I expofed a portion of this for a longer time to a very
violent heat (from which a vitrification might be ex¬
pected) ; it remained, however, quite foft, and was
eafily bruifed, but returned to its original dulky co¬
lour.
“ From the moft accurate obfervations of the fmoke
from the three calcinations, I could not dilcover either
colour or fmell that indicated any arfenical or fulphure-
ous mixture.
“ Having therefore calcined this matter in three por¬
tions, with three different degrees of fire, I prefented a
good magnet to each : it did not aft either on the firft;
or fecond ; a flight attraftion was vifible in many places
on the third : this perfuaded me, that this earth contains
a martial principle in a metallic form, and not in a vi¬
triolic fubftance.
“ The nature of thefe fubftances then being difcotfer-
ed, their volcanic origin appears; for iron, the more it
4 K is
[ 1
R A I t 626 ] - R A I
Tta.n, jg expofed to violent calcination, tliC rnore it is divided
Sainbow. ^ the i0fs 0f Jts phlogiftic principle ; Hvln'ch cannot
v naturally happen but in the great chimney of a volcano.
Calcareous fait, being a marine fait combined with a
calcareous fubftance by means of violent heat, cannot be
other wife compofed than in a volcano.
“ As to their dreaded effects on animals and vegeta¬
bles, every one knows the advantageous ufe, in medi¬
cine, both of the one and the other, and this in the fame
form as they are thus prepared in the great laboratory
of nature.
“ Vegetables, even in flower, do not appear in the
]eaft macerated, which has formerly happened from on¬
ly fliowers of fand.
“ How this volcanic production came to be mixed
with water may be conceived in various ways.
“ iEtna, about its middle regions, is generally fur-
rounded with clouds that do not always rife above its
fummit, which is 2900 paces above the level of the fea.
This matter being thrown out, and defcending upon
the clouds below7 it, may happen to mix and fall in rain
with them in the ufual way. It may alfo be conjeau-
red, that the thick fmoke which the volcanic matter
contained might, by its rarefadion, be carried in the
atmofphere by the wind over that traa of country 5
and then cooling fo as to condenfe and become fpecifi-
cally heavier than the air, might defcend in that colour¬
ed rain.
“ I muft, howrever, leave to philofophers (to wdiom
the knowledge of natural agents belongs) the examina¬
tion and explanation of fuch phenomena, confining my-
felf to obfervation and chemical experiments.”
Rain, a well built and fortified town of Bavaria, one
of the keys of this electorate, on the Lech, 20 miles
weft of Ingolftadt. N. Lat. 48. 51. E. Long. II. 12.
. Rain-Bird. See Cuculus, Ornithology Index.
RAINBOW. See Optics.
In the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1793, we have
the following account of two rainbows feen by the Rev.
Mr Sturges.
“ On the evening of the 9th of July 1792, bet ween
feven and eight o’clock, at Alverftroke, near Gofport,
on the fea-coaft of Hampthire, there came up, in the
fouth-eaft, a cloud with a tliunder-ftiower ; while the
fun (hone bright, low in the horizon, to the north-
weft.
Plate “ In this (bower two primary rainbows appeared,
cccclviii. AB and AC, not concentric, but touching each other
fig. 2.
at A, in the fouth part of the horizon •, with a fecon-
dary bow7 to each, DE and DF (the laft very faint, but
difcernible), which touched likewife at D. Both the
primary were very vivid for a confiderable time, and at
different times nearly equally fo gbut the bow AB was
moft permament, was a larger fegment of a circle, and
at laft, after the other had vaniftied, became almoft a
femicircle j the fun being near fetting. It was a perfeCl
calm, and the fea was as fmooth as glafs.
“ If I might venture to offer a folution of this ap¬
pearance, it would be as follows. I confider the bow
AB as the true one, produced by the fun itfelf j and
the other, AC, as produced by the reflection of the fun
from the fea, which, in its perfe&ly fmooth ftate, afted
as a fpeculum. The direftion of the fea, between the
Ifle of Wight and the land, was to the north-weft in a
line with the fun, as it was then, fituated. The image
refledted from the water, having its rays iffuing from a Rainbow; ia
point lower than the real fun, and in a line coming from ''■““v—* ^
beneath the horizon, would confequently form a bow
higher than the true one AB. And the (bores, by
which that narrow part of the fea is bounded, would be¬
fore the fun’s adftual fetting intercept its rays from the
furface of the water, and caufe the bow AC, which I
fuppofe to be produced by the reflection, to difappear
before the other.”
The marine or fea bow is a phenomenon which may¬
be frequently obferved in a much agitated fea, and is
occafioned by the wind fweeping part of the waves, and
carrying them aloft} which when they fall down are
refradted by the fun’s rays, which paint the colours of
the bow juft as in a common (bower. Thefe bows are
often feen when a veffel is failing with confiderable force,
and dalhing the waves around her, which are raifed
partly by the aCtion of the (hip and partly by the force
of the wind, and, falling down, they form a rainbow 5
and they are alfo often cccafioned by the daftiing of the
waves againft the rocks on (bore.
In the Philofophical TranfaCtions, it is obferved by
F. Bourzes, that the colours of the marine rainbow are
lefs lively, lefs diftinCt, and of (horter continuance, than
thofe of the common bow ; and there are fcarcely above
two colours diftinguifhable, a dark yellow on the fide
next the fun, and a pale green on the oppofite fide.
But they are more numerous, there being fometimes 20
or 30 feen together.
To this clafs of bows may be referred a kind of white
or colourlefs rainbows, which Mentzelius and others af¬
firm to have feen at noon-day. M. Marlotte, in his
fourth EJai de Physique, fays, tbefe bows are formed in
mills, as the others are in (bowers •, and adds, that he
has feen feveral both after funrifing and in the night.
The want of colours he attributes to the fmallnefs of the
vapours which compote the miit •, but perhaps it is ra¬
ther from the exceeding tenuity of the little veficulte of
the vapour, which being only little watery pellicles
bloated with air, the rays of light undergo but little re-
fraCtion in paffing out of air into them 5 too little to fe-
parate the differently coloured rays, &c. Plence the rays
are reflected from them, compounded as they came, that
is, white, Rohault mentions* coloured rainbows on frn^e aJ!
the grafs j formed by the refraCtions of the lun’s rays in Ph^fique-
the morning dew. Rainbows have been alfo produced
by the reflection of the fun from a river j and in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions, vol. 1. p. 294. we have an
account of a rainbow, which muft have been formed by
the exhalations from the city of London, when the iun
had been fet 20 minutes, and coniequently the centre of
the bow was above the horizon. 1 he colours were the
fame as in the common rainbow, but fainter. ^
It has often been made a fubjeCt of inquiry among the
curious how there came to be no rainbow before the
flood, which is thought by fome to have been the cafe,
from its being made a fign of the covenant which the
Deity was pleafed to make with man after that event.
Mr Whitehurft, in his Inquiry into the Original State
and Formation of the Earth, p. 173, &c. endeavours to
eftablifti it as a matter of great probability at lead, that
the antediluvian atmofphere was fo uniformly temperate
as never to be fubjeCt to ftorms, tempefts, or rain, and
of courfe it could never exhibit a rainbow. For our own
part, we cannot fee how the earth at that period could
R A I
ainbow: do without rain any more than at prefent 3 and it appears
' to us from Scripture equally probable that the rainbow
was feen before the flood as after it. It was then, how¬
ever, made a token of a certain covenant j and it would
unqueftionably do equally well for that purpofe if it had
exifled before as if it had not.
Lunar RAINBOW. The moon fometimes alfo exhi¬
bits the phenomenon of an iris or rainbow by the re-
fraflion of her rays in drops of rain in the night time.
This phenomenon is very rare. In the Philofophical
Tranfadions for 1783, however, we have an account of
three feen in one year, and all in the fame place, com¬
municated in two letters by Marmaduke Tunitall, Efq.
The firft was feen 27th February 1782, at Greta
Bridge, Yorkfliire, between feven and eight at night,
and appeared “ in tolerably diftind colours, fimilar to a
folar one, but more faint: the orange colour feemed to
predominate. It happened at full moon ; at which time
alone they are faid to have been always feen. Though
Ariftotle is faid to have obferved two, and fome others
have been feen by Snellius, &c. I can only find two de-
fcribed with any accuracy *, viz. one by Plot, in his Hi-
ftoryof Oxfbrdfhire, feen by him in 1675, though with¬
out colours; the other feen by a Derbylhire gentleman
at Glapwell, near Chefterfield, defcribed by Thorelby,
and inferted in N° 331. of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions : this was about Chriilmas, 1710, and faid to have
had all the colours of the iris folaris. The night was
windy •, and though there was then a drizzling rain and
dark cloud, in which the rainbow was refleded, it pro¬
ved afterwards a light froft.”
Two others were afterwards feen by Mr Tunftall;
one on July-the 30th, about o’clock, which lafted
about a quarter of an hour, without colours. The other,
which appeared on Friday Odober 18. was “ perhaps
the moft extrordinary one of the kind ever feen. It
was firil vifibleabout nineo’clock, andcontinued, though
with very different degrees of brilliancy, till pad two.
At firft, though a ftrongly marked bow, it was without
colours ; but afterwards they were very confpicuous
and vivid in the fame form as in the folar, though faint¬
er ; the red, green, and purple, were moft diftinguilh-
.able. About twelve it was the moft fplendid in ap¬
pearance ; its arc was confiderably a fmaller fegment of
a circle than a folar ; its fouth eaft limb firft began to
fail, and a confiderable time before its final extindion :
the wind was very high, nearly due weft, moft part of
the time, accompanied with a drizzling rain. It is a
lingular circumftance, that three of thefe phenomena
'Ihould have been feen in fo fliort a time in one place, as
they have been efteemed ever fince the time of Ariftotle,
who is faid to have been the firft obferver of them,
and faw only two in 30 years, and fince by Plot and
fhorelby, almoft the only two Englifh authors who
have fpoke of them, to be exceeding rare. They feem
evidently to be occafioned by a refradion in a cloud or
turbid atmofphere, and in general are indications of
ftormy and rainy weather : fo bad a feafon as the late
fummer having, I believe, feldom occurred in England.
1 horelby, indeed, fays, the one he obferved was fuc-
ceeded by feveral days of fine ferene weather. One
particular, rather lingular, in the fecond, viz. of July
the 3Cth, was its being fix days after the full of the
t^oon ; and the laft, though of fo long a duration, was
R A I
three days before the full : that of the 27th of Febru- Rainbow,
ary was exadly at the full, which ufed to be judged the Raifuis-
only time they could be feen, though in the Encyclo- ™‘" v
pedia there is an account that Weidler obferved one in.
I7I9, *n t^ie hrit quarter or the moon, with faint co¬
lours, and in very calm weather. No lunar iris, I ever
heard or read of, lafted near folong as that on the i8th
intrant, either with or without colours.”
In the Gentleman’s Magizine for Auguft 1788 we
have an account of a lunar rainbow by a correfpondent
who faw it. “ On Sunday evening the 17th of Au-
gutt (fays he), after two days, on both of which, par¬
ticularly the former, there had been a great deal of
rain, together with lightning and thunder, juft as the
clocks were ftriking nine, 23 hours after full moon,
looking through my window, i was ftruck with the ap¬
pearance of fomething in the Iky, which feemed like a
rainborv. Having never feen a rainbow by night, I
thought it a very extraordinary phenomenon, and ha-
ftened to a place rvhere there were no buildings to ob-
ftruft my view of the hemifphere : here I found that
the phenomenon rvas no other than a lunar rainbow j
the moon was truly ‘ walking in brightnefs,’ brilliant
as fire could be ; not a cloud was to be feen near her j
and over againft her, toward the north-weft, or perhaps
rather more to the north, was a rainbow7, a vaft arch,
perfect in all its parts, not interrupted or broken as
rainbow's frequently are, but unremittedly vifible from
one horizon to the other. In order to give fome idea
of its extent, it is neceffary to fay, that as I flood to- '
ward the weftern extremity of the parifti of Stoke
Newington, it feemed to take its rife from the weft of
Hampftead, and to end, perhaps, in the river Lea,
the. eaftern boundary of Tottenham ; its colour was
white, cloudy, or grayilh, but a part of its weftern leg
feemed to exhibit tints of a faint fickly green. I con¬
tinued viewing it fox fome time, till it began to rain j
and at length the rain increafing and the fky growing
more hazy, I returned home about a quarter or 20 mi¬
nutes part nine, and in ten minutes came out again ; but
by that time all was over, the moon was darkened by
clouds, and the rainbow of courfe vanifhed.”
Marine RAINBOW, or Sea-boiv, See the article
Rainbow.
Rainbow Stone. See MOON-Stone.
RAISINS, grapes prepared by fuffering them to
remain on the vine till they are perfedtly ripe, and then
drying, them in the fun, or by the heat of an oven.
The difference between raifins dried in the fun and
thofe dried in ovens, is very obvious : the former are
fvveet and pleafant, but the latter have a latent acidity
with the fweetnefs that renders them much lefs aoree-
able. &
I he common way of drying grapes for raifins, is to
tie two or three bunches of them together while yet on
the vine, and dip them into a hot lixivium of wood-
afhes, with a little of the oil of olives in it. This dif-
pofes them to thrink and wrinkle ; and after this they
are left on the vine three or four days feparated on
flicks in an horizontal fituation, and then dried in the
fun at leifure, after being cut from the tree. The fineft:
and beft raifins are thofe called in fome places Damaf-
cus and Jube raifins ; which are diftinguiftieft from the
others by their fizeand figure : they are flat and wrinkled
4 K 2
[ 627 ]
fls
cm
R A L
Raifins on the furfaee, foft and juicy within, and near an inch
!l long •, and, when frefli and growing on the bunch, are
Ralclsh‘, of the fize and ftiape of a large olive.^
The raifins of the fun, and jar-raifins, are all diied
by the heat of the fun 5 and thefe are the forts ufed in
medicine. However, all the kinds have much the fame
virtues : they are all nutritive and balfamic 5 they are
allowed to be attenuant, are faid to be good in nephri¬
tic complaints, and are an ingredient in pectoral decoc¬
tions: in which cafes, as alfo in all others where aftrin-
gency is not required of them, they ftiould have the
ftones carefully taken out.
Raisin-Wine. See Wine.
RAKKATH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Up¬
per Galilee, thought to be Tiberias, (Talmud) : but
this is denied by Reland, who fays that Rakkath was a
town of the tribe of Naphthali.
RAKE is a well known inllrument with teeth, by
which the ground is divided. See Agriculture, /«-
Jlruments.
Rake alfo means a loofe, diforderly, vicious, and
thoughtlefs fellow.
Rake of a Ship, is all that part of her hull which
hangs over both ends of her keel. That which is be¬
fore is called the fore rake, or rake forward, and that
part which is at the fetting on of the ftern-poft is called
the rake-aft or afterward.
RALEIGH, Sir Walter, fourth fon of Walter
Raleigh, Efq. of Fardel, in the parifh of Cornwood in
Devonlhire, was born in 1552 at Hayes, in the parifh
of Budley, a farm belonging to his father. About the
year 1568, he was fent to Oriel college in Oxford,
where he continued but a fhort time •, for in the follow¬
ing year he embarked for France, being one of the
hundred volunteers, commanded by Henry Champer-
non, who, with other Englifh troops, were fent by
Queen Elizabeth to aflift the queen of Navarre in de¬
fending the Proteftants. In this fervice he continued
for five or fix years j after which he returned to Lon¬
don, and probably refided in the Middle Temple. But
his enterprifing genius would not fuffer him to remain
long in a flate of inactivity. In 1577 or 1578, he
embarked for the Low Countries with the troops fent
by the queen to aflift the Dutch againft the Spaniards,
and probably fhared the glory of the decifive victory
over Don John of Auftria in 1578. On his return to
England, a new enterprife engaged his attention. His
half brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, having obtained a
patent to plant and inhabit fome parts of North Ame¬
rica, Mr Raleigh embarked in this adventure 5 but,
meeting with a Spanifh fleet, after a fmart engagement
they returned, without fuccefs, in 1579.
The following year, the king of Spain, in conjunc¬
tion with the pope, having projeCled a total conqueft
of 'the Englifh dominions, fent troops to Ireland to af-
fift the Defmonds in the Munfter rebellion. Raleigh
obtained a captain’s commiflion under Lord Grey of
Wilton, then deputy of Ireland, and embarked for that
kingdom *, where, by his conduft and refolution, he was
principally inftrumental in putting an end to the rebel¬
lious attempt. He returned to England ; and attraCl-
ed the notice of Queen Elizabeth, owing, as we are
told in Naunton’s Fragmenta Regalia, to the following
accidental piece of gallantry. The queen, as fhe was
aae. day taking a walk, being flopped by aplace
R A L
in the road, our gallant young foldier took off his new Baleigli.
plufh mantle, and fpread it on the ground. Her majefty -\r—
trod gently over the fair foot-cloth, furprifed and pleaf-
ed with the adventure. He was a handfome man, and
remarkable for his gentility of addrefs.
The queen admitted him to her court, and employed
him firft as an attendant on the French ambaflador Si-
mier on his return home, and afterwards to effort the
duke of Anjou to Antwerp. During this excurfion he
became perfonally known to the prince of Orange r
from whom, at his return, he brought fpecial acknow¬
ledgments to the queen, who now frequently converfed
with him. But the inaClive life of a courtier did not
fuit the enterprifing fpirit of Mr Raleigh. In the year
1583, he embarked with his brother, Sir Humphrey
Gilbert, on a fecond expedition to Newfoundland, in a
fliip called the Raleigh, which he built at his own ex¬
pence *, but was obliged to return on account of an in¬
fectious diftemper on board. He was, however, fo
little affeCted by this difappointment, that he now’ laid
before the queen and council a propofal for exploring
the continent of North America ; and in 1584 obtained
a patent empowering him to poffefs fuch countries as he
fhould difcover in that part of the globe. Accordingly
Mr Raleigh fitted out two fhips at his own expence,
which failed in the month of April, and returned to
England about the middle of September, reporting that
they had difcovered and taken pofieflion of a fine coun¬
try called Windangocoa, to which the queen gave the
name of Virginia. About this time he was elefted
knight of the ftiire for the county of Devon, and foon
after received the honour of knighthood j and to en¬
able him to carry on his defigns abroad, the queen
granted him a patent for licenfing the venders of wine
throughout the kingdom. In 1585 he fent a fleet of
feven {hips to Virginia, commanded by his relation Sir
Richard Greenville, who left a colony at Roanah of 107
perfons, under the government of Mr Lane ; and by the
eftablifhment of this colony he firft imported tobacco
into England. See Nicotiana. In the fame year
Sir Walter Raleigh obtained a grant of 12,000 acres of
the forfeited lands in the county of Cork in Ireland.—
About the fame time he was made fenefchal of the duchy
of Cornwall, and warden of the ftarneries ; and grew
into fuch favour with the queen, that even Leicefter was
jealous of his influence.
In 1587, he fent another colony of 150 men to Vir¬
ginia, with a governor, Mr John White, and 1 2 affift-
ants. About this time we find our knight diftinguifh-
ed by the titles of Captain of the queen's guards, and
Lieutenant-general of Cornwall. From this period to the
year 1594, he was continually engaged in projeUing
new expeditions, fending fuccours to the colonies abroad,
defending the kingdom from the infults of the Spani¬
ards, and tranfafting parliamentary bufinefs, with equal
ability and refolution. Whilft thus employed, he was
publicly charged, in a libel written by the infamous
Jefuit Parfons, with being an Atheift j a groundlefs
and ridiculous imputation. In 1 594, he obtained from
the queen a grant of the manor of Sherborne in Dor-
fetfliire, where he built a magnificent houfe : but Sir
Walter fell under the queen’s difpleafure on account of
an intrigue with the daughter of Sir Nicholas 1 hrog-
morton, one of the maids of honour ; however, he mar¬
ried the lady, and lived with her in great conjugal har-
[ 628 ]
H
?:
HAL [ 629 ] RAM
iRaleigii mony. During his difgrace at court, he projected the
!! conqueft of Guiana in South America, and in 1595
Ralph- failed for that country *, of which having taken poflef-
fion, after defeating the Spaniards who were fettled
there, he returned to England the fame year, and foon
after publifhed an account of his expedition. In the
following year he was one of the admirals in the fuccefs-
ful expedition againft Cadiz, under the command of
Howard and the earl of Efiex ; and in 1597 he failed
with the fame commanders againft the Azores. Soon
after thefe expeditions, we find him afliduoufly engaged
in parliamentary bufinefs, and a diftinguiftied perfonage
in joufts and tournaments. In 1600 he was fent on a
joint embaffy w’ith Lord Cobham to Flanders, and at
his return made governor of Jerfey.
Queen Elizabeth died in the beginning of the year
1603 ; and with her Raleigh’s glory and felicity funk,
never to rife again. Upon the acceffion of James, Sir
Walter loft his intereft at court, was ftripped of his pre¬
ferments, and accufed of a plot againft the king. He
■was arraigned at Winchefter, and, on his trial, infulted
with the molt (hocking brutality by the famous Coke,
attorney-general, whofe fophiftical vociferation influen¬
ced the jury to convift him without the leaft proof of
guilt. After a month’s imprifonment, however, in daily
expedlation of his execution, he was reprieved, and fent
to the Tower j and his eftates were given to Car, earl of
Somerfet, the king’s favourite. During this confine¬
ment, he wrote many of his moft valuable pieces, parti¬
cularly his Hiftory of the World. In March, 1615, af¬
ter 16 years imprifonment, he obtained his liberty, and
immediately began to prepare for another voyage to
Guiana. In Auguft 1616, the king granted him a very
ample commiflion for that purpofe j and in July the
year following, he failed from Plymouth : but, ftrange
as it may appear, it is moft certain that the whole fcheme
was revealed to the Spaniards by the king himfelf, and
thus neceffarily rendered abortive.
He returned to England in 1618, where he was foon
after feized, imprifoned, and beheaded •, not for any pre¬
tended mifdemeanor on the late expedition, but in con-
fequence of his former attainder. The truth of the
matter is, he was facrificed by the pufillanimous monarch
to appeafe the Spaniards •, who, whilft Raleigh lived,
thought every part of their dominions in danger. He
was executed in Old Palace Yard, and buried in St
Margaret’s adjoining, in the 66th year of his age. His
behaviour on the fcaffold was manly, unaffedled, cheer¬
ful, and eafy. Being afked by the executioner which
way he would lay his head, he anfwered, “ So the heart
be right, it is no matter which way the head lies.” He
was a man of admirable parts, extenfive knowledge, un¬
daunted refolution, and ftridl honour and honefty. He
was the author of a.great many works, fome of which
have not been printed.
RALLUS, the Rail, a genus of birds belonging to-
the order of grallae- See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
RALPH, James, an ingenioushiftorical and political
W’riter, of whofe birth and country nothing is exaftly
known. He was firft known as a fchoolmafter in Phila¬
delphia in North America. He came to England about
the beginning of the reign of George I. and wrote
fome things in the dramatic way, which were not re¬
ceived with great, applaufe j but though he did not fuc-
cced as a poet, he was a very ingenious profe-writer,
3
He wrote A Hiftory of England, commencing with the Ralph
Stuarts, which is much efteemed ; as were his poli- Ran‘'efes
tical effays and pamphlets, fome of which were looked . .  
upon as mafter-pieces. His laft publication, Ihe Cafe
of Authors by Profeflion, is an excellent and entertain¬
ing performance. He died in 1762.
RAM. See Ovis, Mammalia Index.
Battering RAM, in antiquity, a military engine ufed
to batter down the walls of befieged places. See BAT¬
TERING Ram.
Ram'S Head, in a fhip, is a great block belonging
to the fore and main haulyards. It has three fhivers in
it, in which the haulyards are put j and in a hole at the
end are reeved the ties.
RAMADAN, a folemn feafon of faffing among the
Mahometans. See Mahometanism.
RAMAH, in Ancient Geography, a town of Benja¬
min, near Gibea, (Judges) j aWedi Rama of Saul (1 Sam.
xxii.), fix miles from Jerufalem to the north \ memora¬
ble for the ftory of the Levite and his concubine: Taken
and fortified by Baafa king of Ifrael, in order to annoy
the kingdom of Judah. This Rama is mentioned Ifa. x.
Jer. xxxi. and Math. ii. and is to be diftinguiftied from
Rama of Samuel, 1. Sam. xix. called alfo Ramatha, 1 Sam.
i. 19. and Ramathaim Zophim, ibid. i. 1. which lay a
great way to the weft, towards Joppa, near Lydda,
1 Maccab. ii. the birth-place of Samuel; adjoining to
the mountains of Ephraim, and the place of his refi-
dence, I Sam. xv. &c. (Jofeph.). Called Ramu/a in
the lower age, (Gul. Tyrius). There is here a con¬
vent of the fathers of the Holy Land, inhabited only
by Portuguefe, Spaniards, and Italians.
RAM ATH-mizpe, (Jofhua xiii.) ; Ramoth-Mufphe,
(Septuagint, Vulgate) •, Ramoth in Gilead, or Remmoth
Galaad, (Seventy)) a town in that tratl of'Gilead cal¬
led Mafpha, or Mi%pe, one of the cities of refuge.
RAMAZZINI, Bernardin, an Italian phyfician,
born at Carpi near Modena in 1633. He was jErofelfor
of phyfic in the univerfity of Modena for 18 years j and
in 1700 accepted an invitation from Padua, where he
was made redlor of the college) and died in I714‘
His works were colledled and publifhed in London,
1716 ) of which, his treatii’e De Morbis Artifcum, “ Of
the peculiar maladies of artificers,” will always be efteem¬
ed ufeful and curious.
RAMEKINS, a fortrefs of the United Netherlands,
on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Waleherin, in the
province of Zealand. One of the cautionary towns
given to Queen Elizabeth for the repayment of the
charges flic bad been at for the defence of this republic
in its infancy. Four miles eaft of Flufhing ) in N. Lat.
51. 34. E. Long. 4. 24.
RAMESES, in Ancient Geography, a town built by
the Ifraelites during their bondage in Egypt, and from
which the Exodus took place, and which muft havo
been towards and not far from the Arabian gulf,
feeing in the third ftation the Ifraelites arrived on its
fhore.
Ramkses, king of the Lower Egypt when Jacob
went thither with his family, in the 1706th year be¬
fore the Chriftian era. Ancient authors mention fe-
veral other kings of Egypt of the fame name) and it is
thought that one of thofe princes erefted in the temple
of the fun at Thebes, the magnificent obelifk which the
emperor Conftantine caufed to be removed to Alexan¬
dria.;
Tumefes
1! .
Ramillies.
R A 'M [ 630 ] R A M
dria in the year 334 5 and that prince dying, his Ton
Condantius had the obelifk tranfported from Alexan¬
dria to Rome in 352, where it was erefled in the grand
Circus. Its height was 132 feet. When the Goths
facked the city of Rome in 409, they overthrew" this
obehlk, which continued buried in the fand till the time
of Sixtus V. in 1587, when it was found broken in three
pieces j which being joined together, it wras fet up in
the fquare of St John de Lateran. On the four lides of
this wonderful obelilk are a number of figures and bie-
roglyphical charafters, which, according to the expli¬
cation of Ammianus Marcellinus, contain the praifes of
Ramefes.
RAMIFICATION, the produiRion of boughs or
branches, or of figures refembling branches.
RAMILLIES, a fmall village of Brabant, in the
Auftrian Low Countries, 12 miles north of Namur, and
22 fouth-eaft of Bruffels. Lat 50. 51. Long. 4. 48.
Famous for the battle fought by the allies commanded
by the duke of Marlborough and M. d’Auverquirque,
againft that of the two crowns, commanded by the duke
of Bavaria and Marlhal Villeroy, the 22d of May ryob.
See Britain, N° 357.
The troops defined to compofe the army of the al¬
lies being joined at the camp of Borchloon the 20th of
May, halted the 21ft. On the 22d the army marched
from Borchloon in four columns, and polled itfelf the
fame day, with the right towards the mill of Quorem,
extending with the left towards Blehen : from this camp
■was difcovered the army of the two crowns, which was
encamped with the left at Over-Efpen, and the right
towards the wood of Chapiaraux, Heyliffem in their front,
and Tirlemont in their rear. It was refolved the fame
day to march the next morning towards the plain of
Meerdorp or Mierdau, to view the pofture of the ene¬
mies, and determine what would be the moft proper
means of attacking them according to the movement
they Ihould make. To this end, an advanced guard of
600 horfe and all the quarter-mailers of the army were
fent forward on the 23d at break of day.
The fame morning about four, the army marched in
eight columns toward the aforefaid plain. The advan¬
ced guard and the quarter-mailers arrived about eight
at the height of Meerdorp or Mierdau ) from whence
the army of the enemy was feen in motion : a little after
it was perceived that the enemy was marching through
the plain of Mount St Andrew in four columns, of which
information was given to the duke of Marlborough and
M. d’Auverquirque, who immediately repaired to the
faid height j and by the time thefe generals were ar¬
rived there, the head of the enemy’s army already ap¬
peared at the tomb of Ottomont upon the caufeway, near
the Mehaigne 5 whereupon the duke of Marlborough
and M. d’Auverquirque made the army advance with
all expedition.
The enemy, as fall as they advanced, ranged in order
of battle, with their right towards the tomb of Otto¬
mont upon the Mehaigne, extending with their left to
Autr’Eglife ; having Tranquiers in front of the right,
into which they had thrown feveral battalions of infan¬
try and 14 fquadrons of dragoons, who had difmounted
their horfes to fupport them. They had placed many
of their infantry and a confiderable part of their artil-
lery in the village of Ramillies, which fronted the right
of their main body, as well as into the village of Offuz,
3
which fronted the left of their infantry, and into the Ramilli^
village of Autr’Eglife, quite on their left. The front Ramiffe-
between the village of Ramillies and Autr’Eglife was l
covered by a fmall llream of water, which rendered the
meadows in fome places marfhes, and alfo by feveral
roads covered with hedges j which difficulties prevent¬
ed our cavalry of the right wing from coming to ac¬
tion. As fall as the army of the allies arrived it was
ranged in order of battle •, with the left towards Bonnef,
and the right towards Folz, and every thing was difpo-
fed in order to attack. To this end, four battalions were
detached to attack the village of Franquenies, and 12
battalions to attack the village of Ramillies, which were
to be fupported by the whole infantry.
Our artillery began to cannonade the enemy at one j
at about two, the attack began with the poft of Fran¬
quenies, where our infantry had the good fortune to drive
the enemy from the hedges, where they were advantage-
oully polled, and at the fame time all the cavalry of our
left wing advanced to attack that of our enemy’s right j
foon after all was in aflion. Whilll the cavalry were
engaged, the village of Ramillies was likervife attacked,
and forced after a vigorous refillance.
The battle lafled about two hours, and was pretty
obllinate 5 but fo foon as our cavalry had gained ground
enough to attack the enemy in rlank, they began to
give way *, at the fame time all their infantry were put
in diforder, fo that the whole retreated, in great confu-
fion. The cavalry of their left wing formed a little
upon the high ground, between Offuz and Mount St
Andrew, to favour their retreat j but after the infantry
and cavalry of our right wing had filed off bet ween, the
bottom of the village of Ramillies and Offuz, the whole
army marched in feveral columns to attack the enemy
anew ; but they gave way before we could come up with
them, and retired in great confufion, fome towards the
defile of the abbey De la Ramde and towards Dongel-
berge, others towards Judogne, and others again towards
Hougarde. They were purfued all night fo clofely that
they were obliged to abandon all their artillery and bag¬
gage, part of which was found at Judogne and at Hou-v
garde, with their chefts of ammunition.
The enemy loft above 30,000 men, 60 cannon, eight
mortars, ftandards, colours, baggage, &c. j we about
3000. The reft of the campaign w'asfpent in the fieges
of Oftend, Menin, and Aeth. In fourteen days the
duke defeated and difperfed the bell appointed army the
French ever had, and recovered all Spanilh Brabant, the
marquifate of the holy Roman empire. The army of the
enemy confifted of 76 battalions and 142 fquadrons, in¬
cluding the king’s houlhold troops (Za Mctifon du Rot) ;
and the army of the allies was 74 battalions and 123
fquadrons. Confidering the importance of the vidlory,
the lofs of the allies was very fmall, not above 1100 be¬
ing killed, and 2600 wounded.
RAMISSERAM, a fmall iffand about 20 miles from
that of Manaar, and the neareft channel of communica¬
tion between Ceylon and the continent of India. When
Mr Cordiner and his companions landed here in 1804,
they entered the neareft choultry, or place eredled for
the accommodation of ftrangers, half a mile beyond
which is'the grand pagoda, or temple of Shivven, hav¬
ing nothing remarkable in its external appearance, when
feen from a diftance ; but on a nearer infpeftionit isal-
moft impoflible to defcribe the ornaments and laboured
workmanfliip
llamiffe-
ram
II
[lainpha-
ftos.
R A M [ 631
workmanftnp that ftrike the eye. Yet thefe are far
outdone by the magnificence of the interior parts of the
pagoda. Upon this ifland there are great numbers of
fmall horfes, conftantly employed in conveying travel-
-> lers and in tranfporting goods.
After dinner a number of brahmins with five well
dreffed dancing girls waited upon Mr Cordiner and his
companions at the choultry, who very agreeably amufed
and entertained them for upwards of an hour, and would
have continued much longer, had they not been inform¬
ed that they were at liberty to depart.
The men of this ifland are flout, and the females have
fomething in their appearance very engaging j they are
remarkably clean, and drefs with great neatnefs. They
are feen only by accident, for they keep out of the way
of travellers with as much caution as poflible. The or¬
dinary drefs of the brahmins confifts only of a piece of
muflin folded about the middle, and a firing compofed
of nine threads is ufed as an ornament for the neck.
They (have their heads quite bare, and in general wear
them uncovered ; but turbans and jackets are occafion-
ally worn by fome of them.
So abundant are black cattle on this fmall ifland,.
that it is no uncommon thing to fee numbers of them
lying in the ftreets, none of which are ever killed, the
food of the inhabitants being entirely compofed of milk
and vegetable produftions. The ifland being almoft
wholly covered with fhrubs, is verdant and beautiful,
yet no veftige of a corn field is to be met with, nor any
other appearance of cultivation, if we except the large
trees by which the roads are ihaded, and a few groves
of cocoa-nut trees. The nature of the foil in general is
fandy, like that of Manaar, and the circumference of
the whole ifland does not appear to exceed 20 miles.
The houfes on it are far fuperior to the ordinary dwell¬
ings of India j but the buildings facred to divine wor-
fhip, and the choultries for the accommodation of flran-
gers, are truly magnificent, and muft have been very
expenfive.
In a word wThen Ramiflerarft is contrafted with the
indigent and barren ifland of Manaar, only 20 miles dif-
tant, it muft be pronounced rich, fruitful, and luxuriant,
exhibiting fo much liberty and plenty as warm the heart
and kindle in the bofom of every beholder a lively flame
of pleafure.
RAM LA, the modern name of Arimathea. See
Arimathea
RAMMER, an inftrument ufed for driving down
ftones or piles into the ground ; or for beating the earth,
in order to render it more folid for a foundation.
RAMMER of a Gun, the Gun-fick ; a rod ufed in
charging of a gun, to drive home the powder, as alfo
the (hot, and the wad which keeps the (hot from falling
out.
RAMPANT, in Heraldry, a term applied to a lion,
leopard, or other beaft that (lands on its hind legs,
and rears up his fore-feet in the pofiure of climbing,
Ihowing only half his face, as one eye, &c. It is differ¬
ent from faliant, in which the beaft feems fpringing for¬
ward as if making a fally.
RAMPART, in Fortification, is an elevation of the
earth round a place capable of refilling the cannon of
an enemy ; and formed into baftions, curtains, &c.
RAMPH ASTOS, the Toucan. See Rhamphas-
tos, Ornithology Index.
]
R A M
RAMSAY, Allan, a Scottifli poet, was born at Ramiay.
Leadhills in Lanarkfliire, in October 1686. His father —v——
was employed in the management of Lord Hopeton’s
mines at that place j but died while the poet was yet in
his infancy, in confequence of which and the marriage
of his mother foon after his father’s death, it feems pro¬
bable that during the earlier part of his life he continued
in rather a deftitute fituation. He remained at Leadhills
till he reached his fifteenth year, and as we have been
affured by the relations of fome very old perfons who
were the contemporaries of Ramfay, and who died not
many years ago, he was employed in waftiing, preparing
the lead ore for fmelting, and other operations about the
works in which the children of miners and young perfons
are ufually occupied. The period of his refidence on his
native fpot is fixed by himfelf in the following defcrip-
tive verfes, which are part of a petition addrefled to a
Club in Edinburgh to be admitted a member.
Of Crawford Moor, born in Leadhill,
Where mineral fprings Glengoner fill,
Which joins fweet-flowing Clyde.  
Native of Clydefdale’s upper ward,
Bred fifteen fummers there.
The extent of Ramfay’s education, it may well be
prefumed, did not exceed what he could derive from the'
parifh fchoolmafter ; and even the acquifition of what
little could thus be obtained, from the circumftances
that attended his early life, muft have been often and
greatly interrupted.
In 1701, when he was in his 15th year, he was bound
apprentice to a wigmaker in Edinburgh, and it appears
from the record of his children’s birth in the parifh regif-
ter that he continued in the fame humble profeflion till
the year 1716: for in that regifter his defignation is.
wigmaker. One of the easlieft of Ramfay’s productions
now known, an addrefs to the moll happy members of
the Eafy Club, appeared in 1712, when he was 26 years
of age, and three years after he was-humoroufly appoint¬
ed their poet laureat. Many of his poems about this
time were publiflied in the form of feparate pamphlets.
When he had followed the occupation of a wigmaker for
a confiderable time, he at lad abandoned it for that of a ■
bookfeller, as being more congenial to the literary turn
of his mind. His detached pamphlets were afterwards
publiflied by him in the year 1721, ir) one volume 4to,
which was encouraged by a very liberal fubfcription.
It was advertifed as follows in the Edinburgh Evening
Courant. “ The Poems of Allan Ramfay, in a large
quarto volume j fairly printed, with notes, and a com¬
plete gloffary (as promifed to the fubfcribers), being
now finiftied ; all who have generoufly contributed to
carrying on of the defign, may call for their copies as
foon as they pleafe, from the author, at the Mercury,
oppolite to Niddry’s wynd, Edinburgh.” The firft vo¬
lume of his well known collection, “ The Tea-table
Mifcellany,” was publiflied in 1724, after which a fe-
cond volume foon made its appearance ; a third in 1727,
and a fourth after another interval of time. He foon af¬
ter publiflied what is called the Evergreen, being a col¬
lection of Scots poems written by the ingenious prior to
the year 1600. In 1725 appeared his Gentle Shepherd,
part of which, called Patie and Roger, was printed in
1721, and Jenny and Meggy in 1723, the great fuecefs
of
RAM
Ram fay. of which induced him to form them afterwards into a
regular drama.
In the year 1728, he publidied a fecond volume of
his poems, which was afterwards reprinted in 8vo.. Thefe
performances fo rapidly enlarged the circle of his fame
and reputation, that in 1731, an edition of his poeti¬
cal works was publilhed by the bookfellers of London,
and two years after they appeared at Dublin. He held
an extensive correfpondence with cotemporary poets, a-
mong whom we find the facetious Hamilton of Gilbert-
field, and the celebrated author of the Chace fent him
two epiftles. From his (hop oppofite to Niddry ftreet,
he removed to one at the eaft end of the Luckenbooths.
In this (hop he continued to fell and lend out books till
he was far advanced in years; and we are informed that
he was the firft perfon who eftabliftied a circulating lib¬
rary in Scotland. His colle61ion of Fables appeared in
1730, after which period he may be faid to have almoft
difcontinued the occupation of an author.
Such, however, was his enterprifing fpirit, that he
built, at his own expence, the firft theatre for dramatical
performances ever known in Edinburgh, which took
place in what is called Carubber’s clofe, in the year
1736; but he did not long enjoy his chara&er of mana¬
ger, for the magiftrates of Edinburgh required him to (hut
it up, as an aft of parliament prohibited all fuch amufe-
ments without a fpecial licence and his Majefty’s letters
patent. It is generally underftood that he relinquilhed
the trade of a bookfeller about the year 1755, being
then 69 years of age, and lived the remainder of his days
in a fmall houfe erefted by himfelf on the north fide of
the Caftle-hill. A fcorbutic complaint attended with
excruciating pain, deprived him of his teeth, and after
corroding one of his jaw bones, put a period to hisexif-
tence on the 7th of June 1758, in the 71ft year of his
age.
Ramfay pofleffed a confiderable (hare of poetical ge¬
nius : Of this his Gentle Shepherd, which will conti¬
nue to be admired as long as the language in which it
is written (hall be underftood, and efpecially by the
natives of North Britain, to whom only the peculiari¬
ties of dialeft by which it is diftinguiflied can be fa¬
miliar, affords the bed proof. Some of his fongs may
contain farfetched allufions and childifh conceits; but
many of them are equal, if not fuperior for their pa-
ftoral fimplicity, to produftions of a fimilar nature in
any other language. Some of the imitations of the an¬
cients by this poet are extremely happy, in particular
Horace’s Ode, Vides ut ulta Jlet nive, &c.; and fome of
his tales have all the excellencies ofthat fpecies of com-
pofition. But of a great proportion of his other produc¬
tions, it may be pronounced with truth that they are
mere profaic .compofitions, filled with the moft common¬
place obfervations, and deftitute even of the ornament
of fmooth verfification and correft rhimes.
Ramsay, Andrew Michael, generally known by
the name of the Chevalier Ramfay, was a polite Scots
writer, born of a good family at Ayr in 1686. His
good parts and learning recommended him to be tutor
RAM
to the fon of the earl of Wemyfs; after which, concei- Ramfaj.
ving a difguft at the religion in which he had been edu-
cated, he in the fame ill humour reviewed other Chri-
ftian churches; and, finding none to his liking, refted
for a while in Deifm. While be was in this uncertain
date of mind, he went to Leyden ; where, falling into
the company of one Poiret a myftic divine, he received
the infection of myfticifm: which prompted him to eon-
fult M. Fenelon, the celebrated archbilhop of Cambray,
who had imbibed principles of the fame nature; and
who gained him over to the Catholic religion in 1709.
The fubfequent courfe of his life received its direction
from his frienddiip and connexions with this prelate ; L
and being appointed governor to the duke de Chateau
Thierry, and the prince de Turenne, he was made a
knight of the order of St Lazarus. He was fent for
to Rome by the chevalier de St George, to undertake
ti e education of his children; but he found fo many
intrigues and diffenfions on his arrival there in 1724,
that he obtained the chevalier’s leave to return to Paris.
He died in 1743, in the oftice of intendant to the duke
of Bouillon, prince de Turenne. The moft capital work
of his writing is the Travels of Cyrus, which has been
feveral times printed in Englifti.
Ramsay, The Reverend James, fojuftly celebrated for
his philanthropy, ivas born on the 25th of July 1733,
at Fraferfburgh, a fmall town in the county of Aberdeen,
North Britain. His defcent was honourable, being,
through his father, from the Ramfays of Melrofe in
Banffshire, and through his mother, from the Ogilvies
of Purie in Angus. His parents were ofcharaXers the
moft refpeXable, but in circumftances by no means af¬
fluent. From his earlieft years he difcovered a ferious
difpofition, and a ftrong third for knowledge; and af¬
ter paffing through the courfe of a Scotch grammar
fchool education, he Avas inclined to purfue the ftudies
requifite to fit him for the profeflion of a clergyman;
an inclination Avith Avhich the Avifties of his mother, a
Avoman of eminent piety, poAverfully concurred. Seve¬
ral circumftances, hoAvever, confpired to divert him for
a time from his favourite purfuit.
He Avas educated in the epifcopalperfuafion; and ha¬
ving been unhappy enough to lofe his father Avhile yet
very young, he found, upon his advancing towards the
ftate of manhood, that the joint fortunes of himfelf and
his mother could not bear the expence of a regular edu¬
cation in either of the univerfities of Oxford or Cam¬
bridge, which he doubtlefs thought abfolutely neceffary
to one avIio afpired to refpeXability in the church of
England. Yielding therefore to neceflity, he refolyed
to ftudy furgery and pharmacy; and Avas with this vieAV
bound apprentice to Dr Findlay, a phyfician (a) in Fra-
ferftmrgh. But though obliged to relinquifti for a time
his favourite ftudies, he did not think ignorance excu-
fable in a furgeon more than in a clergyman, or conceive
that he could ever become eminent in the profeflion in
Avhich circumftances had placed him, merely by (kill in
fetting a bone or compounding a medicine. He deter¬
mined therefore, with the full approbation of his mafter,
[ 632 ]
(a) Tn the remote towns of Scotland the fame man generally aXs in the triple capacity of phyfician, furgeon,
and apothecary.
HAM
Karnfaj'. who very foon difcovered his talents for literature, to
■—-V*""' make himfelf acquainted with at lead the outlines of the
liberal arts and feiences; and with this view he repaired
in 1750 to the King’s College and univerfity of Aber¬
deen, where he obtained one of the burfaries or exhibi¬
tions which are there annually beftowed upon fuch can¬
didates for them as difplay the mod accurate knowledge
of the Latin language. The fmall fum of five pounds,
however (which none of thefe burfaries exceed), was
dill inadequate to the ex pence of refidence in college j
but our young dudent was foon to obtain a more valu¬
able exhibition, and to obtain it likewife by his own
merit.
During the long vacation he returned to his mader
Dr Findlay, and was by him intruded with a very def-
perate cafe in furgery, of which his management may be
faid to have laid the foundation of his future fortunes.
A female fervant of one of the judges of the Court of
Seflion, who, when the court was not fitting, refided in
the neighbourhood of Fraferlburgh, had been fo dread¬
fully gored by a bull, that hardly any hopes were en¬
tertained of her recovery j but Mr Ramfay, to wbofe
care (he was entirely left, treated the wound with fuch
(kilful attention, that, contrary to general expectation,
his patient recovered. This attracted the judge’s no¬
tice, who having informed himfelf of the young man’s
circumdances and character, recommended him fo effec¬
tually to Sir Alexander Ramfay of Balmain, that he
prefented him with a burfary of 15 pounds a year, which
commenced at the next fejjion or tenn, in the fame col¬
lege.
He now profecuted his dudies with comfort j and
though he was detained in college a year longer than
is ufual, being obliged, upon his acceptance of a fecond
burfary, to begin his courfe anew, he always confidered
this as a fortunate circumdance, becaufe it gave him
the celebrated Dr Reid three years for his preceptor.
To that great and amiable philofopher he fo recom¬
mended himfelf by his talents, his indudry, and his vir¬
tues, that he was honoured with his frienddiip to the
day of his death. Nor was it only to his maders that
his conduCl recommended him j Sir Alexander Ramfay,
whom he vifited during fome of the vacations, was fo
well pleafed with his converfation, that he promifed him
another burfary, in his gift, of 25I. a-year, to commence
immediately on the expiration of that which he enjoy¬
ed. This promife he performed in the beginning of the
year 1755; and at the folicitation of Dr Findlay, even
paid the money per advance to enable the exhibitioner
to travel for the purpafe of improving himfelf in his pro-
feffion.
Thus provided, Mr Ramfay went to London, and
dudied furgery and pharmacy under the aufpices of Dr
Macaulay; in whofe family he lived for two years, caref-
fed and edeemed both by him and by his lady. After¬
wards, having paffed the ufual examination at Surgeons-
hall, he ferved in his medical capacity for feveral years in
the royal navy; but how long he was continued in the
dation of a mate, or when and by whom he was fird ap¬
pointed furgeon, we have not been able to learn. We
can fay, however, upon the bed authority, that by his
humane and diligent difcharge of his duty in either da¬
tion, he endeared himfelf to the feamen, and acquired
the edeem of his officers.
Of his humanity there is indeed one memorable in-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
RAM
dance, which mud not be omitted. Whild he a£!ed as
furgeon of the Arundel, then commanded by Captain
(now Vice admiral Sir Charles) Middleton, a llave-ihip
on her paffage from Africa to the Wed Indies fell in
with the fleet to which the Arundel belonged. An
epidemical didemper, too common in fuch veffels, had
fwept away not only a great number of the unfortunate
negroes, but alio many of the (hip’s crew, and among
others the furgeon. In this diitreffed fituation the
commander of the Guinea (hip applied to the Engliffi
commodore for medical affiflauce; but not a furgeon or
furgeon’s mate in the whole fleet, except Mr Ramfay,
would expofe himfelf to the contagion of fo dangerous
a didemper. Prompted, however, by his own innate
benevolence, and fully authorized by his no lefs bene¬
volent commander, the furgeon of the Arundel, regard-
lefs of perional danger, and irufiing in that God t»
whom mercy is more acceptable than facrifice, went on
board the infetled (hip, viiited all the patients, and re¬
mained long enough to leave behind him written direc¬
tions for their future treatment. If a cup of cold water
given in charity be entitled to a reward, how much
more fuch an adlion as this? But the rewards of Chri-
dianity are not immediate. Mr Ramfay indeed efcaped
the contagion; but on his return to his own (hip, juft
as he had got on the deck, he fell and broke his thigh¬
bone; by which he was confined to his apartment for
ten months, and rendered in a fmall degree lame through
the remainder of his life.
The fearlefs humanity which he difplayed on this
occafion gained him the friendihip and edeem of Sir
Charles Middleton, which no future action of his life
had the fmalleft tendency to impair; but the frafture
of his thigh-bone and his fubfequent lamenefs determin¬
ed him to quit the navy, and once more turn his
thoughts towards the church. Accordingly, while the
Arundel lay at St Chridopher’s, he opened his views to
fome of the principal inhabitants of that ifland, by whom
he was fo drongly recommended to the bifliop of Lon¬
don, that on his coming home with Sir Charles Mid¬
dleton, who warmly joined in the recommendation, he
was admitted into orders; after which he immediate¬
ly returned to St Chridopher’s, where he was prefent¬
ed by the governor to two redtories, valued at 700I. a-
year.
As foon as he took poffeflion of his livings, in 1763,
he married Mifs Rebecca Akers, the daughter of a
planter of the bed family-connedtions in the ifland, and
began to regulate his houfehold on the pious plan incul¬
cated in his Ejfay on the Treatment and Conve?'Jion of the
African S/aves in the Britijh Sugar Colonies. He futn-
moned all his own flaves daily to the prayers of the fa¬
mily, when he took an opportunity of pointing out te
them their duty in the plained terms, reproving thofe
that had done amifs, and commending fuch as had (hown
any thing like virtue; but he confeffed that his occa-
fions for reproof were more frequent than for commen¬
dation. As became his office and character, he incuL
cated upon others what he praftifed himfelf, and knew
to be equally the duty of all. “ On his fird fettlement
as a minifler in the Wed Indies, he made fome public
attempts to indru^l flaves. He began to draw up fome
eafy plain difcourfes for their inflruftion. He invited
them to attend, on Sundays, at particular hours. He
appointed hours at home to indrudt fuch fenfible ilavcs
4 L as
[ 633 ]
RAM [ 634
Way. as would of tliemfelves attend. He repeatedly exhorted
1 v their matters to encourage fuch in their attendance. Me
recommended the French cuttom, of beginmng and end-
in^ work by prayer. But inconceivable is the hitleii-
nefs with which he was heard, and bitter was the cen-
fure heaped on him in return. It was quickly iuggeit-
ed, and generally believed, that he wanted to interrupt
the work of Haves, to give them time, torfootb, to ray
their prayers •, that he aimed at the making of them
Chriftians, to render them incapable of being good
Haves. In one word, he flood, in opinion, a rebel con-
vi& againfl the intereft and majefty of planterttiip. And
as the Jews fay, that in every punifliment, with which
thev have been proved, fince the bondage of Egypt,
there has been an ounce of the golden calf of Horeb j
fo mmht lie fay, that in every inftance of prejudice (and
they were not a few) with which, till within a year or
two of his departure from the country, he wasexerened,
there was an ounce of his fruitlefs attempts to improve
the minds of flaves. In the bidding prayer, he had in-
ferted a petition for the converfion of thofe perfons. But
it was deemed fo difagreeable a momento, that feveral
white people, on account of it, left off attending divine
fervice. He was obliged to omit the prayer entirely, to
try and bring them back. In fliort, neither were the
flaves, at that time, defirous of being taught, nor were
their matters inclined to encourage them.
That he was hurt by thisnegleft cannot be queftion-
ed, for he had a mind benevolent, warm, and irritable ;
but he Hill retained many friends amongft the moft wor¬
thy members of the community ; and as he was conlci-
ous of having done nothing more than his duty, he con-
foled himfelf with reflefting, that thofe are “ bleffed
whom men revile, and perfecute, and fpeak all manner
of evil again ft falfely, for the fake of the gofpel.
Although his ferious ftudies were now theological,
he confidered himfelf as anfwerableto God, his country,
and his own family, for a proper ufe of every branch of
knowledge which he poffeffed. He therefore took the
charge of feveral plantations around him in the capaci¬
ty of a medical pra&itioner; and attended them with
unremitting diligence, and with great fuccefs. Thus he
lived till the year 1777, when relinquifliing the practice
of phyfic entirely, he paid a vifit to the place of his na¬
tivity, which he had not. feen fince 1755* m°tber,
whofe latter days he had made comfortable by a hand-
fome annuity, had been dead for fome years; but he re¬
warded all who had been attentive to her, or in early
life ferviceable to himfelf; and he continued the penfion
to a fitter who had a numerous family, for which her
hufhand was unable to provide.
After remaining three week^ in Scotland, and near a
year in England, during which time be was admitted
into the confidence of Lord George Germaine, fecre-
tary of ftate for the American department, Mr Ramfay
was appointed chaplain to Admiral Barrington, then
going out to take a command in the Well Indies. Un¬
der this gallant officer, and afterwards under Lord Rod¬
ney, he was prefent at leveral engagements, where he
displayed a fortitude and zeal for the honour of his
country which would not have difgraced the oldeft ad¬
miral. To the navy, indeed, he feems to have been
ftrongly attached ; and he wrote, at an early period of
his life, an F-(fay on the Duti/ and Qualifications of a Sea-
officer, with fuch a knowledge of the fervice as would
]
It A M
have done honour to the pen of the moft experienced RsmCu
commander. Of the firft edition of this effay the pro- '■““-‘v-
fits were by its benevolent author appropriated to the
Magdalen and Britilh lying in hofpitals, as thofe of the
fecond and third (which laft was publilhed about the
period of which we now write) were to the maritime
fchool, or, in the event of its failure, to the maritime fo-
ciety.
Although carefltd by both the admirals under whom,
he ferved, and having fuch influence with the latter as
to be able to render effential ferviees to the Jews and
other perfons whom he thought harflfly treated at the
capture of St Euftatius, Mr Ramfay once more quitted
the fea-fervice, and retired to his paftoral charge in the
ifland of St Chriflopher’s. There, however, though
the former animofities againft him had entirely fublided,
and though his friendffiip was now fqlicited by every
perfon of confequence in the ifland, he remained but a
little while. Sick of the life of a planter and of the
profpedl of flavery around him, he refigned his livings,
bade adieu to the ifland, and returned to England with
his wife and family in the end of the year 1 781. Im¬
mediately on his arrival, he was, through the intereft:
of his fteady friend Sir Charles Middleton, prefented to
the livings of Teflon and Nettleftead in the county of
Kent.
Here he was foon determined, by the advice of thofe
whom he moll refpedled, to publilh an Effiai], which had
been written many years before, on the Treatment and
Converfion of African Slaves in the Britifh Sugar Colo¬
nies. The controverfy in which this publication invol¬
ved him, and the acrimony with which it was carried
on, are fo frelh in the memory of all our readers, that
no man who thinks of the narrow limits within which
our biographical articles mutt be confined, will blame
us for not entering into a detail of the particulars.—
Torrents of obloquy were poured upon the benevolent
author by writers who were unfair enough to conceal
their names ; and it mutt be confeffed, that his replies
abounded with farcafms, which the moft rational friends
to the caufe which he fupported would not have been
forry to fee blotted from his pages. The provocation,
however, which he received was great ; and Mr Ram¬
fay, though an amiable, virtuous, and pious man, had
a warmth of temper, which, though not deferving of
praife, will be cenfurtd by none who refleft on the frail¬
ties of our common nature. That the particular calum¬
nies propagated againft him on this oecafion were wholly
groundlefs, it is impoffible to doubt, if we admit him
to have been poffeffed of common underftanding. When
fome years ago a ftory was circulated, of Swift’s ha¬
ving, when prebendary of Kilroot, been convidted be¬
fore a magiftrate of an attempt to commit a rape on
the body of one of his parifhioners, it was thought a
fufficient confutation of the calumny to put the retailer
of it in mind, that the dean of St Patrick’s, though
detefted by the moft powerful fadlion in the kingdom,
lampooned without dread, and with great feverity, the
dean of Ferns for the very crime, of which, had this
anecdote been true, he muil have been confcious that
all Ireland knew himfelf to be guilty ! Such conduft
cannot be reconciled to common fenfe. Had Swift
been a raviftier, though he might have been penitent,
and reafoned in general terms againft giving way to
fuch licentious paflions, he would never have fatirifed
RAM
[ 635 ]
RAM
p.afflfay,
Umf3en’s
Machine.
a particular perfon for the crime of which he himfelf
flood convicted. In like manner, had Mr Ramfay been
a tyrant to his own Haves, though he might have argued
againit flavery in the abftraft, on the broad bafis of vir¬
tue and religion, he never could have arraigned for fi-
milar cruelty a number of individuals in the very ifland
which witneffed his own enormities.
But the melancholy part of the narrative is behind.
The agitation given to his mind by thefe calumnies,
and the fatigues he underwent in his endeavours to re-
fcue from mifery the moft helplefs portion of the human
race, contributed to fliorten a life in no common degree
ufeful. He had been for fume time affli&ed with a pain
in his ftomach, for which he was prevailed upon, though
with great reluftance, to try the effefts of air and ex-
ercife, by attempting a journey of 100 miles. But in
London, being feized with a violent vomiting of blood,
he was unable either to proceed or to be removed home ;
and in the houfe of Sir Charles Middleton he ended his
days, on the 20th of July 1789, amidft the groans of
his family, and the tears of many friends.—Thus died a
man, of whom it is not too much to fay, that “ the blef-
fing of many that were ready to perifli came upon him j”
for whatever be the fate of the Have-trade (fee Sla¬
very), it is certain that his writings have contributed
much to meliorate the treatment of Haves. He left be¬
hind him a widow and three daughters : and his works,
befides thofe to which we have alluded, confifl of a vo¬
lume of Sea-fermons, preached on board his majefty’s
fhip the Prince of Wales, which flrow him to have been
a mafter of true pulpit eloquence ; and a Treatife on Sig¬
nals, which was certainly written, and we think printed,
though we know not whether it was ever publiflied.
RAMS DEN’s Machine for Dividing Mathema¬
tical Instruments, is an invention by which thefe
diviflons can be performed with exceeding great accu-
»acy, fuch as would formerly have been deemed incre¬
dible. On difcovering the method of conftrudfing this
machine, its inventor, Mr Ramfden of Piccadilly, re¬
ceived 615I. from the commiflioners of longitude ; en¬
gaging himfelf to inftruft a certain number of perfons,
not exceeding ten, in the method of making and ufing
this machine from the 28th Oftober 1775 Oc*
tober 1777: alfo binding himfelf to divide all o6fants
and fexants by the fame engine, at the rate of three (hil¬
lings for each oSant, and fix (hillings for each brafs fex-
tant, with Nonius’s divifions to half minutes, for as long
time as the commidioners (hould think proper to let the
engine remain in his pofleflion. Of this fum of 615L
paid to Mr Ramfden, 300I. was given hip as a reward
for the improvement made by him in difcovering the
engine, and the remaining 3I5^‘ ^or UP
property of it to the commiflioners. The following
defcription of the engine, is that given upon oath by Mr
Ramfden himfelf.
“ This engine confifts of a large wheel of bell-metal,
fupported on a mahogany (land, having three legs which
are ftrongly connefled together by braces, fo as to make
it perfectly fteady. On each leg of the (land is placed
a conical friflion pulley, whereon the dividing-wheel
reds: to prevent the wheel from Hiding off the frnElion-
pulleys, the bell-metal centre under it turns in a focket
on the top of the (land.
** The circumference of the wheel is ratched or cut
(by a method which will be defcribed hereafter) into
Ilamfdeu’s
Machine.
2160 teeth, in which an endlefs fcrew a£ls. Six revo¬
lutions of the fcrew will move the wheel a fpace equal
to one degree.
Now a circle of brafs being fixed on the fcrew arbor,
having its circumference divided into 60 parts, each
divifion will confequently anfvver to a motion of the
wheel of 10 feconds, fix'of them will be equal to a mi¬
nute, &c.
“ Several different arbors of tempered fteel are truly
ground into the focket in the centre of the wheel. The
upper parts of the arbors that (land above the plane are
turned of various fizes, to fuit the centres of different
pieces of work to be divided.
“ When any inftrument is to be divided, the centre
of it is very exadlly fitted on one of thefe arbors; and
the inftrument is fixed down to the plane of the divid¬
ing wheel, by means of fcrews, which fit into holes
made in the radii of the wheel for that purpofe.
“ The inftrument being thus fitted on the plane of
the wheel, the frame which carries the dividing point
is connected at one end by finger-fcrews with the frame
which carries the endlefs fcrew ; while the other end
embraces that part of the fteel arbor, which (lands above
the inftrument to be divided, by an angular notch in a
piece of hardened fteel •, by this means both ends of
the frame are kept perfectly fteady and free from any
(hake.
“ The frame carrying the dividing-point, or tracer,
is made to Hide on the frame which carries the endleis
fcrew to any diftance from the centre of the wheel, as
the radius of the inftrument to be divided may require,
and may be there fallened by tightening two clamps ;
and the dividing-point or tracer being connefled with
the clamps by the double-jointed frame, admits a free
and eafy motion towards or from the centre for cutting
the divifions, without any lateral (hake.
“ From what has been faid, it appears, that an in¬
ftrument thus fitted on the dividing-wheel may be mov¬
ed to any angle by the fcrew and divided circle on its
arbor, and that this angle may be marked on the limb
of the inftrument with the greateft exa&nefs by the di¬
viding-point or tracer, which can only move in a diredl
line tending to the centre, and is altogether freed from
thofe inconveniences that attend cutting by means of a
ftraight edge. This method of drawing lines will alfo
prevent any error that might arife from an expanfion
or contraction of the metal during the time of divid¬
es- . r .
“ The (crew-frame is fixed on the top of a conical
pillar, which turns freely round its axis, and alfo moves
freely towards or from the centre of the wheel, fo that
the fcrew-frame may be entirely guided by the frame
which connects it with the centre : by this means any
excentricity of the wheel and arbor would not produce
any error in the dividing; and, by a particular contri¬
vance (which will be defcribed hereafter), the fcrew
when preffed againft the teeth of the wheel always moves
parallel to itfelf; fo that a line joining the centre of the pjate
arbor and the tracer continued, will always make equal CCCCL1X.
angles with the fcrew. Plate
“ Figure 1. reprefents a perfpeftive view of the en- CCOCLX.
gine.
“ Fig. 2. is a plan, of which fig. 3. reprefents a fee-Fig. %,
tion on the line IIA.
“ The large wheel A is 45 inches in diameter, and
4 L 2 has
Fig- 3-
HAM t 636
K nifden’s j^as ten ra^ii, each being fupported by edge-bars, as
Line, i-pppffgnted in fig. 3* JL hefe bars and radii are con-
' nefted by the circular ring C, 24 inches in diameter
and three deep j and for greater ftrength, the whole is
call in one piece in bell-metal.
“ As the whole weight of the wheel A refls on its
ring B, the edge-bars are deepeft where they join it j
and from thence their depth diminilhes, both towards
the centre and the circumference, as reprefented in
fig. 3.
“ The furface of the wheel A was worked very even
and flat, and its circumference turned true. The ring
C, of fine brafs, was fitted very exaftly on the circum¬
ference of the wheel ; and was fattened thereon with
ferews, which, after being ferewed as tight as poflible,
were well rivetted. The face of a large chuck being
turned very true and flat in the lathe, the flattened fur-
face A of the wheel was fattened againft it with hold-
fafts ; and the two furfaces and circumferences of the
ring C, a hole through the centre and the plane part
round (b) it, and the lower edge of the ring B, were
turned at the fame time.
“ D is a piece of hard bell-metal, having the hole,
which receives the fteel arbor d, made very ftraight
and true. This bell-metal was turned very true on
an arbor ■, and the face, which refts on the wheel at b,
was turned very flat, fo that the fteel arbor d might
ttand perpendicular to the plane of the wheel : this
bell metal was fattened to the wheel by fix fteel
ferews /.
“ A brafs focket Z is fattened on the centre of the
mahogany fland, and receives the lower part of the
bell-metal piece D, being made to touch the bell-
metal in a narrow part near the mouth, to prevent any
obliquity of the wheel from bending the arbor : good
fitting is by no means neceflary here •, fince any (hake
in this focket will produce no bad effeft, as will appear
hereafter when we deferibe the cutting frame.
u The wheel was then put on its ttand, the lower
edge of the ring B retting on the circumference of
three conical friftion-pulleys W, to facilitate its mo¬
tion round its centre. The axis of one of thefe pulleys
is in a line joining the centre of the wheel and the
middle of the endlefs ferew, and the other two placed
fo as to be at equal diftances from each other.
u F is a block of wood ftrongly fattened to one of the
legs of the ftand •, the piece g is ferewed to the upper
fide of the block, and has half holes, in which the
tranfverfe axis h turns : the half holes are kept toge¬
ther by the ferew's i.
“ The lower extremity of the conical pillar P termi¬
nates in a cylindrical fteel-pin k, which pafles through
and turns in the tranfverfe axis and is confined by
a check and ferew.
“ To the upper end of the conical pillar is fattened
the frame G, in which the endlefs ferew turns : the
pivots of the ferew are formed in the manner of two
fruftupis of cones joined by a cylinder, as reprefented
at X. Thefe pivots are confined between half poles,
which prefs only on the conical parts, and do not touch
the cylindric parts : the half holes are kept together by
ferews a, which may be tightened at any time, to pre¬
vent the ferew from (baking in the frame.
“ On the ferew-arbor is a fmall wheel of brafs K,
having its outfide edge divided into 60 parts, and num-
*1
Fier. 1, 2,
and 3.
Fig. 1.
*%;g. 4-
Fig. t. & 4
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4.
F'g- 5*
Fig. 1, 2,
4> 5-
] RAM
bered at every 6th divifion with r, 2, &c. to 10. The Ramfcten*;
motion of this wheel is fliown by the index y on the Machine,
ferew-frame G. Firi&^
“ H reprefents a part of the fland, having a parallel
flit in the direction towards the centre of the wheel,
large enough to receive the upper part of the conical
brafs pillar P, which carries the ferew and its frame :
and as the refiftance, when the wheel is moved by the
endlefs ferew, is againft that fide of the flit H which
is towards the left hand, that fide of the flit is faced
with brafs, and the pillar is preffed againft it by a
fteel fpring on the oppofite fide : by this means the
pillar is ftrongly fupported laterally, and yet the ferew
may be eaftly preffed from or againft the circumference
of the wheel, and the pillar will turn freely on its axis
to take any direftion given it by the frame L.
“ At each corner of the piece I are ferews n of pig ^
tempered fteel, having poliftied conical points : two of
them turn in conical holes in the ferew-frame near 0,
and the points of the other two ferews turn in holes
in the piece Q4 the ferewsare of fteel, which being
tightened, prevent the conical pointed ferews from un¬
turning when the frame is moved.
“ L is a brafs frame, which ferves to conneft the end* Fig. r, 2,6,
lefs ferew, its frame, &c. with the centre of the wheels
each arm of this frame is terminated by a fteel ferew,
that may be paffed through any of the holes q in the pig. 4.
piece £), as the thicknefs of work to be divided on '
the wheel may require, and are fattened by the finger-
nuts r. < _ # Fig.
“ At the other end of this frame is a flat piece of
tempered fteel b, wherein is an angular notch when pig ^
the endlefs ferew is preffed againft the teeth on the cir¬
cumference of the wheel, which may be done by turn¬
ing the finger-ferew S, to prefs againft the fpring t, Figi
this notch embraces and preffes againft the fteel arbor d. Fig. 2.
This end of the frame may be raifed or depreffed by mov¬
ing the prifmatic Aide z/, which may be fixed at any
height by the four fteel ferews Fig. 1,2,6.
“The bottom of this Hide has a notch k, whofe Fig. i.&6-
plane is parallel to the endlefs ferew ; and by the point
of the arbor d refting in this notch, this end of the Fig. 3.
; is prevented from tilting. The ferew S is pre*
tilting,
by tightening
the
pre*
finger-
frame
vented from unturning
nut %v. Fig. r, 2.
“ The teeth on the circumference of the wheel were
cut by the following method :
“ Having confidered what number of teeth on the
circumference would be moft convenient, which in this
engine is 2160, or 360 multiplied by 6, I made two
ferews of the fame dimenfions, of tempered fteel, in
the manner hereafter deferibed, the interval between
the threads being fuch as I knew by calculation
would come within the limits of what might be turned
off the circumference of the wheel : one of the ferews,
which was intended for ratching or cutting the teeth,
was notched acrofs the threads, fo that the ferew, when
preffed againft the edge of the wheel and turned round,
cut in the manner of a faw. Then having a fegment
of a circle a little greater than 60 degrees, of about
the fame radius with the wheel, and the circumference
made true, from a very fine centre, 1 deferibed an arch
near the edge, and fet off the chord of 60 degrees on
this arch. This fegment was put in the place of the
wheel, the edge of it was ratched, and the number of
revolutions
R A M
[ 637 ]
RAM
:|g- 3
Lamfden’s revolutions and parts of the fcrew epntaintd between
Mnchine. t)ie interval of the 60 degrees were counted. The
radius was corrected in the proportion of 360 revolu¬
tions, which ought to have been in 60 degrees, to the
number aftually found ; and the radius, fo corredfed,
was taken in a pair of beam-compaffes: while the
wheel was on the lathe, one foot of the compaffes was
put in the centre, and with the other a circle was de-
feribed on the ring \ tiien half the depth of the threads
of the fcrew being taken in dividers, was fet from this
circle outwards, and another circle was deferibed cut¬
ting this point; a hollow was then turned on the edge
of the wheel of the fame curvature as that of the fcrew
at the bottom of the threads : the bottom of this hol¬
low was turned to the fame radius or diftance from the
centre of the wheel, as the outward of the two circles
before mentioned.
“ The wheel was now taken off the lathe ; and the
bell-metal piece D was ferewed on as before diredted,
which after this ought not to be removed.
“ From a very exadt centre a circle was deferibed
■ig. 1,2> 3. on the ring C, about four-tenths of an inch within where
the bottom of the teeth would come. This circle was
divided with the greateft exadtnefs I was capable of, firft
into five parts, and each of thefe into three. Thefe
parts were then bifedled four times: (that is t® fay)
fuppofing the whole circumference of the wheel to con¬
tain 2160 teeth, this being divided into five parts, each
would contain 43 2 teeth; which being divided into three
parts, each of them would contain 144; and this fpace
bifedted four times would give 72, 36, 18, and 9: there¬
fore each of the laft divifions would contain nine teeth.
But, as I was apprehenfive fome error might arife from
quinquefedlion and trifedlion ; in order to examine the
accuracy of the divifxons, I deferibed another circle on
ig. 7. the ring C, one-tenth of an inch within the former, and
divided it by continual bifedlions, as 2160, 1080, 54°*
270, 135, 67^, and 33^; and as the fixed wire (to be
deferibed prefently) croffed both the circles, I could
examine their agreement at every 135 revolutions j (af¬
ter ratching, could examine it at every 33^) : but, not
finding any fenfible difference between the two fets of
divifions, I, for ratching, made choice of the former j
and, as the coincidence of the fixed wire with an inter-
feftion could be more exaflly determined than with a
dot or divifion, I therefore made ufe of interfeftion in
both circles before deferibed.
'&• 7* “ The arms of the frame L were connefted by a thin
piece of brafs of three-fourths of an inch broad, having a
hole in the middle of four-tenths of an inch in diameter;
acrofs this hole a filver wire was fixed exadlly in a line
to the centre of the wheel; the coincidence of this wire
with the interfeftions was examined by a lens feven-
tenths of an inch focus, fixed in a tube which was at¬
tached to one of the arms L (a). Now a handle or
winch being fixed on the end of the fcrew, the divifion
marked on the end of the fcrew, the divifion marked 10
on the circle K was fet to its index, and, by means of
a clamp and adjufting fcrew for that purpofe, the inter-
feftion marked 1 on the circle C was fet exa&ly to
coincide with the fixed-wire; the fcrew was then care- Ramfdenia
fully preffed again!! the circumference of the wheel, by ac^ irie‘.
turning the finger-ferew S ; then, removing the clamp,
I turned the fcrew by its handle nine revolutions, till
tire interfe£lion marked 240 came nearly to the wire ;
then, unturning the finger-ferew S, I releafed the fcrew
from the wheel, and turned the wheel back till the in-
terfedtion marked 2 exaftly coincided with the wire,
and, by means of the clamp before mentioned, the di¬
vifion 10 on the circle being fet to its index, the fcrew
was preffed again!! the edge of the wheel by the finger-
ferew S ; the clamps were removed, and the fcrew turn¬
ed nine revolutions till the interfedlion marked l
nearly coincided with the fixed wire ; the fcrew was
releafed from the wheel by unturning the finger-ferew
S as before, the wheel was turned back till the inter-
feftion 3 coincided with the fixed wire ; the divi¬
fion 10 on the circle being fet to its index, the fcrew
was preffed again!! the wheel as before, and the fcrew
was turned nine revolutions, till the interfeilion 2
nearly coincided with the fixed wire, and the fcrew
was releafed; and I proceeded in this manner till the
teeth were marked round the whole circumference of
the wheel. This was repeated three times round, to
make the impreflion of the fcrew deeper. I then ratch-
ed the wheel round continually in the fame direction
without ever difengaging the fcrew ; and, in ratching
the wheel about 300 times round, the teeth were fi-
niflied.
“ Now it is evident, if the circumference of the wheel
was even one tooth or ten minutes greater than the
fcrew would require, this error would in the fir!! in-
ftance be reduced to part of a revolution, or two
feconds and a half; and thefe errors or inequalities of
the teeth were equally diftributed round the wheel at
the diftance of nine teeth from each other. Now, as
the fcrew in ratching had continually hold of feveral
teeth at the fame time, and, thefe conftantly changing,
the above-mentioned inequalities foon corredled them-
felves, and the teeth were reduced to a perfe£! equality.
The piece of brafs which carries the wire was now ta¬
ken away, and the cutting fcrew was alfo removed,
and a plain one (hereafter deferibed) put in its place :
on one end of the fcrew is a fmall brafs circle, having
its edge divided into 60 equal parts, and numbered at
every fixth divifion, as before mentioned. On the other
end of the fcrew is a ratchet-wheel C, having 60 teeth,
covered by the hollowed circle d, which carries two ^
clicks that catch upon the oppofite fides of the ratchet
when the fcrew is to be moved forwards. The cylin¬
der S turns on a ftrong fteel arbor F, which paffes
through and is firmly ferewed to the piece Y: this
piece, for greater firmnefs, is attached to the ferew-
frame G by the braces v ; a fpiral groove or thread ^
is cut on the outfide of the cylinder S, which ferves
both for holding the firing, and alfo giving motion to
the lever J on its centre by means of a fteel tooth /j,
that works between the threads of the fpiral. To the
lever is attached a ftrong fteel pin m, on which a
brafs focket r turns : this focket paffes through a flit
(a) The interfe&ions ye marked for the fake of illuftration, though properly inviflble, becaufe they He under
the brafs plate.
Dg. i.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 1.
ham [63
Ramfden’s the piece />, and may be tightened in any part of
Machine. the f[jt the finger-nut f : this piece ferves to regu-
~v  late the number of revolutions of the fcrevv for each
tread of the treadle R. ^
“ T is a brafs box containing a fpiral firing*, a urong
gut is faftened and turned three or four times round the
circumference of this box, the gut then paffes feveral
times round the cylinder S, and from thence down to
the treadle R. Now, when the treadle is preffed down,
the firing pulls the cylinder S round its axis, and the
clicks catching hold of the teeth on the ratchet carry
the fcrew round with it, till, by the tooth n working in
the fpiral groove, the lever J is brought near the wheel
r/, and the cylinder flopped by the fcrew-head x finking
on the top of the lever J 5 at the fame time the fpring is
wound up by the other end of the gut palling round the
box T. Now, when the foot is taken off the treadle,
the fpring unbending itfelf pulls back the cylinder,^the
clicks leaving the ratchet and fcrew at reft till the piece
t ftrikes on the end of the piece p: the number of revo¬
lutions of the fcrew at each tread is limited by the num¬
ber of revolutions the cylinder is allowed to turn back
before the flop ftrikes on the piece /?.
“ When the endlefs fcrew w*as moved round its axis
with a confiderable velocity, it would continue that mo-
Fig. 1. & 4. t*,on a little after the cylinder S was flopped : to prevent
this, the angular lever « was made ; that when the lever
J comes near to flop the fcrew tf, it, by a fmall chamfer,
preffes down the piece * of the angular lever ; this brings
the other end u of the fame lever forwards, and flops the
endlefs fcrew by the fteel pin p linking upon the top of
it; the foot of the lever is raifed again by a fmall fpring
prefling on the brace <q.
Fig. 1, 2, 6. “ D, two clamps, connedled by the piece «, Aide one
on each arm of the frame L, and may be fixed at plea-
fure by the four finger-fcrews 1, which prefs againft fteel
fprings to avoid fpoiling the arms: the piece q is made
to turn without fhake between two conical pointed fcrews
jf, which are prevented from unturning by tightening
the finger-nuts N.
“ The piece M is made to turn on the piece q by
the conical pointed fcrews f refting in the hollow cen¬
ters e.
“ As there is frequent occafion to cut divifions on in¬
clined planes, for that purpofe the piece y, in which the
tracer is fixed, has a conical axis at each end, which
turns in half holes : when the tracer is fet to any inclina¬
tion, it may be fixed there by tightening the fteel fcrews/3.
Defcription of the Engine hy which the endlefs fcrew of
the Dividing Engine was cut.
“ Fig. 9. reprefents this engine of its full dimenfions
feen from one fide.
“ Fig. 8. the upper fide of the fame as feen from
above.
“ A reprefents a triangular bar of fteel, to which the
triangular holes in the pieces B and C are accurately
fitted, and may be fixed on any part of the bar by the
fcrews D.
“ E is a piece of fteel whereon the fcrew is intended
to be cut j which, after being hardened and tempered,
has its pivots turned in the form of two fruftums of cones,
as reprefented in the drawings of the dividing engine
5*)* Thefe pivots were exactly fitted to the
Fig. 6.
s ] RAM
half holes F and T, which were kept together by the Ramfden’s
r 7 Machine.
Icrew ^ R ? mft*
FI reprefents a fcrew of untempered fteel, having a , ey"
pivot I, which turns in the hole K. At the other end
of the fcrew is a hollow centre, which receives the har¬
dened conical point of the fteel pin M. When this point
is fufticiently preffed agaxnft the fcrew, to prevent its
(baking, the fteel pin may be fixed by tightening the
fcrews Y.
“ N is a cylindric nut, moveable on the fcrew H j
which, to prevent any fhake, may be tightened by the
fcrews O. This nut is connefted with the faddle piece
P by means of the intermediate univerfal joint W,
through which the arbor of the fcrew H paffes. A front
view of this piece, with the feftion acrofs the fcrew ar¬
bor, is reprefented at X. This joint is conne&ed with
the nut by means of two fteel flips S, which turn on pins
between the cheeks T on the nut N. The other ends
of thefe flips S turn in like manner on pins a. One axis
of this joint turns in a hole in the cock b, which is
fixed to the faddle-piece j and the other turns in a hole*/,
made for that purpofe in the fame piece on which the
cock b is fixed. By this means, when the fcrew is turn¬
ed round, the faddle-piece will Aide uniformly along
the triangular bar A.
“ K is a fmall triangular bar of well-tempered fteel,
which flides in a groove of the fame form on the faddle-
piece P. The point of this bar or cutter is formed to
the fliape of the thread intended to be cut on the end¬
lefs fcrevv. When the cutter is fet to take proper
hold of the intended fcrew, it may be fixed by tighten¬
ing the fcrew e, which preffes the two pieces of brafs G
upon it.
“ Having meafured the circumference of the dividing-
wheel, I found it would require a fcrew about one thread
in a hundred coarfer than the guide-fcrew H. The
wheels on the guide-fcrew arbor H, and that on the
fteel E, on which the fcrew was to be cut, were pro¬
portioned to each other to produce that effect, by giving
the wheel L 198 teeth, and the wheel Q 200. Thefe
wheels communicated with each other by means of the
intermediate wheel R, which alfo ferved to give the
threads on the two fcrews the fame direction.
“ The faddle-piece P is confined on the bar A by
means of the pieces g, and may be made to Aide with a
proper degree of tightnefs by the fcrews
For Ramfden’s equatorial or portable obfervatory, fee
Optics, N° 89. and Astronomy, N° 364. See alfo a
long account of an equatorial inftrument made by Mr
Ramfden by the dire&ion of Sir George Shuckburgh in
the Philofophical Tranfa£lions for 1793, art. x. p. 67.
In this inftrument the circle of declinations is four feet
in diameter, and may be obferved nearly to a fecond.
The glafs is placed between fix pillars, which form the
axis of the machine, and turn round by two pivots pla¬
ced on two blocks of (lone. See alfo Barometer.
RAMSEY, a town of Huntingdonfirire, 68 miles
north of London, and 12 north-eaft of Huntingdon.
It is fituated as it were in an ifiand, being everywhere
encompaffed with fens, except on the weft, where it is
feparated from the terra frma by a caufeway for two miles.
The neighbouring meers of Ramfey and Whitlefey,
which are formed by the river Nyne, abound with fifh,
efpecially eel and large pikes. It was once famous for
5
Hams dun's machink .
/oi • t/ri't <//// </ jYfr/ f// >7/1 rt//ct// c tn fs-.
/>la vvj rrrr/./x
/>// 7
E.7f,M,W7y?,,/,, '
RA M S I) IvN S E noiisn:.
PL A TE CCCCLX.
Banofey
II
Ramtrut.
RAM [ 639 ] RAM
a very rich abbey, part of the gatehoufe of which is ftill
{landing, and a neglefted ftatuc of Ailwin ; the epitaph
on whofe tomb, which is reckoned one of the oldeft pie¬
ces of Englilh fculpture extant, ilyles him “ kinfman of
the famous King Edward, alderman of all England,
and miraculous founder of this abbey.” It was dedicated
to St Dunftan, and its abbots were mitred and fat in
parliament ; and fo many kings of England were bene¬
factors to it, that its yearly rents, fays Camden, were
7000I. The town was then called Ramfey the Rich;
but by the diffolution of the abbey it foon became poor ;
and even loft its market for many years, till about 185
years ago it recovered it. It is held on Saturday, and is
reckoned one of the moft plentiful and cheapeft in Eng¬
land. In the year 1721a great number of Roman coins
was found here, fuppofed to have been hid by the monks
on fome incurfion of the Danes. There is a charity
fchool in the town for poor girls. W. Long. o. 19. N.
Lat. 52. 26.
Ramsey, an ifland of South Wales, on the coaft of
Pembrokeftiire, about two miles in length, and a mile
and a half broad. Near it are feveral fmall ones, known
by the name of the bijhop and his checks. It is four miles
weft of St David’s, and 17-north-eaft of Milford haven.
It belongs to the bifhopric of St David’s, and was in the-
laft age, fays Camden, famous for the death of one Ju-
ftinian, a moft holy man, who retiring hither from Brit-
anny, in that age rich in faints, and devoting himfelf
entirely to God, lived a lo.*g while in folitude, and be¬
ing at laft murdered by his fervant was enrolled among
the martyrs. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 51. 55.
Ramsey, in the Ifte of Man, to the north, a moft
noted and fpacious haven, in which the greateft fleet
may ride at anchor with fafety enough from all winds
but the north-eaft, and in that cafe they need not be em¬
bayed. This town Handing upon a beach of loofe fand,
or fliingle, is in danger, if not timely prevented, of be¬
ing waftied away by the fea.
RAMSGATE, a fea-port town of Kent, in the ifie
of Thanet, five miles from Margate, where a very fine
pier has been lately built for the fecurity of (hips that
come into the harbour, being feated near the Downs be¬
tween the north and fouth Foreland, 10 miles north-eaft
of Canterbury. The torvn is fituated in the cove of a
chalky cliff. It was formerly but an obfcure fifhing vil¬
lage, but fince the year 1688 has been improved and en¬
larged by a fuccefsful trade to Ruflia and the eaft coun¬
try. But what renders it moft worthy of notice, and
attraCls multitudes of ftrangers, is the new harbour,
which is one of the moft capacious in England, if not in
Europe. It was begun in the year 1750, but delayed
by various interruptions. It confifts of two piers; that
to the eaft is built wholly of Purbeck (tone, and extends
itfelf into the ocean near 800 feet before it forms an an¬
gle \ its breadth on the top is 26 feet, including a ftrong
parapet wall, which runs along the outfide of it. The
other to the weft is conftruCled of wood as far as the
low water mark, but the reft is of ftone. The angles,
of which there are five in each pier, confift of 160 feet
each, with oCtagons at the end of 60 feet diameter,
leaving an entrance of 200 feet into the harbour, the
depth of which admits of a gradual increafe of 18 to 36
feet. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 51. 22.
RAMTRUT, a deity worftiipped by the Ranazins of
Hindoftan, where he has a celebrated temple at Onor.
He is reprefented as more refembling a monkey than a
man.
RAMUS, in general, denotes a branch of any thing,
as of a tree, an artery, &c. In the anatomy of plants
it means the firft or lateral branches, which go off from
the petiolum, or middle rib of a leaf. The fubdivilions
of thefe are called furculi; and the final diviiions into the
moft minute of all, are by fome called capii/amenta ;
but both kinds are generally denominated furculus.
P 4MUS, Peter, was one of the moft famous profeffors
of the 16th century. He was born in Picardy in 1515.
A third for learning prompted him to go to Paris when
very young, and he was admitted a fervant in the col¬
lege of Navarre. Spending the day in waiting on his
mailers, and the greateft part of the night in ftudy, he
made fuch furprifing progrefs, that, when he took his
mailer of arts degree, he offered to maintain a quite
oppofite doClrine to that of Ariftotle. This raifed him
many enemies ; and the two firft books he publilhed,
Injlitutiones DialeRicec, and Arijlotehcce Animadverjiones,
occafioned great difturbances in the univerfity of Paris:
and the oppofition againft him was not a little height¬
ened by his deferting the Romilh religion, and profef-
fing that of the Reformed. Being thus forced to retire
from Paris, he vifited the univerfities of Germany, and
received great honours wherever he came. He returned
to France in 1571, and loft his life miferably in the hor¬
rid maffacre of St Bartholomew’s day. He was a great
orator, a man of univerfal learning, and endowed with
very fine moral qualities. He publilhed many books,
which Teiflier enumerates. Ramus’s merit in his oppo-
fition to Ariftotle, and his firmnefs in undermining his
authority, is unqueftionably great. But it has been
doubted, and with- much reafon, whether he was equal¬
ly fuccefsful in his attempts after a new logical inftitute.
We have the following general outline of his plan in Dr
Enfield’s Hiftory of Philofophy. “ Confidering dialec¬
tics as the art of deducing conclufions from premifes, he
endeavours to improve this art, by uniting it with that
of rhetoric. Of the feveral branches of rhetoric, he con-
fiders invention and difpofition as belonging equally to
logic. Making Cicero his chief guide, he divides his
treatife on dialeflics into two parts, the firft of which
treats of the invention of arguments, the fecond of judge¬
ments. Arguments he derives not only from what the
Ariftotelians call middle terms, but from any kind of
propofition, which, connefled with another, may ferve
to prove any affertion. Of thefe he enumerates- various
kinds. Judgments he divides into axioms, or felf-evi-
dent propofitions, dianoea, or deduftions by means of a
feries of arguments. Both thefe he divides into various
claffes •, and illuftrates the whole by examples from the
ancient orators and poets.
“ In the logic of Ramus, many things are borrowed
from Ariftotle, and only appear under new names \ and
many others are derived from other Grecian fources,
particularly from the dialogues of Plato, and the logic
of the Stoics. The author has the merit of turning the
art of reafoning from the futile fpeculations of the fchools
to forenfic and common ufe *, but his plan is defeflive in
confining the whole dialeflic art to the fingle objedl of
difputation, and in omitting many things, which refpeft
the general culture of the underllanding and the invefti-
gation of truth. Notwithftanding the defefls of his fyf.
tem, we cannot, however, fubfcribe to the fevere cen-
fure
Ramtrut,
Raim.s.
\
HAN [ 640 ]
fare tvlnch has been paffed upon Ramus by Lord Bacon ceiled Pedlar*.
'11 and others j for much is, we think, due to him for hav-
Randolph. jn^ with fo mucli firmnefs and perfeverance aflerted the
W~v natural freedom of the human underftanding. f he lo¬
gic of Ramus obtained great authority in the fchools of
Germany, Great Britain, Holland, and 1 ranee} and
long and violent contefts arofe between his followers and
■thofe of the Stagyrite, till his fahie vanifhed before that
of Defcartes.”
RAN, in the old Englifh Writers, means open or pub¬
lic robbery, fo manift ft as not to be denied. Ran dici-
tur aperta rapina qiue negan non poteji. Lamb. 125.
Leg. Canut. cap. 58. Hence it is now commonly faid
of one who takes the goods of another injurioufly and
violently, that he has taken or fnatched all he could rap
’and row.
It ANA, or RatjOla. See Ranula.
RaNA, the frog; a genus of reptiles belonging to
the order of amphibia. See ErpetoloGY /We.v.
RANAI, one of the Sandwich rflands discovered by
Captain Cooke, is about nine miles diftant from Mowee
and M0ROT01, and is fituated to the fouth-weft of the
paflage between thofe two illes. *1 he country towards
the fouth is elevated and craggy} but the other parts
of the ifland had a better appearance, and feemed to be
•well inhabited. It abounds in roots, fuel) as fweet po¬
tatoes, taro, and yams: but produces Very few plantains
and bread-fruit trees. The fouth point of Rariai is in
the latitude of 20° 46' north, and in the longitude of
203° 8' eaft.
RANCID, denotes a fatty fubftance, that is become
rank or mufty, or that has contrafted an ill fmell by be¬
ing kept clofe.
R ANDI A, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
RANDOLPH, Thomas, an eminent Englifti poet
in the r^th century, was born in Northamptonftiire l6o£,
He was educated at Weftminfter and Cambridge, and
very early diftinguiftied for his excellent genius j for at
about nine or ten years of age he wrote the Hiftory of
the Incarnation of our Saviour in verfe. His fubfecpient
writings eftablifhed his charafter, and gained him the
efteem and friendfhip of fome of the greateft men of that
age, particularly of Ben Jonfon, who adopted him one
of his fons in the mufes. He died in 1634, and was ho¬
nourably interred. He wrote, 1. The Mufes Look-
ing-glafs, a comedy. 2. Amyntas, or the Impoflible
Dowry, a paftoral, afted before the king and queen.
/g. Ariftippus, or the Jovial Philofopher. 4. The Con-
H A N
3. The Jealous Lovers, a comedy
Hey for Honefty, down with Knavery, a comedy
feveral poems. ,
RANDOM shot, in Gunnery, is a fhot made
when the muzzle of a gun is railed above the hori¬
zontal line, and is not deligned to (hoot dire&ly or point
blank.
The utmoft random of any piece is about ten times
as far as the bullet will go point-blank. Thw bullet
will go fartheft when the piece is mounted to about 450
above the level range. See Gunnery and Projec¬
tiles.
RANGE, \n Gunnery, the path of a bullet, or the
line it deferibesfrom the mouth of the piece to the point
where it lodges. If the piece lie in a line parallel to
the horizon, it is called the right or level range: if it
be mounted to 450, it is faid to have the utmqft range:
all others between 00 and 450 are called the intermediate
ranges.
RANGER, a fworn officer of a foreft, appointed by
the king’s letters patent; whofe bufinefs is to walk
through his charge, to drive back the deer out of the
purlieus, &c. and to prefent all trefpaffes within his ju-
rifdiftion at the next foreft court.
RANK, the order or place affigned a perfon fuitable
to his quality or merit.
Rank, is a ftraight line made by the foldiers of a
battalion or fquadron, drawn up fide by fide : this order
was eftabliffied for the marches, and for regulating the
different bodies of troops and officers which compofe an
army.
RANK and Precedence, in the army and navy, are as
follow :
Engineers RANK. Chief, as colonel ; direftor, as
lieutenant-colonel; fub director, as major ; engineer in
ordinary, as captain ; engineer extraordinary, as captain-
lieutenant ; fub-engineer, as lieutenant; praftitioner en¬
gineer, as enfign.
Navy Rank. Admiral, or commander in chief of
his majefty’s fleet, has the rank of a field-marftial; ad^
mirals, with their flags on the main-top-maft-head, rank
with generals of horfe and foot; vice-admirals, with
lieutenant-generals ; rear-admirals, as major-generals ;
commodores, with broad pendants, as brigadier-gene¬
rals ; captains of poft-ftvips, after three years from the
date of their firft commiffion, as colonels; other cap¬
tains, as commanding poft-lhips, as lieutenant-colonels ;
captains, not taking poft, as majors; lieutenants, ar
captains.
6. IGn'Vpi,
and I!
Rank.
Rank,
RAP [ 641 ] RAP
Hank between the Army, Navy, and Governors.
Army.
Navy.
General in Chief
Admiral in chief
Generals of horfe
Lieutenant-generals
Major-generals
Colonels
L ieutenant-colonels
Majors
Captains
Admiral with a dag at
the main-top matt
Governors.
Commander in chief of the forces in America
Captain generals of provinces.
Vice-admirals
Rear-admirals
Poft-captainsof 3 years
Poft-captains
Captains
Lieutenants
Lieutenant-generals of provinces
Lieutenant-governors and prefidents
Lieutenant governors not commanding
Governors of charter colonies
Deputy-governors
Etlablithed by the king, 1760
Doublingj)f the RANKS, is the placing two ranks in
«ne, frequently ufed in the manoeuvres of a regiment.
Ranks and Fi/es, are the horizontal and vertical
lines of foldiers when drawn up for fervice.
RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemption
of a Have, or the liberty of a prifoner of war. In our
law books, ranfom is alfo ufed for a fum paid for the
pardon ol lome great offence, and to obtain the offender’s
liberty.
RANULA, a tumor under a child’s tongue, which,
like a ligature, hinders it from fpeaking or fucking.
RANUNCULUS, Crowfoot-, a genus of plants
•ef the polygamia order, belonging to the polyandria
elafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 26th
®rder, Multifiliejute. See Botany Index.
RAPACIOUS ANIMALS, are fuch as live upon
prey.
RAPE, in Law. the carnal knowledge of a woman
forcibly and again!! her will. 'This, by the Jewilhlaw,
was punilhed \vith death, in cafe the damfel was be¬
trothed to another man : and, in cafe, (he was not be¬
trothed, then a heavy fine of fifty (hekels was to be paid
to the damfel’s father, and (he was to be the wife of
the ravither all the days of his life 5 without that power
of divorce, which was in general permitted by the Mo-
feic law.
The civil law punifhes the crime of ravifhment with
death and confifcation of goods: under which it includes
both the offence of forcible abduflion, or taking away
a woman from her friends; and alfo the prefent offence
of forcibly difhonouring her ; either of which, without
the other, is in that law fufficient to conflitute a capital
crime. Alfo the dealing away a woman from her pa
rents or guardians, and debauching her, is equally penal
by the emperor’s edit!, whether (be confent or is forced.
And this, in order to take away from women every
opportunity of offending in this way ; whom the Ro¬
man laws fuppofe never to go adray without the fc-
duflion and arts of t he other fex ; and 1 herefore, by
redraining and making fo highly penal the felicitations
of the men, they meant to fecure effectually the honour
of the women. But our Englidi law does not enter-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
tain quite fuch fublime ideas of the honour of either
fex, as to lay the blame of a mutual fault upon one of
the tranfgreffors only ; and therefore makes it a necef-
fary ingredient in the crime of rape, that it mud be
againlt the woman’s will.
Rape was punidied by the Saxon law-s, particularly
thofe of King Atheldan, with death ; which wras alfo
agreeable to the old Gothic or Scandinavian conditu-
tion. But this was afterwards thought too hard : and
in its dead another fevere, but not capital, punifhment
was inflifted by William the Conqueror, viz. cadration
and lofs of eyes; which continued till after Bradton
wrote, in the reign of Henry III. But in order
to prevent malicious aecufations, it was then the law,
(and, it feems, Rill continues to be fo in appeals of
rape), that the woman (liould, immediately after, go
to the next town, and there make difeovery to fome
credible perfons of the injury die has fuffered ; and
afterwards Humid acquaint the high condable of the
hundred, the coroners, and the dieriff, with the outrage.
This feems to correfpond in fome degree with the law’s
of Scotland and Arragon, which require that complaint
mud be made within 24 hours : though afterwards by
Ratute Wedm. 1. c. 13. the time of limitation in Eng¬
land was extended to 40 days. At prefent there is no
time of limitation fixed : for, as it isufually now punidi¬
ed by indictment at the fuit of the king, the maxim of
law takes place, that “ nullum tempus occurrit regi
but the jury will rarely give credit to a dale complaint.
During the former period aifo it was held for law, ti at
the woman (by confent of the judge and her parents)
might redeem the offender from the execution of Ids
fentence, by accepting him for her hufband ; if he alfo
was willing to agree to the exchange, but not other-
wife.
In the 3 Edw. I. by the datute Wedm. t. c. 13,
the punidiment of rape was much mitigated: the of¬
fence itfelf, of raviddng a damfel within age (that is,
twelve years old), either with her confent or without, or
of any other woman againd her will, being reduced to
a trefpafs, if not profecuted by appeal within 40 days,
and fubjeCting the offender only to two years imprifon
4 M jnent,
RAP
[ 642 ]
RAP
Rape.
ment, and a fine at the king’s will. But tins lemty
being productive of the moft ternble cenfequences .t
was, in ten years afterwards, 13 Edw. I. found neceffa-
ry to make the offence of forcible rape felony by tlatute
Weftiji. 2. c. 34. And by liatute 18 Ehz. c. 7. it is
made felony without benefit of clergy as is alio the
abominable wickednefs of carnally knowing or abiding
any woman-child under the age of ten years; in which
cafe the confent or non-confent is immatenal, as by rea-
fon of her tender years die is incapable of judgment and
diferetion. Sir Matt lie w Hale is indeed of opinion, that
fiich profligate a&ions committed on an infant under the
age of twelve years, the age of female diferetion by the
common law, either with or without confent, amount to
rape and felony ; as well fince as before the ftatute of
Queen Elizabeth : but that law has in general been he d
only to extend to infants under ten ; though it fliould
£eem that damfels between ten and twelve are flill un¬
der the protection of the ftatute Weftm. I. the law with
refpeCf to their feduClion not having been altered by ei¬
ther of the fubfequent ftatutes.
A male infant, under the age of fourteen years, is
prefumed by law incapable to commit a rape, and there¬
fore it feems cannot be found guilty of it. For though
in other felonies “ malitia fupplet aetatem yet, as to
this particular fpecies of felony, the law fuppofes an im¬
becility of body as well as mind.
The civil law feems to fuppofe a proflitute or common
harlot incapable of any injuries of this kind not allow¬
ing any punilhment for violating the chaftity of her,
who hath indeed no chaftity at all, or at leaft hath no
regard to it. But the law of England does not judge
fo hardly of offenders, as to cut off all opportunity of
retreat even from common ftrumpets, and to treat
them as never capable of amendment. It therefore
holds it to be felony to force even a concubine or
harlot ; becaufe the woman may have forfaken that
unlawful courfe of life : for, as Bra&on well ob-
feryes, “ licet meretrix fuerit antta, certe tunc tempo-
ris non fuit, cum reclamando nequitiie ejus confentire
noluit.” _ ...
As to the material fafts requifite to be given in evi¬
dence and proved upon an indiCfment of rape, they are
of fuch a nature, that though neceffary to be known
and fettled, for the conviClion of the guilty and prefer-
vation of the innocent, and therefore are to be found in
fuch criminal treatifes as difeourfe of thefe matters in
detail, yet they are highly improper to be publicly dif-
cuffed, except only in a court of juftice. We (ball
therefore merely add upon this head a few remarks from
Sir Matthew Hale, with regard to the competency and
credibility of witneffes ; which may, fulvo pudore, be
confidered.
And, firft, the party ravifhed may give evidence up¬
on oath, and is in law a competent witnefs : but the cre¬
dibility of her teftimonv, and how far forth (lie is to be
believed, muft be left to the jury upon the cireumftances
of faft that concur in that teftimony. For inflance : if
the witnefs be of good fame ; if (be prefently difeover-
ed the offence, and made fearch for the offender ; if the
party accufed fled for it ; thefe and the like are con¬
curring circumftances, which give greater probability
to her evidence. But, on the other fide, if the. be of
evil fame, and (land unfupp irted by others ; if (lie con¬
cealed the injury for any confiderable time after (he had
opportunity to complain; if the place, where the facl K-apa,
was alleged to be committed, was where it was poflible Raphael,
(lie might have been heard, and (lie made no outcry :
thefe and the like circumftances carry a ftrung, but not
conclufive, prefumption that her teftimony is falfe or
feigned.
Moreover, if the rape be charged to be committed
on an infant under 12 years of age, (be may (till be
a competent witnefs, if (lie hath fenfe and underftand-
ing to know the nature and obligations of an oath,
and, even if (lie hath not, it is thought by Sir Mat¬
thew Hale, that (lie ought to be heard without oath,
to give the court information ; though that alone will
not be fufbeient to convift the offender. And he is of
this opinion, firft, Becaufe the nature of the offence
being fecret, there may be no other poffible proof of
the aflual fa£l *, though afterwards there may be con¬
current crrcumftances to corroborate it, proved by
other witneffes : and, Fecondly, Becaufe the law al¬
lows what the child told her mother, or other rela¬
tions, to be given in evidence, fince the nature of the.
cafe admits frequently of no better proof; and there
is much more reafon for the court to hear the narra¬
tion of the child herfelf, than to receive it at fecond-
hand from thofe who fwear they heard her fay fo.
And indeed it feems now to be fettled, that in thefe
cafes infants of any age are to be heard ; and, if they
have any idea of an oath, to be alfo fworn : it being
found by experience, that infants of very tender years
often give the cleared and trueft teftimony. But in
any of thefe cafes, whether the child be fworn or not,
it is to be wiftied, in order to render her evidence cre¬
dible, that there (bould be fome concurrent teftimony
of time, place, and circumftances, in order to make
out the fa£t ; and that the conviction fhould nut be
grounded fingly on the unfupported accufation of an
infant under years of diferetion. There may be there¬
fore, in many cafes of this nature, witneffes who are
competent, that is, who may be admitted to be heard;
and yet, after being heard, may prove not to be cre¬
dible, or fuch as the jury is bound to believe. For one
excellence of the trial by jury is, that the jury are triers
of the credit of the witneffes, as well as of the truth of
the fa£t.
“ It is true (fays this learned judge), that rape is a
moft deteftable crime, and therefore ought feyerely and
impartially to be punifhed with death ; but it muft be
remembered, that it is an accufation eafy to be made,
hard to be proved, but harder to be defended by the
party accufed, though innocent.” He then relates two
verv extraordinarv cafes of malicious proleeution for this
crime, that had happened within his own obfervation $
and concludes thus : “ I mention thele inftances, that
we may be the more cautious upon trials of offences of
this nature, wherein the court and jury may with fo
much eafe be impofed upon, without great care and vi¬
gilance ; the heinoufnefs of the offence many times tranf-
porting the judge and tury with io much indignation,
that they are over-haftiiy carried to the convi&ion of
the perfons accufed thereof, by the confident teftimony
of fometimes falfe and malicious witneffes.”
RAPHAEL D’Urbino, the greateft, moft fublime,
and moft excellent painter that has appeared, fince the
revival of the fine arts, was the fon of an indifferent
painter named Sanzio, and was born at Urblno on Good
Friday
RAP t 643 ] RAP
Ihphael Friday 1482. The popes Julius II. and Leo X. who
II. employed him, loaded him with wealth and honour j
. and it is faid that Cardinal de St Bibiana had luch a
value for him, that he offered him his niece in marriage.
His genius is admired in all his piftures ; his contours
are free, his ordonnances magnificent, his defigns cor-
reft, his figures elegant, his exprefiions lively, his atti¬
tudes natural, his heads graceful ; in fine, every thing
is beautiful, grand, fublime, jull, and adorned with
graces. Thefe various perfe£Hons he derived not only
from his excellent abilities, but from his iludy of anti¬
quity and anatomy ; and from the friendlhip he con-
tra&ed with Ariolto, who contributed not a little to the
improvement of his tafte. His pictures are principally
to be found in Italy and Paris. That of the Transfigu¬
ration, preserved at Rome in the church of St Peter
Monterio, paffes for his maflerpiece. He had a hand-
fome perfon, was well proportioned, and had great
fweetnefs of temper 5 was polite, affable, and modeft.
He, however, lived in the utmoll fplendour ; moll of the
eminent mailers of his time were ambitious of working
under him ; and he never went out without a crowd of
artifts and others, who followed him purely through re-
fpeft. He was not only the beff painter in the world,
but perhaps the bell architect too ; on which account
Leo X. charged him with building St Peter’s church at
Rome : but he was too much addifted to pleafure, which
occafioned his death at 37 years of age. He left a great
number of difciples ; among whom were Julio Romano
and John Francis Penni, who were his heirs. Many
able engravers, as Raimondi, George Mantuan, and Bloe-
mart, engraved after Raphael. See PAINTING.
RAPHAIM, or RepHaim, (Mofes), a name figni-
fying Giants, as they really -were, and an aftual people
too, fituated in Bafan or Batanea, beyond Jordan, fe-
parated from the Zanzummim by the river Jabbok. Al-
fo a valley near Jerufalem ; Joihua x.
RAPH ANUS, Radish ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the tetradynamia clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 39th order, Siliquofce. See Bo¬
tany Index ; and for the method of culture, fee Gar¬
dening.
RAPHANIDOSIS, a punilhment infli£led at A-
thens upon adulterers. The manner of it was this :
The hair was plucked off from the privities of the of¬
fenders, hot afhes laid upon the place, and a radifh or
mullet thrufl: up his fundament, as has been mentioned
under Adultery. To this Juvenal alludes, Sat. x.
ver. 317. ^uofdam mcechos et mugilis intrat. Perfons
who had been thus punifhed were called ivTrgaixlot. The
Word raphanidq/is is derived from “ a radith.”
RAPHIDIA, a genus of infects, of the neuroptera
order. See Entomology Index.
RAPIER, formerly fignified a long old-fafhioned
fword, fuch as thofe worn by the common foldiers; but
it now denotes a fmall fword, as contradiftinguifhed from
a back-fword.
RAPIN, Rene, a Jefuit and eminent French writer,
was born at Tours in 1621. He taught polite litera-
rature in the fociety of the Jefuits with great applaufe,
and was juftly efteemed one of the beft Latin poets and
greateft wits of his time. He died at Paris in 1687.
He wrote, 1. A great number of Latin poems, which
have rendered him famous throughout all Europe 5
among which are his Hortorum libri qltatuor, which is
reckoned his mafterpiece. 2. Reflexions on Eloquence, li .
Poetry, Hiftory, and Philofophy. 3. Companions be-
tween Virgil and Homer, Demofthenes and Cicero,
Plato and Ariftotle, Thucydides and Titus Livius.
4. The Hiftory of Janfenifm. 5. Several works on re¬
ligious fubjeXs. The beft edition of his Latin poems
is that of Paris in 1723, in 3 vols. i2mo.
Rapin de Thoyras, Paul de^ a celebrated hiftorian,
was the fon of James de Rapin lord of Thoyras, and
was born at Caftres in 1661. He was educated at firft
under a tutor in his father’s houfe j and afterwards fent
to Puylaurens, and thence to Samur. In 1679 ^'e re_
turned to his father, wdth a detign to apply himfelf to
the ftudy of the law, and was admitted an advocate :
but fome time after, refleXing that his being a Prote-
ftant would prevent his advancement at the bar, he re-
lolved to quit the profeffion of the law, and apply him¬
felf to that of the fword ; but his father would not con-
fent to it. The revocation of the ediX of Nantes in
1685, and the death of his father, which happened two
months after, made him refolve to come to England ;
but as he had no hopes of any fettlement here, his ftay
was but ftiort. He therefore foon after went to Hol¬
land, and lifted himfelf in the company of French vo¬
lunteers at Utrecht, commanded by M. Rapin his cou-
fin-german. He attended the prince of Orange into
England in 1688 ; and the following year the lord
Kingfton made him an enfign in his regiment, with
which he went into Ireland, where he gained the efteem
of his officers at the fiege of Carrickfergus, and had foon
a lieutenant’s commiffion. He was prefent at the battle
of the Boyne, and was fhot through the (boulder at the
fiege of Limerick. He was foon after captain of the
company in which he had been enfign ; but, in 1693,
refigned his company to one of his brothers, in order to
be tutor to the earl of Portland’s fon. In 1699, he
married Marianne Teftard ; but this marriage neither
abated his care of his pupil, nor prevented his accompa¬
nying him in his travels. Having finilhed this employ¬
ment, he returned to his family, which he had fettled
at the Hague *, and here he continued fome years. But
as he found his family increafe, he refolved to retire to
fome cheap country 5 and accordingly removed, in i 707,
to Wefel, where he wrote his Hiftory of England, and
fome other pieces. Though he was of a ftrong confti-
tution, yet 17 years application (for fo long was he in
compofing the hiftory juft mentioned) entirely ruined
his health. He died in 1725. He wrote in French,
1. A Differtation on the Whigs and Tories. 2. His
Hiftory of England, printed at the Hague in 1726 and
i727j *n 9 VuL 4to> and reprinted at Trevoux in 1728,
in 10 vols 410. This laft edition is more complete than
that of the Hague. It has been tranflated into Englifh,
and improved with Notes, by the reverend Mr Tindal,
in 2 vols folio. This performance, though the work of
a foreigner, is defervedly efteemed as the fulleft and
moft impartial colleXion of Engliffi political tranfaXions
extant. The readers of wit and vivacity, however, may
be apt to complain of him for being fometimes rather te¬
dious and dull.
RAPINE, in Law, the taking away another’s goods,
&c. by violence.
RAPPERSWIL, a town of Swifferland, on the
4 M 2 confines
HAS
[ 644 J
HAS
Ras-Sem.
Rapperfwil confines of the canton of Zurich, and ofthe te™rj f
" Gaiter with an old caftle. It is ftrong by fituation,
being feated on a neck of land which advances into the
lake of Zurich, and over which there is a bridge 83
paces long. It is fubjeft to the cantons of Zurich and
Berne. £. Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 47. 20.
RAPPOLSTEIN, a town of France m Upper At
face, which, before the revolution, had the title of a
baronv. All the muficians of Alface likewise depended
upon this baron, and were obliged to pay him a certain
tribute, without which they could not play upon their
inftruments. E. Long. 7. 28. N. Lat. 48. 15.
RAPTURE, an eeftafy or tranfport of mind, oee
E?RARE, in Phyfics, Rands oppofed to denfej and de¬
notes a body that is very porous, whofe parts are at a
ereat diftance from one another, and which is luppoied
to contain but little matter under a large bulk, bee the
following article. . 01 u
RAREFACTION, in Physics, the aft whereby a
body is rendered rare; that is, brought to poffefs more
room, or appear under a larger bulk, without accel-
fion of any new matter.—T his is very frequently the
effea of fire, as has long been univerfally allowed. In
many cafes, however, philofophers have attributed it
to the action of a repulfive principle. However, from
the many difeoveries concerning the nature and proper¬
ties of the eleftric fluid and fire, there is the greateft
reafon to believe, that this repullive principle is no other
than elementary fire. See Repulsion.
RAS-EL-Feel, one of the frontier provinces of A-
byffinia, of which thelate celebrated traveller Mr Bruce
was made governor while in that country. It is but of
final 1 extent, and in its mod profperous Rate contained
only 39 villages. The climate is extremely hot, in Mr
Bruce’s opinion one of the hotteR in the world. He in¬
forms us, that on the firR day of March, at hree
o’clock in the afternoon, the thermometer Rood at 1 140
in the Riade, and in the evening at 82°; though at fun-
rife it had been no higher than 61. Notwithflanding
this appearance of extreme heat, however, the fenfation
was by no means intolerable; they could hunt at md
day, and felt the evenings rather cold. 1 he foil is a
fat/loofe, black earth, which our author fays is the
fame from 130 to 160 of north latitude; at leaR till we
come to the deferts of Atbara, where the tropical xains
ceafe. This country divides that of the Shangalla into
two parts, nearly equal. Thefe people inhabit a belt
of land about 60 miles br"ad, all along the northern
frontier of Abyflinia, excepting two large gaps or fpaces
which have been left open for the fake of commerce,
and which are inhabited by flrangers, to keep the Shan¬
galla in awe. The latter trade in gold, which they
pick up in the Rreams as it is waflred down from the
mountains; for there are no mines in their country,
neither is there any gold in AbyRinia, excepting what
is imported from this or fome other country. The
Shangalla are the natural enemies of the inhabitants of
Ras-ef-Feel, and much blood has been flied in the va¬
rious incurfions they have made upon one another ;
though of late thofe of Ras-el-Feel, by the affiflance of
the emperors, have been enabled to keep the Shangalla
at bay.
R AS-Sem, a city of Tripoli in Barbary, concerning
^hich a number of fables were told by the Tripoline
4
ambaffador, all of which were believed in England and
other parts of Europe in the beginning of this century.
(See PETRIFIED City). Mr Bruce informs us, that it
is fituated about five days journey fouth from Bengazi;
but has no water excepting one fountain, which has a
difagreeable tafie, and feems to be impregnated with
alum. Hence it has obtained the name of Kas-Scm, ov
the fountain of poifon. The only remains of antiquity
in this place confifl of the ruins of a tower or fortifica¬
tion, which, in the opinion of Mr Bruce, is as late as
the time of the Vandals; but he fays he cannot imagine
what ufe they made of the water, and they had nu
other within two days journey of the place.—Here our
traveller faw many of the animals cdWaA j a boct, a kind
of mice; which, he fays, feem to partake as much of
the nature of a bird as of a quadruped.
RASAY, one of the Hebrides iflands, is about 13
miles long and two broad. It contains yoo inhabitants,
has plenty of limeRone and freeRone; feeds great num¬
bers of black cattle; but has neither deers, hares, no.
rabbits. The only appearance of a harbour in Rafay is
at Clachan bay, where Mr Macleod the proprietor of
the ifland refides. Rafay prelents a bold fliore, which,
rifes to the height of mountains; and here the natives-
have, with incredible labour, formed many little corn,
fields and potato grounds. Thefe heights decreafe at
the fouth end, where there are fome farms and a good-
looking country. Mr Macleod is foie proprietor of this
ifland and of Rona and Fladda at the north end of it,
which are only proper for grazing.
The houfe of Rafay is pleafantly fituated near the
fouth-weR end of the ifland, which is the mofl level
part of it. It has an extenfive and excellent garden,
and is furrounded with forelt trees of eonfiderable mag¬
nitude; another proof that trees will grow upon the
edge of the fea, though it mufl be allowed that the
channel here is narrow. Immediately behind the houfe
of Rafay are the ruins of an ancient chapel, now ufed
as the family burying-place.
RASCIANS, a poor opprefled people who dwelt on-
both fides of the Danube, and who, about the year 1594,
being weary of the Turkifh thraldom, firfl took 13 of
their veffels upon that river; and then drawing together
a body of 15,000 men between Buda and Belgrade,
twice defeated the pallia of Temefwar with a body of
14,000 Turks. I hey afterwards took Baczkerek, four
miles from Belgrade, and the caflle of Oltadt ; then
laying liege to that of Beche, on the Iheyfla, the old.
paiha of Temefwar marched to relieve it with 11,000
men; but the Rafeians encountering them, flew near
10,000, and took 18 pieces of cannon. The confe-
quence of this viftory was the redu&ion of Werfetza
and Lutz. Then, fending to the archduke for aid and
gunners, they offered to put themfelves and their coun¬
try under the emperor’s proteftion.
RASOR BILL, a fpecies of alca.
THOLOGY Index.
RASOR-Fi/b, a genus of fliell-fifli.
CHOLOGY Index.
R AST ALL, John, a printer and mifcellaneous wri->
ter, was born in London, probably about the end of the
I sjth century, and educated at Oxford. Returning from
the univerfity, he fettled in the metropolis, and com¬
menced printer, “ then efleemed (fays Wood) a profef-
fion fit for any fcholar or ingenious man.” He married
y the
Ras-Scm
Raltall.
See Alca, Orni-
See Solen, Con-
RAT [64
Raltall the filler of Sir Thomas More, with whom, we are told,
11 lie was very intimate, and whofe writings lie llrenuoufiy
Kat^ defended. From the title-page of one of his books, he
, appears to have lived in Cheapfide, at the fign of the
Mermaid. He died in the year 1536; and left two fons,
William and John : the firil of whom became a judge
in Queen Mary’s reign, and the latter a juflice of peace.
This John Raftall, the fubjeft of the prefent article, was
a zealous Papift j but Bale, fays, that he changed his re¬
ligion before his death. He wrote, 1. Natura naturata.
Pits calls it a copious (pro/ixa) and ingenious comedy,
defcribing Europe, Alia, and Africa ; with cuts. What
fort of a comedy this was, is not eafy to conceive.. Pro¬
bably it is a cofmographical defcription, written in dia¬
logue, and therefore llyled a comedy. 2. 1 he pailyme
of the people j the cronycles of diverfe realmys, and
niott efpeeially of the realm of England, brevely com¬
piled and emprinted in Cheapefyde, at the fign of the
mearmaid, next Pollyfgate, cum privilegio, fob 3■ Ec-
clejia Johannis Rajlall, 1542, was one of the prohibit¬
ed books in the reign of Henry VIII. 4. Legum An-
glicanarum vocabula exphcata. French and Latin. Lond.
1367, 8vo. And fome other works.
RASTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia and marquifate of Baden, with a handfome catlle.
It is remarkable for a treaty concluded here between the
French and imperialifts in 1714-, and near this place
the French defeated the imperial troops in July 1796 ;
in 1798 a congrefs was held here for the conclufion of a
peace between France and Germany j but it broke up in
1799, when, not far from Ralladt, the French plenipo¬
tentiaries, on their return, were murdered by a party of
Auftrian huffars. See France, N° 501. Ralladt is
feated on the river Merg, near the Rhine. E. Long.
8. 14. N. Lat. 48. 54.
RASTENBURG, a fine city in Pruflia, on the Gu-
ber, furrounded with a avail, and lince 1629 alfo with
a rampart. It is 46 miles fouth-eafl of Roningfheig.
E. Long. 21. 30. N. Lat. 34. 20.
RAT. See Mus, Mammalia Index ; and for an
account of the methods of deftroying rats, fee VERMIN,
DeJlruBion of.
RAT-lJland, a fmall detached part of the ifiand of
Lundy, off the north coaft of Devon. Though noted
in Bonn’s map of the county., it is not worth mention
here, but as giving opportunity to fubjoin a farther no¬
tice of Lundy, which ifland was purchafed a few years
fince by Mr Cleveland, M. P. for about 1200 guineas,
who has a fmall villa on it : not more than 400 acres
are cultivated : it is let altogether for 70I. a-year. The
foil is good, though no trees will grow on the illand.
It has fine fprings of water : the houfes are feven : the
inhabitants, men, women, and children, do not exceed
24. The bird called murr, whofe eggs are very large
and fine, the Lundy parrot, and rabbits, are the chief
produce ; thefe abound, and are taken for the feathers,
eggs, and fkins, principally. They have now (1794)
70 bullocks and 400 (beep, but the latter do not thrive.
They pay no taxes: fifhing Ikiffs often call with necef-
faries : the fituation is very pleafant, and the rocks
around, which are large, and partly granite, are wild
and romantic. It had probably more inhabitants once,
as human bones have been ploughed up. It has no
%lace of vvorfhip, and no public-houfe ; but ftrangers
ays always welcome. Eight cannon lie on the battle-
5 1 R A. T
merits on the top of a very deep precipice, under which
is a curious cavern. Lord Gower, Mr Benion, and bir y
J. B. Warren, K. B. have been former proprietors. See Rates>
Lundy. ‘
RATrTai/s, or Arrefs. See Farriery Index.
RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from
the kernels, &c. of feveral kinds of fruits, particularly
of cherries and apricots.
Ratafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the cher¬
ries, and putting them into a veflel wherein brandy has
been long kept y then adding to them the kernels of
cherries, with ftrawberries, fugar, cinnamon, white pep¬
per, nutmeg, cloves', and to 23 pounds of cherries 10
quarts of brandy. The veilel is left open 10 or 12
days, and then flopped clofe for two months before it
be tapped. Ratafia of apricots is prepared two ways,
viz. either by boiling the apricots in white wine, aduing
to the liquor an equal quantity of brandy, with fugar,
cinnamon, mace, and the kernels of apricots j infufing
the whole for eight or ten days j then draining the li¬
quor, and putting it up for ufe : or elfe, by infudng the
apricots, cut in pieces, in brandy, tor a day or two, paf-
ling it through a draining bag, and then putting in the
ufual ingredients.
RA I CH, or Rash, in clock-work, a fort of wheel
having twelve fangs, which ferve to lift up the detents
every hour, and make the clock drike. bee Clock.
RATCHETS, in a watch, are the fmall teeth at
the bottom of the fufy or barrel, which flops it in wind¬
ing up. , -
RATE, a dandard or proportion, by which either
the quantity or value of a thing is adjuded.
RATES, in the navy, the orders or clafles into
which the lldps of war are divided, according to their
force and magnitude.
The regulation which limits the rates of men of war
to the fmalleil number poflible,Teems to have been dic-
. tated by confiderations of political economy, or of that
of the fimplicity of the fervice in the royal dock-yards.
The Britidr deet is accordingly diftributed into fix rates,
excludve of the inferior veflels that dually attend on.
naval armaments v as Hoops of war, armed drips, bomb-
ketches, fire-drips and cutters, or fchooners commanded
by lieutenants.
Ships of the fird rate mount loo cannon, having 42-
pounders on the lower deck, 24-pounders on the middle
deck, i 2 pounders on the upper deck, and 6 pounders
on tire quarter-deck and fore-eaftle. They are manned
with 830 men, including their officers, feamen, marine?*
and fervants.
In general, the drips of every rate, befides the cap¬
tain, have the mader, the boatfwain, tire gunner, the
chaplain, the purfer, the furgeon, and the carpenter j
all of whom, except the chaplain, have, their mates or
affidants, in which are comprehended the fail-maker, tho
matter at arms, the armourer, the captain’s clerk, the.
gunfmitb,. &c.
The number of other officers is always in proportion,
to the rate of the ttrip. 'I hus a firil-rate has fix lieu¬
tenants, fix matter’s mates, twenty four midffiipmen,
and five furgeon’s mates, who are confidered as gt ntle-
men: bettdes the following petty officers •, quarter maf-
ters and their mates, fourteen : boatfwain s mates and
yeomen, eight y gunner’s mates and affiltant?, fix , quar-
ter-gunners, twenty-five j carpenter’s mates, two, befideA,
fourteen
RAT [ 646 ] RAT
Rate?, fourteen afliflants 5 with one fteward and fleward’s
mate to the puffer.
If the dimenfions of all fhips of the fame rate were
equal, it would be the fimpleft and moft perfpicuous
method to colledt them into one point of view in a table :
but as there is no invariable rule for the general dimen¬
fions, \tfe muft content ourfelves with but a few re¬
marks on Ihips of each rate, fo as to give a general idea
of the difference between them.
The Vidffory, one of the laft built of our firft rates,
is 222 feet 6 inches in length, from the head to the
ffern ; the length of her keel, 151 feet 3 inches; that
of her gun-deck, or lower deck, 186 feet ; her extreme
breadth is 51 feet 10 inches; her depth in the hold, 21
feet 6 inches ; her burden, 2162 tons ; and her poop
reaches 6 feet before the mizen-maff.
Ships of the fecond rate carry 90 guns upon three
decks, of which thofe on the lower battery are 32-
pounders; thofe on the middle, 18-pounders; on the
upper deck, 12-pounders ; and thofe on the quarter¬
deck, 6-pounders, which ufually amount to four or fix.
Their complement of men is 750, in which there are fix
lieutenants, four mafter’s mates, 24 midlhipmen, and
four furgeon’s mates, 14 quarter-mafters and their mates,
eight boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, fix gunner’s mates
and yeomen, with 22 quarter-gunners, two carpenter’s
mates, with 10 afliftants, and one fteward and fteward’s
mate.
Ships of the third rate carry from 64 to 80 cannon,
which are 31, 18, and 9 pounders* The 80-gun fhips,
however, begin to grow out of repute, and to give way
to thofe of 74, 70, &c. which have only two whole
batteries; whereas the former have three, with 28 guns
planted on each, the cannon of their upper deck being
the fame as thofe on the quarter-deck and fore-caftle of
the latter, which are 9-pounders. The complement in
a 74 is 650, and in a 64, 500 men ; having, in peace,
four lieutenants, but in war, five ; and when an admiral
is aboard fix. They have three mafter’s mates, 16
midfliipmen, three furgeon’s mates, 10 quarter-mafters,
and their mates, fix boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, four
gunner’s mates and yeomen, Avith 18 quarter-gunners,
one carpenter’s mate, w-ith eight afliftants, and one ftew¬
ard and fteward’s mate under the purfer.
Ships of the fourth rate mount from 60 to 50 guns,
upon two decks, and the quarter-deck. The lower
tier is compofed of 24-pounders, the upper tier of 12-
pounders, and the cannon on the quarter-deck and
fore-caftle are 6-pounders. The complement of a 50
gun fhip is 330 men, in which there are three lieute¬
nants, two mafter’s mates, 10 midfhipmen, two fur¬
geon’s mates, eight quarter-mafters and their mates,
four boatfwain’s mates and yeomen, one gunner’s mate
and one yeoman, with 12 quarter-gunners, one carpen¬
ter’s mate and fix afliftants, and a fteward and fteward’s
mate.
All veflels of war, under the fourth rate, are ufually
comprehended under the general name of frigates,
and never appear in the line of battle. They are di¬
vided into the 5th and 6th rates; the former mounting
from 40 to 32 guns, and the latter from 28 to 20.
it he large ft oi the fifth rate have two decks of cannon,
the lower battery being of 18-pounders, and that of
the upper deck of 9-pounders ; but thofe of 36 and 32
guns have one complete deck of guns, mounting 12-
pounders, befides the quarter-deck and fore-caftle, which Rates,
carry 6-pounders. The complement of a ftiip of 44 Ratten,
guns is 280 men ; and that of a frigate of 36 guns, ^
240 men. The firft has three, and the fecond two
lieutenants ; and both have two mafter’s mates, fix mid-
ftiipmen, two furgeon’s mates, fix quarter-mafters and
their mates, two boatfwain’s mates, and one yeoman,
one gunner’s mate and one yeoman, with 10 or 11 quar¬
ter-gunners, and one purfer’s fteward.
Frigates of the 6th rate carry 9-pounders, thofe of
2.8 guns having 3-pounders on their quarter-deck, with
200 men for their complement; and thofe of 24, 160
men : the former has two lieutenants, the latter, one;
and both have two mafter’s mates, four midfhipmen,
one furgeon’s mate, four quarter-mafters and their mates,
one boatfwain’s mate and one yeoman, one gunner’s
mate and one yeoman, with fix or feven quarter-gunners,
and one purfer's fteward.
The floops of war carry from 18 to 8 cannon, the
largeft of which have fix-pounders ; and the fmalleft,
viz. thofe of 8 or 10 guns, four-pounders. Their offi-*
cers are generally the fame as in the 6th rates, with
little variation ; and their complements of men are from
I 20 to 60, in proportion to their force or magnitude.
N. B. Bomb-veflels are on the fame eftabliftiment as
floops ; but fire-fliips and hofpital ihips are on that of
fifth-rates.
Nothing more evidently manifefts the great improve¬
ment of the marine art, and the degree of perfeffion to
which it has arrived in Britan, than the facility of ma¬
naging our firft rates ; which were formerly efteemed
incapable of government, unlefs in the moft favourable
weather of the fummer.
Ships of the fecond rate, and thofe of the third,
which have three decks, carry their fails remarkably
well, and labour Very little at fea. They are excellent
in a general aftion, or in cannonading a fortrefs. Thofe
of the third rate, which have two tiers, are fit for the
line of battle, to lead the convoys and fquadrons of ihips
of war in aflion, and in general to fuit the different exi¬
gencies of the naval fervice.
The fourth-rates may be employed on the fame occa-
fions as the third-rates, and may bealfo deftined amongft
the foreign colonies, or on expeditions of great di-
ftance; fince thefe veflels are ufually excellent for keep¬
ing and fuftaining the fea.
Veffels of the fifth rate are too weak to fuffer the
(hock of a line of battle ; but they may be deftined to
lead the convoys of merchant {hips, to protect the com¬
merce in the colonies, to cruize in different ftations, to
accompany fquadrons, or be fent exprefs with neceffary
intelligence and orders. The fame may be obferved of
the fixth rates.
The frigates, which mount from 28 to 38 guns
upon one deck, with the quarter-deck, are extremely
proper for cruizing againft privateers, or for fliort
expeditions, being light, long, and ufually excellent
failers.
RATEEN, or Ratten, in commerce, a thick
woollen fluff, quilled, woven on a loom with four
treddles, like ferges and other fluffs that have the whale
or quilling. There are fome rateens dreffed and prepa¬
red like cloths ; others left Amply in the hair, and
others where the hair or knap is frized. Rateens are
chiefly manufa&ured in France, Holland, and Italy, and
are
R A T C 647 ] RAT
Rateen are moftly ufed in linings. The frize is a fort of coarfe
„ II. rateen, and the drueget is a rateen half linen half vvool-
len.
RATIFICATION, an a£I of approving and con¬
firming fonaething done by another in our name.
RATIO, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is that rela¬
tion of homogeneous things which determines the quan¬
tity of one from the quantity of another, without the in¬
tervention of a third.
The numbers, lines, or quantities, A and B, being
propofed, their relation one to another may be confider-
ed under one of thefe two heads : 1. Flow much A ex¬
ceeds B, or B exceeds A ? And this is found by taking
A from B, or B from A, and is called arithmetic rca-
fon or ratio. 2. Or how many times, or parts of a
time, A contains B, or B contains A ? and this is cal¬
led geometric reafon or ratio ; (or, as Euclid defines it,
it is the mutual habitude, or refpett, of two magnitudes
of the fame kind, according to quantity 5 that is, as to
how often the one contains, or is contained in, the
other) ; and is found by dividing A by B, or B by
A. And here note, that that quantity which is referred
to another quantity is called the antecedent of tha ratio:
and that to which the other is referred is called thec'ys-
feejuent of the ratio ; as in the ratio of A to B, A is
the antecedent, and B the confequent. Therefore any
quantity, as antecedent, divided by any quantity as a
confe.quent, gives the ratio of that antecedent to the
eonfequent.
Thus the ratio of A to B is —, but the ratio of B
JD
to A is ; and, in numbers, the ratio of 12 to 4 is
A
——7, or triple: but the ratio of 4 to 12 is — — —,
4 0 12 3
or fubtriple.
And here note, that the quantities thus compared
muft be of the fame kind ; that is, fuch as by multipli¬
cation may be made to exceed one the other, or as thefe
quantities are faid to have a ratio between them, which,
being multiplied, may be made to exceed one another.
Thus aline, how {hurt foevcr, may be multiplied, that is,
produced fo long as to exceed any given right line ; and
confequentlv thefe may be compared together, and the
ratio exprefled : but as a line can never, by any multi¬
plication whatever, be made to have breadth, that is,
to be made equal to a fuperficies, how fmall foever •,
thefe can therefore never be compared together, and
confequently have no ratio or refpeft to one another,
according to quantity ; that is, as to how often the
one contains, or is contained in, the other. See Quan¬
tity.
RATIOCINATION, the aft of reafoning. See
Reasoning.
RATION, or Rattan, in the army, a portion of
ammunition, bread, drink, and forage, diftributed to
each foldier in the army, for his daily fubfiftence, See.
The horfe have rations of hay and oats when they can¬
not go out to forage. The rations of bread are regu¬
lated by weight. The ordinary ration of a foot feldier
is a pound and a half of bread per day. The officers
have feveral rations according to their quality and the
number of attendants they are obliged to keep.—When
the ration is augmented on occafions of rejoicing, it is
called a double ration. The (hips crews have alfo their
rations or allowances of bifeuit, pulfe, and water, propor¬
tioned according to their llock.
RATIONALE, a folution or account of the princi¬
ples of fome opinion, aflion, hypothefis, phenomenon or
the like.
RATTBOR, a town of Germany, in Silefia, and ca¬
pital of a duchy of the fame name, with a catlle. It
has been twice taken by the Swedes, and is feated on
the river Oder, in a country fertile in corn and fruits,
1 5 miles north-eaft of Troppaw and 142 eaft of Prague,
E. Long. 22. 24. N. Lat. 50. 14.
RATTSBON, an ancient, large, rich, handfome,
and ftrong city of Germany, in Bavaria, free and im¬
perial, with a bilhop’s fee, vvhofe bilhop is a prince of
the empire. It is called by the Germans Regenlhurg,
from the river Regens, which runs under a fine ftone
bridge, and throws itfelf into the Danube below the
city and the rivers Luber and Nab mix with it above
the city. The French call it Ratifbon, in imitation of
the Latins •, it hath formerly been lubjedt to the kings
of Bavaria, who made it the place of their refidence 5,
but it was declared free by the emperor Frederick I.
which does not, however, hinder the dukes of Bavaria
from dividing the toll with the citizens, according to an
agreement between them. Thefe princes have alfo the
criminal jurifdiftion, for which the magiftrates of the
city pay them homage. It is the firft city of the bench
of Suabia, and contains at prefent within its walls five
different free Hates of the empire j namely, the bifliop,
the abbot of St Emmeran, the abbeffes of the Low and
Fligh Munfler, and the city. The inhabitants of Ra-
tifban have the privilege not to be cited before other tri¬
bunals, unlefs for a£tions above 40a florins. The fenate
is compofed of 17 members, and there is a council of
10, which is charged with the government of the Hate.
The citizens have a right toele61 a chief, who judges of
the affairs of police. The Catholics have the exercife of
their religion in the cathedral church and others, and
the Lutherans in three churches which they have built.
The magitfrates and officers of the city are all Protef-
tants ; and it is to be remarked, that although there are
about 22 Catholic churches, yet there are very few Ca¬
tholic citizens, the magiftracy not allowing the freedom
of the town to be given to Catholics living there.. As
this city is large, elegant, and full of magnificent houfts,
it has been chofen many years for the place of holding
the diet, upon account of the conveniency, to many
neighbouring princes and Hates, of fending their provi-
fions by land and water, without great expence. The
town-houfe, in the midH of which the diet meets, is ex¬
tremely magnificent. In the year 1740, however, when
there was a war in Germany, the diet met at Frankfort
on the Main, till after the death of the emperor Charles
VII. Provifions are very plentiful at Ratiffion in time
of peace. The inhabitants have a good deal of trade,
the river on which it Hands being navigable, and com¬
municating with a great part of Germany. It is 55
miles fouth-eaH of Nuremberg, 62 north of Munich,
and 195 wefl of Vienna. E. Long. 12. 5. N. Lat. 48.
59-
RATLINES, or, as the failors call them, ratlins,
thofe lines which make the ladder Heps to go up the
flirouds and pattocks, hence called the ratlins of the
Jhrouds,
RATOLFZEL,
Ration
II
Ratlines.
R A V r 6 +
Ratolfzel R ATOLFZEL, a ftrong town of Germany, in Sua-
il bia, near the welt end of the lake Conltance. it is
Ravenna, un Liiat part of it called Bodcnfee, and belongs to
' ^ the houfe of Aultria, who took it from the duke of
Wirtemburg, after the battle of Nordlingen. it is 12
miles welt of the city of Conftance. It is defended by
the impregnable cattle of Hohen Dwel, on an inacctl-
fible hill in the middle of a plain, the rock of which is
flint, fo that a few men may hold it out againlt an
army. „
RATTLESNAKE. See CrotaluS, Ophiology
Index.
Rattlesnake Root. See Polygala, Botany
Index.
RATZEBURG, or RaTZEMBURG, an ancienUown
of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and in the
duchy of Lawenburg, with a bifhop’s fee and a cat¬
tle. The town depends on the duchy of .Lawenburg,
-and the cathedral church on that of Ratzeburg. It is
feated on an eminence, and almoft furrotinded V>T ^ a
lake 25 miles in length and three in breadth. The
duke of Lawenburg fcized and fortified it in 16^9, and
the king of Denmark took it in 1693 but it was dii-
mantled, and rdtored in 1700 to the duke, who re-
fortified it. This town has been frequently pillaged,
particularly in 1552, by Francis duke of Saxe Lawen¬
burg, becaufe the.canons refufid to eleft his fon Mag¬
nus their bifiiop. It is nine miles fotlth of Lubec. This
place is noted for its excellent beer. E. Long. 10. 58.
‘N. Lat. 53. 47.
RAVA, a town of Great Poland, and capital of a
palatinate of the fame name, with a fortified calfle,
where they keep Hate prifoners. The houfes are built
of wood, and there is a Jefuit’s college. It is feated in
a morafs covered with water, which proceeds from the
river Rava, with which it is furrounded. It is 45 miles
Couth of Bloflco, and 50Touth weft of Warfaw. The
.palatinate is bounded on the north by that of Blolko, on
the eaft by that of Mazovia, on the fouth by that of
Sandomer, and on the weft by that of Lencieza.
RAVELIN, in Bonification, was anciently a flat
baftion placed in the middle of a.curtain; but now a
detached work compofed only of two faces, which
make a falient angle without any flanks, and raifed
before the counterfcarp of the place. See FORTIFICA¬
TION.
RAVEN. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Sea RAVEN, or corvo marino of Kongo in Africa, in
Ichthyology, is about fix feet long ; but the moft Angu¬
lar cireumftance appertaining to this creature is the (tone
found in its head, to which the natives afcribe fome me¬
dicinal virtues, and the delicate tafte of its hard roe,
which is ftill much admired, when died in the fun, and
becomes as hard as a flone.
RAVENGL AS, a town of Cumberland in England,
fituated between the rivers Irt and Elk, which, with the
fea, encompafs three parts of it. It is a well built place,
and has a good road for {hipping, which brings it fome
trade. E. Long. O. 5. N. Lat. 54. 20.
RAVENNA, in Ancient Geogi'aphy, a noble city of
Gallia Cifpadana ; a colony of Theflalians, on the Adri¬
atic, in wafhes or a boggy fituation, which proved a
natural fecurity to it. The houfes were all of wood, the
communication by bridges and boats, and the town kept
fweet and clean by the tides carrying away the mud and
8 ] R A V
foil, (Strabo). Anciently it had a port at the mouth of Ravenfcs
tin Bcdefis ; Auguftus added a new port, capacious to H
hold a fleet, for the Lcurity of the Adriatic, between ... iacu
which and the city lay the Via Ctefaris. In the lower
age it was thefeat of the Ollrogoths for 72 years; biit
being recovered by Narfes,- Juftinian’s general, it be¬
came the refidence of the exarchs, magiftrates fent by
the emperor from Conftantinople, for 173 years, when
it was taken by the Longobards. It is ftill called Ra¬
venna, capital of Romania. The feat of the weftern or
Roman empire was by Honorius tranflated to Ravenna
about the year 404, and hence the country in which it
flood was cnWeA Romania, in the pope’s territory. It
had a very flourithing trade till the lea withdrew two
miles from it, which has been a great detriment. The
fortifications are of little importance, and the citadel is
gone to ruin. It is now molt remarkable lor the excel¬
lent wine produced in its neighbourhood. The maufo-
leum of Theodortc is (till to beTeen, remarkable for
being covered by a fingle flone 2:8 feet in diameter and
1 3 thick. It was at Ravenna that the duke of Nemours
fell, after having gained a moft decifive victory over the
confederate army, in 1511. See f RANGE, N° 129, and
Modern Univerfal Hittory, vol. xx. p. 324, &c.
RAVENS BURG, a county of Germany, in Weft-
phalia, bounded ou the north by the bithoprics of Ofna-
burg and Minden, on the eaft by Lemgow, on the fouth
by the bifhopric of Paderborn, and on the weft by that
of Munfter. It belongs to the king of Pruffia, and has
its name from the caftle of Ravenfburg. The population
amounts to about 81,812.
Ravensburg, a free and imperial town of Ger-
'many, in Algow, in the circle of Suabia. It is'well
built, and the public ftru&ures are handfome. The in¬
habitants are partly Proteftants and partly Papifts. It is
feated on the river Chenfs, in E. Long. 9. 46. N. Lat.
47. 44-
RAVET, an infect fliaped like a may-bug, or cock¬
chafer, (fee ScARABiEUS), with which the ifland of
Guadaloupe is much peftered. It has a ftinking fmell,
preys upon paper, books, and furniture, and whatever
they do not gnaw is difcoloured by their ordure. Thefe
nafly infefts, which are very numerous, and appear
chiefly by night, would be intolerable, were it not for
a large fpider, fome of them as long as a man’s fift,
which intangles them in its web, and otherwife furpriies
them. On which account the inhabitants of the ifland
are very careful of thefe fpiders.
RAVILLIAC, Francis, the infamous aflaflin of Mod. V/K
Henry IV. of France, Avas a native of Angoulelme, v0|
and at the time of his execution was about one or two'^ p
and thirty years of age. See France, N° 150, and
HENRY IV. of France. Ravilliac was the fon of parents
who lived upon alms. His father was that fort of infe¬
rior retainer to the law, to which the vulgar give tire
name of a pettifogger, and his fon had been bred up in
the fame way. Ravilliac had fet up a claim to an eftate,
but the caufe went againft him : this difappointment af-
fedled his mind deeply : he afterwards taught a ichool,
and, as himfelf Lid, received charitable gifts, though
but of a very fmall value, from the parents of thofe
whom he taught; and yet his diftrefs was fo great, that
be had much ado to live. When he was feized for the
king’s murder, he was very loofely guarded ; aft were
permitted to (peak with him who pleafed ; and it was
* 1 thought
. 47-
note A, See.
R A V
Ratiliiac. tlionglit very remarkable that a .Tcfuit flrould fay to him,
y*"—-' <( take care, whatever you do, that you don’t
charge honeft people.” He was removed next day from
the houfe of Efpernon to the Conciergerie, the proper
prifon of the parliament of Paris. When he was firft
interrogated, he anfvvered with great boldneis, “ That
he had done it, and would do it if it were to do again.”
When he was told that the king, though dangerouily
wounded, was living, and might recover, he faid that
he had itruck him home, and that he was fure he was
dead. In his fubfequent examinations he owned that he
had long had an intention to kill the king, becaufe he
fuffered two religions in his kingdom j and that he en¬
deavoured to obtain an audience of him, that he might
admonifh him. He alfo faid that he underftood the king’s
grfat armament to be againfl the pope, and that, in his
opinion, to make war againft the pope, was to make
war againft God. We have no diftinft account of the
three laft examinations; but he is faid to have perfifted
in the moft folemn afleverations, that he had no accom¬
plices, and that nobody had perfuaded him to the faft.
He appeared furprifed at nothing fo much as at the
univerfal abhorrence of the people, which, it feems,
he did not expedl. They were forced to guard him
ftri&ly from his fellow-prifoners, who would otherwife
have murdered him. The butchers of Paris delired to
have him put into their hands, affirming that they would
flay him alive, and that he ffiould ftill live 12 days.
When he was put to the torture, he broke out into
horrid execrations, and always infifted that he did the
fa<ft from his own motive, and that he could acoufe
nobody. On the day of his execution, after he had
made the amende honourable before the church of Notre
Dame, he was carried to the Greve; and, being brought
upon a fcaffold, was tied to a wooden engine in the
fhape of a St Andrew’s crofs. The knife with which
he did the murder being faftened in his right hand, it
was firft burnt in a flow fire; then the fleffiy parts
of his body were torn with red-hot pincers, and melted
lead, oil, pitch, and rofin, poured into the wounds,
and through a clay funnel into his bowels by the navel.
The people refufed to pray for him; and when, ac¬
cording to the fentence pronounced upon him, he came
to be dragged to pieces by four horfes, one of thofe that
were brought appearing to be but weak, one of the fpec-
tators offered his own, with which the criminal wasmuch
moved: he is faid to have then made a confeffion, which
was fo written by the greffier Voifin, that not fo much as
one word of it could ever be read. He was very earneft
for abfolution, which his confeffor refufed, unlefs he
would reveal his accomplices ; “ Give it me condi¬
tionally (faid he), upon condition that I have told the
truth,” which they did. His body was fo roburt, that
it refilled the force of the horfes; and the executioner
was at length obliged to cut him into quarters, which
the people dragged through the ftreets. The houfe in
which he was born was demolifhed, and a column of
infamy eredled; his father and mother were banilhed
from Angoulefme, and ordered to quit the kingdom
Upon pain of being hanged, if they returned, without
any form of procefs; his brothers, fillers, uncles, and
other relations, were commanded to lay afide the name
of Ravilliac, and to affume fome other. Such was the
fate of this execrable monitor, who, according to his
own account, fuffered himfelf to be impelled to fuch
Vol. XVII. Part II.
RAY
a fail by the feditious fermons and books of the Jefuits, Ravilliac
whom Henry, rather out of fear than love, had recal- N
led and careffed, and to whom he had bequeathed his “I7'-
heart.
Neither the dying words of Ravilliac, nor fo much
of his procefs as was publilhed, were credited by his
cotemporaries. Regalt the hillorian fays, that there
were two different opinions concerning this affaffination;
one, that it was conduced by fome grandees, who facri-
ficed that monarch to their old refentments; the other,
that it was done by the emiffaries of the Spaniards. Let¬
ters from Bruffels, Antwerp, Mechlin, and other places,
were received before the 15th of May, with a report of
the king’s death. Though nothing occurs in the exami¬
nations of Ravilliac that were firtl publilhed, inreference
to his journeys to Naples and other places; yet as thefe
are fet down as certain truths by good authors, fo there
are probable grounds to believe that they were not ficti¬
tious. It appears from Sir Ralph Win wood’s Memorials,
that Ravilliac had been not long before at Bruffels. A-
mongft other circumftances that created a very great
doubt, whether the affaflin fpoke truth, were the things
found in his pocket at the time he was feized; amongft
which was a chaplet, the figure of a heart made in cot¬
ton, in the centre of which he faid there w'as a bit of
the true crofs, but when cut there was none, which he
affirmed was given him by a canon at Angoulefme, a
piece of paper with the arms of France painted upon it,
another full of characters, and a third containing verfes
for the meditation of a crimmal going to execution.
The provoft of Pluviers, or Petiviers, in Beauce, about
fix miles from Paris, had faid openly on the day that
Henry IV. was murdered, “ This day the king is either
flain or dangeroufly wounded.” After the king’s death
was known, he was feized and fent prifoner to Paris;
but, before he was examined, he was found hanged in
the firings of his drawers. His body was, notwith-
ftanding, hung up by the heels on the common gibbet
on the 19th of June. What increafed the fufpicions
grounded on this man’s end, was his having two fons
Jefuits, and his being a dependant on the family of
Monfieur d’Entragues.
RAUN, a town of fome ftrength upon the river
Miza, remarkable for a bloody fkirmiffi between the
Pruffians and Auftrians, in Auguft 1744. The king
of Pruffia, intending to get poffeflion of Beraun, fent
thither fix battalions, with eight cannon, and 800 huf-
fars; but General Feftititz being there with a great
party of his corps, and M. Luchefi with looo horfe,
they not only repulfed the Pruffians, but attacked them
in their turn, and, after a warm difpute, obliged them
to retire with confiderable lofs.
RAURICUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Raurici, fituated over againft Abnoba, a mountain from
which the Danube takes its rife. A Roman colony led
by L. Manutius Plancus the fcholar and friend of Ci¬
cero: called Colonia Rauriaca (Pliny), Raurica (In-
fcription), Augujla Rauricorum. The town was deftroy-
ed in Julian’s time. It is now commonly called Aitgjl^
a village greatly decayed from what it formerly was.
It is fituated on the Rhine, diftant about two hours
to the eaft of Bafil. The country is now the canton of
Bafil.
RAY, John, a celebrated naturalift, was the fon of
Mr Roger Ray a blackfmith, and "Was born at Black
4 N Notly
[ 649 ]
RAY [ 6.
Ray. Notly in Effex in 1628. He received the firft rudi-
ments of learning at the grammar-fchool at Brain¬
tree ; and in *644 was admitted into Catharine-Hall
in Cambridge, from whence he afterwards removed
to Trinity college in that univerfity. He took the de¬
gree of mailer of arts, and became at length a fenior fel¬
low of the college *, but his intenfe application to
his iludies having injured his health, he was obliged at
his leifure hours to exercife himfelf by riding er walk¬
ing in the fields, which led him to the iludy of plants.
He noted from Juhnfon, Parkinfon, and the Phytologia
Britannica, the places where curious plants grew ; and
in 1658 rode from Cambridge to the city of Cheiler,
from whence he avent into North Wales, vifiting many
places, and among others the famous hill of Snowdon ;
returning by Shrewfbury and Glouceiler. In 1660 he
publHhed his Cata/ogus Plant arum circa Cantabrigiam
nafcentium, and the fame year was ordained deacon and
prieft. In 1661 he accompanied Francis Willoughby,
Efq. and others in fearch of plants and other natural
curiofities, in the north of England and Scotland; and
the next year made a weftern tour from Chefter, and
through Wales, to Cornwall, Devonfhire, Dorfetfhire,
Hampfhire, Wiltlhire,. and other counties. He after¬
wards travelled with Mr Willoughby and other gen¬
tlemen through Holland, Germany, Italy, France, &c.
took feveral tours in England, and was admitted fel¬
low of the Royal Society. In 1672 his intimate and
beloved friend Mr Willoughby died in the 37th year
of his age, at Middleton Hall, his feat in Yorklhire ;
“ to the infinite and unfpeakable lofs and grief (fays Mr
Ray) of myfelf, his friends, and all good men.” There
having been the clofefl and fincereft friendlhip between
Mr Willoughby and Mr Ray, who w'ere men of fimi-
lar natures and. taftes, from the time of their being
fellow collegians, Mr Willoughby not only confided
in Mr Ray, in his lifetime, but alfo at his death :
for he made him one of the executors of hb will, and
charged him with the education of his fons Francis .and
Thomas, leaving him alfo for life 60I. per annum.
The eldeft of thefe young gentlemen, not being four
years of age, Mr Ray, as a faithful truftee, betook
himfelf to the inftruflion of them ; and for their ufe
compofed his Nomenc/ator ClaJJicus, which was publifh-
ed this very year, 1672. Francis the eldeft dying be¬
fore he was of age, the younger became Lord Middle-
ton. Not many months after the death of Mr Wil¬
loughby, Mr Ray loft another of his beft friends, Bi-
Ihop Wilkins ; whom he vifited in London the 18th of
November 1672, and found near expiring by a total
•fuppreftion of urine for eight days. As it is natural
for the mind, when it is hurt in one part, to feek re¬
lief from another •, fo Mr Ray, having loft fome of his
beft friends, and being in a manner left deftitute, con¬
ceived thoughts of marriage •, and accordingly, in June
1673, did a&ually marry a gentlewoman of about 20
years of age, the daughter of Mr Oakley of Launton
in Oxford (hire. Towards the end of this year, cam©
forth his “ Obfervations Topographical, Moral, &c.”
made in foreign countries ; to which was added his
Cata/ogus Stirpium in exteris regionibus obfervatarum :
and about the fame time, his Colle&ion of unufualor local
Englifh words, which he had gathered up in his travels
through the counties of England. After having pub-
liftted many books on fubjefls foreign to his profeffion,
2
o ] R A Y
he at length refolved to publifh in the chara&er of a Raj,. r
divine, as well as in that of a natural philofopher : in
which view he publiftied his excellent demonftration of * J
the being and attributes of God, entitled The Wifdorn
of God manifejicd in the Worhs of the Creation, 8vo,
1697. The rudiments of this work were read in fome
college ledtures j and another collection of the fame
kind he enlarged and publifhed under the title of Three
Physico-theological difcourfes, concerning the Chaos, De¬
luge, and DiJJ'olution of the World, 8vo, 1692. He died
in 1705. He was modeit, affable, and communicative j
and was diftinguifhed by his probity, charity, fobriety,
and piety. He wrote a great number of works j the
principal of which, befides thofe already mentioned, are4
1. Catalogus P lant arum Angiiae 2. DiBionariolum l ri-
hngue fecundum locos.communes. 3. Hifloria Plantarum,
Species haclenus editas, aliufque infuper multas noviter
invent as et defcriptas completlens, three vols. 4. Met ho-
dus Plantarum nova, cum Tabulis, 8vo, and feveral other
works on plants. 6. Synopf s Methodica Animalium ^ua-
drupedum et Serpentim generis, 8vo. 6. Synopfs Metho¬
dica Avium et Pfcium. 7. Hiforia Infeclorum, opus
pofhumum. 8. Methodus InfeUlarum. 9. Philofophical
Letters, &c.
RAYNAL, William Thomas, or the Abbe Ray-
nal, was born about the year 1712, and received his
education among the celebrated order of the Jefuits, and
became one of their number. Their value and excel¬
lence chiefly confifted in afligning to each member his
proper employment. Among them it ivas that Raynal
acquired a tafte for literature and fcience, and by them
he was afterwards expelled, but for what reafon is not
certainly known, although the abbe Barruel afcribes it
to impiety. Soon after this event he affociated with
Voltaire, D’Alembert, and Diderot, by whom it is faid,
he was employed to furnifh the articles in theology for
the Encyclopedic; but heemployed the abbe Yvon to fur-
nifti them for him, whom Barruel allows to have been an
inoffenfive and upright man.
His firft work, which is juftly regarded as an eminent
performance, is entitled “ Political and Philofophical
Hiftory of the European Settlements in the Eaft and
Weft Indies.” The ftile of this work is animated ; it
contains many juft refledlions both of a political and phi¬
lofophical nature, and has been tranflated into every Eu¬
ropean language. We believe this performance was fol¬
lowed by a fmall tradl in the year 1780, entitled “ The
Revolution of America,” in which he pleads the caufe.
of the colonifts with much zeal, cenfures the condudl of
the Britifli government, and difcovers an acquaintanca
with the principles of the different faftions, Avhich has
induced a belief that he had been furniftied with mate¬
rials by thofe who knew the. merits of the difpute much,
better than any foreigner could reafonably be fuppofed
to do.
The French government inftituted a profecution a-
gainft him on account, of his hiftory of the Eaft and
Weft Indies j but with fo little feverity was it conduct¬
ed, that fufficient time was allowed him to retire to the
dominions of his Pruffian majefty, by whom he was
protected, notwithftanding he had treated the character
of that fovereign with very little ceremony. Even the
moft defpotic princes {hewed him much kindnefs, al¬
though he always animadverted on their conduCt with¬
out referve 3 and he lived in the good graces of the em-
RAY [6
ftayna!,'' J^efs of Ruffia. At one period the Britith houfe of com-
Rays. mons (hewed him a very Angular mark of refpeft. The
■“■V'-"’ fpeaker having been informed that iiaynal was a fpeffa-
tor in the gallery, public bufinefs was inftantly fulpend-
ed, and the flranger was condudled to a more honour¬
able Atuation. But when a friend of Dr Johnfon’s alked
him refpefting the fame perlonage, “ Will you give me
leave, dotfor, to introduce to you the abbe Raynal ?”
he turned on his heel, and faid, “ No fir.”
A love of liberty was the principal trait in Raynal’s
character, of which he gave no proper or accurate defi¬
nition in his earlier writings •, but when he beheld the
abufe of liberty in the progrefs of the French Revolu¬
tion, he nobly attempted to retrieve his errors. In the
month of May 1791, he addreffed to the Conftituent
Affembly, a letter the moft eloquent, argumentative,
and impreffive, that perhaps was ever compofed upon
any fubjeft whatever. He obferves among other things 5
“ I have long dared to fpeak to kings of their duty ;
fuffer me now to fpeak to the people of their errors, and
to their reprefentatives of the dangers which threaten us.
I am, I own to you, deeply affli£led at the crimes which
plunge this empire into mourning. It is true that I am
to look back with horror at myfelf for being one of
thofe who, by feeling a noble indignation againft arbi¬
trary power, may perhaps have furniflied arms to licen-
tioufnefs. Do then religion, the laws, the royal au¬
thority, and public order, demand back from philofophy
and reafon the ties which united them to the grand fo-
ciety of the French nation, as if, by expofing abufes,
and teaching the rights of the people and the duties of
princes, our criminal efforts had broken thefe ties ? But,
no ! never have the bold conceptions of philofophy
been reprefented by us as the Uriel rule for a£is of legi-
flation.”
He afterwards completely proves, that it was not the
bufinefs of the alfembly to abolifh every ancient inflitu-
tion ; that the genius of the French people is fuch, that
they never can be happy or profperous but under a well
regulated monarchical government j and that, if they
wifhed not the nation to fall under the word kind of
defpotifm, they mull increafe the power of the king.
Befides the works already mentioned, he was the au¬
thor of “ A Hiftory of the Parliament of England,”
&c. “ Hiftory of the Stadtholderate The Hiftory
of the Divorce of Catharine of Arragon by Henry
VIII.” and a “ Hiftory of the Revocation of the Edift
of Nantz,” in four volumes •, but he committed many of
his papers to the flames during the fanguinary reign
of Robefpierre. He was deprived of all his property
during the revolution, and died in poverty in the month
of March 1796, in the 84th year of his age.
Ray, in Optics, a beam of light emitted from a radi¬
ant or luminous body. See Light and Optics.
InjleBed RATS, thofe rays of light which, on their
near approach to the edges of bodies, in palling by them,
are bent out of their courfe, being turned either from
the body or towards it. This property of the rays of
light is generally termed diffraftion by foreigners, and
Dr Hooke fometimes called it defieBion.
RefleBed RATS, thofe rays of light which, after fall¬
ing upon the body, do not go beyond the furface of it,
but are thrown back again.
RefraBed RATS, thofe rays of light which, after fall-
•■ing upon any medium, enter its furface, being bent either
;i ] REA
towards or from a perpendicular to the point on which Kays,
they fell. W
Pencil oj RATS, a number of rays iffuing irom a ^
point of an object, and diverging in the term of a cone.
RAZOR, a wt 11-known initrument, ufed by furgeons,
barbers, &.e. for (having off the hair from various parts
of the body.— A-' (having to many people is a moft;
painful operation, cutlers in different countries have long
applied their (kill to remove that inconvenience. Some
have invented foaps of a peculiar kind to make the ope¬
ration more eafy, and fome have invented (traps. \\ ith
refpeft to razors, fome artifts have fucceeded rather by
accident than from any fixed principle ; and therefore
we have found great inequality in the goodnefs of razors
made by the fame artift.
A correfpondent allures us, that he has for 40 years
pad been at much pains to find out razors made by the
bed makers both in England and Scotland, and was for¬
tunate enough, at lad, to difeover a kind made by a
Scotchman of the name of Logan, which he called mag-
netical razors, becaufe they were directed to be touched
with an artificial magnet before ufing. Thefe, our
friend affures us, are moft excellent razors, and he has
ufed them for upwards of 20 years. He fays likewife
that they continue in good order, without requiring to
be ground ; but that the great draw-back on their be¬
ing generally ufed, is the price, which is higher than
moft people are able or difpofed to give for that inftru-
ment. Our correfpondent, who refides in the vicinity
of London, alfo informs us, that lately the famous fur-
geon’s inftrument-maker, Mr Savigny in Pall Mall, af¬
ter numberlefs experiments, in the courfe of above 20
years, has at length brought razors to a degree of per-
feflion never yet equalled ; and with fuch certainty,
that the purchafer is in no danger of a difappointment,
though the price is very moderate. By thefe, we are
told, the operation of (having is performed wdth greater
eafe, more perfectly, and more expeditioufly than with
any other.
RE, in Grammar, an infeparable particle added to
the beginning of words to double or otherwife modify
their meaning ; as in re-aftion, re-move, re-export, &c.
RE-ACTION, in Phyjiology, the refiftance made by
all bodies to the a6lion or impulfe of others that en¬
deavour to change its (late whether of motion or reft,
&c.
READING, the art of delivering written language
with propriety, force, and elegance.
“ We muft not judge fo unfavourably of eloquence
or good reading (fays the illuftrious Fenelori), as to
reckon it only a frivolous art, that a deelaimer ufes to
impofe upon the weak imagination of the multitude, and
to ferve his own ends. It is a very ferious art, defigned
to initrudt people ; to fupprefs their paflions and reform
their manners ; to fupport the laws, diredil public coun¬
cils, and to make men good and happy.”
Reafon and experience demonftrate, that delivery itir, i-1
reading ought to be lefs animated than in interejled fpeak- reading *
ing. In every exercife of the faculty of fpeech, andfliouidbe
thofe expreffions of countenance and gefture with which ^ ™ma-
it is generally attended, we may be confidered to be al-te^ t^n^a
ways in one of the two following fituations : Firft, de-f”Caking.
livering our bofom fentiments on cireumftances which re¬
late to ourfelves or others ; or, fecondly, repeating fome-
thing that was fpoken on a certain occafion for the
4N 2 amvifement
REA [ 652 1 REA
Reading, amufement or information of an auditor. Now, if we
'—r— obferve the deliveries natural to thefe two fituations, we
fhall find, that the firfl may be accompanied with every
degree of expreflion which can man if eft itfelf in us, from
the lowed: of fympathy to the mod violent and energe¬
tic of the fuperior padions ; while the latter, from the
fpeaker’s chief bufinefs being to repeat what he heard
with accuracy, difeovers only a faint imitation of thofe
figns of the emotions which we fuppofe agitated him
from whom the words were fird borrowed.— J jie ufe
and necedity of this difference of manner is evident ;
and if we are attentive to thefe natural figns of expref-
fion, we fhall find them conforming with the greated
nicety to the dighted and mod minute movements of
the bread.
This repetition of another’s words might be fuppoled
to pafs through the mouth of a fecond or third perfon •,
and in thefe cafes, fince they were not ear and eye wit-
neffes of him who fird fpoke them, their manner of de¬
livery would want the advantage neceffarily arifing from
an immediate idea of the original one •, hence, on this
account, this would be a dill lefs lively reprefentation
than that of the fird repeater. But as, from a daily ob-
fervation of every variety of fpeech and its affociated
figns of emotion, mankind foon become pretty well ac¬
quainted with them, and this in different degrees, accord¬
ing to their difeernment, fenfibility, &c. experience
fhows us that thefe latter repeaters (as we call them)
might conceive and ufe a manner of delivery which,
though lefs charaBeriJlic perhaps, would on the whole
be no way inferior to the fird, as to the common natural
exprefiion proper for their fituation. It appears, there¬
fore, that repeaters of every degree may be edeemed up¬
on a level as to animation, and that our twofold didinc-
tion above contains accurately enough the whole variety
of ordinary delivery ;—we fav ordinary, becaufe
There is another very peculiar kind of delivery fome-
times ufed in the perfon of a repeater, of which it will
in this place be necetfary to take fome notice. What
we mean here is mimicry; an accomplifhment which,
when perfedflv and properly difplayed, never fails of
yielding a high degree of pleafure. But finee this plea-
dire chiefly refults from the principle of imitation re-
fpedling manner, and not from the purport of the mat¬
ter communicated ; fince, comparatively fpeaking, it is
only attainable by few perfons, and pradiifed only on
particular occafions ;—on thefe accounts it mud be re-
fufed a place among the modes of ufeful delivery taught
us by general nature, and edeemed a qualification pure¬
ly anomalous.
Thefe didinftions with regard to a fpeaker’s fitua¬
tion of mind premifed, let us fee to which of them an
author and bis reader may mod properly be referred,
and how they are circumdanced with regard to, one
another.
The matter of all books is, either what the author
fays in his own perfon, or an acknowledged recital of
the words of others : hence an author may be edeemed
both an original fpeaker and a repeater, according as
what he writes is of the fird or fecond kind. Now a
reader mud be fuppofed either a (dually to perfonate the
author, or one whofe office is barely to communicate
what he has faid to an auditor. But in the fird of thefe
fuppofitions he would, in the delivery of what is the au-
^hor’s-own,. evidently commence mimic $ which being, as
above obferved, a character not acknowledged by genet- Reatliuj.
ral nature in this department, ought to be rejected as  v^-
generally improper. The other fuppofition therefore
mud be accounted right; and then, as to the whole
matter of the book, the reader is found to be exactly in
the fituation of a repeater, fave that he takes what he
delivers from the page before him indead of his memo¬
ry. It follows then, in proof of our initial propofition,
that, if we are direfted by nature and propriety, the
manner of our delivery in reading ought to be inferior
in warmth and energy to what we fhould ufe, were the
language before us the fpontaneous effutions of our owt\
hearts in the circumdances of thofe out of whofe mouths
it is fuppofed to proceed.
.Evident as the purport of this reafoning is, it has not
fo much as been glanced at by the writers on the fub-
jeft we are now entered upon, or any of its kindred
ones-, which has occafioned a manned want of accuracy
in feveral of their rules and obfervations. Among the
red, this precept has been long reverberated from au¬
thor to author as a perfedl dandard for propriety in
reading. “ Deliver yourfelves in the fame manner you
would do, were the matter your own original fentimenta
uttered diredtly from the heart.” As all kinds of deli¬
very mud have many things in common, the rule will
in many articles be undoubtedly right; but, from what
has been faid above, it mud be as certainly faulty in
refpedt to feveral others ; as it is certain nature never
confounds by like figns two things fo very different, as
a copy and an original, an emanation darted immediately
from the fun, and its weaker appearance in the lunar
refledlion.
The precepts we have to offer for improving the
above-mentioned rule, diall be delivered under the heads
of accent, emphajis, modulation, exprejjion, paufes, Sec. 2
I. decent.—In attending to the affections of the Accent
voice when we fpeak, it is eafy to obferve, that, inde¬
pendent of any other confideration, one part of it differs
from another, in Jlrefs, energy, or force of utterance.
In words we find one fyllable differing from another
with refpedt to this mode ; and in fentences one or
more words as frequently vary from the red in a fimilar
manner. This drefs with regard to fyllables is called
accent, and contributes greatly to the variety and har¬
mony of language. Refpedting words, it is termed em¬
phajis ; and its chief office is to affid the fenfe, force,
or perfpicuity of the fentence—of which more under
the next bead.
“ Accent (as deferibed in the Leftures on Elocution)
is made by us two ways j either by dwelling longer up¬
on one fyllable than the red, or by giving it a fmarter
percuffion of the voice in utterance. Of the fird of
thtfe we have indances in the words glory, father, holy ;
of the lad in badtle, hab'it, bodrow. So that accent
with us is not referred to tune, but to time ; to quan¬
tity, not quality -, to the more equable or precipitate
motion of the voice, not to the variation of the notes-or
inflexions.”
In theatric declamation, in order to give it more pomp
and folemnity, it is ufual to dwell longer than common
upon the unaccented fyllables \ and the author now
quoted has endeavoured to prove (p. 51. 54.) the prac¬
tice faulty, and to fhow (p. 55.) that “ though it (i. e„
true folemnity) may demand a flower utterance than
ufual, yet fit) requires that the fame proportion in point
REA [65
Reading, of quantity be obferved in the fyllables, as there is in
muiical notes when the fame tune is played in quicker
or floAver time.” But that this deviation from ordinary
fpeech is not a fault, as our author afferts 5 nay, that on
the contrary it is a real beauty when kept under proper
regulation, the following obfervations it is hoped will
fufficiently prove.
(I.) It is a truth of the moft obvious nature, that
thofe things which on their application to their proper
fenfes have a power of railing in us certain ideas and
emotions, are ever differently modified in their conftitu-
ent parts when different elfedls are produced in the mind :
and alfo (II.) that, within proper bounds, were we to
fuppofe thefe conllituent parts to be proportionally in-
creafed or diminifhed as to quantity, this effeft would
Hill be the fame as to quality.—For inflance : The dif¬
ferent ideas of ftrength, fwiftnefs, &.c. which are raifed
in us by the fame fpecies of animals, is owing to the
different form of their correfponding parts; the different
effedls of mufic on the paffions, to the different airs and
movements of the melody ; and the different expreflions
of human fpeech, to a difference in tone, fpeed, &c. of
the voice. And thefe peculiar effedls would flill re¬
main the fame, were we to fuppofe the animals above
alluded to, to be greater or leffer, within their proper
bounds; the movement of the mufic quicker or flower,
provided it did not palpably interfere with that of fome
other fpecies; and the pitch of the voice higher or lower,
if not carried out of the limits in which it is obferved
on fimilar occafions naturally to move. Farther (III.)
lince, refpedling the emotions more efpecially, there
are no rules to determine a priori what effeft any parti¬
cular attribute or modification of an objedf will have
upon a percipient, our knowledge of this kind mufl evi¬
dently be gained from experience. Laftly, (IV.) In
every art imitating nature we are pleafed to fee, the cha-
radteriftic members of the pattern heightened a little far¬
ther than perhaps it ever was carried in any real ex¬
ample, provided it be not bordering upon fome ludi¬
crous and difagreeable provinces of excefs.
Now for the application of thefe premiffes.—To keep
pace and be confiftent with the dignity of the tragic
mufe, the delivery of her language fhould neceflarily be
dignified ; and this it is plain from obfervation (I.) can¬
not be accomplilhed otherwife than by fomething differ¬
ent in the manner of it from that of ordinary fpeech ;
finee dignity is effentially different from familiarity. But
how muff we difeover this different manner ? By attend¬
ing to nature : and in this cafe fhe tells us, that befides
ufing a flower delivery, and greater diflinElnefs of the
words (which every thing merely grave requires, and
gravity is a concomitant of dignity, though not its effenee),
we muft dwell a little longer upon the unaccented fylla¬
bles than we do in common. As to what our author
obferves in the above quotation, of dignity's only requi¬
ring a flower utterance than ordinary', while the pro¬
portion of the fyllables as to quantity continues the fame;
it is apprehended the remark (II.) refpefting quicknefr
and flownefs of movement will (how it to be not alto¬
gether true. For fince the delivery is not altered in
form, its expreffion muft be ft ill of the fame kind, and
perhaps what may be rightly fuggefted by the term
gravely familiar.
But fomething farther may be yet faid in defence of
this artificial delivery, as our author calls it. Is not'
3
3 1 REA
the movement of any thing, of whatever fpecies, when _ Reading.
dignified or folemn, in general of an equable and delibe¬
rate nature (as in the minuet, the military ftep, &c.) ?
And in theatrical declamation, is not the propenfity to
introduce this equablenefs fo ftrong, that it is almoft im-
poflible to avoid it wholly, were We ever fo determined
to do it ? If thefe two queries be anfwered in the affir¬
mative (as we are perfuaded they W’ill), while the firft
fupports our argument for the propriety of the manner of
delivery in queftion, the fecond difeovers a kind of ne-
ceflity for it. And that this manner may be carried a
little farther in quantity on the flage than is ufual in
real life, the principle (IV.) of heightening nature will
juftify, provided faffiion (which has ever lomething to
do in thefe articles) give it a fandlion ; for the precife
quantity of feveral heightenings may be varied by this
great legiflator almoft at will. 3
II. Emphafts.—As emphafls is not a thing annexed to Emphafis.-
particular words, as accent is to fyllables, but owes its
rife chiefly to the meaning of a paffage, and muft there¬
fore vary its feat according as that meaning varies, it
will be neceffary to explain a little farther the general
idea given of it above.
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, &c.
Sing heav’nly mufe, &c.
Suppofing, in reference to the above well-known
lines, that originally other beings, befides men, had dif¬
obeyed the commands of the Almighty, and that the
circumftance were well known to us, there would fall
an emphafls upon the word man’s in the firft. line, and
hence it would be read thus :
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit, &c.
But if it were a notorious truth, that mankind had
tranfgreffed in a peculiar manner more than once, the
emphajis would fall on firfl, and the line be read,
Of man’s firfl difobedience,.&c.
Again, admitting death (as was really the cafe) to
have been an unheard of and dreadful punilhment
brought upon man in confsquence of his tranfgreffion ;
on that fuppofition the third line would be read,
Brought death into the world, &c.
But if we were to fuppofe mankind knew there wasfuch
an evil as death in other regions, though the place they
inhabited had been free from it till their tranfgreffion ;
the line would run thus,
Brought death into the world,
Now from a proper delivery of the above lines, with
regard to any one of the fuppofitions we have chofen,
out of feveral others that might in the fame manner have
been imagined, it will appear that the emphafls they il-
luftrate is effedled by a manifeft delay in the pronuncia¬
tion, and a tone fomethingyi/r/Zer and Zoz/d'er than is ufed
in ordinary ; and that its office is folely to determine
the meaning of a fentence with reference to fomething
faid before, prefuppofed by the author as general know¬
ledge, or in order to remove an ambiguity where a
pafiage is capable of having more fenfes given it than
one,.
But,,
REA [6
Reading. But, fuppofing in the above example, that none of
the fenfes there pointed out were precifely the true one,
and that the meaning of the lines were no other than
what is obvioufly fuggefted by their fimple conftrudtion ;
in that cafe it may be atked, if in reading them there
Ihould be no word dignified with the emphatical accom-
panyaients above defcribed >—The anfwer is, Not one
with an emphafis of the fame kind as that we have juft
been illuftrating ; yet it is neverthelefs true, that on
hearing thefe lines well read, we ftiall find fome words
diftinguifhed from the reft by a manner of delivery bor¬
dering a little upon it (a). And thefe words will in
* general be fuch as feem the moft important in the fen-
tence, or on other accounts to merit this diftinftion.
But as at belt it only enforces, graces, or enlivens, and
not fixes the meaning of any paflage,, and even caprice
and faftiion (b) have often a hand in determining its
place and magnitude, it cannot properly be reckoned an
ejfential of delivery. However, it is of too much mo¬
ment to be negleifted by thofe 'who would wifti to be
good readers*, and, for the fake of diftinftion, we may
not unaptly denominate both the kinds of energies in
queftion, by the terms emphafis of fenfe, and emphafis
of force (c).
Now from the above account of thefe two fpecies of
emphafis it will appear, “ that in reading, as in fpeak-
ing, the firft of them muft be determined entirely by the
fenfe of the paffage, and always made alihe: But as to
the other, tafie alone feems to have a right of fixing its
iituation and quantity.”—Farther: Since the more ef-
fential of thefe two energies is folely the work of nature
5+ ] REA
(as appears by its being confiantly found in the common Resting,
converfation of people of all kinds of capacities and de- w—
grees of knowledge), and the moft ignorant perfon ne¬
ver fails of uling it rightly in the eftufions of his own
heart, it happens very luckily, and ought always to be
remembered, that provided we underftand what we read,
and give way to the dictates of our own feeling, the etn-
phafis of fenfe can fcarce ever avoid falling fpontaneouf-
ly upon its proper place.
Here it will be neceffary to fay fomething by way of
reply to a queftion which will naturally occur to the
mind of every one. As the rule for the etnphafis of
fenfe requires we fhould underftand what we read before
it can be properly ufed, it is incumbent upon us never
to attempt to read what we have not previoufly ftudied
for that purpofe ? In anfwer to this, it muft be obfer-
ved, that though fuch a ftep will not be without its
advantages ; yet, as from the fairnefs of printed types,
the well-known paufes of punctuation, and a long ac¬
quaintance with the phrafeology and conftruflion of ®ur
language, &c. experience tells us it is pofiible to com¬
prehend the fenfe at the firft reading, a previous perufal
of what is to be read does not feem neceffary to all,
though, if they would wifti to appear to advantage, it
may be expedient to many ; and it is this circumftance
which makes us venture upon eKtemporary reading, and
give it a place among our amufements.—Similar re¬
marks might be made with regard to modulation, expref-
fion, &c. did not what is here obferved naturally anti¬
cipate them.
III. Modulation (d). Every perfon muft have obfer- Moduk.
ved,tion.
(a) '1 he following lines will illuftrate both thefe kinds of ftrefles : For, to convey their right meaning, the word
any is evidently to be pronounced louder and fuller than thofe with the accent over them.
Get wealth and place, if pofiible with grace $
If not, by any means get wealth and place.—Pope.
Fhis couplet is accented in the manner we find it in the Efifay on Elocution by Mafon. And if, according to the
judgment of this author, tne words thus diftinguilhed are to have an emphatical ftrefs, it muft be of the inferior
kind above mentioned, and which a little farther on we call emphafis of force } while the word ANY in a diffe-
rent type alone pofieffes the other fort of energy, and which is there contradiftinguiflied by the term emphafis of
jenje.
(b) Among a number of people who have had proper opportunities of learning to read in the beft manner it is
now taught, it would be difficult to find two, who, in a given inftance, would ufe the emphafis of force alike, ei¬
ther as to place or quantity. Nay fome fcarcely ufe any at all: and others will not fcruple to carry it much be¬
yond any thing we have a precedent for in common difcourfe $ and even now and then throw it upon words fo
very ri mg in them elves, that it is evident they do it with no other view, than for the fake of the variety it gives
to the modulation—I his pradlice, like the introduaion of difcords into mufic, may without doubt be indulged
now an 5 wore it too frequent, the capital intent of thefe energies would manifeltly either be deftroyed
or rendered dubious. ° J ]
(c) The firft of thefe terms anfwers to the fimple emphafis defcribed in the LeBures on Elocution, andthefecond
rujr y o w a is t ere called complex. The difference lies in this. Under complex emphafis the author feems (for
6 1S rom ^ eai In this article) to include the tones limply confidered of all the emotions of the mind;
as weft the tender and languid z.% fine forcible and exulting. Our term is intended to be confined to fuch modes of
expreffion alone as are marked with an apparently} or increafe of the voice.
7* ( J / aUt*°r,i° i z Jntr°d“ttion to the Art of Reading, not allowing that there is any variation of tone, as to
hC ^e lvejT a compkte period or fentence, places modulation folely in the diverfification of the
are of a ffiffi- l 'amty 0f fyllables, as to long or Jhort, fwift or flow, firong or weak, and loud or foft. As we
ti'pc . i. • 0P1IU°n \ jUr 1(^ea m°dulation is confined purely to harmonious inflexions of voice. Thefe quali-
nnt arbitrary r- 1S/trUe’ ai koth to the force and beauty of delivery, yet, fince fome of them are fixed and
*T’dered as rnndes ^ .and the others (of fw ft and flow, firong and weak, loud and foft) may be con-
-dered as modes of expreflion which do not affieft tjte modulation as to tone, it will agree belt with our plan to
efteena
REA [ 655 ] REA
Reading, ved, that, in fpeaking, the voice is fubjefl to an altera-
v "l" tion of found, which in fome meafure refembles the
movement of a tune. Thefe founds, however, are evi¬
dently nothing like fo much varied as thofe that are
ftridtlv mufical j and we have attempted to {how in the
preceding chapter, that, befides this, they have an efTe.n-
tial difference in themfelves. Neverthelefs, from the
general fimilitude of thefe two articles,, they poffefs fe-
veral terms in common j and the particular we have
now to examine is in both of them called modulation.
This affection of the voice, being totally arbitrary, is
differently characterized in different parts of the world j
and, through the power of cuftom, every place is inclin¬
ed to think their own the only one natural and agree¬
able, and the reft affefted with fome barbarous twang
or ungainly variation (e). It may be obferved, how¬
ever, that though there is a general uniform call or
faftiion of modulation peculiar to every country, yet it
by no means follows that there is or can be any thing
fixed in its application to particular palfages', and there¬
fore we find different people will, in any given inftance,
ufe modulations fomething different, and neverthelefs
be each of them equally agreeable.
But, quitting thefe general remarks, we fhall (as our
purpofe requires it) confider the properties of modulation
a little more minutely.
Firft, then, we may obferve, that, in fpeaking, there
is a particular found (or key-note, as it is often called)
in which the modulation for the moft part runs, and to
which its occafional inflexions, either above or below,
may in fome refpeCfs be conceived to have a reference,
like that which common mufic has to its key-note.
Yet there is this difference between the two kinds of
modulation, that whereas the firft always concludes in
the key-note, the other frequently concludes a little
below it (f). This key-note, in fpeaking, is generally
the found given at the outfet of every complete fen-
tence or period; and it may be obferved on fome occa-
fions to vary its pitch through the limits of a mufical
interval of a confiderable magnitude. The tones, that Reading-,
fall a little lower than the key at the clofe of a fentence '"" J
or period, are called cadences. Thefe cadences, if we
afe accurate in our dittinftions, will, with refpett to
their offices, be found of two kinds j though they meet
fo frequently together, that it may be belt to conceive
them only as anfwering a double purpofe. One of thefe
offices is to affift the fenfe, and the other to decorate the
modulation. An account of the firft may be feen in the
fe£Hon on Paufes; and the latter will be found to fliow
itfelf pretty frequently in every thing grave and plaintive,
or in poetic defcription and other highly ornamented
language, where the mind is by its influence brought
to feel a placid kind of dignity and fatisfattion. Thefe
two cadences, therefore, may be conveniently diftin-
guifhed by applying to them refpe&ively the epithets
fignijicant and ornamental.
We have already obferved, that reading fhould in
fome things differ from fpeaking j and the particular
under confideration feems to be one which ought to vary
a little in thefe arts. For,
Modulation in reading ferves a twofold purpofe. At
the fame time that it gives pleafure to the ear on the
principles of harmony, it contributes through that me¬
dium to preferve the attention. And fince written lan¬
guage (when not purely dramatical) is in general more
elegant in its conftru&ion, and mufical in its periods,
than the oral, one ; and fince many interefting particu¬
lars are wanting in reading, which are prefent in fpeak¬
ing, that contribute greatly to fix the regard of the
hearer ; it feems reafonable, in order to do juftice to the
language, and in part to fupply the incitements of at¬
tention juft alluded to, that in the former of thefe two
articles a modulation fhould be ufed fomething more
harmonious and artificial than in the latter. Agreeably
to this reafoning, it is believed, we fhall find every rea*.
der, on a narrow examination, adopt more or lefs a mo¬
dulation thus ornamented : though, after all, it muft be
acknowledged there are better grounds to believe, that
the
efteem thefe properties as refpeaively belonging to the eftablifhed laws of pronunciation and the imitative branch
of expreffion mentioned in the end of the enfuing head.
(E) From what accounts we have remaining of the modulation of the ancients, it appears to have been hiofily
ornamented, and apparently fomething not unlike our modern recitative ; particularly that of their theatric decla¬
mation was mufic in its ftri&efl fenfe, and accompanied with inltruments. In the courfe of time and the pro-
grefs of refinement, this modulation became gradually more and more fimple, till it has now loft the genius of
mufic, and is entirely regulated by tafte. At home here, every one has heard the Jing-fong cant, as it is call¬
ed, of ’
Ti ti dum dum, ti ti dum ti dum de,
Ti dum ti dum, ti dum ti dum dum de j
which, though difguftful now to all but te mere nifties on account of its being out of fafhion, was very probably the
favourite modulation in which heroic verfes were recited by our anceftors. So fluctuating are the tafte and practices
of mankind ! But whether the power of language over the paffions has received any advantage from the change
juft mentioned, will appear at leaft very doubtful, when we recoiled the ftories of its former triumphs, and the
inherent charms of mufical founds.
(f) As mufical founds have always an harmonical reference to a key or fundamental note, and to which the
mind is ftill fecretly attending, no piece of mufic would appear perfeCt, that did not clofe in it, and fo naturally put
an end to expectation. But as the tones ufed in fpeech are not mufical, and therefore cannot refer harmonically to
any other found, there can he no neceflity that this terminating found (and which we immediately below term the
cadence) flmuld either be ufed at all, or follow any particular law as to form, &c. farther than what is impofed
by tafte and cuftom. ^
R E A [
Heading- tlie nra&ice lias been hitherto directed intuitively by
nature, than that it was difcovered by the inductions ot
reafon. We fhall conclude this head with a rule for mo¬
dulation in reading. “ In every thing dramatic, collo¬
quial, or of fimple narrative, let your modulation be the
fame as in fpeaking j but when the fubjeft is flowery,
folemn, or dignifled, add fomething to its harmony,
divr-rfify the key-note, and increafe the frequency of
cadences in proportion to the merit of the compofi-
iion.”
It will readily be feen, that the precepts here drawn
from a comparifon between fpeakingand reading, would
be very inadequate, were they left deftitute of the aflift-
ance of U>Jte, and the opportunity oi frequently hearing
and imitating majlerly readers. And indeed, to thefe
two great auxiliaries we might very properly have re¬
ferred the whole matter at once, as capable of giving
fufficient direftions, had we not remembered that our
plan required us to found feveral of our rules as much
on the principles of a philofophical analyfis, as on thofe
more familiar ones which will be found of greater effi¬
cacy in real praClice.
Expreflion IV. ExpreJJion. I. There is no compofition in mufic,
as to the however perfeCt as to key and melody, but, in order
tonesofthe t0 Jo juftice to the fubjeft and ideas of the author,
voiec. reqU;re, in the performing, fomething more than
an exaft adherence to tune and time. I his fomething
is of a nature, too, which perhaps can never be ade-
' quately pointed out by any thing graphic, and refults
entirely from the tafte and feeling of the performer.
It is that which chiefly gives mufic its power over the
paffions, and charafterifes its notes with what we mean
by the words fiveet, harfh, dull, lively, plaintive, joy¬
ous, &c. for it is evident every found, confidered ab-
ItraCIedly, without any regard to the movement, or high
and low, may be thus modified. In practical mufic,
this commanding particular is called ExpreJJion; and
as we find certain tones analogous to it frequently coa-
lefcing with the modulation of the voice, which indi¬
cate our paffions and affeftions (thereby more particu¬
larly pointing out the meaning of what we fay) the
term is ufually applied in the fame fenfe to fpeaking and
reading.
Thefe tones are not altogether peculiar to man.—
Every animal, that is not dumb, has a power of making
feveral of them. And from their being able, unaffifted
by words, to manifeft and raife their kindred emotions,
they conftitute a kind of language of themfelves. In
this language of the heart man is eminently converfant;
for we not only underftand it in one another, butalfo in
many of the inferior creatures fubjefted by providence
to our fervice.
The expreffion here illuflrated is one of the molt ef-
fential articles in good reading, fince it not only gives a
finifliing to the fenfe, but, on the principles of fympathy
and antipathy, has alfo a peculiar efficacy in interefting
the heart. It is likewife an article of moft difficult at¬
tainment as it appears From what follows, that a mafierly
reader ought not only to be able to incorporate it with
the modulation properly as to quality, but in any degree
as to quantity.
Every thing written being a proper imitation of
fpeech, expreffive reading muft occafionally partake of
■all its tones. But from what was faid above, of the
REA
656 ]
difference between reading and fpeaking, it follows, Reading,
that thefe figns of the emotions ffiould be lefs ftrongly"v—'
chara&erifed in the former article than in the latter.
Again, as feveral of thefe tones of expreffion are in
themfelves agreeable to the mind, and raife in us agree¬
able emotions (as thofe of pity, benevolence, or whatever
indicates happinefs and goodnefs of heart), and others
difagreeable (as thofe of a boiferous, malevolent, and
depraved nature, &c.) it farther appears, fince reading
is an art improving and not imitating nature, that, in
whatever degree we abate the expreffions of the tones
above alluded to in the firft cafe, it would be eligible to
make a greater abatement in the latter. But as to the
‘quantities and proportional magnitudes of thefe abate¬
ments, they, like many other particulars of the fame
nature, muft be left folely to the tafte and judgment of
the reader.
To add one .more remark, which may be of fervice
on more accounts than in fuggefting another reafon for
the doftrine above. Let it be remembered, that though
in order to acquit himfelf agreeably in this article of
expreffion, it will be neeeffary every reader fhould/^e/
his fubjeft as well as underftand it j yet, that he may
preferve a proper eafe and mafterlinefs of delivery, it is
alfo neceffary he Ihould guard againft difcovering too
much emotion and perturbation.
From this reafoning we deduce the following rule, for
the tones which indicate the paffions and emotions.
“ In reading, let all your tones of expreffion be bor¬
rowed from thofe of common fpeech, but fomething
more faintly charadlerifed. Let thofe tones which fig-
nify any difagreeable paffion of the mind, be ftill more
faint than thofe which indicate their contrary \ and pre¬
ferve yourfelf fo far from being aftedled with the fubje£I,
as to be able to proceed through it with that peculiar
kind of eafe and mafterlinefs, which has its charms in
this as well as every other art.”
We (hall conclude this feftion Avith the followingob-
fervation, Avhich relates to fpeaking as Avell as reading.
WLen Avords fall in our Avay, whofe “ founds feem an
echo to the fenfe,” as fqmrr, buzz-, hum, rattle, hifs,jar,
&c. we ought not to pronounce them in fuch a manner
as to heighten the imitation, except in light and ludi¬
crous fubjedls. For inftance, they ffiould not in any
other cafe be founded fqutr.r.r—buzz.z.z—hum.m.m^
r.r.rattle, &c. On the contrary, Avhen the imitation
lies in the movement, or flow and flruciure of a whole
pajfage (which frequently happens in poetry), the deli¬
very may always be alloAved to give a heightening to it
Avith the greateft propriety \ as in the folloAving inftan-
ces, out of a number more Avhxch every experienced rea¬
der Avill quickly recoiled!:.
In thefe deep folitudes and aAvful cells,
Where heav'nly penjive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-muflng Melancholy reigns—
Pore’s Eloifa to Abelard.
With eafy courfe
The veffels glide unlefs their fpeed be flopp’d
Bq dead calms, that oft lie on thefe fmooth fleas.
Dyer’s Fleece.
Softly fweet in Lydian meafure.
Soon he foothdd her foul to pleafure.
Dryden’s Ode on St Cecilia's day.
Still
'REA [ 657 ] REA
Reading. Still gathering force it fmokes, and, urg’d amain,
'Y—~J Whirls, leaps, and thunders down impetuous to the plum.
Pope’s Iliad, b. 13.
For who to dumb forgetfulnefs a prey,
This pleafing anxious being ere refign’d,
Left the warm precindls of the cheerful day,
Nor call one longing ling"1 ring look behind ?
Gray’s Elegy.
_ ^ 2. Befides the particular tones and modifications of
as to the voice above deferibed, which always accompany and
face and exprefs our inward agitations, nature has in thefe cafes
gefture. endowed us with another language, which, inftead of
the ear, addreffes itfelf to the eye, thereby giving the
communications of the heart a double advantage over
thofe of the underftanding, and us a double chance to
preferve fo ineftimable a blefling. This language is
what arifes from the different, almoft involuntary,
movements and configurations of the face and body
in our emotions and paffions, and which, like that of
tones, every one is formed to underffand by a kind of
intuition.
When men are in any violent agitation of mind, this
co-operating exprejjion (as it is called) of face and gef-
ture is very ftrongly marked, and totally free from the
mixture of any thing which has a regard to graceful-
nefs, or what appearance they may make in the eyes of
others. But in ordinary converfation, and where the
emotions are not fo warm, fafhionable people are perpe¬
tually infinuating, into their countenance and adion,
whatever they imagine will add to the eafe and elegance
of their deportment, or imprefs on the fpeftator an idea
of their amiablenefs and breeding. Now, though the
above-mentioned natural organical figns of the emotions
ftiould accompany every thing fpoken, yet from what
was obferved in the introduftory part of this article
(like the tones we have juft treated upon), they fliould
in reading be much lefs ftrongly expreffed, and thofe
fuffer the greateft diminution that are in themfelves the
moft ungainly. And as it was in the laft feftion re¬
commended to the reader to preferve himfelf as far from
being affe&ed in all paflionate fubjefts as to be able to
keep a temperate command over the various affe&ions
of the voice, &c. fo under the fanftion of this fubor-
dinate feeling he may accompany his delivery more fre¬
quently with any eafy aftion or change of face, which
will contribute to fet off his manner, and make it agree¬
able on the principles of art.
As thefe calm decorations of a£Bon (as we may call
them) are not altogether natural, but-have their rife
from a kind of inftitution, they muft be modelled by
the pra&ices of the polite. And though mankind dif¬
fer from one another fcarce more in any particular than
in that of talents for adopting the graceful aftions of
the body, and hence nothing determinate can be faid
of their nature and frequency, yet even thofe, moft
happily calculated to acquit themfelves well in their
ufe/ might profit by confidering that it is better greatly
to abridge the difplay, than to over-do it ever fo little.
For the peculiar modefty of deportment with which
the inhabitants of this kingdom are endowed, makes
us in common endeavour to fupprefs many ftgns of an
agitated mind •, and in fuch cafes the bodily ones in par¬
ticular are very fparingly ufed. We have alfo a natural
and rooted diftike to any kind of affixation j and to no
Vol. XVII. Part II.
fpecies, that we can recolleX, a greater, than to that
which is feen in a perfon who pretends to mimicry
and courtly gefture, without poffefling the advantages
and talents they require j and of which not many
people, comparatively fpeaking, have any remarkable
lhare.
The inference of this is too obvious to need drawing
out, and we would particularly recommend it to the con-
fideration of thefe readers who think the common occur¬
rences of a newfpaper, &c. cannot be properly delivered
without a good deal of elbow-room.
Although it is impoflible to come to particulars in
any directions of this kind, yet there is one article of
our prefent fubjecl on which a ferviceable remark may
be made. In ordinary difeourfe, when we are particu¬
larly prefling and earneft in what we fay, the eye is na¬
turally thrown upon thofe to whom we addrefs ourielvts :
And in reading, a turn of this organ now and then up¬
on the hearers, when any thing very remarkable or in-
terefting falls in the way, has a good effeX in gaining it
a proper attention, &c. But this fliould not be too
frequently ufed j for if fo, befides its having a tendency'
to confound the natural importance of different paffages,
it may not be altogether agreeable tofome to have their
own refleXions broken in upon by a fignal, which
might be interpreted to hint at their wanting regula¬
tion.
One obfervation more, and then we fhall attempt to
recapitulate the fubftance of this leXion in the form of a
precept. Though it is, when ftriXly examined, incon-
fiflent, both in fpeaking and reading, to imitate with
aXion what we are deferibing, yet as in any thing comic
fuch a praXice may fuggeft ideas that will accord with
thofe of the fubjeX, it may there be now and then in¬
dulged in either of thefe articles.
“ In a manner fimilar to that direXed with regard to
tones, moderate your bodily expre.fiions of the figns of
the emotions. And in order to fupply, as it were, this
deficiency, introduce into your carriage fuch an ealy
gracefulnefs, as may be confiftent with your acquire¬
ments in thefe particulars, and the neceffary dread which
ftiould ever be prelent of falling into any kind of affec¬
tation or grimace.”
V. Paufes. Speech confifting of a fucceflion of di-
ftinX words, muft naturally be liable (both from a
kind of accident, and a difficulty there may be in be¬
ginning certain founds or portions of phrafes immedi¬
ately on the ending of certain others) to feveral fmali
intermiffions of voice j of which, as they can have no
meaning, nothing farther need here be faid. There are*
however, fome paufes, which the fenfe neceffariiy de¬
mands ; and to thefe the fubftance of this feXion is di¬
reXed.
The paufes are in part to diftinguilh the members of
fentences from one another, the terminations of complete
periods, and to afford an opportunity for taking breath.
Befides this, they have a very graceful effeX in the mo¬
dulation, on the fame account they are fo effential in
mufic.—In both articles, like blank fpaces in piXures,
they fet off and render more confpicuous whatfoever
they disjoin or terminate.
Were language made up of nothing but Ihort collo¬
quial fentences, thefe paufes, though they might do no
harm, and would generally be graceful, would however
be fuperfeded as to ufe by the coropletenefs and nar~
4 O rownefs
Reading*
-V J
REA r 658 1 R E A
lieading. rozvnvfs, as M'e may fay, of the meaning. But in more
v   dilfufe language, cempofed of feveral detached fen-
tences, and which require fume degree of attention in
order to take in the fenfe, the intermiffions of voice
under confideration are of the greateft fervice, by fig-
nifying to the mind the progrefs and completion of the
whole paiTage. Now, though in extenfive and dif¬
ferently formed periods there may be members whofe
completenefs of fenfe might be conceived of various de¬
grees, and hence might feem to require a fet of paufes
equally numerous ; yet, fince the fenfe does not alto¬
gether depend upon thefe intermiffiuns, and their ra¬
tios to one another, if capable of being properly de¬
fined, could not be accurately obferved, grammarians
have ventured to conceive the whole clafs of paufes as
reducible to the four or five kinds now in ufe, and
whofe marks and ratios are well known (g) ; prefum¬
ing that under the eye of tafte, and with the afliid-
ance of a particular to be next mentioned, they would
not fail in all cafes to fugged intermiffions of voice
fuitable to the fenfe. But in many of thefe extenfive
and complex periods, rounded with a kind of redun¬
dancy of matter, where the full fenfe is long fufpended,
and the final words are not very important, there would
be fume hazard of a mifapprehenfion of the termina¬
tion, had we not more evident and infallible notice of
it than that which is given by the paufe. This notice
is the cadence, referred to in the feftion on Modulation ;
which, as is there obferved, befides the ornamental
variety it affords, appears from thefe remarks to be a
very neceffary and ferviceable article in perfpicuous de¬
livery.
As this cadence naturally accompanies the end of
every entire fenfe, circum danced as above mentioned,
it may fometimes fall before the femicolon, but more
generally before the colon, as well as the period : For
thefe marks are often found to terminate a complete
fenfe ", and in thefe cafes, the relation what follows has
to what went before, is fignified to the mind by the re¬
lative drortnefs of the dop, and the form of introdu¬
cing the additional matter. Nor can any bad confe-
quence arife from thus founding didin&ions on ratios
of time, which it may be faid are too nice to be often
rightly hit upon : for if a confufion fhould happen be¬
tween that of the colon and period, there is perhaps fo
trifling a difference between the nature of the paffages
they fucceed, as to make a fmall inaccuracy of no eon-
fequence. And as to the reds of the femieolon and
period, it will not be eafy to midake about them, as
their ratio is that of two to one. Add to this the
power which the matter and introduclion of the fub-
fequent paffages have to re&ify any Oight error here
made, and we fiiall be fully falisfied, that the paufts Reading,
as ufually explained, with the cadence above deferibed, '“"~v »
and a proper knowledge- of the language, will convey
fufficient information to the underdanding of the con-
druftive nature of the paffages after which they are
found.
It may be obferved, that in natural fpeech, accord¬
ing to the warmth and agitation of the fpeaker, the reds
are often Ihort and injudicioudy proportioned, and hence
that every thing thus delivered cannot be fo graceful as
it might have been from a proper attention to their mag¬
nitude and effects.
Paufes then, though chiefly fubje&ed to the fenfe,
are, as was remarked at the outfet, ferviceable in
beautifying the modulation, &c.—And lince books
are often inaccurately printed as to points, and peo¬
ple’s tadcs differ fome little about their place and va¬
lue, it appears, that, “ although in reading great at¬
tention drould be paid to the dops, yet a greater
diould be given to the fenfe, and their eorrefpondent
times occafionally lengthened beyond what is ufual in
common fpeech 5” which obfervation contains all that
we diall pretend to lay down by way of rule for the
management of paufes in the delivery of written lan-
guage.
As there are two or three fpecies of writing, which
have fomething dngular in them, and, with regard
to the manner in which they diould be read, a
few particular remarks feem neceffarily required, we
diall conclude this article with laying them before the
reader :
1. Of Plays, and fuch like conversation-pieces.
Writings of this kind may be confidered as intended for
two different purpofes ", one to unfold fubjeft matter for
the exercife of theatric powers; and the other to convey
amufement, merely as fable replete with pleadng inci¬
dents and charadleridic manners. Hence there appears
to be great latitude for the difplay of a conjijlent delivery
of thefe performances: for while, on one hand, a good
reader of very inferior talents for mimicry may be heard
with a tolerable degree of pleafure ; on the other, if
any perfon is qualified to give a higher degree of life
and force to the dialogue and charatders by delivering
them as an aftor, he mud be fully at liberty to dart
from the confinement of a chair to a podure and area
more fuited to his abilities ; and, if he be not deceived
in himfelf, his hearers will be condderable gainers by
the change.—The next article is,
2. Sermons or other orations, which in like man¬
ner maybe conceived intended for a double purpofe.
Fird, as matter for the difplay of oratorical powers ;
and, fecondly, as perfuafive difeourfes, &c. which may
be
(g) Suppofing the comma (,) one time, the femicolon (;) will be two ; the colon (:) three, and the period (.}
as alfo the marks of interrogation (?) and admiration (!) four of thefe times. The blank line (— or —), and
the breaks between paragraphs, intimate dill greater times ; and by the fame analogy may be reckoned a double
and quadruple period refpeftively. Now and then thefe blank lines are placed immediately after the ordinary
points, and then they are conceived only as feparating for the etje the different natures of the matter ;—as a
quedion from an anfwer,—precept from example,—premifes from inferences, &c. in which cafe their import is
evident. But of late fome authors have not fcrupled to confound thefe didin&ions; and to make a blank ferve
jor all the paufes univerfally, or the mark of an indefinite red, the quantity of which is left to the determination
of the reader’s tade. A prattice, it is imagined, too deftru&ive of the intended precifion of thefe typical notices
tp be much longer adopted.
Reading.
REA [ 659 ] REA
be read like any other book. Therefore it appears (for
reafons firailar to thofe above) that according as cler¬
gymen are poffeffed of the talents of elocution, they
may confidently either rehearfe their fermons, in the
manner of an extemporary harangue, or deliver them in
the more humble capacity of one who is content to en¬
tertain and inftrudd his hearers with reading to them his
own er fome other perfon’s written difeourfe.
That either of thefe manners of delivery (or a mixture
of them), in either of the cafes above mentioned, is agree¬
able, we find on a careful examination. For this will
fhow us how frequently they run into one another ; and
that we are fo far from thinking fuch tranfitions wrong,
that, without a particular attention that way, we fcarce
ever perceive them at all.
3. Poetry is the next and lafi: obje£l of our prefent
remarks. This is a very peculiar kind of writing, and
as much different from the language of ordinary dif¬
eourfe as the movements of the dance are from common
walking. To ornament and improve whatever is fub-
fervient to the pleafures and amufements of life, is the
delight of human nature. We are alfo pleafed with a
kind of excefs in any thing which has a power to amufe
the fancy', infpire us with enthufiafm, or awaken the
foul to a confcioufnefs of its own importance and dig¬
nity. Plence one pleafure, at lead, takes its rife, that
we feel in contemplating the performances of every art *,
and hence the language of poetry, confiding of a mea-
fured rythmus, harmonious cadences, and an elevated
piflurefque ditfion, has been dudied by the ingenious,
and found to have a powerful infiuence over the human
bread in every age and region. There is fuch an affi¬
nity between this language and mufic, that they were in
the earlier ages never feparated 5 and though modern
refinement has in a great meafure dellroyed this union,
yet it is with fome degree of difficulty in rehearfing thefe
divine compofitions we can forget the finging of the
mufe.
From thefe confiderations (and fome kindred ones
mentioned in fe6t. iii.) in repeating verfes, they are ge¬
nerally accompanied with a modulation rather more or¬
namented and mufical than is ufed in any other kind
of writing. And accordingly, as there feems to be
the greated propriety in the practice, the rule for this
particular in the feflion jud referred to, will allow any
latitude in it that can gain the fanftion of tade and plea¬
fure.
Rhymes in the lighter and more foothing provinces
of poetry are found to have a good effeff ; and hence
(for reafons like thofe jud fuggeded) it is certainly
abfurd to endeavour to fmother them by a feeble pro¬
nunciation, and running one line precipitately into an¬
other, as is often aftedled to be done by many of our mo¬
dern readers and fpeakers. By this method they not on¬
ly dedroy one fource of pleafure intended by the com-
pofer (which though not great is neverthelefs genuine),
but even often fupply its place with what is really dif-
agreeable, by making the rhymes, as they are interrupt¬
edly perceived, appear accidental blemilhes of a different
dvle, arifing from an unmeaning recurrence of fimilar
founds. With regard then to reading verfes terminated
with rhyme, the common rule, which diredis to pro¬
nounce the final words full, and to didinguifii them by
a flight paufe even where there is none required by the
fenfe, feems the mod rational, and confequently mod
worthy of being followed. See Declamation, Nar¬
ration, and Oratory.
Reading, a town of Berkfhire in England, plea-
fantly fituated on the river Kenneth, near its confluence
with the Thames. It had once a fine rich monaflery,
of which there are large ruins remaining. It had alfo a
cadle built by King Henry I. but it was afterwards le¬
velled with the ground. It is a corporation, enjoys fe-
veral privileges, and fends two members to parliament.
The two navigable rivers render it a fit place for trade.
W. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 51. 25.
READINGS, or Various READINGS, in criticifm,
are the different manners of reading the texts of authors
in ancient manuferipts, where a diverfity hasarifen from
the corruption of time, or the ignorance of copyids. A
great part of the bufinefs of critics lies in fettling the
readings by confronting the various readings of the fe-
veral manuferipts, and confidering the agreement of the
words and fenfe.
Readings are alfo ufed for a fort of commentary or glofs
on a law, text, paifage, or the like, to Ihow the fenfe an
author takes it in, and the application he conceives to
be made of it.
RE-AGGRAVATION, in the Romifn ecclefiaflica!
law', the lad monitory, publiffied after three admoni¬
tions, and before the lad excommunication. Before
they proceed to fulminate the lad excommunication, they
publilh an aggravation, and a re-aggravation. Fevret
obferves, that in France the minifler is not allowed to
come to re-aggravation, without the permiffion of the
biffiop or official, as well as that of the lay judge. See
Excommunication.
REAL, CAESAR Vichard DE St, a polite French
writer, fon of a counfellor to the fenate of Chamberry
in Savoy. He came young to France, diflinguiffied
himfelf at Paris by feveral ingenious produflions, and
refided there a long time without title or dignity, in¬
tent upon literary purfuits. He died at Chamberry ia
1692, advanced in years, though not in circumdances.
He was a man of great parts and penetration, a lover
of the fciences, and particularly fond of hidory. A
complete edition of his works was printed at Paris, iir
3 vols qto, 1745, and another in 6 vols i2mo.
Real Prefence. See Transubstantiation.
REALGAR, a preparation of arfenic. See Arse¬
nic, Chemistry Index.
REALISTS, a feci of fchool philofophers formed
in oppofition to the Nominalids. Under the Real ids
are included the Scotifls Thomifls, and all except¬
ing the followers of Ocham. Their didinguifhing te¬
net is, that univerfals are realities, and have an actual
exidence out of an idea or imagination ; or, as they
exprefs it in the fchools, a parte rei; whereas the
nominalids contend, that they exid only in the mind,
and are only ideas, or manners of conceiving things.—
Dr Odo, or Oudard, a native of Orleans, afterwards
abbot of St Martin de Tournay, was the chief of the
fed: of the realids. He wrote three books of dialec¬
tics, where, on the principles of Boethius and the an¬
cients, he maintained that the objed of that art is
things, not words } whence the fed took its rife and
name.
REALITY, in the fchools, a diminutive of res,
“ thing,” fird ufed by the Scotifls, to denote a thing
which may exid of itfclf 5 or which has a full and abfo-
4 O 2 lute
Reading
II.
Realitj'.
—V—«
J
Reaumur.
REA t
Keality lute being of itfelf, and is not conlidered as a part of
any other.
REALM, a country which gives its head or gover¬
nor the denomination of a king.
RE-ANIM ATION means the reviving or reftoring
to life thofe who are apparently dead. Sudden death is
dreaded by every human being, and it is one of thofe
evils againlt which the Church of England prays in her
Litany. Accidents, however, cannot always be pre¬
vented ; but, after they have happened, it is often pofli-
ble to prevent their effefts. This, by the eftablilhment
of what with great propriety has been called the Hu-
vume Society, has been abundantly proved : for, in the
courfe of i 2 years immediately after their inftitution,
they were the means of faving the lives of 850 per-
fons, who otherwife would in all human probability
have been loft to the community. Since that period,
they have faved many more ; and various perfons, even
in the moft diftant parts of the kingdom, by following
their direftions, have done the fame.- To preferve one
human being from premature death, we mult confider
as of the utmoft confequence both as citizens and
Chriftians •, how much more the prefervation of thou-
fands. It appears from the writings of Do6tors Mead,
Winflow, Bruhier, Fothergill, Haller, Lecat, Tiffot,
Van Engelen, Gammer, and others, that they had pre¬
pared the way for inftitutions fimilar to the Humane
Society : for in their works they have elucidated the
principles on which they go, and furnilhed dire&ions
for the practice they favour. See Death, Premature
Interment, and Drowning.
REAR, a term frequently ufed in compofition, to de¬
note fomething behind, or backwards, in refpedd of ano¬
ther; in oppofition to van.
REAR of an Army, fignifies, in general, the hinder-
moft part of an army, battalion, regiment, or fquadron ;
alfo the ground behind either.
REAR-Guard, is that body of an army which marches
after the main-body ; for the march of an army is always
comnofed of an advanced-guard, a main body, and a rear¬
guard ; the firft and laft commanded by a general. The
old grand guards of the camp always form the rear guard
of the army, and are to fee that every thing come fafe
to the new camp.
REAR Half flies, are the three hindmoft ranks of the
battalion, when it is drawn up fix deep.
REAR-Line of an army encamped, is always 1200
feet at leait from the centre line •, both of which run
parallel to the front line, as alfo to the referve.
REAR-Rank, is the laft rank of a battalion, when
drawn up, and generally 16 or 18 feet from the centre¬
line when drawn up in open order.
REASON, a faculty or power of the mind, whereby
it diftinguifties good from evil, truth from falfehood.
See Metaphysics.
REASONING, Ratiocination, the exercife of
that faculty of the mind called reafon $ or it is an a<R or
operation of the mind, deducing fome unknown pro-
pofition from other previous ones that are evident and
known. See Logic, Part III.
REAUMUR, Rene Antoine Ferchault, Sieur
DE, a perfon diftinguilhed for his laborious refearches
into natural knowledge, was born at Rochelle in 1683,
of a family belonging to the law. After having finilhed
his early ftudies in the place of his birth, he began a
660 ]
REA
courfe of philofophy at Poitiers, and of civil law at Reaurmir.
Bourges ; but foon relinquilhed the latter, to apply
himfelf, according to his tafte, to mathematics, phyfics,
and natural hiftory. Being come to Paris, he was re¬
ceived into the Academy of Sciences in I'yoS. From
that hour he was wholly employed in natural hiftory, to
which his inclination particularly led him, and his in¬
quiries were not confined to any one part of it. His
memoirs, his obfervations, his difcoveries on the forma¬
tion of (hells, fpiders, mufcles, the marine flea, the ber¬
ry which affords the purple colour, and on the caufe of
the numbnefs of the torpedo, excited the curiofity of the
public, and early procured our author the chara£ler of
an able, curious, and entertaining naturalift. Filled
with zeal for the welfare and advantage of fociety, and
the progrefs and perfeftion of arts, he endeavoured in all
his refearches to promote the public good. We were
indebted to him for the difcovery of the Turquois mines
in Languedoc. He alfo found out a fubftance, which
is ufed to give falfe ftones a colour, which is obtained
from a certain fiih called in the French Able or Abletc * *'^e^Beton,
on account of its whitenefs, and which is the Bleak or'i.9 atw|
n 1 c •. 1 tt- • . .1 . r Tennant s
Blay or our writers f.
His experiments on the art of
turning iron into fteel obtained him a penfion of 12,000 v0l. iii.
livres; and this reward was to be continued to the Aca-P- 3IS-
demy to fupport the expence which might accrue in ^ See O'*
this art.
He continued his inquiries on the art of making tin
and porcelain J, and endeavoured to render our ther-1 See For-
mometers more ufeful than thofe of former times: hece^am\
compofed a curious hiftory of rivers where gold duft is
found in France ; and gave fo Ample and eafy a detail
of the art of gathering this duft, that perfons have been
employed for that purpofe.
He alfo made curious and important obfervations on the
nature of flints, on the banks of foffil (hells, from whence
is obtained in Touraine an excellent manure for land ;
as likewife on birds and their prefervation, on their me-
thov1 of building nefts ; on infers ; and a great number
of other fubjefts, not lefs curious than ufeful.
He imagined at firft, that a certain varnifh would
keep eggs frefh ; but the wafte of time and money, &c.
(bowed him the inconvenience of fuch a procefs. He
afterwards adopted the method pra£tifed for time imme¬
morial in Greece and the iflands of the Archipelago,
which is to deep or immerfe eggs in oil, or melted fat;
by this means, not being expofed to the air or to froft,
they are well preferved, and contrafl: no bad fmell. An¬
other experiment dill more important made by our au¬
thor, was to introduce into France the art of hatching
fowls and birds, as pra61ifed in Egypt, without covering
the eggs. A6live, fedulous, and attentive, he was ear¬
ly in his ftudy, often at fix in the morning. Exaft in
his experiments and obfervations, he let no circumftance
efcape him. His writings muft be of great ufe to future
philofophers. In fociety, he was diftinguidied through
life for his modeft and agreeable behaviour. His pro¬
bity, benevolence, goodnefs of heart, and other ami¬
able qualities, as well natural as acquired, endeared
him to his counti men. He died in the 76th year of
his age, on the 18th of October 1757, and left this
world filled with fentiments of piety. His death was
the confequence of a fall, which happened at the caftle
of Barnardif re on the Maine, where he went to pafs his
vacation. He bequeathed to the Academy of Sciences
his
R E B
Reaumur his manufcripts and all his natural productions. His
Rebate wor^s are> I* ^ very great number of memoirs and
. ^ . obfervations on different parts of natural hiftory ; they
are printed in the collections of the Academy of Sciences.
2. A large work printed feparately in 6 vols in 4to, en¬
titled, A Natural Hiftory of InfeCts. This important
work contains a defcription of vaft numbers of caterpil-
lers, moths, gall infeCts, flies with two and four wings,
lady birds, and thofe ephemeron flies which live only in
that form a few hours ; and laftly, of thofe Angular and
wonderful infeCts which are called polypes, which being
cut into feveral pieces, each piece lives, grows, and be¬
comes an infeCt, and affords to our eyes a great number
♦ SeePo of prodigies *. The works of M. de Reaumur are exaft,
tyf115' *jel- curious, interefting, and very ingenious. They are writ-
^ ten candour, clearness, and elegance; but it
mult be acknowledged his manner is fomewhat too dif-
fufe. But we mult not deceive the reader ; he often
raifes our expectations, and does not give us all the fa-
tisfaCtion we promife ourfelves from his writings. His
method of railing poultry, in particular, rather difap-
points us. He fpared neither care, time, nor expence,
to render it practicable : he flattered himfelf and his
countrymen with the greateft hopes ; but notwithftand-
ing his afliduous induftry, and vaft charges, it proved
abortive. The late M. 1’Advocat recommended him to
obtain better information from Egypt on the fubjeCt;
and if poffible to procure a perfon verfed in the art to
inftruCt him in it; but his death prevented the comple¬
tion of the feheme. If the native of Egypt had ar¬
rived, fhorved M. de Reaumur a better method than
his own, and praftifed it with fuccefs, as in his coun¬
try, the community would have been beneAted ; on the
other hand he would have feen, had it failed, that the
climate of France was not proper for fuch experiments.
M. Maillet, conful at Cai?o, to whom MonAeur the re¬
gent had written to obtain the art, offered to fend over
a native of Egypt, if the government would pay the
expence of his voyage, and allow him a penAon of 1500
livres. M. Maillet rightly judged, when he preferred
this method of proceeding. M. de Reaumur was not
ignorant of the deAgn ; but he flattered himfelf, that
his efforts would be fuccefsful without further aid, and
thought he (hould acquire fome honour. He certainly
had great talents, induftry, fagacity, and every other
requiflte which are neceffary in fuch attempts; but it is
morally impoflible that a Angle man, in a different cli¬
mate, can attain fuch knowledge in an art as thofe who
live in a more favourable country, and have had the
experience of many ages to proAt by : however M. de
Reaumur may have been unfuccefsful, pofterity is indebt¬
ed to him for his repeated trials. He has removed fome
difficulties in the road, and thofe that travel it may dif-
cover what he only faw at a diftance.
REAUMURIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking-
under the 13th order, Succulent*. See Botany In¬
dex.
REBATE, or Rebatement, in Commerce, a term
much ufed at Amfterdam for an abatement in the price
of feveral commodities, when the buyer, inftead of tak¬
ing time, advances ready money.
Rebatement, in Heraldry, a diminution or abate¬
ment, of the. bearings in a coat of arms. See Abate¬
ment.
R E B
REBELLION, Rebellio, among the Romans, was Rebellion
where thofe who had been formerly overcome in bat- pel)[jUer
tie, and yielded to their fubjeftion, made a fecond re- ■ .
Aftance : but with us it is generally ufed for the taking
up of arms traiteroufly againft the king, whether by
natural fubje£ts, or others when once fubdued ; and
the word rebelxs fometimes applied to him who wilful¬
ly breaks a law ; alfo to a villein difobeying his lord.
There is a difference between enemies and rebels.
Enemies are thofe who are out of the king’s allegiance :
therefore fubje<EIs of the king, either in open war, or
rebellion, are not the king’s enemies, but traitors. And
David prince of Wales, who levied war againft Edw. I.
becaufe he was within the allegiance of the king, had
fentence pronounced againft; him as a traitor and rebel.
Private perfons may arm themfelves to fupprefs rebels,
enemies, &c.
REBELLIOUS assembly, is a gathering toge¬
ther of twelve perfons or more, intending or going
about to praftife or put in ufe unlawfully, of their own
authority, any thing to change the law or ftatutes of
the realm ; or to deftroy the inclofures of any ground,
or banks of any Afh-pond, pool, or conduit, to the in¬
tent the fame ihall lie wafte and void ; or to deftroy the
deer in any park, or any warren of conies, dove-houfes,
or flfh in ponds ; or any houfe, barns, mills, or bays ;
or to burn ftacks of corn ; or abate rents, or prices of
viftuals, &c.
REBUS, an enigmatical reprefentation of fome name,
&c. by uftng flgures or pictures inftead of words, or
parts of words. Camden mentions an inftance of this
abfurd kind of wit in a gallant who expreffed his love
to a woman named Rofe Hill, by painting in the bor¬
der of his gown a rofe, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well;
which, in the ftyle of the rebus, reads, “ Rofe Hill I
love well.’1'1 This kind of wit was long pra&ifed by
the great, who took the pains to And devices for their
names. It was, however, happily ridiculed by Ben
Jonfon, in the humorous defcription of Abel Drug-
ger’s device in the Alchemift ; by the Spectator, in the
device of Jack of Newberry ; at which time the rebus,
being raifed to Agn-ports, was grown out of fafhion at
court.
Rebus is alfo ufed by the chemical writers fometimes
to Agnify four milk, and fometimes for what they call
the ultimate matter of which all bodies are compofed.
Rebus, in Heraldry, a coat of arms which bears an
alluAon to the name of the perfon ; as three caftles, for
Caftleton ; three cups, for Butler ; three conies, for
Conifby ; a kind of bearings which are of great anti¬
quity.
REBUTTER, (from the Fr. banter, i. e. repel/er‘e^
to put back or bar), is the anfwer of defendant to plain¬
tiff’s furrejoindcr; and plaintiff’s anfwer to the rebutter
is called a farrebutter : but it is very rare the parties go
fo far in pleading.
Rebutter is alfo where a man by deed or flne grants
to warranty any land or hereditament to another; and
the perfon making the warranty, or his heir, fues him
to whom the warranty is made, or his heir or aflignee,
for th,e fame thing ; if he who is fo fued plead the deed
or flne with warranty, and pray judgment, if the plain¬
tiff Ihall be received to demand the thing which he ought
to warrant to the party againft the warranty in the deed,
Sec. this is called a rebutter. And if I grant to a te¬
nant
[ 661 ]
It E C [ 662 ] R E C
Rebutter nant to hold without impeachment of tvafte, and after-
.11 wards implead him for wafte done, he may debar me of
Reciprocal a(ctjon by {hewing my grant, which is a rebutter.
t„r e‘Ymi' , RECAPITULATION, is a fummary, or a con-
cife and tranfient enumeration of the principal things in¬
filled on in the preceding dilcourfe, whereby the force
of the whole is collefted into one view. See Oratory,
N° 37 and 127.
RECEIPT, or RECEIT, in Commerce, an acquit¬
tance, or difcharge, in writing, intimating that the par¬
ty has received a certain fum of money, either in full for
the whole debt, or in part, or on account.
RECEIVER, in Pneumatics, a glafs veffel for con¬
taining the thing on which an experiment in the air-
pump is to be made.
Receiver, receptor or receptator, in Law, is common¬
ly underftood in a bad fenfe, and ufed for fuch as know¬
ingly receive ilolen goods from thieves, and conceal them.
This crime is felony, and the punifhment is tranfporta-
tion for 14 years.
RECENSIO, was an account taken by the cenfors,
every luftrum, of all the Roman people. It was a ge¬
neral furveyj at which the equites, as well as the reft of
the people, were to appear. New names were now put
upon the cenfor’s lift, and old ones cancelled. I he
recenfio, in ftiort, w'as a more folemn and accurate fort
of probatio, and anfwered the purpofe of a review, by
thowing who wrere fit for military fervice.
RECEPTACULUM, in Botany, one of the feven
parts of fruflification, defined by Linnaeus to be the bafe
which connedls or fupports the other parts.
RecEPTACULUM Chy/i, or Pecquet's Refervatory, the
refervoir or receptacle for the chyle, fituated in the left
fide of the upper vertebra of the loins, under the aorta
and the vefiels of the left kidney.
RECHABITES, a kind of religious order among
the ancient Jews, inftituted by Jonadab the fon of Re-
chab, comprehending only his own family and pofterity.
Their founder prefcribed them three things: firft, not
to drink any wine *, fecondly, not to build any houfes,
but to dwell in tents j and thirdly, not to fow any corn,
or plant vines.
The Rechabites obferved thefe rules with great ftridl-
nefs, as appears from Jer. xxxv. 6, &c. Whence St
Jerome, in his 13th epiftle to Paulinus, calls them mona-
chi, monks. Jonadab, their founder, lived under Jehoafli,
king of Judah, contemporary with Jehu king of Ifrael j
his father Rechab, from whom his pofterity were deno¬
minated, defcended from Raguel or Jethro, father-in-
law to Mofes, who was a Kenite, or of the race of Ken:
whence Kenite and Rechabite are ufed as fynonymous
in Scripture.
RECHEAT, in hunting, a leflbn which the huntf-
man plays on the horn, when the hounds have loft
their game, to call them back from purfuing a counter
fcent.
RECIPE, in Medicine, a prefcription, or remedy, fo
called becaufe always beginning with the word recipe,
i. e. take; which is generally denoted by the abbrevia¬
ture See PRESCRIPTION, Extemporaneous.
RECIPROCAL, in general, fomething that is mu¬
tual, or which is returned equally on both fides, or that
affe&s both parties alike.
RECIPROCAL Terms, among logicians,are thofe which
have the fame fignification ; and confequently are con- Reciprocal
vertible, or may be ufed for each other. terms
Reciprocal, in Mathematics, is applied to quanti- p,pJu-
ties which multiplied together produce unity. Thus ■ t ‘j
— and x, y and —, are reciprocal quantities. Likewife
x y
—is faid to be the reciprocal of x, tvhich is again the re¬
ciprocal of-.
RECIPROCAL Figures, in Geometry, thofe which have
the antecedents and confequents of the fame ratio in
both figures.
RECIPROCAL Proportion, is when in four numbers the
fourth is Ids than thedLeond by fo much as the third
is greater than the firft, and vice verfa. See Propor¬
tion and Arithmetic, chap. vi. Great ufe is made
of this reciprocal proportion by Sir Ifaac Newton and
others, in demonftrating the law's of motion.
RECITAL, in Law, means the rehearfal or making
mention in a deed or writing of fomething which has
been done before.
RECITATIVO, or Recitative, in Mujic, a kind
of finging, that differs but little from ordinary pronun¬
ciation ; fuch as that in which the feveral parts of the
liturgy are rehearfed in cathedrals j or that wherein the
aftors commonly deliver themfelves on the theatre at the
opera, when they are to exprefs fome adion or paffion y
to relate fome event; or reveal fome defign.
RECKENH AUSEN, a ftrong town of Cologne,
in Germany, in the middle territory of that name. The
abbefs of its nunnery has power of punifhing offenders
with death, and fhe alone is obliged to the vow of chaf-
tity.
RECKONING, or a Ship's RECKONING, in Navi¬
gation, is that account whereby at any time it may be
known where the fliip is, and on w'hat courfe or courfes
fire is to fleer, in order to gain her port; and that ac¬
count taken from the log-board is called the dead reckon¬
ing. See Navigation.
RECLAIMING, or Reclaming, in our ancient
cuftoms, a lord’s purfuing, profecuting, and recalling,
his vaffal, who had gone to live in another place without
his permiflion.
Reclaiming is alfo ufed for the demanding of a per-
fon, or thing, to be delivered up to the prince or flate
to which it properly belongs: when, by any irregular
means, it is come into another’s poffeflion.
Reclaiming, in Falconry, is taming a hawk, &c.
and making her gentle and familiar.
A partridge is faid to reclaim, when fhe calls her
young ones together, upon their fcattering too much
from her.
RECLINAI ION of a plane, in Dialling, See
Dialling.
RECLUSE, among the Papifts, a pcrfon flmt up in
a fmall cell of a hermitage, or monaftery, and cut off,
not only from all converfation with the world, but even
with the houfe. This is a kind of voluntary imprifon-
ment, from a motive either of devotion or penance.
The word is alfo applied to incontinent wives, whom
their hufbands procure to be thus kept in perpefual im-
prifonment in fome religious houfe.
Reclufes
K E C [ 65^ 1 EEC
Hcil'ifc Reclufes were anciently very numerous. They took
Re onnoi an oat*1 never to out °f retreat : and having
tre< entered it, the biQiop fet his feal upon the door; and
i—y——/ the reclufe was to have every thing neceffary for the
fupport of life conveyed to him through a window. If
he was a pried, he was allowed a fmall oratory, with a
window, which looked into the church, through which
he might make his offerings at the mafs, hear the fing-
ing, and anfwer thofe who fpoke to him ; but this win¬
dow had curtains before it, fo that he could not be feen.
He was allowed a little garden, adjoining to his cell, in
which he might plant a few herbs, and breathe a little
freffi air. If he had difciples, their cells were contigu¬
ous to his, with only a window of communication,
through which they conveyed neceffaries to him, and
received his in dr unions, if a reclufe fell fick, his door
might be opened for perfons to come in and adid him,
but he himfelf was not to dir out.
RECOGNI LTON, in Law, an acknowledgement ;
a word particularly ufed in our law books for the fird
chapter of the datute I Jac. I. by which the parlia¬
ment acknowledged, that, after the death of Queen
Elizabeth, the crown had rightfully defeended to King
James.
RECOGNIZANCE, in Law, is an obligation of
record, which a man enters into before fome court of
record or magidrate duly aulhorifed, with condition to
do fome particular a£t ; as to appear at the affizes, to
keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like. It is in
mod refpe6ts like another bond: the difference being
chiefly this, that the bond is the creation of a frelh
debt or obligation de novo, the recognizance is an ac¬
knowledgement of a former debt upon record; the form
whereof is, “ that A. B. doth acknowledge to owe to
our lord the king, to the plaintiff, to C. D. or the like,
the fum of ten pounds,” with condition to be void on
performance of the thing dipulated : in which cafe the
king, the plaintiff, C.D. &c. is called the cognizee, is
cui cognofcitur ; as he that enters into the recognizance
is called the cognizor, is qui cognofcit. This being cer¬
tified to, or taken by the officer of fome court, is wit-
neffed only by the record of that court, and not by the
party’s feal: fo that it is not in drift propriety a deed,
though the effefts of it are greater than a common
obligation ; being allowed a priority in point of pay¬
ment, and binding the lands of the cognizor from the-
time of enrolment on record.
RECOIL, or Rebound, the darting backward of
a fire-arm after an explofion. Merfennus tells us, that
a cannon I 2 feet in length, weighing bgoolb. gives a
ball of 241b. an uniform velocity of 640 feet per fe-
cond. Putting, therefore, W = 6400, iu—-14, V —
640, and v— the velocity with which the cannon recoils;
we fhal! have (becaufe the momentums of the cannon
w V
and ball are equal) WVrrouV; and fo -=;•
W
—1—  " — 2,4 ; that is, it would recoil at the rate of
0400
2 j^ feet per fecond, if free to move.
RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, by which
ideas fought after by the mind are found and brought
to view.
RECONNOITRE, in military affairs, implies to
view and examine the date of things, in order to make fieconnof-
a report thereof. tre
Parties ordered to reconnoitre are to obferve the n ^ .
, , . . Kecorde.-
country and the enemy ; to remark the routes, conve- ^ .
niences, and inconveniences of the fird ; the polition,
march, or forces of the fecond. In either cafe, they
fliould have an expert geographer, capable of taking
plans readily: he fliould be the bed mounted of the
whole, in cafe the enemy happen to fcatter the efcorte,
that he may fave his works and ideas. See War.
RECORD, an authentic teflimony in writing, con¬
tained in rolls of parchment, and preferved in a court
of record. See Court.
Trial by RECORD, a fpecies of trial which is ufed
only in one particular inflance: and that is where a mat¬
ter of record is pleaded in any aftion, as a fine, a judge¬
ment, or the like ; and the oppofite party pleads, mil
tiel record, that there is no fuch matter of record exifl-
ing. Upon this, iffue is tendered and joined in the
following form, “ and this he prays may be inquired of
by the record, and the other doth the like ;” and here¬
upon the party pleading the record has a day given him
to bring it in, and proclamation is made in court for him
to “ bring forth the record by him in pleading alleged,
or elfe he fliall be condemned ;” and, on his failure, his
antagonift fliall have judgment to recover. The trial,
therefore, of this iffue is merely by the record : for, as
Sir Edward Coke obferves, a record or enrollment is a
monument of fo high a nature, and importeth in itfelf
fuch abfolute verity, that if it be pleaded that there is
no fuch record, it fliall not receive any trial by witnefs,
jury, or othenvife, but only by itfelf. Thus titles of no¬
bility, as whether earl or not earl, baron or not baron,
fliall be tried by the king’s writ or patent only, which
is matter of record. Alio in cafe of an alien, whether;
alien friend or enemy, {hall be tried by the league or.
treaty between his fovereign and ours; for every league
or treaty is of record. And alfo, whether a manor be
held in ancient demefne or not, fliall be tried by the re¬
cord of domefday in the king’s exchequer. .
RECORDE, Robert, phyfician and mathemati¬
cian, was defeended of a refpeftable family in Wales,
and lived in the time of Henry VIII. Edward VI. and
Mary. The time of his birth is not exaftly known,
but it muft have been about the beginning of the 16th
century; for he was entered of the univerfity of Oxford
about 1525, and was elefted fellow of AU-Souls college
in 1531. As he made phyfic his profeflion, he went to
Cambridge, where he was honoured with the degree of
doftor in that faculty in 1 545, and very much efteemed
by all who were acquainted with him, for his extenfive
knowledge of many of the arts and ftiences.- He after¬
wards returned to Oxford, where he publicly taught a-
rithmetic and mathematics, as he had done prior to his
going to Cambridge, and that with great applaufe. It
appears that he afterwards went to London, and was, it
is faid, phyfician to Edward VI. and to Mary, to whom
fome of his books are dedicated; yet he died in the
king’s-bench prifon, Southwark, where he was confined
for debt in the year 1538, at a very immature age.
He publiflied feveral works on mathematical fubjefts,
chiefly in the form of dialogue between mafterand fcho.-.
lar, of which the following is a lift.
The .Pathway to Knowledge, containing the firft prin¬
ciples^
4-
REG
[ 664. ]
REG
a* kp nnnlied no legal title to the land j but that he came into poffef*
■Recofde ciples of geometry, as they may mo P J Geome- fion of it after one Hugh Hunt had turned the demand-
" unto praftice, botho for the ^ ^ ^ u_  a: — ...
Resovery.
.Recovery, ^call^nd Aftronomicall, and alfo for projeaion of
 Plattes, much neceffary for all fortes of men. Loud.
^°rle Ground of Arts, teaching the perfeft worke and
praftice of Arithmeticke, both in whole numbers and
fraaions, after a more eafie and exad forme then in
former time hath been fet furth, 8vo,_l552.
T/ie Calile of Knowledge, containing the Explica¬
tion of the Sphere both Celeftiall and Materiall, and
divers other things incident thereto. With fundry
pleafaunt proofes and certaine newe demonttrations
not written before in any vulgare woorkes. Lond. iol.
^ The Whetflone of Witte, which is the fecond part of
Arithmetike, containing the extraaion of routes j the
Coffike praaice, with the rules of equation ; and the
woorkes of furde numbers. Lond. qto, 1557-
Wood fays that he was the author of feveral pieces
on phyfic, anatomy, politics, and divinity, but it is
uncertain whether thefe were ever publiftied. Sher¬
burne fays that he alfo publilhed Cofmographice IJa-
gogen ; that he wrote a book, De arte faciendi horolo¬
gium, and another De ufu globorum, et de Jlatu tem-
porum, none of which we have had an opportunity of
feeing.
RECORDER, a perfon whom the mayor and other
magiftrates of a city or corporation affociate to them,
for their better dire&ion in matters of juftice and
proceedings in law ; on which account this perfon is
generally a counfellor, or other perfon well Ikilled in
the law.
The recorder of London is chofen by the lord mayor
and aldermen •, and as he is held to be the mouth of the
city, delivers the judgment of the courts therein, and
records and certifies the city-cuftoms. See LONDON,
N° 38.
RECOVERY, or Common RECOVERY, in Englilh
law, a fpecies of affurance by matter of record ; concern¬
ing the original of which it muft be remarked, that com¬
mon recoveries were invented by the ecclefiaftics to elude
the llatutes of mortmain (fee Tail) j and afterwards
encouraged by the fineffe of the courts of law in 12 Ed¬
ward IV. in order to put an end to all fettered inherit¬
ances, and bar not only eftates-tail, but alfo all remain¬
ders and reverfions expectant thereon. We have here,
therefore, only to confider, firft, the nature of a common
recovery *, and, fecondly, its force and ejfeR.
I. A common recovery is a fuit or adfion, either ac¬
tual or fidtitious : and in it the lands are recovered againft
the tenant of the freehold j which recovery, being a fup-
pofed abjudication of the right,binds all perfons, and veils
a free and abfolute fee-fimple in the recoverer. To ex¬
plain this as clearly and concifely as poffible, let us, in
the firft place, fuppofe David Edwards to be tenant of
the freehold, and defirous to fuffer a common recovery,
in order to bar all entails, remainders, and reverfions, and
to convey the fame in fee-fimple, to Francis Golding.
To effedl this, Golding is to bring an adlion againft him
for the lands ; and he. accordingly fues out a writ called
a preecipe quod reddat, becaufe thefe were its initial or
moft operative words when the law proceedings were
rn Latin. In this writ the demandant Golding alleges,
that the defendant Edwards (here called the tenant) has
Black/l.
Comment.
The fubfequent proceedings are made up
into a record or recovery roll, in which the writ and
complaint of the demandant are firft recited : whereupon
the tenant appears, and calls upon one Jacob Morland,
who is fuppoled, at the original purchale, to have war¬
ranted the title to the tenant; and thereupon he prays,
that the faid Jacob Morland may be called in to defend
the title which he fo warranted. This is called the
voucher, “ vocatio,” or calling of Jacob Morland to
warranty j and Morland is called the vouchee. Upon
this Jacob Morland, the vouchee, appears, is impleaded,
and defends the title. Whereupon Golding the deman¬
dant defires leave of the court to imparl, or confer with
the vouchee in private $ which is (as ufual) allowed him.
And foon afterwards the demandant Golding returns to
court j but Morland the vouchee difappears, or makes
default. Whereupon judgment is given for the deman¬
dant Golding, now called the recoverer, to recover the
lands in queftion againft the tenant Edwards, who is
now the recoveree: and Edwards has judgment to re¬
cover of Jacob Morland lands of equal value, in recom-
penfe for the lands fo warranted by him, and now loft
by his default j which is agreeable to the doftrine of
warranty mentioned in the preceding chapter. I his is
called the recompenfe or recovery in value. But Jacob
Morland having no lands of his own, being ufually the
crier of the court, who, from being frequently thus
vouched, is called the common vouchee, it is plain that
Edwards has only a nominal recompenfe for the lands fo
recovered againft him by Golding $ which lands are now
abfolutely veiled in the faid recoverer by judgment of
law, and leifin thereof is delivered by the Iherift of the
county. So that this collufive recovery operates merely
in the nature of a conveyance in fee-fimple, from Ed¬
wards the tenant in tail to Golding the purchafer.
The recovery here deferibed, is with a fingle voucher
only ; but fometimes it is with a double, treble, or far¬
ther voucher, as the exigency of the cafe may require.
And indeed it is now ufual always to have a recovery
with double voucher at the leaft : by fiift conveying an
eftate of freehold to any indifferent perfon, againft whom
the preecipe is brought; and then he vouches the tenant
on tail, who vouches over the common vouchee.. For,
if a recovery be had immediately' againft tenant in tail,
it bars only fuch eftate in the premifes of which lie is
then aftually feifed } whereas if the recovery be had
againft another perfon, and the tenant in tail be vouch¬
ed, it bars every latent right and intereft which he may
have in the lands recovered. If Edwards therefore be
tenant of the freehold in poffeffion, and John Barker be
tenant in tail in remainder, here Edwards doth firft
vouch Barker, and then Barker vouches Jacob Morland
the common vouchee 5 who is always the laft perfon
vouched, and always makes default •, whereby the de¬
mandant Golding recovers the land againft the tenant
Edwards, and Edwards recovers a recompenfe of equal
value againft Barker the firft vouchee 5 who recovers
the like againft Morland the common vouchee, againft
whom fuch ideal recovery in value is ahvays ultimately
awarded. _ . r u r
This fuppofed recompenfe in value is the realon why
the iffue in tail is held to be barred by a common re¬
covery. For, if the recoveree fhould obtain a recom¬
penfe
R E C [ 665 ] REG
iRecovery, penfe m lands from the common vouchee (which there
«■—"Y""is a poflibility in contemplation of law, though a very
improbable one, of his doing), thefe lands would fup-
ply the place of thofe fo recovered from him by collu-
iion, and would defcend to the iffue in tail. The reafon
will alfo hold with equal force as to mod remainder¬
men and reverfioners, to whom the poffibility will re¬
main and revert, as a full recompenfe for the reality
which they were otherwife entitled to : but it will not
always hold •, and therefore, as Pigott fays, the judges
have been even ajiuti, in inventing other reafons to
maintain the authority of recoveries. And, in par¬
ticular, it hath been faid, that though the eftate-tail is
gone from the recoveree ; yet it is not deftroyed, but
only transferred, and ftill fublifts ; and will ever con¬
tinue to fubfift (by conftrudtion of law) in the reeo-
verer, his heirs and affigns : and as the eftate-tail fo
continues to fubfift for ever, the remainders or reverfions
expeflant on the determination of fuch eftate-tail can
never take place.
To fuch awkward fhifts, fuch fubtile refinements,
and fuch ftrange reafoning, u’ere our anceftors obliged
to have recourfe, in order to get the better of that ftub-
born ftatute de donis. The defign for which thefe con¬
trivances were fet on foot, was certainly laudable *, the
unrivetting the fetters of eftates-tail, which were at¬
tended with a legion of mifchiefs to the commonwealth :
but, while we applaud the end, we cannot but admire
the means. Our modern courts of juftice have indeed
adopted a more manly way of treating the fubjeft ; by
confidering common recoveries in no other light than
as the formal mode of conveyance by which tenant in
tail is enabled to aliene his lands. But, fince the ill
confequences of fettered inheritances are now generally
feen and allowed, and of courfe the utility and expe¬
dience of fetting them at liberty are apparent, it hath
often been wifhed that the procefs of this conveyance
was fhortened, and rendered lefs fubjedl to niceties, by
either totally repealing the ftatute r/cwV ; which per¬
haps, by reviving the old doftrioe of conditional fees,
might give birth to many litigations : or by veiling
in every tenant in tail, of full age, the fame abfolute
fee-fimple at once, which now he may obtain whenever
he pleafes, by the collufive fiffion of a common reco¬
very *, though this might poflibly bear hard upon thofe
in remainder or reverfion, by abridging the chances
they vmuld otherwife frequently have, as no recovery
can be fuffered in the intervals between term and term,
which fometimes continue for near five months toge¬
ther : or, laftly, by empowering the tenant in tail to
bar the eftate-tail by a folemn deed, to be made in
term-time, and enrolled in fome court of record ; which
is liable to neither of the other objedlions, and is war¬
ranted not only by the ufage of our American colo¬
nies, but by the precedent of the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 19.
which, in the cafe of a bankrupt tenant in tail, em-
pow7ers his commiftioners to fell the eftate at any time,
by deed indented and enrolled. And if, in fo national
a concern, the emoluments of the officers concerned in
paffing recoveries are thought to be worthy attention,
thofe might be provided for in the fees to be paid upon
each enrollment.
2. The force and effedl of common recoveries may
appear, from what has been faid, to be an abfolute bar
not only of all eftates-tail, but of remainders and re-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
verfions expe&ant on the determination of fuch eftates. Recovery
So that a tenant in tail may, by this method of alfu- ^
ranee, convey the lands held in tail to the recoverer, v ^
his heirs and affigns, abfolutely free and difeharged of
all conditions and limitations in tail, and of all remain¬
ders and reverfions. But, by ftatute 34 and 35 H. VII.
c. 20. no recovery had againft tenant in tail of the
king’s gift, w'hereof the remainder or reverfion is in the
king, ftiall bar fuch eftate-tail, or the remainder or re¬
verfion of the crown. And by the ftatute n H. VIL
c. 20. no womaq, after her hufband’s death, ftiall fufter
a recovery of lands fettled on her by her hufband, or
fettled on her hufband and her by any of his anceftors.
And by ftatute 14 Eliz. c. 8. no tenant for life, of
any fort, can fuffer a recovery fo as to bind them in
remainder or reverfion. For which reafon, if there be
tenant for life, with remainder in tail, and other re¬
mainders over, and the tenant for life is defirous to fuf¬
fer a valid recovery, either he, or the tenant to t\\e pree-
cipe by him made, muft vouch the remainder-man in
tail, otherwife the recovery is void : but if he does
vouch fuch remainder man, and he appears and vouches
the common vouchee, it is then good ; for if a man be
vouched and appears, and fuflfers the recovery to be had,
it is as eflfeftual to bar the eftate-tail as if he himfelf
were the recoveree.
In all recoveries, it is neceflary that the recoveree, or
tenant to the preecipe, as he is ufually called, be actually
feifed of the freehold, elfe the recovery is void. For all
aftions to recover the feifin of lands muft be brought
againft the affual tenant of the freehold, elfe the fuit will
lofe its efleft; fince the freehold cannot be recovered of
him who has it not. And, though thefe recoveries are
in themfelves fabulous and fictitious, yet it is neceftary
that there be aSiores fabuhe, properly qualified. But the
nicety thought by fome modern practitioners to be requi-
fite in conveying the legal freehold, in order to make a
good tenant to the precipe, is removed by the provifions
of the ftatute 14 Geo. II. c. 20. which enaCts, with a
retrofpeCt and conformity to the ancient rule of law,
that, though the legal freehold be veiled in leffees, yet
thofe who are entitled to the next freehold eftate in re¬
mainder, or reverfion, may make a good tenant to the
preccipe; and that, though the deed or fine which
creates fuch tenant be fubfequent to the judgment of
recovery, yet if it be in the fame term, the recovery
lhall be valid in law : and that though the recovery it-
felf do not appear to be entered, or be not regularly en¬
tered on record, yet the deed to make a tenant to the
pretcipe, and declare the ufes of the recovery, fhall after
a poffeflion of 20 years be fufficient evidence on behalf
of a purchafer for valuable confideration, that fuch re¬
covery was duly fuffered.
Recovery of perfons drowned, or apparently dead.
See Re-ANIMATIQN, and the articles there referred to.
RECREANT, Cowardly, Faint-hearted; former¬
ly a word very reproachful. See Battel.
RECREMENT, in Chemijiry, fome fuperfluous mat¬
ter feparafed from fome other that is ufeful 5 in which
fenfe it is the fame with fcoriee, feces, and excre¬
ments*
RECRIMINATION,inZtfto,an aecufation brought
by the accufed againft the accufer upon the fame faiff. •
RECRUITS, in military affairs, new-railed foldiers
defigned to fupply the place of thofe v'ho have loft
4 P their
Recruits
Reiftory.
K E C [ 666 ] RED
their lives in the fervice, or t\ho are difabled by age or
wounds. . .
RECTANGLE, in Geometry, the fame with a nght-
angled parallelogram. See Glometry..
UECT1E1 CATION, in Chemifiry, is nothing but
the repetition of a dillillation or fublimation feveral
times, in order to render the fubftance purer, finer, and
freer from aqueous and earthy parts..
Rectification, in Geometry, is the method. of
finding a right line equal to a curve. The re&ificalion
of curves is a branch belonging to the higher geometry,
in which the ufe of the inverfe method of fluxions is of
Angular utility.
Rectification of Spirits. See Distillation.
RECTIFIER, in Navigation, an inftrument confid¬
ing of two parts, which are two circles, either laid one
upon, or let into the other, and fo faflened together in
their centres, that they reprefent two compafles, one
fixed, the other moveable •, each of them divided into
the 32 points of the compafs, and 360°, and numbered
both ways, from the north and the fuuth, ending at
the eafl and weft, in 90°.
The fixed compafs reprefents the horizon, in which
the north and all the other points of the compafs are
fixed and immoveable.
The moveable compafs reprefents the mariner’s com¬
pafs •, in which the north and all other points are liable
to variation.
In the centre of the moveable compafs is faflened a
filk thread, long enough to reach the outfide of the
fixed compafs. But if the inftrument be made of wood,
there is an index inftead of the thread.
Its ufe is to find the variation of the compafs, to
rectify the courfe at fea ; having the amplitude or azi¬
muth given.
RECTIFYING the Globe. See Geography
Index.
RECTILINEAR, in Geometry, right-lined ; thus
figures whofe perimeter confifts of right lines, are faid
to be reftilinear.
RECTITUDE, in Phi/ofophy, refers either to the
aft of judging or of willing j and therefore whatever
comes under the denomination of reftitude, is either
what is true or what is good, thefe being the only ob¬
jects about which the mind exercifes its two faculties
of judging and willing.
Moral reftitude, or uprightnefs, is the choofing and
purfuing thofe things which the mind, upon due inquiry
and attention, clearly perceives to be good j and avoid¬
ing thofe that are evil. See MORAL Philofophy.
RECTOR, a term applied to feveral perfons whofe
offices are very different:, as, 1. The reflor of a parifh
is a clergyman that has the charge and cure of a parifh,
and pnffeffes all the tithes, &c. 2. The fame name is
alfo given to the chief eleflive officer in feveral foreign
univerfities, particularly in that of Paris, and alfo in
thofe of Scotland. It is alfo applied to the head maf-
ter of large fehools in Scotland, as in the high fchool
of Edinburgh. 3. Rcflor is alfo wfed in feveral convents
for the fuperior officer who governs the houfe : and the
Jefuits give this name to the fuperiors of fuch of their
houfes as are either feminaries or colleges.
RECTORY, a pariffi-chureh, parfonage, or fpiritual
living, with all its rights, tithes, and glebes.
Rectory is alfo fometimes ufled for the reftor’s
tnanfion or parfonage-houfe.
RECTUM, in Anatomy, the third and laft of the
large inteftines or guts. See Anatomy, N° 93.
RECTUS, in Anatomy, a name common to feveral
pairs of mufcles, fo called on account of the ftraightnefs
of their fibres.
E-edlorv
yJ
Red iea.
RECUPERATORES, among the Romans, were
commiffioners appointed to take cognizance of private
matters in difpute, between the lubjefls of the Hate
and foreigners, and to take care that the former had
iuftice done them. It came at laft to be ufed for com¬
miffioners, to whom the praetor referred the determina¬
tion of any affair between one fubjedt and another.
RECURRENTS, in a name given to feve¬
ral large branches of nerves lent out by the par vagum
from the upper part of the thorax to the larynx.
RECURVIROSTRA, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of grallte of Linnaeus, and that of palmipe¬
des of Pennant and Latham. See Ornithology In¬
dex.
RECUSANTS, fuch perfons as acknowledge the
pope to be the fupreme head of the church, and re¬
fute to acknowledge the king’s fupremacy ; who are
hence called Popijh recufants. The penal laws againft
Papifts are now aboliftied in Britain and in Ireland ; and
in all probability they will quickly be allowed the am-
pleft privileges.
RED, one of the colours called ftnple or primary :
being one of the (hades into which the light naturally
divides itfelf when refradted through a prifm. See
Chromatics.
Red, in Dyeing, fee that article.—Some reckon fix
kinds or cafts of red, viz. fcarlet-red, crimfon-red, mad¬
der red, half-grain red, lively orange-red, and fcarlet ot
cochineal: but it is eafy to fee that there can be but
one proper fpecies of red 5 namely, the reflection of the
light exadlly in fuch a manner as it is refradled by the
prifm ; all other (hades being adulterations of that pure
colour, with yellow, brown, &c.
Red, in Heraldry. See Gulfs.
RED-Bird. See Muscicapa, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
RED-Breaf. See Motacilla, Ornithology
Index.
REL-Book of the exchequer, an ancient record or
manufeript volume, in the keeping of the king’s re¬
membrancer, containing divers mifcellany treatifes re¬
lating to the times before the conqueft.
R.ED-Lead. See CHEMISTRY Index..
RED Precipitate of Mercury. See Chemistry Index.
RED-Ruffia, or Little Rufjia, a province of Poland,
bounded on the weft by Upper Poland, on the north
by Lithuania, on the eaft by Little 1 artary, and on
the fouth by Moldavia, Tranfylvania, and a part of
Hungary. It comprehends Ruffia properly fo called,
Volhynia, and Podolia. It is about 650 miles in length,
and from 150 to 250 in breadth. It confifts chiefly of
large fields, but little cultivated on account of the fre¬
quent inroads of the Tartars, and becaufe there is no
water-carriage. It had the name of Red Rufjia, from
the colour of the hair of its inhabitants. Ruffia, pro¬
perly fo called, comprehends the three palatinates of
Leopol or Lemburg, BeKko, and Chelm.
RED Sea, or Arabic Gulf, fo much celebrated in fa
cred
RED [ 667 ] RED
R.ed Sea. cred hifliory, fenarates Arabia from Upper Ethiopia
' and part of Egypt. This fea is 350 leagues in length
and 40 in breadth. As no river falls into it of futB-
cient force to counteraft the influence of the tide, it is
more affe&ed by the motions of the great ocean than
any of the inland feas nearly in the fame latitude. It
is not much expofed to tempefls : the winds ufually
blow from north to fouth, and being periodical, like
the monfoons of India, invariably determine the feafon
of failing into or out of this fea. It is divided into two
gulfs*, that to the call was called the JEhinitic gulf,
from the city .fElana at the north end of it ; and that
to the wed the Heroopo/itic, from the city of Heroopo-
lis *, the former of which belongs to Arabia, and the
latter to Egypt.
Mr Bruce has made many obfervations on this fea,
which are worthy of notice.— With regard to the name,
he fays it was certainly derived from Edom or Efau the
Ion of Jacob ; though in another place he fays, he won¬
ders that writers have not rather fuppofed it to have got
the epithet of Red, from the colour of the fand on its
coafts, than for other reafons they have alleged. With
regard to any rednefs in the water itfelf, or in the bot¬
tom, which fome have afferted, our traveller aflures us
that there is no fuch thing. It is more difficult to aflign
a reafon for the Hebrew name of it, which fignifies the
Sea of Weeds ; as he never faw a weed throughout the
whole extent of it. “ Indeed, (fays he) upon the flight-
eft confideration, it will occur to any one, that a narrow
gulf, under the immediate influence of the monfoons,
blowing from contrary points fix months each year,
would have too much agitation to produce fuch vege¬
tables, feldom found but in ftagnant waters, and feldom,
if ever, found in fait ones. My opinion then is, that it
is from the large trees or plants of white coral, fpread
everywhere over the bottom of the Red fea, perfeflly in
imitation of plants on land, that the fea has obtained this
name.—I faw one of thefe, which, from a root nearly
central, threw out ramifications of an almoft circular
form, meafuring 26 feet every way.”
Our author has alfo made many ufeful obfervations
on the navigation of this fea. “ All the weftern ffiore
(he fays) is bold, and has more depth of water than
the eaft $ but on this fide there is neither anchoring
ground nor ftioals. It is rocky, with a confiderable
depth of water everywhere ; and there are a number of
funken rocks, which, though not vifible, are fufficiently
near the furface to deftroy a large ffiip.” The caufe of
this, in Mr Bruce’s opinion, is, that the mountains on
the fide of Abyffinia and Egypt are all of hard ftone,
porphyry, many different kinds of marble, granite, ala-
bafter, and bafaltes. Thefe being all compofed of fo¬
lk! materials, therefore, can part with very little duft
or fand, which might otherwife be blown from them
into the fea. On the oppofite coaft, viz. that of He-
iaz and Tahamah, on the Arabian fide, the whole con-
fifts of moving fands j a large quantity of which is
blown from the fouth-eaft by the dry winter monfoons $
which being lodged among the rocks on that fide, and
confined there by the north-eaft or fummer roonfoon,
which is in a contrary direfHon, hinders them from com¬
ing over to the Egyptian fide. Hence the weftern
coaft is full of funk rocks for Avant of fand to cover
them, with which they would otherwife become iflands.
They are naked and bare all round, with Iharp points
like fpears, while, on the eaft fide, every rock becomes Red Sea*
an ifland, and every two or three iflands become an v ^
harbour. On the ends of the principal of thefe har¬
bours the people have piled up great heaps of ftones
to ferve as fignals: “ and it is in thefe (fays Mr Bruce)
that the large veffels from Cairo to Jidda, equal in fize
to our large 74 gun ftiips (but from the cifterns of ma~
fon-work built within for holding water, I fuppofi?
double their weight), after navigating their portion of
the channel in the day-time, come fafely and quietly ta
at four o’clock in the afternoon ; and in thefe little har¬
bours pafs the night, to fail into the channel again next
morning.”
The weftern channel of the Red fea was chofen, in the
days of the Ptolemies, for the track of the Indian and
Africa commerce. Thefe monarchs erefled a great num¬
ber of cities all along the weftern coaft *, and notwith-
Handing the dangers of the navigation, we do not hear
that it was ever abandoned on account of them.
From the obfervations made by our author on the
navigation of the Red fea, he undertakes to point out
a fafe paffage for large ftiips tu the gulf of Suez, fo
that they may be able to judge of the propriety of their
own courfe themfelves, without trufting implicitly to
the pilots they meet with, who are often very ignorant
of their profefllon. This fea, according to Mr Bruce,
may be divided into four parts, of which the channel
occupies two, till near the latitude of 26°, or that of
Coffeir. On the weft it is deep Avattr, with many*
rocks $ and on the eaft it is full of iflands, as has been
already mentioned. Between thefe ifiands there ar«
channels and harbours of deep water, where ftiips may
be protected in any wind *, but a pilot is neceffary in
failing among thefe from Mocha to Suez, and the voy¬
age befides can be continued only during part of the
day. Ships bound to Suez without the confent of the
(heriffe of Mecca, that is, Avithout any intention of fell¬
ing their cargo at Jidda, or paying cuftom there, ought
to take in their frefh water at Mocha ; or if there be
any reafon againft tins, a feAv hours Avill carry them to
Azab or Saba on the Abyflinian coaft, where they may
be plentifully fupplied : but it muft be remembered,
“ that the people here are Galla, the moft treacherous
and villanous Avretehes on earth,” Here not only
Avater may be procured, but plenty of (beep, goats,
with fome myrrh, and incenfe in the proper feafon.—
Great caution, however, muft be ufed in dealing with
the people, as even thofe of Mocha, who are abfolutely
neceffary to them in their commercial dealings, cannot
truft them Avithout furety or hoftages. Not many years,
ago, the furgeon and mate of the Elgin Eaft India-
man, Avith feveral other failors, Avere murdered by thefe
favages as they Avent afliore to purchafe myrrh, though
they had a letter of fafe conduct from the fhekh.
To fuch as do not Avant to be known, our author
recommends a low black ifland on the coaft of Arabia,
named Camaran, in latitude 150 30'. It is diftinguifh-
ed by a white houfe or fortrefs on the Aveft end of it j
where Avater is to be had in ftill greater plenty than at
Azab *, but no provifions, or fuch only as are very bad,
can be procured. If it is neceffary not to be feen at
all on the coaft, the ifland of Foofht is recommended
by our author as having excellent Avater, Avith a faint
or monk, Avhofe office is to keep the Avells clean, This
is one of the chain of iflands Avhich ftretches almoft
4 P 2 acrof§
RED [
Red Sea. acrofs the gulf from Lobeiah to Mafuab, and froni ac-
' r“— tual obfervatiun by Mr Biuce, is found to be iituated
in N. Lat. i j° 59' 43''- E- Loi]g- 47'- /urora
this to Yambo there is a fafe watering-place ; and there
is an abi’olute neceflity for having a pilot before you
come to Has Mahomet •, becaufe over the Adam tic
the mountains of Aucha, and the cape itfelf,
fhel-e is often a thick haze, which lafts for many days
together, and a number of drips are loft by rmftaking
the ealfern bay or ALlanitic gulf for the entrance of
the gulf of Suez-, the former has a ridge of rocks
nearly acrofs it. After reaching Sheduan, a large
iiland, about three leagues farther in a north-by-weft
direftion, there is a bare rock diftinguillred by no par¬
ticular name •, but fo fituated that ffrips ought not to
come within three leagues of it. This rock is to be
left to the weftward at the diftance juft mentioned ; af¬
ter pafling which you meet with ftroals forming a
pretty broad channel, with foundings from 15 to 30
fathoms-, and again, on ftanding direftly for Tor, there
are two other oval fands with funk rocks in the chan¬
nel, between which you are to fleer, lor may be
known at a diftance by two hills that ftand near the
w'ater-fide -, which, in clear weather, may be feen fix
leagues off. Juft to the fouth-eaft of thefe is the town
and harbour, where there are fome palm trees about the
houfes, the more remarkable, as being the firft that are
feen on the coaft. The foundings in the way to Tor
harbour are clean and regular -, “ and, by giving the
beacon a fmall birth on the larboard hand, you may
haul in a little to the northward, and anchor in five or
fix fathom.” In fpring tides, it is high water at Tor
nearly about 12 o’clock : in the middle of the gulf
there is no perceptible tide, but at the fides it runs at
the rate of more than two knots in the hour. Tor it¬
felf is but a fmall village, with a convent of monks be¬
longing to thofe of Mount Sinai. It was taken by
Don John de Caftro, and fortified foon after its difco-
very by the Portuguefe but has never fince been a
place of any confideration ; ferving now only for a wa¬
tering place to the {hips trading to or from Suez.—
From this place there is a diftinft view of Mounts Ho-
reb and Sinai, which appear above and behind the
others, with their tops frequently covered with fnow in
the winter.
Mr Bruce next proceeds to confider fome queftions
which may be reckoned matters of curiofity rather than
any thing elfe. One of thefe is concerning the level of
the water of this fea itfelf, which has been fuppofed fe-
veral feet above that of the Mediterranean. “ To this
(fays our author) I anfwer, that the fa£I has been fup¬
pofed to be fo by antiquity, and alleged as a reafon
why Ptolemy’s canal was made from the bottom of the
Heroopolitic gulf rather than brought due north a-
crofs the ifthmus of Suez ; in which laft cafe it was
feared it would fubmerge a great part of Afia Minor.
Bat who has ever attempted to verify this by experi¬
ment ? or who is capable of fettling the difference of
levels, amounting, as fuppofed, to fome feet and inch¬
es, between two points 120 miles diftant from each 0-
ther, over a defert that has no fettled furface, but is
changing its height every day ? Befides, fince all feas
are in fa<ft but one, what is it that hinders the Indian
ocean to flow to its level ? What is it that keeps the In¬
dian ocean up ? Till this laft branch of the queftion is
668 ] RE D
refolved, I fhall take it for granted that no fucli differ¬
ence of level exifts, whatever Ptolemy’s engineers might
have pretended to him 5 becaufe, to fuppofe it fadt, is
to fuppofe the violation of one very material law ot na¬
ture.”
The next thing confidered by our author is the paf-
fage of the Ifraelites through the Red Sea. At the
place where he fuppofes the paffsge to have been, the
fea is not quite four leagues broad, fo that it might ea-
fily have been croffed in one night without any miracle.
There is about 14 fathom water in the channel, and
nine at the fides, with good anchorage every where the
fartheft fide is a low landy coaft, and a very eafy land¬
ing place. “ The draught of the bottom of the gulf
(fays he) given by Dr Pococke, is very erroneous in
every part of it. It was propofed to Mr Niebuhr, when
in Egypt, to inquire upon the fpot, whether there were
not fome ridges of rocks where the water was (hallow,
fo that an army at particular times might pais over ?
Secondly, whether the Etefian winds, which blow
ftrongly all fummer from the north-weft, could not
blow fo violently againft the fea, as to keep it back on
a heap, fo that the Ifraelites might have palled with¬
out a miracle ? And a copy of thefe queries was left
for me to join my inquiries likewife. But I mult con-
fefs, however learned the gentlemen were who propoftd
thefe doubts, I did not think they merited any atten¬
tion to folve them. If the Etefian winds, blowing from
the north-weft in fummer, could keep up the fea as a
wall on the right or to the fouth, of fifty feet high,
ftill the difficulty would remain of building the wall on
the left hand or to the north. Befides, water ftanding
in that pofition for a day, muft have loft the nature of
a fluid. Whence came that cohefion of particles that
hindered that wall to efcape at the fides ? This is as
great a miracle as that of Mofes. If the Etefian winds
had done this once, they muft have repeated it many a
time before and fince, from the famecaufes. ''i et Dio¬
dorus Siculus fays, the Troglodytes, the indigenous in¬
habitants of that very fpot, had a tradition from father
to fon, from their very earlieft and remoteft ages, that
once this divifion of the fea did happen there. -, and that,
after leaving the bottom fome time dry, the fea again
came back and covered it with great fury. T he words
of this author are of the moft remarkable kind. We
cannot think this heathen is writing in favour of reve¬
lation. He knew not Mofes, nor fays a word about
Pharaoh and his hoft -, but records the miracle of the
divifion of the fea in words nearly as ftrong as thofe
of Mofes, from the mouths of unbiaffed undefigning pa¬
gans.”
RED-S/iank. See Scoi.OPAX,!
REB-Start. SeeMoTACILLA, V ORNITHOLOGY Index.
RED-Wing. See Tor DUS, J
REDANS, in Field Fortification. See the article
Rf.dens.
REDDENDUM, in Lavo, is ufed fubftantively for
the claufe in a leafe wherein the rent is referved to the
leffor. The proper place for it is next after the limita¬
tion of eftatc.
REDDITIO, was the third part of the facrifice of
the heathens, and confifted of the folemn a£I of putting
in again the entrails of the viftims, after they had been
religioufly infpe&ed. See Sacrifice.
REDDLE, a foft, heavy, red, ferruginous earth, of
Red St
1!
Redd’e
H E D
[ 669 ]
R E D
Reddle
II .
Hedudlion,
great ufe in colouring *, and being wafhed and freed
from fand, is often fold by our druggifts under the name
of bole armeniac.
REDEMPTION, in Lavo, a faculty or right of re¬
entering upon lands, &c. that have been fold and al-
figned, upon reimburfmg the purchafe-money with legal
cofts.
REDEMPTION, in Theology, denotes the recovery of
mankind from fin and death, by the obedience and fa-
crifice of Chrift, who on this account is called the Re¬
deemer of the world, bee JLheopogy.
REDENS, Redans, or Redant, in Fortification, a
kind of indented work in form of the teeth of a faw,
with falient and re-entering angles; to the end that one
part may flank or defend another. It is likewife called
faw-work and indented work, ihe lines or faces in this
flank one another.
Redens are ufed in fortifying walls, where it is not
neceflary to be at the expence of building ballions ;
as when they ftand on the fide of a river running
through a garrifon town, a marfli, the fea, &c. But
the fault of fuch fortification is, that the befiegers from
one battery may ruin both the fides of the tenaille or
front of a place, and make an affault without fear of
being enfiladed, fince the defences are mined. The pa¬
rapet of the corridor is likewife often redented or car¬
ried on by the way of redens. The redens was ufed be¬
fore baftions were invented, and fome people think them
preferable.
REDI, Francis, an Italian phyfician and polite
fcholar, svas born at Arezzo in JTufcany in 1626. His
ingenuity and learning recommended him to the office
of firft phyfician to Ferdinand II. duke of lufeany ;
and he contributed not a little towTard the compiling of
the Dictionary of La Cvufca. He .wrote upon vipers,
upon the generation of infefts, and compofed a good
deal of poetry. All his writings are in Italian ; and his
language is fo fine and pure, that the authors ot the
Dictionary of La Crufca have often cited it as a ftand-
ard of perfection. He died in 1697.
REDINTEGRATION, is the finding the integral
or fluent again from the fluxion. See Fluxions.
REDOUBT, in Fortification, a fmall fquare fort,
without any defence but in front ; ufed in trenches,
lines of circumvallation, contravallation, and approach ;
as alfo for the lodgings of corps-de-gard, and to defend
paflages.
REDUCTION, in the fchools, a manner of bringing
a term or propofitions, which was before oppofite to fome
other, to be equivalent to it.
Reduction, in Arithmetic, that rule whereby num¬
bers of different denominations are brought into one de¬
nomination. See Arithmetic.
REDUCTION of Equations, in Algebra, is the clearing
them from all fuperfluous quantities, bringing them to
their lowed terms, and feparating the known from the
unknown, till at length only the unknown quantity is
found on one fide, and known ones on the other The
reduClion of an equation is the laft part of the refolution
of the problem. See ALGEBRA.
Reduction of a figure, defign, or draught, is the
making a copy thereof, either larger or fmaller than the
original; ftill preferving the form and proportion. The
great ufe of the proportional compaffes is the reduction
Reduction
of figures, &c. whence they are called cofnpajfes of re-
duBion. See the article COMPASS. . Redundant.
There are various methods of reducing figures, otc.' 
the molt cafy L by means of the pentagraph, or paralle¬
logram ; but this hath its defects. See the article Pen¬
tagraph.
The belt and molt ufual methods of reduction are as
follow : I. To reduce a figure, as ABCDE (fig. !•), Plate
into a lefs compafs. About the middle of the figure,ccccxlviij
as z, pitch on a point, and from this point draw lines to
its feveral angles A, B, C, &c. then drawing the line
ab parallel to AB, b c parallel to BC, &c. you will
have the figure abode fimilav to ABCDE.
If the figure abode had been required to be enlar¬
ged, there needed nothing but to produce the lines from
the point beyond the angles, as 25 D, 2 C, &.c. and to
draw lines, viz. DC, CB, &c. parallel to the fides dc,
cb, &c.
2. To reduce a figure by the angle of proportion,
fuppofe the figure ABCDE (fig. 2.) required to be di-fig. 2,
minifhed in the proportion of the line AB to a b
(fig. 3.) draw the indefinite line GH (fig. 4.), and from pig. y
G to H fet off the line AB. On G deferibe the arch and 4*.
HI. Set off the line a b as a chord on HI, and draw
GI. Then with the angle IGH you have all the mea-
fures of the figure to be drawn. 1 bus to lay down the
point c, take the interval BC, and upon the point G
deferibe the arch KL. Alfo on the point G deferibe
MN; and upon A, with the diflance MN, deferibe an
arch cutting the preceding one in c, which will deter¬
mine the fide b c. And after the fame manner are the
other fides and angles to be deferibed. The fame pro-
cefs will alfo ferve to enlarge the figure.
3. To reduce a figure by a feale. Meafure all the
fides of the figure, as ABCDE (fig. 7i) by a fcale, and
lay down the fame meafures refpeCfively from a fmaller
fcale in the proportion required.
4. To reduce a map, defign, or figure, by fquares.
Divide the original into little fquares, and divide a frefh
paper of the dimenfions required into the fame number of
fquares, which are to be larger or lefs than the former,
as the map is to be enlarged or diminifned. This done
in every fquare of the fecond figure, draw what you find
in its correfpondent one in the firft.
Reduction, in Metallurgy, is the bringing back me¬
talline fubftanc.es which have been changed into fcoriae
or affies, or otherwife divefted of their metallic form,
into their natural and original ftate of metals again. See
ORES, ReduBion of.
Reduction, in Surgery, denotes an operation where¬
by a dilloeated, luxated, or fradtured bone, is reflored t©
its former flate or place.
REDUNDANCY, a fault in difeourfe, confiding
in the ufe of a fuperfluity of words. Words perfedtly
fynonymous are redundant, and ought to be retrenched.
REDUNDANT, in Mufic. What the French call
une accordfuperflue, which we have tranflated a redun¬
dant chord in the article Music (from D’Alembert),
has by others been rendered a chord extremely fharp, as
in the tranflation of Rameau’s Principles of Compofition.
Their nature will be beft underftood by a few examples,
and an account of the number of tones, femitones, or
leffer intervals, contained in each.
The fecond redundant is compofed of a major tone,
and
4
REE [ 670 ] REF
Redundant and a minor femitone ; as from fa to fol fliarp. Its pro-
11. portion is as 64 to 75.
, c'^ing-| Xho third redundant confifts of two tones and a femi-
tone, as fa la, tharp. Its proportion is as 96 to 125.
The fourth redundant is the fame with the tritone.
From thefe examples compared with the fame inter¬
vals in their natural ftate, the reader may form a general
idea of what is meant by redundant.
REE, Reis, or Res, a little Portuguefe coin. See
MONET-Table.
REED, in Botany. See Arunbo and Bamboo.
There are two forts of reeds, fays Haffelquitl, grow¬
ing near the Nile. One of them has fcarce any branch¬
es ; but is furnithed with numerous leaves, which are
narrow, fmooth, channeled on the upper furface 5 and
the plant is about 11 feet high. The Egyptians make
ropes of the leaves. They lay them in water like hemp,
and then make them into good ftrong cables. Thefe,
with the bark of the date tree, form almotl the only ca¬
ble ufed in the Nile. The other fort is of great confe-
-quence. It is a fmall reed, about two or three feet high,
full branched, with fhort, fliarp, lancet-fliaped leaves.
The roots, which are thick as the ftem, creep and mat
themfelves together to a confiderable diftance. This
plant feems ufelefs in common life ; but to it, continues
the learned author, is the very foil of Egypt owing : for
the matted roots have flopped the earth which floated in
the waters, and thus formed, out of the fea, a country
that is habitable.
Fire-REEDS. See FmE-Shif>.
Reed, a term in the weft of England for the ftraw
ufed by thatchers, which is wheat ftraw finely combed,
confifting of ftiff, unbruifed, and unbroken ftalks of
great length, carefully feparated from the ftraw ufed
for fodder by the threlker, and bound in (heaves or
nitches, each of which weighs 281b. and are fold from
2is. to 3is. per hundred nitches, according to the fea-
fon. This is a great improvement in the art of thatch¬
ing, as it gives a finith to the work which cannot be at¬
tained by ftraw, rough and tumbled together, without
any feparation of the long and fhort: it is alfo a readier
mode of working.
REEF, a term in navigation. When there is a great
gale of wind, they commonly roll up part of the fail be¬
low, that by this means it may become the narrower,
and not draw fo much wind 5 which contratting or ta¬
king up the fail they call a reef or reefng the fail: fo
alfo ivhen a top-majl is fprung, as they call it, that is
when it is cracked, or almoft broken in the cap, they
cut off the lower piece that was near broken off, and
fetting the other part, now much ftiorter, in the ftep
again, they call it a reefed top-maf.
REEL, in the manufa&ories, a machine ferving for
the office of reeling. There are various kinds of reels ;
fome very Ample, others very complex.
REELING, in the manufactories, the winding of
filk, cotton, or the like, into a fkain, or upon a button,
to prevent its entangling. It is alfo ufed for the char¬
ging or difeharging of bobbins, or quills, to ufe them in
the manufacture of different fluffs, as thread, filk, cot¬
ton, &c. Reeling is performed in different ways, and
on different engines.
REEVING, in the fea-language, the putting a rope
through a block : hence to pull a rope out of a block is
called unreeving.
C
RE-EXCHANGE, in commerce, a fccond pay- Re.]?x.
ment of the price of exchange, or rather the price of a change
new exchange due upon a bill of exchange that comes to „ N .
be protefted, and to be refunded the bearer by the L c lfcC lon^
drawer or indorfer.
REFECTION, among ecclefiaftics, a fpare meal or
repaft, juft fufficient for the fupport of life : hence the
'hall in convents, and other communities, where the
monks, nuns, &c. take their refeClions or meals in com¬
mon, is called the refeBory.
REFERENCE, in writing, &c. a mark relative to
"another fimilar one in the margin, or at the bottom of
the page, where fomethingomitted in the text is added,
and which is to be inferted either in reading or copy-
ing.
REFINING, in general, the art of purifying a
thing; including not only the effaying or refining of
metals, but likewife the depuration or clarification of li¬
quors. See Clarification ; and Pharmacy, under
Materia Medica ; and Ores, ReduBion of
Gold and filver may be refined by feveral methods,
which are all founded on the effential properties of thefe
metals, and acquire different names according to their
kinds. Thus, for inftance, gold having the property
which no other metal, nor even filver, has of refilling
the a&ion of fulphur, of antimony, of nitrous acid, or
marine acid, may be purified by thefe agents from all
other metallic fubftances, and confequently may be refi¬
ned. Thefe operations are diftinguithed by proper names,
as purification of gold by antimony, parting, concentrated
parting, dry parting. The term refining is chiefly ap¬
plied to the purification of gold and filver by lead in the
cupel. See Ores, ReduBion of.
REFLECTION, the return or progreflive motion
of a moving body, occafioned by fome obftacle which
hindered it from purfuing its former direflion.
Circular Infirumcnt of REFLECTION, an inftrument
for meafuring angles to a very great degree of accuracy.
It was invented by the celebrated aftronomer Mr To¬
bias Mayer of Gottingen, principally with a view to
do away the errors of the divifions of the limb; and has
fince been much improved by the Chevalier de Borda,
and M. J. H. de Magellan. This inftrument is particu¬
larly applicable to the meafuring of the diftances of the
heavenly bodies, and was ufed by the French in their
part of the operation for determining the difference of
meridians of Paris and Greenwich. For the defer!p-
tion, rectification, and ufe of this inftrument, fee Navi¬
gation.
REFLECTION of the Rays of Light, in Catoptrics, Is
their return, after approaching fo near the furface of
bodies as to be thereby repelled or driven backwards.
For the caufes of reflection, fee Optics Index, at Rays
of Light, and RefleBion of Light, &c. For the appli¬
cation of the doCtrine of reflection to mirrors, fee Op¬
tics. See alfo Mirror, BuRNING-Glafs, and Glafs-
GRINDING ; and for the coating or foliating of mirrors,
fee the article FOLIATING of Loohing-glajfes, &c. See
alfo Telescope.
Reflection of Heat, fee Chemistry, N° 170.
REFLECTION ef Cold. For an account of this cu¬
rious phenomenon, fee alfo CHEMISTRY, No 272.
It has been generally fuppofed that this faCt was firft
noticed by Profeffor PiCtet of Geneva ; but vTe have
been informed from good authority (for we have not
yet
KEF [67
Reflexion, yet liad an opportunity of feeing the book), that the
Reflectors, fame fact is diitin&ly mentioned by Baptilta de Porta
' in his Magia Naturalis.
Reflection is alfo ufed, figuratively, for an opera¬
tion of the mind, whereby it turns its view backwards
as it were upon itfelf, and makes itfelf and its own ope¬
rations the objett of its difquifition ; and by contem¬
plating the manner, order, and laws, which it obfervcs
in perceiving ideas, comparing them together, reafon-
ing, &c. it frames new ideas of the relations difcovered
therein. See Metaphysics.
Reflectors for' Light-Honfes, have of late years
been very fuccefsfully adopted inftead of coal fires.
They are compofed of a number of fquare pane glafs
mirrors, fimilar to thofe which, it is faid, were em¬
ployed by Archimedes in fetting fire to the Roman
fleet at the fiege of Syracufe. The mirrors are an inch
fquare, and are difpofed clofe to each other in the con¬
cave of a parabolic fegment, formed of ftucco, or any
other fubftance which retains them in their place.
Stucco, however, is found to anfwer fufficiently well,
and is employed in the reflectors of all the light-houfes
which have been ereCted round the coaft of Scot¬
land.
The parabolic moulds are from three to five or fix
feet in diameter, and in the centre of eacb there is a
long (hallow lamp of tin plate, filled with whale oil.
There are fix cotton wicks in each lamp nearly conti¬
guous to each other, and fo difpofed as to (land in no
need of trimming for the fpace of fix hours. The light
is reflected from each mirror fpread over the concave
furface, and is as it were multiplied by the number of
mirrors. Tin plate covers the back of the ftucco mould¬
ing, from which a tube immediately over the lamp pro¬
ceeds to the roof of the light room, and anfwers the pur-
pofe of a funnel, through which the fmoke pafles with¬
out fullying the face of the mirror. The light-room is
a lantern of from eight to twelve fides, entirely made
of glafs, fixed in frames of caft iron, and roofed with
copper. The reflectors v'ith their lamps are placed on
circular benches pafling round the infide of this lantern,
at about 18 inches from the glafs frames, fo that the
concave furfaces of two or three of the refieCtors front
every point of the compafs, and throw a blaze of light
in all directions.
There is a hole in the roof, direCtly over the centre
of the room, through which all the funnels pafs, and by
which frefli air is alfo conveyed to the lamps. This
light-room is fixed in fuch a manner on the top of a
round tower, that no weather can move it ; and the
number of the refleCtors, and the height of the tower,
are greater or lefs, according as the light is intended to
be feen at a greater or lefs diftance.
It has been propofed to make the concave furface of
the parabola one fpeculum of metal, in (trad of covering
it over with a number of plain glafs mirrors, or to di-
minifli the fize of each mirror, if they are preferred to
the metallic fpeculum. It muft be obvious to every
man who knows any thing of optics, that either of
thefe alterations would be improper. The brighteft
metal does not refleCt fo much light as plain clear glafs,
and if the fize of the mirrors was diminifhed, the num¬
ber of joinings would be increafed, in each of which
fome litrbt is lofl.
t ] REF
A man wholly guided by theory, would be ready to Reflectors
condemn light-houfes of this delcription ; becauie a ^e^rm
violent ftorm will (hake the firmed building, which, in 1
his opinion, would throw the whole rays of light into
the air, and thus miflead the bewildered mariner. Ex¬
perience, however, (hows, that fuch apprehenfions are
groundlefs, and that light-houfes with lamps and reflec¬
tors, are in all refpeCls preferable to thofe with fires
burning in the open air. They are lefs expenfive; they
give a more brilliant light, and are feen at a greater di¬
dance, and cannot be obfcured by fmoke, or driven
down on the lee-fide by the mod violent wind. If to
this we add, that the lamps do not dand in need of
trimming fo often as fires require fuel, and that the
light-man is never expofed to the weather, we mud al¬
low that light-houfes with refletflors are not fo liable to
be negledled in dormy weather as thofe with open fires,
which alone mud give the former a preference over the
latter.
It has been afferted, and particularly dated, in the
fupplement to the third edition of this work, that Mr
Smith of Edinburgh, the principal, and we believe
now the foie contractor for managing and keeping in
repair the light-houfes round the coa(t of Scotland, is
the fird who conceived the idea of illuminating light-
houfes by means of lamps and reflectors. We do not
underdand that Mr Smith himfelf ever claimed the merit
of this invention ; but it appears that reflectors, fuch as
are dercribed above, were invented by Mr Ezekiel
Walker of Lynn Regis, who fays, in a letter dated Oc+
tober 1801, and addrefled to the editor of the Monthly
Magazine*, that fuch reflectors were made and fixed up * VoL xls,
under his direction, in alight-houfe on the coafl of Nor-P- 40:2-
folk, in tlie year 17795 and adds farther, that in the year
1787, at the requed of the trudees appointed by aft of
parliament for erecting four light-houfes on the northern,
coad of Great Britain, he indrufled Mr Smith in this
method of conftructing light-houfes. Mr Walker’s
datement of the fact is confirmed by ?. letter from Mr
Grieve, then lord provod of Edinburgh, who informs
Mr Walker that the trudees had agreed to pay the
premium required for communicating the invention, and
that-Mr Smith was engaged to go to Lynn Regis to re¬
ceive indructions from Mr Wtilker in the method of
condructing the new reflectors.
REFLEX, in P<iintingy means thofe places in a pic¬
ture which are fuppw'ed to be illuminated by light re¬
flected from fome other body in the fame piece. See
Painting, Part I. feci. 2. and 5.
REFLUX, the backward courfe of water, has the
fame meaning as the ebbing of the fea, and is op-
pofed to flood, flux, or the flowing of the fea, See
Tides.
REFORM means a change from worfe to better, a
re-eflablidiment or revival of former neglected difeipline,
or a correction of abufes therein. The term is much
ufed in a monadic fenfe for the reducing an order or
congregation of religious to the ancient feverity of the
rule from which it had gradually fwerved, or even
for improving on the ancient rule or inditution itfelf,
and voluntarily making it more fevere. In this fenfe
the order of St Bernard is faid to be only a reform of
that of St Benedict. In this country it is applied both
to politics-and religion, and may innocently be applied
to
Reform.
REF [ 67
to any endeavours to change an eflablifliment from rvorfe
to better. But it appears at prefent to have beencmetiy
made a pretence for defigns which could not fairly or
fafely be avowed. _ . r _
A reform in religion and in parliament (lee rARLIA-
MENX), has, we know, bepn moft loudly called for by
men whofe religious notions are immenfely different
from what has been generally reckoned chnftiamty, and
whofe defigns, as has been legally proved, went to the
overthrow of all civil order. For mfidious purpofes
like thefe, the word reform is a good cloak, eipecialiy
if any thing can be fixed upon, either in the religion or
government of the Hate, which, with the help of exag¬
geration and diftortion, can be reprefented to the weak
and unthinking as extremely defective and erroneous.
The general error of thefe men feems to be, that
having nicked up a fet of fpeculative notions which
flatter their own pride and the pride of thofe who linen
to them, they will allow nothing to the arguments oi
their opponents or the experience of mankind. 1 hey
think fo often and fo much upon their ideal reforms,
that while they imagine their notions are liberal and ex-
tenfive, they become contrafted beyond imagination }
while their judgments, of courfe, are warped with the
moft inveterate prejudices (fee Prejudice)- I hey fee,
or think they fee, the propriety of their fchemes *, but
they feldom, perhaps never, refieft, that that may be
true in fpeculation or in theory which cannot poflibly
be reduced to pradlice. 1 hey will not take the world
as it is, and allow it to profit by the wifdom and expe¬
rience of ages •, but they will reform it according to
thofe ideas of right which they have learned from their
.own fpeculations and airy theories; feldom confidering
what may be done, they are determined to do. what
they think ought to be done. Liberty of confcience,
and liberty of a&ion, have been claimed by them as
the unalienable rights of man ; and fo we ourfelves are
difpofed to think them : nor have we heard that in this
country they have been denied to any man, or let of
men, fo far as has been thought confiftent with the fafe-
ty of the ftate, and that of the other individuals who
compofe it. At the fame time, the very fame men hefi-
tate not to blame, with acrimony the moft violent, and
to the utmoft of their power to reftrain, the a&ions and
opinions of thofe who, with equal convi&ion, often on
better grounds, and generally with more modefty, differ
from them.
Amidft that exceflive ardour, too, with which they
propagate their opinions, they forget the extreme dan¬
ger of withdrawing the attention of that part of the
community, who muft earn their bread by the fweat
of their brow, from their proper occupations, to the
tempeftuous fea of political debate, for which their
education and mode of life cannot poflibly have quali¬
fied them. It requires but very little penetration,
however, to be able to fee, that it can be of no real
fervice either to the individuals themfelves, or to the
community at large, in whatever light we look upon it.
Indeed, to make thofe the judges of the law, and the
reformers of the legiflature, who have all their lives
been employed in manual labour, is the extreme of fol¬
ly •, and yet it is what fome men of confiderable abili¬
ties, and from whom wre had reafon to expeft better
things, have more than once attempted. T-he effefl of
2 ] REF
fuch a mode of fedu&ion, (and it defervcs no better Fveform.
name), when it (hall become general, inftead of ferving    
the purpofes of a real reform, muft be to annihilate all
civil order. Diffatisfaftion is the moft powerful check
to honeft induftry j and diffatisfaclion and idlenefs muft
be the effedt of the wanderings of fuch men in the laby¬
rinths of politics j which, for uncultivated minds efpe-
cially, paves the way for every fpecies of vice, and
gradually ripens them for any wickednefs, however
atrocious. For the truth of thefe remarks, we appeal
to the hiftory of mankind from the creation to the pre¬
fent time : and we would ferioufly requeft the fober
friends of reform, and many fuch, we doubt not, there
are, to refledt, that in the prefent day we have more to
fear from licentioufnefs than from defpotiim j from re¬
form carried to an extreme than from the pretended at¬
tempts either of kings or minifters to annihilate our real
liberty.
It may alfo be worth their while to confider, that
times of public danger are not generally the beft adapt¬
ed to attempt changes of government ; becauie what
might fatisfy one party would probably be thought too
little by another, and divifions at fuch a period are moft
dangerous. When, therefore, attempts are made for re¬
form which appear to be inconfiftent with the fafety of
the ftate, reftridlions muft be ufed, which may by fpecu¬
lative men be thought fevere and unneceffary, but
of which they themfelves are the caufes. T hefe re-
ftridtions too will be patiently fubmitted to by the
wifer part of the community, when in more peaceable
times they would neither have been thought ot nor al¬
lowed.
Speculative reafoners may fpeak as much as they
will of enlightening the minds or men, and of reform-
ing government by the didlates of a refined and dil-
paflionate philofophy ; but when they come to apply
their notions to pradlice, they will either find their re-
prefentations little better than empty founds, and there¬
fore ineffedlual *, or, as is more generally found to be
the cafe, thefe fchemes which in theory appeared to be
perfect, will in pradlice, when combined with the ma¬
lignant and ambitious paflions of men, lead to ruin and
diforder. The firft inftitution of government, except
among the Jews, was unqueftionablv the effedl ot paf-
fion and intereft combined 5 and this paflion and this,
intereft, reftrained within due bounds, is productive of
much happinefs. 1 hat government, we believe, too,
will be beft fupported, and moft productive of happi¬
nefs, in which the mutual paflions and interefts of the
individuals who compofe it are fo equally poifed as to
fupport one another, and to promote each the ends and
fuccefs of the other : and this by the ableft realoners
and the beft men has been thought to be the cafe with
the Britifh conftitution. If the modern favourers of
reform fhould think this an unftable fupport, if they
will confider the world as it ever has been, and as it is,
they will find it the only one we have, except religion ;
and they will thence be inclined to make the beft of it.
If after all, however, they fliould be difpofed to doubt
the pofition, we have only further to requeft them, with
the fincerity of men and of Chriftians, to confult their
own breafts, and ferioufly to confider the probable mo¬
tives of thofe who adl with them. I hey will then per¬
haps fee, and they furely ought to acknowledge, that
REF [ 673 ] REF
Reform, few fnen have a&ed more according to the impulfe of
Reforma- pa{^on^ Jnterert, and ambition, than thefe who have for
. fome time paft founded the toczin of reform.
REFORMATION, in general, an a<R of reform¬
ing or correfting an error or abufe in religion, difci-
pline, or the like. By way of eminence the word is
ufed for that great alteration and reformation in the cor¬
rupted fyftem of Chriftianity, begun by Luther in the
year 1517.
Under the article History (fe&. ii.), the various
corruptions in religion, the oppreffions and ufurpations
of the clergy, and the extreme infotence of the popes,
t have been fo fully treated of, that any further detail
'he. pope here is unneceffary. It isfufficient to obferve, that, be-
[Tumes the fore the period of the Reformation, the pope had in
whole ^ie mo^; audacious manner declared himfelf the fove-
-orld. reign of the whole world* All the parts of it which
were inhabited by thofe who were not Chriftians, he
accounted to be inhabited by no-body; and if Chriftians
took it into their heads to poffefs any of thofe countries,
he gave them full liberty to make war upon the inhabi¬
tants without any provocation, and to treat them with
no more humanity than they would have treated wild
beads. The countries, if conquered, were to be par¬
celled out according to the pope’s pleafure j and dread¬
ful was the fituation of that prince who refufed to obey
the will of the holy pontiff, of which many inftances
will occur to the reader in the various hiftorical articles
of this work. In confequenQe of this extraordinary
authority which the pope had affumed, he at laft grant¬
ed to the king of Portugal all the countries to the eaft-
ward of Cape Non in Africa, and to the king of Spain
all the countries to the weftward of it. In this, ac¬
cording to the opinions of fome, was completed in his
perfon the chara£ter of Antichri/l Jilting in the temple of
i ThelT. God, and Jhowing himfelf as God*. He had long bo¬
s' fore, fay they, affumed the fupremacy belonging to the
Deity himfelf in fpiritual matters j and now he affumed
the fame fupremacy in worldly matters alfo, giving
the extreme regions of the earth to whom he pleafed.
The Reformation, therefore, they confider as the im¬
mediate effeft of divine power taking vengeance on this
and all ether deviations from the fyftem of truth; while
others confider it merely as an effeft of natural caufes,
and which might have been forefeen and prevented,
without abridging the papal power in any confiderable
degree.
Be this as it will, however, the above-mentioned par¬
tition was the laft piece of infolence which the pope
ever had, or in all probability ever will have, in his
power to exercife, in the way of parcelling out the
globe to his adherents. Every thing was quiet, every
heretic exterminated, and the whole Chriftian world fu-
pinely acquiefced in the enormous abfurdities which
were inculcated upon themj when, in 1517, the empire
of fuperftition began to decline, and has continued to do
fo ever fince. The perfon who made the firft attack on
the extravagant fuperftitions then prevailing was Martin
Luther ; the occafion of which is fully related under
the article Luther. By fome it is pretended, that
the only motive which Luther had in beginning the
Reformation was his enmity to the Dominican friars,
who had excluded his order (the Auguftins) from all
ftiare in the gainful traffic of indulgences. But this
Vol. XVII. Part II.
does not feem at all probable if we confider that fuch Reforma-
a motive would not naturally have led him to deny the , tll',n' „
virtue of indulgences, as fuch condu6t could not but ex- 2
elude him for ever from any chance of a (hare in the Reforma-
traffic, which otherwife perhaps he might have obtained, tion begun
Befides, the extreme contrariety of this traffic to the Luttier-
common principles of reafon and honefty was fo great,
that we cannot wonder at finding one man in the world
who had fenfe enough to difeern it, and virtue enough
to oppofe fuch an infamous practice. In all probabili¬
ty, however, the infignificancy of the firft reformer was
the reafon why he was not perfecuted and exterminated
at his firft beginning, as others had been before him.
Another reafon probably might be, that he did not at
once attack the whole errors of Popery, but brought
about his reformation gradually, probably as it occurred
to himfelf, and as we have related in the account of his
life.
The Reformation began in the city of Wirtembcrg In Switzer-
in Saxony, but was not long confined either to that city Jancl
or province. In 1520 the Francifcan friars, who had the ZuU,6Uu'*
care of promulgating indulgences in Switzerland, were
oppofed by Zuinglius, a man not inferior in underftand-
ing and knowledge to Luther himfelf. He proceeded
with the greateft vigour, even at the very beginning,
to overturn the whole fabric of Popery ; but his opinions
were declared erroneous by the univerfities of Cologne
and Louvain. Notwithftanding this, the magiftrates of
Zurich approved of his proceedings; and that whole
canton, together with thofe of Bern, Bafil, and Chaffau-
fen, embraced his opinions.
In Germany, Luther continued to make great advan¬
ces, without being in the leaft intimidated by the eccle-
fiaftical cenfures which were thundered againft him from
all quarters, he being continually protected by the German
princes either from religious or political motives, fo that
his adverfaries could not aecompliffi his deftruflion as
they had done that of others. The princes, who were upon
bad terms with the court of Rome, took advantage of
the fuccefs of the new do&rines; and in their own do¬
minions eafily overturned a church which had loft all the
refpedl and veneration of the inferior ranks. The court
of Rome had difobliged fome of the fmaller princes in
the north of Germany, whom the pope probably thought
too infignificant to be worth the managing, and they uni-
verfally eftabliffied the Reformation in their own domi¬
nions. Melan&hon, Carloftadius, and other men of
eminence, alfo greatly forwarded the work of Luther *,
and in all probability the Popiffi hierarchy would have *
foon come to an end, in the northern parts of Europe
at leaft, had not the emperor Charles V. given a fevere
check to the progrefs of reformation in Germany. In Opposed in
order to follow out the fchemes di&ated by his ambi- Germany
tion, he thought it neceffary to ingratiate himfelf with by char' v-
the pope ; and the moft effeftual method of doing this
was by deftroying Luther. The pope’s legates infifted
that Luther ought to be condemned by Ihe diet of
Worms without either trial or hearing ; as being a
moft notorious, avowed, and incorrigible heretic. How¬
ever, this appeared unjuft to the members of the diet,
and he was fummoned to appear j which he accordingly
did without hefitation *. There is not the leaft doubt * <.
that his appearance there had been his laft in this world, L*'
had not the aftoniffiing refpefl that was paid him, and
4 Q, the
4
author of
S .
Form of
worfhip
REF
the crowds who came daily to fee him
judges from delivering the church from th
fuch a peftilent herefy ; which they were ftrongly foli-
cited by the pope’s party to do. He was therefore per-
Sued to depart with a fafe conduft for a certain t.me ;
after which he was in the date of a profcnbed criminal,
to whom it was unlawful to perform any of the ofhces
of humanity. „ „ , . n.
During the confinement of Luther m a caftle near
Warburg, the Reformation advanced rapidly ; mmoit
every city in Saxony embracing the Lutheran opinions.
At this time an alteration in the eftabhfhed lorms of
worfiiip was firft ventured upon at Wittemberg, by abo-
firft altered Rf^ino- the celebration of private maffes, and by giving
by Wit' the cap as well as the bread to the laity in the Lord s
temberg. ^ ! jn a ^ort time, however, the new opinions were
condemned by the umverfity of Paris, and a refutation
of them was attempted by Henry VIII. of England.
But Luther was not to be thus intimidated. He pub-
lilhed his animadverfions on both with as much acrimo¬
ny as if he had been refuting the meaneft adverfary ;
and a controverfy managed by fuch illulfrious antago-
nifts drew a general attention, and the Reformers daily
gained new converts both in France and England.
Difputes But while the efforts of Luther were thus everywhere
among ihe crowned with fuccefs, the divifions began to prevail
Reformers, which have fince fo much agitated the reformed chinch¬
es. The firft difpute was between Luther and Zuin-
glius concerning the manner in which the body and
blood of Chrift were prefent in the eucharift. Luther
and his followers, though they had rejected the notion of
tranfubltantiation, were neverthelefs of opinion that the
body and blood of Chrift were really prefent in the
Lord’s fupper, in a way which they could not pretend
to explain. Carloftadt, who was Luther s colleague,
firft fuggefted another view of the fubjeft, which was af¬
terwards confirmed and illuftrated by Zuinglius, name¬
ly, that the body and blood of Chrift were not really
prefent in the eucharift ", and that the bread and wine
we e no more than external fymbols to excite the re¬
membrance of Chrift’s fuffenngs in the minds of thoie
who received it. Both parties maintained their tenets
with the utmoft obftinacy ; and, by their divifions, firft
gave their adverfaries an argument againft them, which
to this day the Catholics urge with great force j name¬
ly, that the Proteftants are fo divided, that it is impof-
fible to know who is right or wrong ; and that there
cannot be a ftronger proof than thefe divifions, that the
„ whole doflrine is falfe.
To thefe inteftine divifions were added the horrors
of a civil war, occafioned by oppreflion on the one hand,
and enthufiafm on the other. In 1525, a great num¬
ber of feditious fanatics arofe on a hidden in different
parts of Germany, took arms, united their forces, and
made war againft the empire, laying wafte the country
with fire and fword, and committing everywhere the
greateft cruelties. The greateft part of this furious mob
was compofed of peafants and v ffals, who groaned un¬
der heavy burdens, and declared that they were no
longer able to bear the defpotic government of their
chiefs; and hence this fedition had the name of the ruf
tic war, or the war of the peafants. At firft this rab¬
ble declared, that they had no otht r motives than the
redrefs of their grievances } but no fooner had the en-
[ 674 1 REF
deterred his thufiaft Munzer, or Munfter, the anabaptift, put him- Reforma.
felf at their head, than the face of things svas entirely | ^)t’-
changed, and the civil commotions in Saxony and Thu-
rinma exceedingly increafed, of which an account is
aiven under the article ANABAPTISTS.
In the mean time Frederic, furnamed the Wife, elec¬
tor of Saxony, and Luther’s great patron, departed this
life, and was fucceeded by his brother John. Frederic,
though he had protefted and encouraged Luther, yet
was at no pains to introduce the reformed religion into ^
his dominions. But with his fucceffor it was otherwife 5 Reforma,
for he, convinced that Luther’s doflrine muft foon betionefta-
totally deftroyed and fuppreffed unlefs it received a fpee-bilfiiecl
dy-and effeftual lupport, ordered Luther and Melanc-Saxony'
thon to draw up a body of laws relating to the form of
ecclefiatlical government, the method of public w'orfhip,
&c. which was to be proclaimed by heralds throughout
his dominions. This example was followed by all the
princes and Hates of Germany who renounced the papal
fupremacy $ and a like form of worfhip, difeipline, and
government, was thus introduced into all the churches
which diffented from that of Rome. This open renun¬
ciation of the Romifti jurifdidlion foon changed the face
of affairs j and the patrons of Popery foon intimated,
in a manner not at all ambiguous, that they intended
to make war on the Lutheran party 5 which would
certainly have been put in execution, had not the trou¬
bles that took place in Europe difeoncerted their mea-
fures. On the other hand, the Lutherans, apprifed of
thefe hoftile intentions, began alfo to deliberate on a
proper plan of defence againft that fuperftitious violence ?
with which they were in danger of being affailed. TheRefolutions
diet of the empire affembled at Spire, in the year 1526 ; at the diet
where the emperor’s ambaffadors were defired to ufe^P^J
Ret
ti(
I
W
ktle
jor.
their utmoft endeavours to fupprefs all difputes about ^urable t0
Difturban-
ces m Ger¬
many,
      xi, x . “.the Refer
religion, and to infill upon the rigorous execution ofn2atjoa.
the fentence which had been pronounced againft Lu¬
ther and his followers at Worms. The greateft part of
the German princes oppofed this motion with the utmoft
refolution, declaring that they could neither execute that
fentence, nor come to any determination with regard to
the dodlrines by which it had been occafioned, before
the whole matter was fubmitted to the decifion of a
council lawfully affembled j alleging farther, that the
decifion of controverfies of this nature belonged proper¬
ly to it, and to it alone. This opinion, after long and
very warm debates, was adopted by a great majority, and
at length confented to by the whole affembly : for it was
unanimoufly agreed to prefent a folenm addrefs to the
emperor, intreating him to affemble, without delay, a
free and general council ; while in the mean time it was
alfo agreed, that the princes of the empire Ihould, in their
refpeflive dominions, be at liberty to manage ecclefiafti-
cal affairs in the manner they ftiould think moft proper 5
yet fo as to be able to give to God and the emperor a
proper account of their adminiftration when it ftiould be
required of them.
Thefe refolutions proved extremely favourable to the
caufe of reformation •, neither had the emperor any lei-
fure for feme time to give difturbance to the reformed.
The war, which at this time entued between him and
the pope, gave the greateft advantage to the friends of
the reformed, and confiderably augmented their num¬
ber. Several princes, whom the fear of perfecution and
puniftiment
6?
10
:voked
the em-
tor.
it
tgin of
! name
REF [
puniftiment had hitherto prevented from lending their
afliftance, publicly renounced the Romifh fuperftition,
and introduced among their fubjedts the fame forms of
religious worlhip, and the fame fyftem of doctrine, that
had been received in Saxony. Others, though placed
in fuch circumitances as difcouraged them from afting
in an open manner againft the in ter efts of the Roman
pontiff, were, however, far from difcovering the fmalleft
oppofition to thofe who withdrew the people from his
deipotic yoke •, nor did they moleft the private affem-
blies of thofe who had feparated themfelves from the
church of Rome. And in general, all the Germans
who, before thefe refolutions of the diet of Spire, had
rejefted the papal difcipline and doctrine, were now, in
confequence of the liberty they enjoyed, wholly employ¬
ed in bringing their fchemes and plans to a certain de¬
gree of confiftence, and in adding vigour and firmnefs
to the caufe in which they were engaged. But this
tranquillity and liberty was of no long duration. In
1529, a new diet was affembled at the fame place by
the emperor, after he had quieted the troubles in vari¬
ous parts of his dominions, and concluded a peace with
the pope. The power which had been granted to prin¬
ces of managing ecclefiaftical affairs till the meeting of
a general council, was now revoked by a majority of
votes; and every change declared unlawful that ftiould
be introduced into the do&rine, difcipline, or worlhip
of the eftablithed religion, before the determination of
the approaching council was known. This decree was
confidered as iniquitous and intolerable by the ele&or
of Saxony, the landgrave of Heffe, and other members
of the diet, who were perfuaded of the neceftity of a
reformation. The promife of fpeedily affembling a ge¬
neral council, they looked upon to be an artifice of the
church of Rome \ well knowing, that a free and lawful
council would be the laft thing to which the pope would
confent. When, therefore, they found that all their
arguments and remonftrances made no impreflion upon
Ferdinand the emperor’s brother, who prefided in the
diet, Charles himfelf being then at Barcelona, they en¬
tered a folemn proteft againft this decree on the 19th
of April, and appealed to the emperor and a future
council. Hence arofe the denomination of Protc/lants,
which from this period has been given to thofe who fe-
, parated from the communion of the church of Rome.
The princes of the empire who entered this proteft, were
John ele&or of Saxony \ George elector of Branden¬
burg 5 Erneft and Francis dukes of Lunenburg •, the
landgrave of Heffe \ and the prince of Anhalt. Thefe
were feconded by 13 imperial towns, viz. Strafburg,
Ulm, Nuremberg, Conftance, Rottengen, Windfeim,
Memmingen, Nortlingeh, Lindaw, Kempton, Heilbron,
Wiffemburg, and St Gall.
The diffenting princes, who were the protestors and
heads of the reformed churches, had no fooner entered
their proteft, than they fent proper perfons to the em¬
peror, who was then upon his paffage from Spain to
Italy, to acquaint him with their proceedings in this
matter. The minifters employed in this commiffion ex¬
ecuted it with the greateft intrepidity, and prefence of
mind *, but the emperor, exafperated at the audacity of
thofe who prefumed to differ from him, caufed the am-
baffadors to be arrefted. The news of this violent ftep
made the Proteftant princes conclude, that their per-
1
It E F
fonal fafety, and the fuccefs of their caufe, depended en¬
tirely upon their own courage and union. I hey de¬
termined, therefore, to enter into a folemn confederacy :
for which purpofe they held feveral meetings at Rot,
Nuremberg, Smalcald, and other places : but f» differ¬
ent were their opinions and views, that they could de¬
termine upon nothing. 12
One great obftacle to the intended confederacy was Conference
the difpute which had arifen between Luther and Zuin-
glius concerning the real prefence of Chrift in the ^uinglius.
Lord’s Supper. To terminate this difpute, if poftible,
Philip, landgrave of Hefl'e, invited, in the year 1529, to
a conference at Marpurg, Luther and Zuinglius, toge¬
ther with feveral other of the more eminent do&ors who
adhered to the refpe&ive parties of thefe contending
chiefs : but this meafure was not attended with the fa-
lutary effeffs which were expefted from it. The divines
difputed for four days in prefence of the landgrave. Lu¬
ther attacked Oecolampadius, and Zuinglius was attack¬
ed by Melan&hon. Zuinglius was accufed of herefy,
not only on account of his explanation of the nature and
defign of the Lord’s Supper, but alfo in confequence
of the falfe notions he was fuppofed to have adopted
concerning the divinity of Chrift, the efficacy of the
divine word, original fin, and fome other parts of the
Chriftian do&rine. This illuftrious reformer, however,
cleared himfelf from the greateft part of thefe charges
with the moft triumphant evidence, and in fuch a man¬
ner as appeared fatisfaftory even to Lather himielf: but
their diffenfion concerning the manner of Chrift’s pre¬
fence in the eucharift ftill remained ; nor could either
of the contending parties be perfuaded to abandon, or
even to modify, their opinions on that matter. The
only advantage, therefore, which refulted from the
meeting was, that the jarring doffors formed a kind of
truce, by agreeing to a mutual toleration of their fenti-
ments, and leaving to the difpofal of Providence the cure
of their divifions.
In the mean time news were received that the em¬
peror defigned to come into Germany, with a view to
terminate all religious differences at the approaching diet
of Auglhurg. Having forefeen fome of the confequen-
ces of thofe difputes, and, befides, taken the advice of
men of wifdom, fagacity, and experience, he became at
certain times more cool in his proceedings, and more
impartial in his opinions both of the contending par¬
ties and the merits of the caufe. He, therefore, in
an interview with the pope at Bologna, infifted, in
the moft ferious and urgent manner, on the neceffity
of a general council. His remonftrances and expo-
ftulations, however, could not move the pontiff; who
maintained with zeal the papal prerogatives, reproached
the emperor with an ill-judged clemency, and alleged
that it was the duty of that prince to fupport the church,
and to execute fpeedy vengeance upon that obftinate
heretical faction who dared to call in queftion the au¬
thority of Rome and its pontiff. To this difeourfe the
emperor paid no regard ) looking upon it as a moft ini¬
quitous thing, and a meafure diredly oppofite to the
laws of the empire, to condemn unheard a fet of men
who had always approved themfelves good citizens, and
deferved well of their country in feveral refpeffs. Hi-Origin of
therto indeed it was not eafy for the emperor to form a the confef-
clear idea of the matters in debate, fince there was no fi°n of
4 & 2 regular Au^lirS-
REF [ 676 ] REF
Reforma- regular fyftem as yet compofed, by which it might be
tioo. known with certainty what were the true caufes of Lu-
1 * ther’s oppolition to the pope. Ibe eleftor of Saxony^
therefore, ordered Luther, and other eminent divines,
to commit to writing the chief articles of their religious
fyItem, and the principal points in which they differed
from the church of Rome. Luther, in compliance with
this order, delivered to the ele&or at Torgaw 17 arti¬
cles which had been agreed upon in a conference at
Sultzbach in 15295 from whence thefe received the
name of the articles of Torgaw. But though thefe were
deemed by Luther a fufticient declaration of the fenti-
ments of the reformer?, yet it was judged proper to en¬
large them, in order to give perfpicuity to their argu¬
ments, and ftrength to their caufe. In this work. IVle-
lan&hon was employed 5 in which he fhowed a proper
deference to the counfels of Luther, and expreffed his
fentiments and do&rine with the greateft elegance and
perfpicuity *, and thus came forth to view the famous Con-
fejjion of Augsburg.
On the 15th of June 1530, Charles arrived at Augf-
burg, and the diet was opened five days after. The
Proteftants received a formal permiffion to prefent an
account of their tenets to the diet on the 25th of the
fame month ; in confequence of which, at the time ap¬
pointed, Chriftian Bayer, chancellor of Saxony, read,
In the German language, before the emperor and the
princes affembled, the confeflibn of Augfburg above
mentioned. It contained 28 chapters, of which 21
were employed in reprefenting the religious opinions of
the Proteftants, and the other feven in pointing out the
errors and fuperftitions of the church of Rome. The
princes heard it with the deepeft attention and recollec¬
tion of mind : it confirmed fome in the principles they
had embraced; furprifed others 5 and many, who be¬
fore this time had little or no idea of the religious fen¬
timents of Luther, were now not only convinced of their
innocence, but delighted with their purity and fimplici-
Itispre- ty. The copies of this Confeflion, which after being
femed to read were delivered to the emperor, were figned by John
the empe- eleftor of Saxony, George marquis of Brandenburg,
ror* Erneft duke of Lunenburg, Philip landgrave of Heffe,
Wolfgang prince of Anhalt, and by the imperial cities
15 of Nuremburg and Reutlingen.
Arefuta- The creatures of the church of Rome who were pre-
ticm ”['5* fent at this diet employed John Faber, afterwards biftiop
thtTprote- Vienna, together with Eckius, and another dodlor
ft ants are named Cockl&us, to draw up a refutation of the Protef-
ordered to tant confeflion : which refutation having been publicly
acquiefce. rea^ the emperor required the Proteftant members to
acquiefce in it, and put an end to the religious difputes
by an unlimited fubmiffion to the opinions and doflrines
contained in this anfwer. But this demand was far from
being complied with. The Proteftants declared on the
contrary, that they were by no means fatisfied with the
reply of their adverfaries 5 and earneftly defired a copy
of it, that they might more fully demonftrate its extreme
infufficiency and wtaknefs. But this reafonable requeft
was refufed by the emperor 5 who interpofed hisfupreme
authority to prevent any farther proceedings in this mat¬
ter, and folemnly prohibited the publication of any new
writings or declarations that might contribute to length¬
en out thefe religious debates. This, however, did not
seduce the Proteftants to filence. The divines of that
communion, who had been prefent at the diet, endea- Reforaj»,
voured to recolleft the arguments and objedlions employ- t,0n. ^
ed by Faber, and had again recourfe to the pen of Me- S
lanfthon, who refuted them in an ample and fatisfaftory
manner, in a piece which was prefented to the emperor
on the 22d of September, but which Charles refufed to
receive. This anfwer was afterwards enlarged by Me-
landlhon, when he had obtained a copy of Faber’s reply j
and was publiftied in the year 1531, with the other pie¬
ces that related to the dodtrine and difcipline of the Lu¬
theran church, under the title of A Defence of the Con- ft
feffion of Augsburg. i »
Matters now began to draw towards a crifis. There
were only three ways of bringing to a conclufion thele
religious differences. I. To grant the Proteftants a
toleration and privilege of ferving God as they thought
proper : 2. To compel them to return to the church of
Rome by the violent methods of perfecution : or, 3.
That a reconciliation ftiould be made, upon fair, candid,
and equitable terms, by engaging each of the parties to
temper their zeal with moderation, to abate reciprocally
the rigour of their pretenfions, and remit fomething of
their refpedtive claims. The third expedient was moft
generally approved of, being peculiarly agreeable to all
who had at heart the welfare of the empire j nor did the
pope feem to look upon it either with averfion or con¬
tempt. Various conferences therefore were held between
perfons eminent for piety and learning on both fides;
and nothing was omitted that might have the leaft ten¬
dency to calm the animofities and heal the divifions’
which reigned between the contending parties. But the
differences were too great to admit of a reconciliation 5 -
and therefore the votaries of Rome had recourfe to the
powerful arguments of imperial edifts, and the force of- ^
the fecular arm. On the 19th of November, a fevere Severe de.
decree was iffued out by the exprefs order of the emper-cree againii
or (during the abfence of the Heflian and Saxon princes, the hrote-
who were the chief fupporters of the Proteftant caufe),1Unts'
in which every thing was manifeftly adapted to dejeft
the friends of religious liberty, excepting only a faint and
dubious promife of engaging the pope to affemble a ge¬
neral council about fix months after the feparation of the
diet. In this decree the dignity and excellence of the
Popifti religion were extolled beyond meafure, a new
degree of feverity and force was added to that which had
been publiftied at Worms againft Luther and his adher¬
ents, the changes which had been introduced into the
do&rine and difcipline of the Proteftant churches were
feverely cenfured, and a folemn order was addreffed to
the princes, cities, and ftates, who had thrown off the
Papal yoke, to return to their allegiance to Rome, on
pain of incurring the indignation and vengeance of the
emperor as the patron and prote&or of the church. Of
this formidable decree the eledtor of Saxony and confe¬
derated princes were no fooner informed than they af¬
fembled in order to deliberate on the meafures proper to ^
be taken in fuch a crifis. In the years 1530 and 1531 The league
they met, firft at Smalcald, and afterwards at Francfort,of Smal-
where they formed a folemn alliance and confederacy,cal^
with the intention of defending vigoroufly their religion
and liberties againft; the dangers and encroachnients with
which they w7ere threatened by the edift of Auglburg,
without attempting, however, any thing offenfive againft:
the votaries of Rome; and into this confederacy they in¬
vited
REF
18
Invitation
to Henry
VIII. of
England.
Reforma- vited the kings of England, France, Denmark, See.
^on’ leaving no means unemployed that might corroborate
and cement this important alliance.
This confederacy avas at firft oppofed by Luther,
from anapprehenfion of the calamities and troubles which
it might produce; but at laft, perceiving the neceflity
. of it, he confented ; though he uncharitably, as well as
imprudently, refufed to comprehend in it the followers
of Zuinglius among the Swifs, together with the Ger¬
man dates and cities who had adopted the fentiments
and confeflion of Bucer. In the invitation addreffed to
Henry VIII. of England, whom the confederate princes
were willing to declare the head and proteftor of their
league, the following things, among others, were ex-
prefsly ftipulated : That the king (hould encourage, pro¬
mote, and maintain, the true doSlrine of Chrift as it was
contained in the confeflion of Auglburg, and defend
the fame at the next general council: that he fhould not
agree to any council fummoned by the bithop of Rome,
but proteft againft it •, and neither fubmit to its decrees,
nor iuffer them to be refpefted in his dominions : that he
Ihould never allow the Roman pontiff to have any pre¬
eminence or jurifdiftion in his dominions j that he fliould
advance 100,000 crowns for the ufe of the confederacy,
and double that fum if it became necelfary: all which
articles the confederate princes were equally obliged to
obferve on their part. To thefe demands the king re¬
plied, that he would maintain and promote the true doc¬
trine of Chrift } but, at the fame time, as the true ground
of that do&rine lay only in the holy Scriptures, he would
not accept at any one’s hand what fhould be his own
faith, or that of his kingdom ; and therefore defired that
they would fend over two learned men to confer with
him, in order to promote a religious union between him
and the confederates. However, he declared himfelf of
their opinion with regard to the meeting of a free gene¬
ral council, and promifed to join with them in all fuch
councils for the defence of the true doctrine; but thought
the regulation of the ceremonial part of religion, being
a matter of indifferenee, ought to be left to the choice
of each fovereign for his own dominions. After this
the king gave them a fecond anfwer more full and fatis-
fa&ory ; but after the execution of Queen Anne, this
negotiation came to nothing. On the one hand the
king grew cold when he perceived that the confederates
were no longer of ufe to him in fupporting the validity
of his marriage; and, on the other hand, the German
princes became fenfible that they could never fucceed
with Henry unlefs they allowed him an abfolute di6ta-
torlhip in matters of religion.
While every thing thus tended to an open war be¬
tween the two oppofite parties, the elector Palatine, and
the eleftor of Mentz, offered their mediation, and en¬
deavoured to procure a reconciliation. The emperor
himfelf, for various reafons, was at this time inclined, to
peace : for, on the one hand, he flood in need of fuc-
cours againft the Turks, which the Proteftant princes
refufed to grant as long as the edifls of Worms and
Augfburg remained in force j and, on the other, the
eleftion of his brother Ferdinand to the dignity of king
of the Romans, which had been carried by a majority of
votes at the diet of Cologne in 1531, was by the fame
princes contcfted, as being contrary to the fundamental
laws ©f the empire. In confequence of all this, after
many negotiations and projects of reconciliation, a treaty
I»
[ 677 ] RE F
of peace was concluded at Nuremberg in 1532, between
the emperor and the Proteftant princes, on the following
conditions; viz. That the latter fhould furnifh a fubfidy
for carrying on the war againft the Turks, and acknow- Peace of
ledge Ferdinand lawful king of the Romans; and that Nuremberg
the emperor on his part fhould abrogate and annul the concluded,
edicts of Worms and Augfburg, and allow the Lu¬
therans the free and undifturbed exercife of their re¬
ligious dodlrine and difeipline, until a rule of faith was
fixed either in the free general council that was to be
affembled in the fpace of fix months, or in a diet of the
empire.
Soon after the conclufion of the peace at Nuremberg
died John elector of Saxony, who was fucceeded by his
fon John Frederic, a prince of invincible fortitude and
magnanimity, but whofe reign was little better than one
continued train of difappointments and calamities. The
religious truce, however, gave new vigour to the refor¬
mation. Thofe who had hitherto been only fecret ene¬
mies to the Roman pontiff, now publicly threw off his
yoke; and various cities and provinces of Germany en-
lifted themfelves uhder the religious ftandards of Luther.
On the other hand, as the emperor had now no other
hope of terminating the religious difputes but by the
meeting of a general council, he repeated his requefts ta JO
the pope for that purpofe. The pontiff (Clement VII.), a general
whom the hiftory of pall councils filled with the greateft council prb-
uneafinefs, endeavoured to retard what he could not with P0**^
decency refufe. At laft, in 1533, he made a propofal
by his legate to affemble a council at Mantua, Placen¬
tia, or Bologna; but the Proteftants refufed their confent
to the nomination of an Italian council, and infifted that
a controverfy which had its rife in the heart of Germany,
fhould be determined within the limits of the empire.
The pope, by his ufual artifices, eluded the performance
of his own promife ; and, in 1534, was cut off by death,
in the midft of his ftratagems. His fuceefi'or Paul III.
feemed to fhow lefs reluftance to the affembling a gene¬
ral council, and in the year 1535 exprtffedhis inclination
to convoke one at Mantua; and, the year following,
adtually fent circular letters for that purpofe through all
the ftates and kingdoms under his jurifdi&ion. This
council was fummoned by a bull iffued out on the 2d of
June 1536, to meet at Mantua the following year: but
feveral obftacles prevented its meeting ; one of the moft:
material of which was, that Frederic duke of Mantua
had no inclination to receive at once fo many guefts,
fome of them very turbulent, into the place of his refi-
dence. On the other hand, the Proteftants were firmly
perfuaded that, as the council was affembled in Italy,
and by the authority of the pope alone, the latter muft
have had an undue influence in that affembly; of con¬
fequence, that all things muft have been carried by the 2X
votaries of Rome. For this reafon they affembled at Proteftation
Smalcald in the year 1537, where they folemnly pro-againlt it.
tefted againft this partial and corrupt council, and, at
the fame time, had a new fummary of their doftrine
drawn up by Luther, in order to prefent it to the af-'
fembled bifhopsif it fhould be required of them. This
fummary, which had the title of T/ie Artic/es of Smal¬
cald, is commonly joined with the creeds and confeflions
of the Lutheran church.
After the meeting of the general council in Mantua Fruitlefs
was thus prevented, many fchemes of accommodation t hemes of
were propofed both by the emperor and the Proteftants ; aceomme-
bu;d.tion.
REF
[ 678 ]
REF
’3
Council of
Trent pro-
pofed.
14
Plan of re¬
formation
propofed
by the
pope.
but, by the artifices of the church of Rome, all of them
came to nothing. In I541? emperor appointed a
conference at Worms on the fubjeft of religion, between
perfons of piety and learning chofen from the contending
parties. This conference, however, was, for certain
reafons, removed to the diet which was to be held at
Ratiibon that fame year, and in which the principal fub-
je& of deliberation was a memorial prefented by a perfon
unknown, containing a project of peace. But the con¬
ference produced no other effeft than a mutual agree¬
ment of the contending parties to refer their matters to
a general council, or, if the meeting of fuch a council
fhould be prevented, to the next German diet.
This refolution was rendered ineflfe£tual by a variety
of incidents, which widened the breach, and put off to
a farther day the deliberations which were defigned to
heal it. The pope ordered his legate to declare to the
diet of Spire, affembled in 1^2, that he would, ac¬
cording to the promife he had already made, affemble a
general council, and that Trent ffiould be the place of
its meeting, if the diet had no objedlion to that city.
Ferdinand, and the princes who adhered to the caufe of
the pope, gave their confent to this propofal} but it was
vehemently objected to by the Proteftants, both becaufe
the council was fummoned by the authority of the pope
only, and alfo becaufe the place was within the jurifdic-
tion of the pope 5 whereas they defired a free council,
which fliould not be biaffed by the di&ates, nor awed
by the proximity of the pontiff. But this proteftation
produced no effeft. Paul III. perfifted in his purpofe,
and iffued out his circular letters for the convocation of
the council, with the approbation of the emperor. In
juftice to this pontiff, however, it muff be obferved,
that he (bowed himfelf not to be averfe to every refor¬
mation. He appointed four cardinals, and three other
perfons eminent for their learning, to draw up a plan
for the reformation of the church in general, and of the
church of Rome in particular. The reformation propo¬
fed in this plan was indeed extremely fuperficial and par¬
tial, yet it contained fume particulars which could fcarce-
ly have been expefted from thofe who compofed it.
They complained of the pride and ignorance of the bi-
(hops, and propofed that none (hould receive orders but
learned and pious men ; and that therefore care fhould
be taken to have proper mafters for the inftruftion of
youth. They condemned trandations from one benefice
to another, grants of refervation, non-refidence, and
pluralities. They propofed that feme convents {hould
be abolifhed : that the liberty of the prefs (hould be re-
ffrained and limited ; that the colloquies of Erafmus
(hould be fuppreffed ; that no ecclefiaftic (hould enjoy a
benefice out of his own country ; that no cardinal (hould
have a bifhopric ; that the queftors of St Anthony and
feveral other faints (hould be abolifhed ; and, which was
the bed of all their propofals, that the effefls and perfo-
nal eftates of ecclefiaftics fhould be given to the poor.
They concluded with complaining of the prodigious
number of indigent and ragged priefts who frequented
St Peter’s church •, and declared, that it was a great
fcandal to fee the whores lodged fo magnificently at
Rome, and riding through the ftreets on fine mules,
while the cardinals and other ecclefiaftics accompanied
them in the moft courteous manner.—This plan of re¬
formation was turned into ridicule by Luther and Stur-
mms 5 and indeed it left unredreffed the moft intolerable Reforma-
grievances of which the Proteftants complained. ,
All this time the emperor had been labouring to per-
fuade the Proteftants to confent to the meeting of the War be-
council at Trent •, but when he found them fixed in their tween the
oppofition to this meafure, he began to liften to the fan- eiT)Peror
guinary meafures of the pope, and refolved to terminate
the difputes by force of arms. The eleftor of Saxony
and landgrave of Heffe, who were the chief fupporters
of the Proteftant caufe, upon this took proper meafures
to prevent their being furprifed and overwhelmed by a
fuperior force ; but, before the horrors of war com¬
menced, the great reformer Luther died in. peace at
Ayfelben, the place of his nativity, in 1546.
The emperor and the pope had mutually refolved on
the deflruftion of all who fhould dare to oppofe the
council of Trent. The meeting of it was to ferve as a
fignal for taking up arms ; and accordingly its delibera¬
tions were fcarcely begun in 1546, when the Proteftants
perceived undoubted fignsof the approaching ftorm, and
a formidable union betwixt the emperor and pope, which
threatened to crufti and overwhelm them at once. This
year indeed there had been a new conference at Ratif-
bon upon the old fubjedl of accommodating differences
in religion ; but from the manner in which the debates
were carried on, it plainly appeared that thefe differen¬
ces could only be decided in the field of battle. The
council of Trent, in the mean time, promulgated their
decrees ; while the reformed princes, in the diet-of Ra- ,
tifbon, protefted againft their authority, and were on
that account profcribed by the emperor, who raifed an
army to reduce them to obedience. See Father Paul's
Hi/lory of the Council of Trent, and our articles Father
Paul, and Trent.
The eleflor of Saxony and the landgrave of Heffe led
their forces into Bavaria againft the emperor, and can¬
nonaded his camp at Ingolftadt. It was fuppofed that
this would bring on an engagement, which would pro¬
bably have been advantageous to the caufe of the re¬
formed ; but this was prevented, chiefly by the perfidy
of Maurice duke of Saxony, who invaded the dominions
of his uncle. Divifions were aifo fomented among the
confederate princes, by the diflimulation of the empe¬
ror ; and France failed in paying the fubfidy which had
been promifed by its monarch : all which fo difcouraged
the heads of the Proteftant party, that their army foon
difperfed, and the eleflor of Saxony was obliged to di-
reft his march homewards. But he was purfued by the
emperor, who made feveral forced marches, with a view
to deftroy his enemy before he (hould have time to reco- ^
ver his vigour. The two armies met near Mulberg, on Elector of
the Elbe, on the 24th of April 1547 ; and, after a Saxony de-
bloody aftion, the eleflor was entirely defeated, and^e“te^an^
himfelf taken prifoner.—Maurice, who had fo bafely be- ^
trayed him, was now declared eledtor of Saxony ; and
by his intreaties Philip landgrave of Heffe, the other
chief of the Proteftants, was perfuaded to throw himfelf
on the mercy of the emperor, and to implore his pardon.
To this he confented, relying on the promife of Charles
for obtaining forgivenefs, and being reftored to liberty;
but, notwithftanding thefe expectations, he was unjuftly
detained prifoner, by a fcandalous violation of the moft
folemn convention. It is faid that the emperor retrac¬
ed his promife, and deluded this unhappy prince by the
ambiguity
_ a?
The coun¬
cil iudden-
!y dilTolved
a8
A formula¬
ry drawn
up by the
emperor.
TV 29
Difpleafes
both par-
lies.
REF
ambiguity of two German words,
fcarcely afford a parallel to the perfidious, mean-f’pirited,
and defpotic behaviour of the emperor in the prefent
cafe. After having received in public the humble
fubmiffion of the prince on his knees, and after having
fet him at liberty by a folemn treaty, he had him arrett¬
ed anew without any reafon,nay, without any pretence,
and kept him clofe prifoner for feveral years. When
Maurice remonftrated againfl: this new confinement, the
emperor anfwered, that he had never promifed that the
landgrave fhould not be imprifoned anew, but only that
he Ihould be exempted from perpetual imprifonment j
and, to fupport this affertion, he produced the treaty,
into which his minifters had perfidioufly foifted ewiger
gefangnis, which fignifies a “ perpetual prifon,’1 inilead
of einigergefangnis, which fignifies “ any prifon.” This,
however, is contefted by fome hitlorians.
The affairs of the Proteftants now feemed to be def-
perate. In the diet of Augfburg, which was foon after
called, the emperor required the Proteflants to leave the
decifion of thefe religious difputes to the wifdom of the
council which was to meet at Trent. The greatell part
of the members confented to this propofal, being con¬
vinced by the powerful argument of an imperial army,
which was at hand to difpel the darknefs from the eyes
of fuch as might otherwife have been blind to the force
of Charles’s reafoning. However, this general fubmif-
fion did not produce the effeft which was expefted from
it. A plague which broke out, or was faid to do fo, in
the city, caufed the greateft part of the bifhops to retire
to Bologna 5 by which means the council was in effedl
diffolved, nor could all the intreaties and remonftrartces
of the emperor prevail upon the pope to re-aifemble it
without delay. During this interval, therefore, the em¬
peror judged it neceffary to fall upon fome method of ac¬
commodating the religious differences, and maintaining
peace until the council fo long expe£ted fhould be finally
obtained. With this view he ordered Julius Pelugius,
bifhop of Naumberg, Michael Sidonius, a creature of
the pope, and John Agricola, a native of Ayfelben, to
draw up a formulary which might ferve as a rule of faith
and worfhip, till the council ihould be affembled : but
as this avas only a temporary expedient, and had not the
force of a permanent or perpetual inftitution, it thence
obtained the name of the Interim.
This projeft of Charles wras formed partly with a de-
fign to vent his refentment againfl the pope, and partly
to anfwer other political purpofes. It contained all the
effential dodlrines of the church of Rome, though confi-
derably foftened by the artful terms which were employ¬
ed, and which were quite different from thofe employ¬
ed before and after this period by the council of I rent.
There was even an affe6led ambiguity in many of the
expreffions, which made them fufceptible of different
fenfes, and applicable to the fentiments of both commu¬
nions. The confequence of all this was, that the impe¬
rial creed was reprobated bv both parties. However, it
was promulgated with great folemnity by the emperor
at Augfburg. The eleflor of Mentz, without even afk-
ing the opinion of the princes prefent, gave a fanclion
to this formula, as if he had been commiffioned to repre-
fent the whole diet. Many kept filence through fear,
and that filence was interpreted as a tacitconfent. Some
had the courage to oppofe it, and thefc were reduced by
force of arms j and the moft deplorable fcenes of blood-
,5
tion.
“V
[ 679 ] REF
Hiflory indeed can filed and violence were a£led throughout the whole em- Reforma-
pire. Maurice, elector of Saxony, who had hitherto
kept neutral, now affembled the whole of his nobility
and clergy, in order to deliberate on this critical affair.
At the head of the latter was Melan&hon, whole word Scheme of
was refpe&ed as a law among the Proteilants. But tbisreconcilia-
man had not the courage of Luther ; and was therefore
on all occafions ready to make conceffions, and to Pr°-thor '
pofe fchemes of accommodation. In the prefent cafe,
therefore, he gave it as his opinion, that the whole of
the book called Interim could not by any means be
adopted by the Proteilants ; hut at the fame time he de¬
clared, that he faw no reafon why this book might not
be approved, adopted, and received, as an authoritative
riffe in things that did not relate to the effential parts of
religion, and which he accounted indifferent. But this
fcheme, inftead of cementing the differences, made them
worfe than ever ; and produced a divifion among the
Proteilants themfelves, which might have overthrown
the Reformation entirely, if the emperor and pope had
feized the opportunity. ^
In the year 1549, the pope (Paul III.) died; and A new
was fucceeded by Julius. HI. who, at the repeated folici council pro-
tations of the emperor, confented to the re-afi'embling of^?i^at
a council at Trent. A diet was again held at Augf- 1
burg under the cannon of an imperial army, and Charles
laid the matter before the princes of the empiie. Moft
of thofe prefent gave their confent to it, and among the
refl Maurice elector of Saxony ; who confented on the
following conditions : 1. That the points of doflrine
which had already been decided there, fhould be re-exa¬
mined. 2. That this examination fhould be made in
prefence of the Proteftant divines. 3. That the Saxon
Proteflants fhould have a liberty of voting as well as of
deliberating in the council. 4. That the pope fhould
not pretend to prefide in that affembly, either in perfon
or by his legates. This declaration of Maurice was
read in the diet, and his deputies infilled upon its being
entered into the regiflers, which the archbiihop of Mentz
obflinately refufed. This diet was concluded in the
year 1551 ; and, at its breaking up, the emperor defi-
red the affembled princes and Hates to prepare all things
for the approaching council, and promifed to ufe his ut-
moft endeavours to procure moderation and harmony,
impartiality and charity, in the tranfaflions of that af¬
fembly.
On the breaking up of the diet, the Proteflants took
fuch fleps as they thought mofi proper for their own
fafety. The Saxons employed Melandlhon, and the
Wurtembergers Brengsus, to draw up Confeffions of
Faith to be laid before the new council. The Saxon di¬
vines, however, proceeded no farther than Nuremberg,
having received feeret orders from Maurice to flop
there : For the eleftor, perceiving that Charles had
formed defigns againfl the liberties of the German
princes, refolved to take the mod effe&ual meafures for
crulhing his ambition at once. He therefore entered
with the utmoft fecrecy and expedition into an alliance
with the king of France and feveral of the German
princes, for the fecurity of the rights and liberties ofxhe empe-
the empire ; after which, affembling a powerful army ror is fur-
in 1552. he marched againft the emperor, who lay withPr^ed> and
a handful of troops at Infpruck, and expedled no fuck orced t0 a
thing. By this Hidden and unforefeen accident Charles[heekAor '
was fo much difpirited, that he was willing to make of Saxony.
peace
REF [ 680 ] REF
Reforma- peace almoft on any terms. The confequence of this
tion- was, that he concluded a treaty at Paffau, which by the
W'-Y—'j Proteftants is confidered as the bafis of their religious
liberty. By the firft three articles of this treaty it was
agreed, that Maurice and the confederates ihould lay
down their arms, and lend their troops to Ferdinand to
affift him againft the Turks; and that the landgrave of
Heffe ihould be fet at liberty. By the fourth it was
agreed, that the rule of faith called the Interim (liould
be confidered as null and void: that the contending par¬
ties (hould enjoy the free and undifturbed exercife of
their religion, until a diet fhould be affembled to deter¬
mine amicably the prefent difputes (which diet was to
meet in the fpace of fix months) •, and that this reli¬
gious liberty Ihould continue always, in cafe it {hould
be found impoffible to come to an uniformity in doc¬
trine and worfhip. It was alfo determined, that all
thofe who had fuffered banifhment, or any other cala¬
mity, on account of their having been concerned in the
league or war of Smalcald, {hould be reinftated in their
privileges, poffeffions, and employments^ that the impe¬
rial chamber at Spire, {hould be open to the Proteftants
as well as to the ..Catholics j and that there ihould al¬
ways be a certain number of Lutherans in that high
court.—To this peace Albert, marquis of Brandenburg,
refufed to fubfcribe; and continued the war againft the
Roman Catholics, committing fuel) ravages in the em¬
pire, that a confederacy was at laft formed againft him.
At the head of this confederacy was Maurice eleftor of
Saxony, who died of a wound he received in a battle
fought on the occafion in 1553.
The aflembling of the diet promifed by Charles wras
prevented by various incidents; however, it met at
Augihurg in 1,555, where it was opened by Ferdinand
in name of the emperor, and terminated thofe deplorable
calamities which had fo long defolated the empire. Af-
ter various debates, the following a6ls were paffed, on
Treaty of the 25th of September : That the Proteftants who fol-
Augtburg. lowed the Confeflion of Augfburg {hould be for the fu¬
ture confidered as entirely free from the jurifdi&ion of
the Roman pontiff, and from the authority and fuperin-
tendance of the bilhops; that they were left at perfect
liberty to ena6t laws for themfelves relating to their re¬
ligious fentiments, difeipline, and worfhip ; that all the
inhabitants of the German empire {hould be allowed to
judge for themfelves in religious matters, and to join
themfelves to that church whofe dodtrine and worfhip
they thought the moft pure and confonant to the fpirit
of true Chriftianity ; and that all thofe who {hould in¬
jure or perfecute any perfon under religious pretences,
and on account of their opinions, {hould be declared and
proceeded againft as public enemies of the empire, in¬
vaders of its liberty, and difturbers of its peace.
Thus was the Reformation eftablifhed in many parts
of the German empire, where it continues to this day ;
nor have the efforts of the Popifti powers at any time
34 been able to fupprefs it, or even to prevent it from gain-
Account of ing ground. It was not, however, in Germany alone
the Refor. that a reformation of religion took place. Almoft all
£Xm t^ie king;doras of Europe began to open their eyes to the
truth about the fame time. The reformed religion was
propagated in Sweden, foon after Luther’s rupture with
the church of Rome, by one of his difciples named Olaus
Petri. The zealous efforts of this miftionary were fe-
. veond by Guftavus Vafa, whom the Swedes had raifed
to the throne in place of Chriftiern king of Denmark, Reforaa.
whofe horrid barbarity loft him the crown. This prince, tI0n’
however, was as prudent as he was zealous; and, as the 'r"“*
minds of the Swedes were in a fluiluating ftate, he wife¬
ly avoided all kind of vehemence and precipitation in
fpreading the new dodlrine. Accordingly, the firfl; ob¬
ject of his attention was the inftru&ion of his people in
the facred do&rines of the Holy Scriptures: for which
purpofe he invited into his dominions feveral learned
Germans, and fpread abroad through the kingdom the
Swedifti tranflation of the Bible that had been made by
Olaus Petri. Some time after this, in 1526, heap-
pointed a conference at Upfal, between this reformer
and Peter Gallius, a zealous defender of the ancient fu-
perftition, in which each of the champions %vas to bring
forth his arguments, that it might be feen on which
fide the truth lay. In this difpute Olaus obtained a fig-
nal victory; which contributed much to confirm Gufta¬
vus in his perfuafion of the truth of Luther’s do&rine,
and to promote its progrefs in Sweden. The following
year another event gave the finifhing ftroke to its propa¬
gation and fuccefs. This w7as the affembly of the ftates.
at Wefteraas, where Guftavus recommended the doc¬
trine of the reformers with fuch zeal, that, after warm
debates fomented by the clergy in general, it was una-
nimoufly refolved that the reformation introduced by
Luther fhould have place in Sweden. This refolution
was principally owing to the firmnefs and magnanimity
of Guftavus, who declared publicly, that he would lay
down the feeptre and retire from the kingdom, rathet
than rule a people enflaved by the orders and authority
of the pope, and more controuled by the tyranny of
their biftiops than by the laws of their monarch. From
this time the papal empire in Sweden was entirely over¬
thrown, and Guftavus declared head of the church.
In Denmark, the reformation was introduced as early in
as the year 1521, in confequence of the ardent defire mark,
difeovered by Chriftiern II. of having his fubjefts in-
ftrufted in the doftrines of Luther. This monarch,
notwithftanding his cruelty, for which his name has
been rendered odious, was neverthelefs defirous of deli¬
vering his dominions from the tyranny of the church of
Rome. For this purpofe, in the year 1520, he fent for
Martin Reinard, one of the difciples of. Carloftadt, out
of Saxony, and appointed him profeffor of divinity at
Hafnia ; and after his death, which happened in 1521,
he invited Carloftadt himfelf to fill that important place.
Carloftadt accepted of this office indeed, but in a fhort
time returned to Germany ; upon which Chriftiern ufed
his utmoft endeavours to engage Luther to vifit his do¬
minions, but in vain. However, the progrefs of Chrif¬
tiern, in reforming the religion of his fubje<fts, or rather
of advancing his own power above that of the church,
was checked, in the year 1523, by a confpiracy, by *
which he was depofed and banifhed ; his uncle Frede¬
ric, duke of Holftein and Slefwic, being appointed his
fucceffor.
Frederic conduced the reformation with much great¬
er prudence than his predeceffor. He permitted the
Proteftant dodtors to preach publicly the fentiments of
Luther, but did not venture to change the eftabliftied
government and difeipline of the church. However,
he contributed greatly to the progrefs of the reforma¬
tion, by his fuccefsful attempts in favour of religious
liberty in an aflembly of the ftates held at Odenfee in
1527,
Ij'27.
REF [ <531 ]
Here lie procured the publication of a famous contempt
3S
tn France.
See Hu-
■enots.
edift, by which every fubjedt of Denmark was declared
free either to adhere to the tenets of the church of Rome,
or to the dodlrine of Luther. Phe papal tyranny was
totally deftroyed by his fucceffor Chriftiern III. He
began by fuppreffing the defpotic authority of the bi-
ftiops, and reftoring to their lawful owners a great part
of the wealth and pofleflions which the church had ac¬
quired by various ftratagems. This was followed by a
plan of religious doftrine, worfhip, and difcipline, laid
down by Bugenhagius, whom the king had fent for from
Wittemberg for that purpofe ; and in 1539 an affembly
of the Rates at Odenfee gave a folemn fandtion to all
thefe tranfadlions.
In France alfo, the reformation began to make fome
progrefs very early. Margaret queen of Navarre, filter
to Francis I. the perpetual rival of Charles V. was a
great friend to the new dodtrine ; and it appears that, as
early as the year 1523, there were in feveral of the pro¬
vinces of France great numbers of people who had con¬
ceived the greateft averfion both to the dodtrine and ty¬
ranny of the church of Rome ; among whom were many
of the firft rank and dignity, and even fome of the epif-
copal order. But as their number increafed daily, and
troubles and commotions were excited in feveral places
on account of the religious differences, the authority of
the king intervened, and many perfons eminent for their
virtue and piety were put to death in the moft barbarous
manner. Indeed Francis, who had either no religion at
all, or, at belt, no fixed and confident fyftem of religious
principles, condudted himfelf towards the Proteftants
in fuch a manner as beft anfwered his private views.
Sometimes he refolved to invite Melandthon into France,
probably with a view to pleafe his lifter the queen of
Navarre, whom he loved tenderly, and who had ftrong-
ly imbibed the Proteftant principles. At other times
he exercifed the moft infernal cruelty towards the re¬
formed ; and once made the following mad declaration,
That if he thought the blood in his arm was tainted by
the Lutheran herefy, he would have it cut off; and that
he would not fpare even his own children, if they en¬
tertained fentiments contrary to thofe of the Catholic
church.
About this time the famous Calvin began to draw the
attention of the public, but more efpecially of the queen
of Navarre. His zeal expofed him to danger ; and the
friends of the reformation, whom Francis was daily com¬
mitting to the flames, placed him more than once in the
moft perilous fituation, from which he was delivered by
the interpofition of the queen of Navarre. He therefore
retired out of France to Bafil in Swifferland ; where he
publifhed his Chriftian Inftitutions, and became after¬
wards fo famous.
Thofe among the French who firft renounced the ju-
rifdiftion of the Romifti church, are commonly called
Lutherans by the writers of thofe early times. Hence
It has been fuppofed that they had all imbibed the pecu¬
liar fentiments of Luther. But this appears by no means
to have been the cafe : for the vicinity of the cities of
Geneva, Laufanne, &c. which had adopted the doc¬
trines of Calvin, produced a remarkable effeft upon the
French Proteftant churches ; infomuch that, about the
middle of this century, they all entered into communion
with the church of Geneva. The French Proteftants
were called Huguenots * by their adverfaties, by way of
Vol. XVII. Part II.
REF
Their fate was very fevere, being perfecuted Beforma-
with unparalleled fury j and though many princes of the , tlon' ,
blood, and of the firft nobility, had embraced their fen¬
timents, yet in no part of the world did the reformers
fuffer fo much f. At laft all commotions were quelled
by the fortitude and magnanimity of Henry IV. who in^o^y
the year 1598 granted all his fubje&s full liberty of con-  149,
fcience by the famous Edift of Nantes, and feemed to
have thoroughly eftabliftied the reformation throughout
his dominions. During the minority of Louis XIV.
however, this edi£t was revoked by Cardinal Mazarine,
fince which time the Proteftants have often been cruelly
perfecuted ; nor was the profeflion of the reformed reli¬
gion in France at any time fo fafe as in moft other coun¬
tries of Europe. ^
In the other parts of Europe the oppofilion to the in the Ne-
church of Rome was but faint and ambiguous before thetherlands,
diet of Augfburg. Before that period, however, it ap-^c*
pears from undoubted teftimony, that the do<ftrine of
Luther had made a confiderable, though probably fe-
cret, progrefs through Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, Bri¬
tain, Poland, and the Netherlands 5 and had in all thefe
countries many friends, of whom feveral repaired to
Wittemberg, in order to enlarge their knowledge by
means of Luther’s converfation. Some of thefe countries
threw off the Romifti yoke entirely, and in others a pro¬
digious number of families embraced the principles of
the reformed religion. It is certain indeed, and fome
Roman Catholics themfelves acknowledge it without
hefitation, that the Papal doflrines and authority would
have fallen into ruin in all parts of the world at once,
had not the force of the fecular arm been employed to
fupport the tottering edifice. In the Netherlands parti¬
cularly, the moft grievous perfecutions took place, fo
that by the emperor Charles V. upwards of 100,000
were deftroyed, while ftill greater cruelties were exerci¬
fed upon the people by his fon Philip II. The revolt
of the United Provinces,, however, and motives of real
policy, at laft put a flop to thefe furious proceedings j
and, though in many provinces of the Netherlands, the
eftabliftiment of the Popifh religion was ftill continued,
the Proteftants have been long free of the danger of per-
fecution on account of their principles.
The reformation made confiderable progrefs in Spain In Italy,
and Italy foon after the rupture between Luther and
the Roman pontiff. In all the provinces of Italy,
but more efpecially in the territories of Venice, Tufca-
ny, and Naples, the fuperftition of Rome loft ground,
and great numbers of people of all ranks expreffed an
averfion to the Papal yoke. This occafioned violent
and dangerous commotions in the kingdom of Naples
in the year 1546 5 which, however, were at laft quelled
by the united forces of Charles V. and his viceroy Don
Pedro di Toledo. In feveral places the pope put a flop
to the progrefe of the reformation, by letting loofe the
inquifitors ; who fpread dreadful marks of their barba¬
rity through the greateft part of Italy. Thefe formi¬
dable minifters of fuperftition put fo many to death, and
perpetrated fuch horrid a&s of cruelty and oppreftion,
that moft of the reformed confulted their fafety by a vo¬
luntary exile, while others returned to the religion of
Rome, at leaft in external appearance. But the inquifi-
tion, which frighted into the profeflion of Popery feve¬
ral Proteftants in other parts of Italy, could never make
its way into the kingdom of Naples j nor could either
4 H the
REF [ 682 ] REF
Reforma- the authority or intreaties of the pope engage the Nea-
tion politans to admit even vifiting inquifitors.
^In Spain, feveral people embraced the Proteftant re¬
in Spain. I'gion, not only from the controverfies of Luther, but
even from thofe divines whom Charles V. had brought
with him into Germany in order to refute the doftrines
of Luther. For thefe doctors imbibed the pretended
herefy inltead of refuting it, and propagated it more or
lefs on their return home. But the inquilition, which
could obtain no footing in Naples, reigned triumphant
in Spain, and by the mod dreadful methods frightened
the people back into Popery, and fupprefled the defire
of exchanging their fuperftition for a more rational plan
of religion. It was indeed prefumed that Charles hitn-
felf died a Proteftant •, and it feems to be certain, that,
when the approach of death had dillipated thole febemes
of ambition and grandeur which had fo long blinded
him, his fentiments became much more rational and
agreeable to Chriftianity than they had ever been. All
the ecclefiaftics who had attended him, as foon as he ex¬
pired, were fent to the inquifition, and committed to the
flames, or put to death by fome other method equally
terrible. Such was the fate of Auguftine Cafal, the
emperor’s preacher } of Conftantius Pontius, his confef-
for •, of Egidius, whom he had named to the biftiopric
of Tortofa $ of Bartholomew de Caranza, a Dominican,
who had been confeffor to King Philip and Queen Ma-
40 ry ; with 20 others of lefs note.
In England. In England, the principles of the reformation began
to be adopted as foon as an account of Luther’s doc¬
trines could be conveyed thither. In that kingdom there
were ftill great remains of the fe6t called Lollards, whofe
do&rine refembled that of Luther •, and among whom,
of confequence, the fentiments of our reformer gained
great credit. Henry VIII. king of England at that
time was a violent partifan of the church of Rome, and
had a particular veneration for the writings of Thomas
Aquinas. Being informed that Luther fpoke of his fa¬
vourite author with contempt, he conceived a violent
prejudice againft the reformer, and even wrote againft
him, as we have already obferved. Luther did not he-
fitate at writing againft his majefty, overcame him in
argument, and treated- him with very little ceremony.
The firft ftep towards public reformation, however, was
not taken till the year 1529. Great complaints had
been made in England, and of a very ancient date, of
the ufurpations of the clergy ; and by the prevalence
of the Lutheran opinions, thefe complaints were now
become more general than before. The houfe of com¬
mons, finding the occafion favourable, paffed feveral
, bills, reftraining the impofltions of the clergy : but what
threatened the ecclefiaftical order with the greateft dan¬
ger were the fevere reproaches thrown out almoft with¬
out oppofition in the boufe againft the diflolute lives,
ambition, and avarice of the priefts, and their continual
encroachments on the privileges of the laity. The bills
for regulating the clergy met with oppofition in the
houfe of lords $ and Bilhop Either imputed them to want
of faith in the commons, and to a formed defign, pro¬
ceeding from heretical and Lutheran principles, of rob¬
bing the church of her patrimony, and overturning the
national religion. The commons, however, complained
to the king, by their fpeaker Sir Thomas Audley, of
thefe refleftions thrown out againft them j and the bi-
ftiop was obliged to retraft his words...
Though Henry had not the leaft idea of rejecting Reforms,
any, even of the moft abfurd Romilh fuperftitions, yet
as the oppreflions of the clergy fuited very ill with the ’ ^
violence of his own temper, he was pleafed with every
opportunity of lefitning their power. In the parlia¬
ment of 1531, he (bowed his defign of humbling the
clergy in the moft effe£lual manner. An obfolete fta-
tute was revived, from which it was pretended that it
was criminal to fubmit to the legatine power which
had been exercifed by Cardinal Woiley. By this ftroke
the whole body of clergy was declared guilty at once.
They were too well acquainted with Henry’s difpofi-
tion, however, to reply, that their ruin would have
been the certain confequence of their not fubmitting
to Wolfey’s cdmmifiion, which had been given by royal
authority. Inftead of making any defence of this kind,
they chofe to threw themfplves on the mercy of their
fovereign ; which, however, it coft them 118,840!. to
procure. A confeflion was likewife extorted from them,
that the king was protedlor and fupreme head of the
church of England $ though fome of them had the dex¬
terity to get a claufe inferted, which invalidated the
whole fubmiflion, viz. in fo far as is permitted by the lava
of Chrif.
The king, having thus begun to reduce the power
of the clergy, kept no bounds with them afterwards.
He did not indeed attempt any reformation in religious
matters j nay, he perfecuted moft violently fuch as did
attempt this in the leaft. Indeed, the moft effential
article of his creed feems to have been his own fupre-
macy : for whoever denied this, was fure to fuffer the
moft fevere penalties, whether Proteftant or Papift.
But an account of the abfurd and cruel condudf of this
prince, and of his final quarrel with the pope on ac¬
count of his refufing a difpenfation to marry Anne Bo-
leyn, is given under the article England, N° 253—
292.
He died in 1547, and was fucceeded by his only
fon Edward VI. This amiable prince, whofe early
youth was crowned with that wifdom, fagacity, and vir¬
tue, that would have done honour to advanced years,
gave new fpirit and vigour to the Proteftant caufe, and
was its brighteil ornament, as well as its moft effec¬
tual fupport. He encouraged learned and pious men
of foreign countries to fettle in England, and addref-
fed a particular invitation to Martin Bucer and Paul
Fagius, whofe moderation added a luftre to their other
virtues, that, by the miniftry and labours of thefe emi¬
nent men, in concert with thofe of the friends of the
Reformation in England, he might purge his domi¬
nions from the fordid fidtions of popery, and eftablilh
the pure doftrines of Chriftianity in their place. For
this purpofe, he iflued out the wifeft orders for the refto-
ration of true religion ; but his reign was too Ihort to
accomplifti fully fuch a glorious purpofe. In the year
1553, he was taken from his loving and afflidted fubjedls,
whofe forrow was inexpreflible, and fuited to their lofs.
His filler Mary (the daughter of Catharine of Arragon,
from whom Henry had been feparated by the famous
divorce), a furious bigot to the church of Rome, and a
princefs whofe natural charadler, like the fpirit of her
religion, was defpotic and cruel, fucceeded him on the
Britilh throne, and impofed anew the arbitrary laws and
the tyrannical yoke of Rome upon the people of Eng¬
land. Nor were the methods (he employed in the caufe
REF [ 683 ] REF
Reforma- of fuperftition better than the caufe itfelf, or tempered
tion. by any fentiments of equity or compaflion. Barbarous
tortures, and death in the moft ftiocking forms, awaited
thofe who oppofed her will, or made the leaft Hand a-
gainfl the reftoration of Popery. And among many
other vi£lims, the learned and pious Cranmer, archbi-
fhop of Canterbury, who had been one of the mod illu-
ftrious inftruments of the Reformation in England, fell a
facrifice to her fury. This odious fcene of perfecution
was happily concluded in the year 1558, by the death
of the queen, who left no iffue 5 and, as foon as her
fucceflfor the lady Elizabeth afcended the throne, all
things aflumed a new and a pleafing afpeft. This illuf-
trious princefs, whofe fentiments, councils, and projefts,
breathed a fpirit fuperior to the natural foftnefs and deli¬
cacy of her fex, exerted this vigorous and manly'fpirit
in the defence of opprefled confcience and expiring li¬
berty, brol*- anew the defpotic yoke of Papal authority
and fuperftition, and, delivering her people from the
bondage of Rome, eftablKhed that form of religious doc¬
trine and ecclefiaftical government which dill fubfids in
England. This religious edablidiment differs, in fome
refpe&s,' from the plan that had been formed by thofe
whom Edward VI. had employed for promoting the
caufe of the Reformation, and approaches nearer to the
rites and difcipline of former times-, though it is widely
different, and, in the mod important points, entirely
oppofite to the principles of the Roman hierarchy. See
4x England, N° 293, &c.
In Ireland. The caufe of the reformation underwent in Ireland
the fame viciffitudes and revolutions that had attended
it in England. When Henry VIII. after the abolition
of the Papal authority, was declared fupreme head upon
earth of the church of England, George Brown, a na¬
tive of England, and a monk of the Augudine order,
whom that monarch had created, in the year 1535,
archbifhop of Dublin, began to aft with the utmod
vigour in confequence of this change in the hierarchy.
He purged the churches of his diocefe from fuperdi-
tion in all its various forms, pulled down images, de-
ftroyed relics, abolidied abfurd and idolatrous rites, and,
by the influence as well as authority he had in Ireland,
caufed the king’s fupremacy to be acknowledged in
that nation. Henry fliowed, foon after, that this fu¬
premacy was not a vain title j for he baniflied the
monks out «f that kingdom, confifcated their revenues,
and dedroyed their convents. In the reign of Edward
VI. dill farther progrefs was made in the removal of
Popilh fuperditions, by the zealous labours of Bifliop
Brown, and the aufpicious encouragement he granted
to all who exerted themfelves in the caufe of the Re¬
formation. But the death of this excellent prince,
and the acceflion of Queen Mary, had like to have
changed the face of affairs in Ireland as much as in
England ; but her defigns were difappointed by a very
curious adventure, of which the following account has
been copied from the papers of Richard earl of Corke.
« Queen Mary having dealt feverely with the Prote-
Rants in England, about the latter end of her reign
burious dif-flgned a commlflion for to take the fame courfe with
ppoint- them in Ireland ; and to execute the fame with greater
nentofa force> (be nominates Dr Cole one of the commiflioners.
L°rP‘n iJgC'The diiftor coming, with the commiflion, to Chedcr
and. " on his journey, the mayor of that city hearing that her
jnajedy was fending a meffenger into Ireland, and he
being a churchman, waited on the doftor, who In dif- Reformat
courfe with the mayor taketh out of a cloke-bag a tl0n- ,
leather box, faying unto him, Here is a conwnjfion that 'r~'
Jhall lajh the Heretics of Ireland, calling the Proteftants
by that title. The good woman of the houfe being
well affefted to the Protelfant religion, and alfo having
a brother named John Edmonds of the fame perfuafion,
then a citizen in Dublin, was much troubled at the
doftor’s words, but watching her convenient time while
the mayor took his leave, and the doftor complimented
him down the flairs, (he opens the box, takes the com¬
miflion out, and places in lieu thereof a (beet of paper
with a pack of cards wrapt up therein, the knave of
clubs being faced uppermoft. The doftor coming up
to his chamber, fufpefting nothing of what had been
done, put up the box as formerly. The next day go¬
ing to the water-fide, wind and weather ferving him,
he fails towards Ireland, and landed on the 7th of Oc¬
tober 1558 at Dublin. Then coming to the caftle,
the lord Fitz-Walters being lord-deputy, fent for
him to come before him and the privy-council j who,
coming in, after he had made a fpeech relating upon
what account he came over, he prefents the box unto
the lord-deputy; who caufing it to be opened, that the
fecretary might read the commiflion, there was nothing
fave a pack of cards with the knave of clubs upper¬
moft ; which not only ftartled the lord-deputy and
council, but the doftor, who affured them he had a
commiflion, but knew not how it was gone. Then the
lord-deputy made anfwer: Let us have another com¬
miflion, and we will fliuffle the cards in the meanwhile.
The doftor being troubled in his mind, went away, and
returned into England, and coming to the court obtain¬
ed another commiflion : but flaying for a wind on the
water-fide, news came to him that the queen was dead :
and thus God preferved the Proteftants of Ireland.”
Queen Elizabeth was fo delighted with this ftory, which
was related to her by Lord Fitz-Walter on his return to
England, that flie fent for Elizabeth Edmond*, whofe
hulhand’s name was Matterjhad, and gave her a penfion
of 40I. during her life.
In Scotland, the feeds of reformation were very early of the Re-
fown, by feveral noblemen who had refided in Germany form .tion
during the religious difputes there. But for many years'11 Scodan<k
it was fuppreffed by the power of the pope, feconded by
inhuman laws and barbarous executions. The moft emi¬
nent oppofer of the Papal jurifdiftion was John Knox,
a difeiple of Calvin, a man of great zeal and invincible
fortitude. On all occafions he raifed the drooping fpi-
rits of the reformers, and encouraged them to go on
with their work notwithftanding the oppofition and
treachery of the queen-regent ; till at laft, in 1561, by
the afliftance of an Englifh army fent by Elizabeth, Po¬
pery was in a manner totally extirpated throughout the
kingdom. From this period the form of doftrine, wor-
ftfip, and difcipline eftablilhed by Calvin at Geneva, has
had the afcendancy in Scotland. But for an account
of the difficulties which the Scottifh reformers had to
ftruggle with, and the manner in which thefe Were
overcome, &c. fie Scotland.
For further information on the fubjtft of the refor¬
mation in general we refer our readers to the works
of Burnet and Brandt, to Beaufobre’s Hijloire de la
Reformation dans J Empire, et les Etats de la ConfeJJion
d'Avgsbourg, depuis 1517—1530, in 4 vols 8vo, Berlin
4 R 2 i785;,
REF [ 684 ] REF
Reforma- ijSf, and Mofheim’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory. See alfo
tion? Sleidan De Statu Re/igionis et Reipublicce, Carolo V. Cat-
Refraflion. ^ Commentarii; and Father Paul’s Hiftory of the
Council of Trent.
REFRACTION, in general, is the deviation of a
moving body from its direfl courfe, occafioned by the
different denfity of the medium in which it moves ; or
it is a change of direflion occafioned by a body’s fall¬
ing obliquely out of one medium into another. The
word is chiefly made ufe of with regard to the rays of
light. See Optics Index, at RefraBion.
Refraction of Altitude, the arc or portion of a ver¬
tical circle, by which the altitude of a ftar is increafed
by the refraftjon of light.
REFRACTION of Afcenfion and Defcenfon, an arc of
the equator, by which the afcenfion and defcenfion of a
ftar, whether right or oblique, is increafed or diminifhed
by the refraction.
Refraction of Declination, is an arc of a circle of
declination, by which the declination of a ftar is increaf¬
ed or diminifhed by refraCHon.
REFRACTION of Latitude, an arc of a circle of lati¬
tude, by which the latitude of a ftar is increafed or di-
miniftied by the refraCtion.
Refraction of Longitude, an arc of the ecliptic, by
which the longitude of a ftar is increafed or diminifhed
by means of the refraftion.
REFRACTION, Tcrrefrial, is that which makes ter-
reftrial objefts appear to be raifed higher than they are
in reality, in obferving their altitudes. The quantity
of this refraCtion is eftimated at one-tenth by Dr Mafke-
lyne ; at one-fourteenth by Le Gendre ; and by De
Lambre at one-eleventh. But there can be no fixed
quantity of this refraCtion, fince it depends upon the
ftate of the atmofphere, which is extremely variable.
Some Angular effeCls of this refraCtion have been noticed,
and in particular the following, which wereobferved by
Mr Latham at Haftings, during a very hot day, on
which it was high water about two o’clock P. M. The
day was alfo perfedly calm.
“ On Wednefday, July 26. about five o’clock in the
afternoon, while I w'as fitting in my dining-room at this
place, which is fituated upon the Parade, clofe to the
fea-ftiore, nearly fronting the fouth, my attention was
excited by a number of people running down to the
fea-fide. Upon enquiring the reafon, I was informed
that the coaft of France was plainly to be diftinguiftied
by the naked eye. I immediately went down to the
Ihore, and was furprifed to find that, even without the
afiiftance of a telefcope, I could very plainly fee the
cliffs on the oppofite coaft •, which, at the neareft part,
are between 40 and 50 miles diftant, and are not to be
difcerned, from that low fituation, by the aid of the
beft glaffes. They appeared to be only a few miles off,
and feemed to extend for fome leagues along the coaft.
J purfued my walk along the (bore eaftward, clofe to
the water’s edge, converfing with the failors and fifher-
men upon the fubjeft. They at firft could not be per-
fuaded of the reality of the appearance •, but they foon
became fo thoroughly convinced, by the cliffs gradually
appearing more elevated, and approaching nearer, as it
were, that they pointed out and named to me the dif¬
ferent places they had been accuftomed to vifit *, fueh
as the Bay, the Old Head or Man, the Windmill, &c.
at Boulogne j St Vallery, and other places on the coaft
3
of Picardy j which they afterwards confirmed when Refra&ion
they viewed them through their telefcopes. Their ob- U
fervations were, that the places appeared as near as
if they were foiling at a fmall diftance, into the har¬
bours.”* * phi[*
REFRANGIBILITY of Light, the difpofition
of rays to be refra6ted. The term is chiefly applied to I7S>*-
the difpofition of rays to produce different colours, ac¬
cording to their different degrees of refrangibility. See
Chromatics and Ovncs pajjim.
REFRIGERATIVE, in Medicine,z remedy which
refrefties the inward parts by cooling them; as clyfters,
ptifans, &c.
REFRIGERATORY, in Chetnijlry, a veffel filled
with cold water, through which the worm paffes in di-
ftillations; the ufe of which is to condenfe the vapours
as they pafs through the worm.
Cities of REFUGE, were places provided as /Ify-
la, for fuch as againft their will ftiould happen to kill a
man. Of thefe cities there were three on each fide
Jordan : on this fide were Kedefh of Naphtali, Hebron,
and Shechem ; beyond Jordan were Bezer, Golan, and
Ramoth-Gilead. When any of the Hebrews, or ftran-
gers that dwelt in their country, happened to fpill the
blood of a man, they might retire thither to be out of
the reach of the violent attempts of the relations of the
deceafed, and to prepare for their defence and juftifica-
tion before the judges. The manflayer underwent two
trials: firft before the judges of the city of refuge to
which he had fled and fecondly before the judges of
his own city. If found guilty, he was put to death
with all the feverity of the law. If he was acquitted,,
he was not immediately fet at liberty j but, to infpire a
degree of horror againft even involuntary homicide, he
was recondufted to the place of refuge, and obliged to
continue there in a fort of banilhment till the death of
the high-prieft. If, before this time, he ventured out,
the revenger of blood might freely kill him ; but after
the high-prieft’s death he was at liberty to go where he
pleafed without moleftation. It was necefl'ary that the
perfon who fled to any of the cities of refuge ftiould
underftand fome trade or calling, that he might not be
burthenfome to the inhabitants. The cities of refuge
were required to be well fupplied with water and ne-
ceffary provifions. They were alfo to be eafy of accefs,
to have good roads leading to them, with commodious
bridges where there was occafion. The width of the
roads was to be 32 eubits or 48 feet at leaft. It was
further required, that at all crofs-ways dire£Hon-pofts
ftiould be erefted, with an infcription pointing out the
road to the cities of refuge. The 15th of Adar, which
anfwers to our February moon, was appointed for the
city magiftrates to fee that the roads were in good con¬
dition. No perfon in any of thefe cities was allowed
to make weapons, left the relations of the deceafed
fhould be furniflied with the means of gratifying their
revenge. Deut. xix. 3. iv. 41. 43. *, Jofti. xx. 7. Three
other cities of refuge were conditionally promifed, but
never granted. See Asylum.
REFUGEES, a term at firft applied to the French
Proteftants, who, by the revocation of the edi£t of Nantz,
were conftrained to fly from perfecution, and take re¬
fuge in foreign countries. Since that time, however,
it has been extended to all fuch as leave their country
in times of diftrefs; and hence, fince the revolt of the
BritiftV
REG [ 685 . ] REG
Refugees Britifh colonies in America, we have frequently heard
It of American refugees.
Regata. , REGALE, a magnificent entertainment or treat, gi¬
ven to ambafiadors and other perfons of diftin£tion, to
entertain or do them honour.
It is ufual in Italy, at the arrival of a traveller of
eminence, to fend him a regale, that is, a prefent of fweet-
meats, fruits, &c. by way of refrefhment.
REGALIA, in Z«xu, the rights and prerogatives of
a king. See Prerogative.
Regalia is alfo ufed for the apparatus of a coronation j
as the crown, the fceptre with the crofs, that with the
dove, St Edward’s ftaff, the globe, and the orb with the
crofs, four feveral fwords, &c.—The regalia of Scot¬
land were depofited in the caftle of Edinburgh in the
year 1707, in what is called \Axet jewel office. The room
was a few years ago opened by fome commiflioners ap¬
pointed by the king, when the large cheft in which it is
fuppofed they were placed was examined $ but nothing
was found in it. It is very generally thought that the
regalia were carried to the Tower of London in the
reign of Queen Anne $ and a crown is there Ihown
which is called the Scotch crown. This, however, does
not appear to be the real crown of Scotland. It feems,
therefore, moft probable that the Scottilh regalia muft
have been taken away by ftealth, and either deftroyed
or melted down.
Lord ©/"REGALITY, in Scots Law. See Law,
N° clviii. 4. 1
Court ©/REGARD. See Forest Courts.
REGARDANT, in Heraldry, fignifies looking be¬
hind ; and it is ufed for a lion or other beaft, with his
face turned towards his tail.
REGARDER, an ancient officer of the king’s fo-
reft, fworn to make the regard of the foreft every
year ; that is, to take a view of its limits, to inquire
Into all offences and defaults committed by the forefters
within the foreft, and to obferve whether all the offi¬
cers execute their refpeftive duties. See FOREST-
Laws.
REGATA, or Regatta, a fpecies of amufement
peculiar to the republic of Venice. This fpeftacle has
the power of exciting the greateft emotions of the heart,
admiration, enthufiafm, a fenfe of glory, and the whole
train of our beft feelings. The grand regata is only
exhibited on particular occafions, as thevifits of foreign
princes and kings at Venice.
It is difficult to give a juft idea of the ardour that the
notice of a regata fpreads among all claffes of the inha¬
bitants of Venice. Proud of the exclufive privilege of
giving fuch a fpe&acle, through the wonderful local cir-
cumftances of that city, they are highly delighted with
making preparations a long time before, in order to con¬
tribute all they can towards the perfeftionand enjoyment
of the fpedtacle. A thoufand interefts are formed and
augmented every day 5 parties in favour of the different
competitors who are known ; the proteftion of young
noblemen given to the gondoliers in their fervice; the
defire of honours and rewards in the afpirants j and, in
the midft of all this, that ingenious national induftry,
which awakes the Venetians from their habitual indo¬
lence, to derive advantage and bufinefs from the agita¬
tion of the moment; all thefe circumftances united give
to the numerous inhabitants of this lively city a degree
of fpirit and animation which render it during that time
a delightful abode in the eyes of the philofopher and Regala,
the ftranger. Crowds of people flock from the adjacent '—“’"v'-"™
parts, and travellers joyfully repair to this fcene of gaie¬
ty and pleafure.
Although it is allowable for any man to go and in-
fcribe his name in the lift of combatants until the fixed
number is complete, it will not be amifs to remark one
thing, which has. relation to more ancient times. The
ftate of a gondolier * is of much conlideration among *^eG<w
the people; which is very natural, that having been the“^
primitive condition of the inhabitants of this country.
But, befides this general coniideration, there are among
them fome families truly diftinguilhed and refpe£ted by
their equals, whofe antiquity is acknowledged, and who,
on account of a fucceffion of virtuous men, able in
their profeffion, and honoured for the prizes they have
carried off in thefe contefts, form the body of noble
gondoliers ; often more worthy of that title than the
higher order of nobility, who only derive their honours
from the merit of their anceftors, or from their own
riches. The confideration for thofe families is carried
fo far, that, in the difputes frequently arifing among
the gondoliers in their ordinary paffage of the canals, we
fometimes fee a quarrel inftantly made up by the Ample •
interpofition of a third perfon, who has chanced to be of
this revered body. They are rigid with refpedt to mif-
alliances in their families, and they endeavour recipro¬
cally to give and take their wives among thofe of their
own rank. But we muft remark here, with pleafure,
that thefe diftindtions infer no inequality of condition,
nor admit any oppreffion of inferiors, being founded folely
on laudable and virtuous opinions. Diftindticns derived
from fortune only, are thofe which always outrage na¬
ture, and often virtue.
In general, the competitors at the great regatas are
chofen from among thefe families of reputation. As
foon as they are fixed upon for this exploit, they fpend
the intermediate time in preparing themfelves for it, by
a daily, affiduous, and fatiguing exercife. If they are in
fervice, their mafters during that time not only give
them their liberty, but alfo augment their wages. This
cuftom would feem to indicate, that they look upon
them as perfons confecrated to the honour of the na¬
tion, and under a fort of obligation to contribute to.
its glory.
At laft the grand day arrives. Their relations affem-
ble together ; they encourage the heroes, by calling to.
their minds the records of their families ; the women
prefent the oar, befeeching them, in an epic tone, to.
remember that they are the fons of famous men, whofe
fteps they will be expedted to follow; this they do with
as much folemnity as the Spartan women prefented the
fliield to their fons, bidding them either return with or.
upon it. Religion, as pradtifed among the lower clafs
of people, has its fhare in the preparations for this en-
terprife. They caufe maffes to be faid ; they make
vows to fome particular church ; and they arm their
boats for the conteft with the images of thofe faints
who are moft in vogue. Sorcerers are not forgotten
upon this occafion. For gondoliers who have loft the
race often declare, that witchcraft had been pradtifed
againft them, or certainly they muft have won the day.
Such a fuppofition prevents a poor fellow from thinking
ill of himfelf; an opinion that might be unfavourable to
him another time.
The
REG [ 685 ] REG
Regata. Tlifi courfe is about four miles. The boats ftart from
'1 " a certain place, run through the great winding canal,
which divides the town into two parts, turn round a
picket, and, coming back the fame way, go and feize
the prize, which is fixed at the acuteft angle of the great
canal, on the convex fide, to that the point of fight may
be the more extended, and the prize feized in the fight
of the fpeftators on both fides.
According to the number of competitors, different
r&ces are performed in different forts of boats ; fome with
one oar and others with two. The prizes propofed are
four, indicated by four flags of different colours, with
the different value of the prizes marked upon them.—
Thefe flags, public and glorious monuments, are the
prizes to which the competitors particularly afpire. But
the government always add to each a genteel fum of
money ; befides that the conquerors, immediately after
the victory, are furrounded by the beau monde, who
congratulate and make them prefents; after which they
go, bearing their honourable trophy in their hand down
the whole length of the canal, and receive the applaufe
of innumerable fpedlators.
This grand canal, ever ftriking by the Angularity
and beauty of the buildings which border it, is, upon
thefe occafions, covered with an infinity of fpeftators,
in all forts of barges, boats, and gondolas. The ele¬
ment on which they move is fcarcely feen ; but the
noife of oars, the agitation of arms and bodies in per¬
petual motion, indicate the fpeftacle to be upon the
water. At certain didances, on each fide of the fhore,
are ere£led little amphitheatres and fcaffoldings, where
are placed bands of mufic; the harmonious found of
which predominates now and then over the buzzing
noife of the people. Some days before a regata, one
may fee on the great canal many boats for plealure and
entertainment. The young noble, the citizen, the rich
artizan, mounts a long boat of fix or eight oars j his
gondoliers decorated with rich and Angular dreffes, and
the veffel itfelf adorned with various fluffs. Among the
nobles there are always a number who are at a confider-
able expence in thefe decorations} and at the regata
itfelf exhibit on the water perfonages of mythologic
ftory, with the heroes of antiquity in their train, or
amufe themfelves with reprefenting the coftumes of dif¬
ferent nations : in fhort, people contribute with a mad
fort of magnificence, from all quarters, to this mafque-
rade, the favourite diverfion of the Venetians. But
thefe great machines, not being the lefs in motion on
account of their ornaments, are not merely deffined to
grace the fhow : they are employed at the regata, at
every moment, to range the people, to proteft the
cnurfe, and to keep the avenue open and clear to the
goal. The nobility, kneeling upon cufhions at the
prow of their veffels, are attentive to thefe matters, and
announce their orders to the moft reftive, by darting at
them little gilded or filvered balls, by means of certain
bows, with which they are furnifhed on this occafion.
And this is the only appearance of coercion in the Ve¬
netian police on thefe days of the greatefl tumult: nor
is there to be feen, in any part of the city, a body of
guards or patrol, nor even a gun or a halbert. The
mildnefs of the nation, its gaiety, its education in the
habit of believing that the government is ever awake,
that it knows and fees every thing \ its refpeftful at¬
tachment to the body of patricians $ the foie afpedt of
4
certain officers of the police in their robes, difperfed in Regata
different places, at once operate and explain that tran- II
quillity, that fecurity, which we fee in the midft of the
greateft confufion, and that furprifing docility in fo live¬
ly and fiery a people. Regatas have been attempted on
the river Thames, but they were but humble imitations
of the Venetian amufement.
REGEL, or Rigel, a fixed ftar of the firft magni¬
tude, in Orion’s left foot.
REGENERATION, in Theology, the aft of be¬
ing born again by a fpiritual birth, or the change of
heart and life experienced by a perfon who forfakes a
courfe of vice, and fincerely embraces a life of virtue
and piety.
REGENSBURG, or Ratisbon. See Ratisbox.
REGENT, one who governs a kingdom during the
minority or abfence of the king.
In France, the queen-mother had the regency of the
kingdom during the minority of the king, under the title
of queen-regent.
In England, the methods of appointing this guar¬
dian or regent have been fo various, and the duration
of his power fo uncertain, that from hence alone it
may be colledled ‘that his office is unknown to the com¬
mon law ; and therefore (as Sir Edward Coke fays,
4 luff. 58.) the fureft way is to have him made by au¬
thority of the great council in parliament. The earl of
Pembroke by his own authority affumed in very trou-
blefome times the regency of Henry III. who was then
only nine years old *, but was declared of full age by
the pope at 17, confirmed the great charter at 18, and
took upon him the adminiftration of the government at
20. A guardian and councils of regency were named
for Edward III. by the parliament, which depofed his
father ; the young king being then 15, and not affuming
the government till three years after. When Richard II.
fucceeded at the age of II, the duke of Lancafter took
upon him the management of the kingdom till the parlia¬
ment met, which appointed a nominal council to affift him.
Henry V. on his death-bed named a regent and a guar¬
dian for his infant fon Henry VI. then nine months old :
but the parliament altered his difpofition, and appoint¬
ed a protestor and council, with a fpecial limited autho¬
rity. Both thefe princes remained in a Hate of pupil¬
age till the age of 23. Edward V. at the age of 13,
was recommended by his father to the care of the duke
of Gloucefter \ who was declared prote61or by the privy-
council. The ftatutes 25 Hen. VIII. c. 12. and 28
Henry VIII. c. 7. provided, that the fucceffor, if a
male and under 18, or if a female and under 16, fhould
be till fuch age in the governance of his or her na¬
tural mother, (if approved by the king), and fuch other
counfellors as his majefty (hould by will or otherwife ap¬
point: and he accordingly appointed his 16 executors
to have the government of his fon Edward VI. and the
kingdom, which executors elefted the earl of Hartford
proteftor. The llatutes 24 Geo. II. c. 24. in cafe the
crown ffiould defcend to any of the children of Frede¬
ric late prince of Wales under the age of 18, appoint¬
ed the princefs dowager;—and that of 5 Geo. III. c.
27. in cafe of a like defcent to any of his prefent ma-
jelfy’s children, empowers the king to name either the
queen or princefs dowager, or any defcendant of King
George II. refiding in this kingdom ;—to be guardian
and regent till the fucceffor attains fuch age, affifted by
a
REG t 687 ] REG
Repent a council of regency ; the powers of them all being ex¬
'll prefsly defined and fet down in the feveral a£ls.
Regiam. Regent alio fignifies a profefior of arts and fciences
^ in a college, having pupils under his care 5 but it is ge¬
nerally retrained to the lower dalles, as to rhetoric, lo¬
gic, &c. thofe of philofopby being called In
the 1111011111 univerfities it is applied to mailers of arts
under five years Handing, and to dofhirs under two, as
non-regent is to thofe above that (landing.
REGGIO, an ancient and confidtrable town of
Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther
Calabria, with an archbilhop’s fee, and a woollen manu¬
factory. It is feated in a delightful country, which
produces plenty of oranges, and all their kindred fruits.
The olives are exquifite, and high-flavoured. The town,
however, can boaft of neither beautiful buildings nor
flrong fortifications. Of its edifices the Gothic cathe¬
dral is the only ftriking one, but it affords nothing cu¬
rious in architecture. T he citadel is far from formida¬
ble, according to the prefent fyftem of taCtics j nor could
the city walls make a long reliltance again!! any enemy
but Barbary corfairs; and even thefe they have not al¬
ways been able to repel, for in 1543 it was laid in allies
by Barbarolfa. Muftapha facked it 15 years after, and
the defolation was renewed in 1593 by another fet of
Turks. Its expofed fituation, on the very threfhold of
Italy, and fronting Sicily, has from the earlieft period
rendered it liable to attacks and devaftation. The Chal-
cidians feized upon it, or, according to the ufual Greek
phrafe, founded it, and called the colony Rhegion, from
a word that means a break or crack, alluding to its po-
fitxon on the point where Sicily broke off from the con¬
tinent. Anaxilas opprefled its liberties. Dionyfius the
Elder took it, and put many of the principal citizens
to death, in revenge for their having refufed his alliance.
The Campanian legion, fent to proteCt the Rhegians,
turned its fword again!! them, maflacred many inhabi¬
tants, and tyrannized over the remainder, till the Ro¬
man fenate thought proper to ptmifh thefe traitors with
exemplary feverity, though at the fame time it entered
into league with the revolted garrifon of Meffina. This
union with a fet of villains guilty of the fame crime,
proved that no love of juftice, but political reafons alone,
drew down its vengeance on the Campanians.—It is a-
bout 12 milles S. E. of Meflina, and 190 S. by E. of
Naples. E. Long. 16. o. N. Lat. 38. 4.
Reggio, an ancient, handfome, and ftrong town of
Italy, in the duchy of Modena, with a ftrong citadel,
and a biflrop’s fee. It has been ruined feveral times by
the Goths, and other nations. In the cathedral are
paintings by the greateft matters ; and in the fquare is
the ftatue of Brennus, chief of the Gauls. The inha¬
bitants are about 22,000, who carry on a great trade in
filk. It was taken by Prince Eugene in 1706, and by
the king of Sardinia in 1742. It is feated in a fertile
country to the fouth of the Apennines, and to the north
of a fpacious plain, 15 miles north-weft of Modena, and
80 fi>uth-eaft of Milan. E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat. 44. 43.
-—The duchy of this name is bounded on the weft by
that of Modena, and produces a great deal of filk, and
till it fell under the dominion of the French along with
the reft of Italy, belonged to the duke of Modena, ex¬
cept the marquifate of St Martin, which belonged to a
prince of that name.
REGTAM majestatem. See Law, N° civ. 3.
REGICIDE, King-killer, a word chiefly ufed Regicide
with us in fpeakmg of the perfons concerned in the trial, .It
condemnation, and execution of Charles I. Regiment,
REGIFUGIUM was a feaft celebrated at Rome on
the 24th of February, in commemoration of the expul-
fion of Tcirquinius Superbus, and the abolition of regal
power. It was alfo performed on the 26th of May,
when the king of the facrifices, or Rex Sacrorum, offer¬
ed bean flour and bacon, in the place where the affem-
blies were held. The facrifice being over, the people
halted away with all fpeed, to denote the precipitate
flight of King Tarquin.
REGIMEN, the regulation of diet, and, in a more
general fenfe, of all the non-naturals, with a view to
preferve or reftore health. See Abstinence, Ali¬
ment, Food, Diet, Drink, and Medicine.
The viciflitude of exercife and reft forms alfo a ne-
celfary part of regimen. See Exercise.
It is beneficial to be at reft now and then, but more-
fo frequently to ufe exercife j becaufe inaction renders
the body weak and liftlefs, and labour ftrengthens it.
But a medium is to be obferved in all things, and too
much fatigue is to be avoided : for frequent and violent
exercife overpowers the natural ftrength, and waftes the
body ; but moderate exercife ought always to be ufed
before meals. Now, of all kinds of exercife, riding on
horfeback is the moft convenient : or if the perfon be
too weak to bear it, riding in a coach, or at lealt in a
litter : next follow fencing, playing at ball, running,
walking. But it is one. of the inconveniences of old
age, that there is feldom fufficient ftrength for ufing-
bodily exercife, though it be extremely requifite for
health : wherefore frictions with the fleftr-brufli are
necefiary at this time of life ; which fliould be per¬
formed by the perfon himfelf, if poflible ; if not, by his
fervants.
Sleep is the fweet.foother of cares, and reftorer of
ftrength ; as it repairs and replaces the waftes that are
made by the labours and exercifes of the day. But
exceffive fleep has its inconveniences ; for it blunts the
fenfes, and renders them lefs fit for the duties of life.
The proper time for fleep is the night, when darknefs
and filence invite and bring it on : day-fleep, is lefs re-
frefhing ; which rule if it be proper for the multitude,
to obferve, much more is the obfervance of it neceffary
for perfons addicted to literary ftudies, whofe minds and
bodies are more fufceptible of injuries.
Regimen, in Grammar, that part of fyntax, or con-
ft tuft ion, which regulates the dependency of words, and
the alterations which one occafions in another.
Regimen fir Seamen. See Seamen.
REGIMENT, is a body of men, either horfe, foot,
or artillery, commanded by a colonel, lieutenant-colonel,
and major. Each regiment of foot is divided into com¬
panies •, but the number of companies differs: though
in Britain our regiments are generally 10 companies,
one of which is always grenadiers, exclufive of the two
independent companies. Regiments of horfe are com¬
monly fix troops, but there are fome of nine. Dragoon
regiments are generally in war time 8 troops, and in
time of peace but 6. Each regiment has a chaplain,
quarter-mafter, adjutant, and furgeon. Seme German
regiments confift of 2000 foot ; and the regiment of
Picardy in France confifted of 6000, being 120 com¬
panies, of 50 men in each company.
Regiments
REG
[ 688 ]
REG
Regiments were firft formed in France in the year he did not think it became him to accept ofit till he
. v- i j • ,,0r.r had ftudied alio in the Sorbonne at Fans. He went
I c cS,” and in England in the year 1660.
REGIOMONTANUS. See Muller.
REGION, in Geography, a large extent of land, in¬
habited by many people of the fame nation, and inclofed
within certain limits or bounds.
The modem aftronomers divide the moon intofeveral
regions, or large trafts of land, to each of which they
give its proper name. _ .-re
Region, in PJu/Jiology, is taken for a divinon or our
atmofphere, which is divided into the upper, middle, and
lower regions.
The upper region commences from the tops ot the
mountains, and reaches to the utmoft limits of the at¬
mofphere. In this region reign a perpetual equable
calmnefs, clearnefs, and ferenity. I he middle region
is that in which the clouds refide, and where meteors
are formed, extending from the extremity of the loweft
to the tops of the higheft mountains.^ The loweft re¬
gion is that in which we breathe, which is bounded by
the refledlion of the fun’s rays; or by the height to
which they rebound from the earth. See ATMOSPHERE
and Air.
JEthereal Region, in Cofmography, is the whole ex¬
tent of the univerfe, in which is included all the heaven¬
ly bodies, and even the orb of the fixed ftars.
Elementary REGION, according to the Ariftotelians,
is a fphere terminated by the concavity of the moon’s
orb, comprehending the atmofphere of the earth.
Region, in Anatomy, a divifion of the human body,
otherwife called cavity, of which anatomifts reckon three,
viz. the upper region, or that of the head; the middle
region, that of the thorax or breaft; and the lower, the
abdomen or belly. See AnatomY.
Region, in ancient Rome, was a part or divifion of
the city. The regions were only four in number, till
Auguftus Csefar’s time, who divied the city into four¬
teen; over each of which he fettled two furveyors, call¬
ed curatores viarum, who were appointed annually, and
took their divifions by lot. Thefe fourteen regions
contained four hundred and twenty-four ftreets, thirty-
one of which were called greater or royalJlreets, which
began at the gilt pillar that flood at the entry ®f the
open place in the middle of the city. The extent of
thefe divifions varied greatly, fome being from 12,000
or 13,000 to 33,000 feet or upwards in circumference.
Authors, however, are not agreed as to the exaft limits
of each. The curatores viarum wore the purple, had
each two liftors in their proper divifions, had Haves un¬
der them to take care of fires that happened to break
out. They had alfo two officers, called denunciatores,
in each region, to give account of any diforders. Four
vico-magiftrialfo were appointed in eachftreet, who took
care of the ftreets allotted them, and carried the orders
of the city to each citizen.
REGIji, Peter Sylvain, a French phildfopher,
and a great propagator of the doftrines of Des Cartes,
was born in Agenois in the year 1632.. He ftudied
languages and philofophy under the Jefuits at Cahors;
and as his views were then direfted to the church, he
was afterwards occupied in the fludy of divinity at the
univerfity of that town. His progrefs in learning was
fo uncommon, that at the end of four vears he was of¬
fered a doflor’s degree without the ufual charges; but
had ftudied alfo in the Sorbonne at Paris. He went
thither, but was foon difgufted with theology; and as
the philofophy of Des Cartes began at that time to make
a noife through the lectures of Rohault, he conceived a
tafte for it, and gave himfelf up entirely to it. He fre¬
quented thefe le&ures; and becoming an adept, went
to Touloufe in 1665, and read leftures in it himfelf.
Having fine parts, a clear and fluent manner, and a hap¬
py way of making himfelf underftood, he drew all forts
of people; the magiftrates, the learned, the ecclefiaftics,
and the very women, who now all affedled to abjure the
ancient philofophy. In 1680 he returned to Paris;
where the concourfe about him was fuch, that the ftick-
lers for Peripateticifm began to be alarmed. They ap¬
plied to the archbilhop of Paris, who thought it expedi¬
ent, in the name of the king, to put a flop to the lec¬
tures; which accordingly were difeontinued for feveral
months. The whole life of Regis was fpent in propa¬
gating the new philofophy. In 1690 he publiffied a
formal fyftem of it, containing logic, metaphyfics, phy-
fics, and morals, in 3 vols. qto, and written in French.
It was reprinted the year after at Amfterdam, with the
addition of a difeourfe upon ancient and modern philo¬
fophy. He wrote afterwards feveral pieces in defence
of his fyftem; in which he had difputes with M. Huet,
Du Hamel, Malebranche, and others. His works,
though abounding with ingenuity and learning, have
been difregarded, in confequence of the great difeoveries
and advancement in philofophic knowledge that have
been fince made. He died in 1707. He had been
chofen member of the academy of fciences in 1699.
The works of this author are the following :—A Sy~
Jlem of Philofophy, containing Logic, Metaphyfics, and
Morals; in 1690, 3 vols. qto. being a compilation of
the different ideas of Des Cartes.
The life of Reafon and of Faith.
An Anfwer to Huet’s Cenfures of the Cartefian Philo¬
fophy ; and an Anfwer to Du Hamel’s Critical Reflexions.
Some pieces againft Malebranche, to fhew that the
apparent magnitude of an objed depends folely on the
magnitude of its image, traced on the retina.
A fmall piece upon the queftion, Whether pleafure
makes our prefent happinefs ?
REGISTER, a public book, in which are entered
and recorded memoirs, aXs, and minutes, to be had re-
courfe to occafionally for knowing and proving matters
of faft. Of thefe there are feveral kinds ; as,
1. Regifter of deeds in Yorklhire and Middlefex, in
which are regiftered all deeds, conveyances, wills, &c.‘
that affeX any lands or tenements in thofe counties,
which are otherwife void againft any fubfequent pur-
chafers or mortgagees, &c. ; but this does not extend
to any copyhold eflate, nor to leafes at a rack-rent, or
where they do not exceed 21 years. The regiftered
memorials muft be engroffed on parchment, under the
hand and feal of fome of the granters or grantees, at-
tefted by witneffes who are to prove the figning or feal-
ing of them and the execution of the deed. But thefe
regifters, which are confined to two counties, are in
Scotland general, by which the laws of North Britain
are rendered very eafy and regular. Of thefe there are
two kinds; the one general, fixed at Edinburgh, under
the direXion of the lord-regifter ; and the other is kept
Itegis,
Remitter.
REG
! (Leg ifter
i!.
Uegnier.
in the feveral (hires, ftewartries, and regalities, the clerks
of which are obliged to tranfmit the regifters of their
refpe&ive courts to the general regifter.
2. Parifh-regifters are books in which are regiftered
the baptifms, marriages, and burials, of each parilh.
Registers were kept both at Athens and Rome,
in which w^e infer ted the names of fuch children as
were to be brought up, as foon as they were born.
Marcus Aurelius required all free perfons to give in ac¬
counts of their children, within 30 days after the birth,
to the treafurer of the empire, in order to their being
depofited in the temple of Saturn, where the public afts
were kept. Officers w'ere alfo appointed as public re¬
gifters in the provinces, that recourfe might be had to
their lifts of names, for fettling difputes, or proving any
perfon’s freedom.
REGISTER Ships, in Commerce, are veffels which ob¬
tain a permiffion, either from the king of Spain, or the
council of the Indies, to traffic in the ports of the Spa-
nifti Weft Indies j which are thus called, from their be¬
ing regiftered before they fet fail from Cadiz for Buenos
Ayres.
REGISTERS, in Chemijlry, are holes, or chinks
with floppies, contrived in the Tides of furnaces, to re¬
gulate the fire j that is, to make the heat more intenfe
or remifs, by opening them to let in the air, or keeping
them clofe to exclude it. There are alfo regifters in
the fteam-engine. See STEAM-Engitie.
REGISTRAR, an officer in the Engliffi univerfities,
who has the keeping of all the public records.
REGIUM, Regium Lepidi, Regiutn Lcpidum, in
Ancient Geography, a town of Crfalpine Gaul, on the
Via ./Emilia, To called from iEmilius Lepidus, who
was conful with C. Flaminius \ but whence it was fur-
named Regium is altogether uncertain. Tacitus relates,
that at the battle of Bedriacum, a bird of an unufual
iize was feen perching in a famous grove near Regium
Lepidum. Now called Reggio, a city of Modena.
E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat. 44. 45. See Reggio.
REGNARD, John Francis, one of the beft French
comic writers after Moliere, was born at Paris in 1647.
He had fcarcely finiffied his ftudies, when an ardent paf-
fion for travelling carried him over the greateft part of
Europe. When he fettled in his own country, he was
made a treafurer of France, and lieutenant of the wa¬
ters and forefls: he wrote a great many comedies j and,
though naturally of a gay genius, died of chagrin in
the 5 2d year of his age. His works, confiding of co¬
medies and travels, were printed at Rouen, in 5 vols.
l2mo, 1732.
REGNIER, Mathurin, the firft French poet who
fucceeded in fatire, was born at Chartres in 1573. -He
was brought up to the church, a place for which his de¬
baucheries rendered him very unfuitable; and thefe by
his own confeffion were fo exceffive, that at 30 he had
all the infirmities of age. Vet he obtained a canonry
in the church of Chartres, with other benefices $ and
died in 1613. There is a neat Elzevir edition of his
works, i2mo, 1652, Leyden^ but the moft elegant is
that with notes by M. Broffette, 4to, 1729, London.
Regnier des Marets, Seraphin, a French poet,
born at Paris in 1632. Fie diftinguifhed himfelf early
by his poetical talents, and in 1684 was made perpetual
fecretary to the French academy on the death of Meze-
ray : it was he who drew up all thofe papers in the name
*Vql. XVII. Part II.
r 689 ]
REG
of the academy againft Furetiere: the king gave him Regnier
the priory of Grammont, and he had aifo an abbey. He „ ^
died in 1713, and his works are, French, Italian, Spa- e^u ^
niffi, and Latin poems, 2 vols. 5 a French grammar j
and an Italian tranflation of Anacreon’s odes, with feme
other tranflations.
REGNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Rqgni, a people in Britain, next the Cantii,now Surry,
SulTex, and the coaft of Hampftiire, (Camden) ; a town
lituated, by the Itinerary numbers, on the confines of
the Belgae, in a place now called Ring wood, in Hamp-
Ihire, on the rivulet Avon, running down from Salilhury,
and about ten miles or more diftant from the fea.
REGRATOR, fignifies him who buys and fells any
wares or vidluals in the fame market or fair : and regra-
tors are particularly defcribed to be thofe who buy, or
get into their hands, in fairs or markets, any grain, fiffi,
butter, cheefe, ffieep, lambs, calves, fwine, pigs, geefe,
capons, hens, chickens, pigeons, conies, or other dead
victuals whatfoever, brought to a fair or market to be
fold there, and do fell the fame again in the fame fair,
market, or place, or in feme other within four miles
thereof.
Regrating is a kind of huckfry, by which victuals
are made dearer; for every feller will gain fomething,
which muft of confequence enhance the price. And,
in ancient times, both the engroller and regrator were
comprehended under the word forejialler. Regrators
are puniffiable by lofs and forfeiture of goods, and im-
prifonment, according to the firft, fecond, or third of¬
fence, &c.
REGENSBERG, a handfome though fmall town of
Swifferland, in the canton of Zurich, and capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name, with a ftrongcaftle; feated
on a hill, which is part of Mount Jura. There is a
well funk through a rock, 36 fathoms deep.
REGULAR, denotes any thing that is agreeable to
the rules of art: thus we fay, a regular building, verb,.
&c.
A regular figure in geometry, is one u'hofe fides, and
confequently angles, are equal ; and a regular figure with
three or four fides is commonly termed an equilateral
triangle or fquare, as all others with more fides are call¬
ed regular polygons.
Regular Body, called alfo Platonic Body, is a body
or folid comprehended by like, equal, and regular plane
figures, and whofe folid angles are all equal.
The plane figures by which the folid is contained are
the faces of the folid ; and the fides of the plane figures
are the edges or linear fides of the folid.
There are only five regular folids, viz.
The tetrahedron, or regular triangular pyramid, ha¬
ving four triangular faces;
The hexahedron, or cube, having fix fquare faces;
The o61ahedron, having eight triangular faces ;
The dodecahedron, having twelve pentagonal faces j
The icofahedron, having twenty triangular faces.
Befides thefe five, there can be no other regular bo¬
dies in nature.
Regular, in a monaftery, a perfon who has taken
the vows; becaufe he is bound to obferve the rules of
the order he has embraced.
REGULATION, a rule or order prefcribed by a
fuperior, for the proper management of fome affair.
REGULATOR of a Watch, the fmall fpring be-
4 s longing
REG [69
R-Ahtor lo,lying to the balance ; ferving to admit its motions,
It and make it go farter or flower. See Watch.
Kegulus. HEGULBIUM, or Rkgulvium, (Notitia Irape-
W">~' ni) ; mentioned nowhere elfe more early : a town of
the Cantii, in Britain. Now Reculver, a village on the
coatt, near the ifland Thanet, towards the Thames, to
the north of Canterbury, (Camden).
REGULUS, M. Atttlius, a conful during the pi n
Punic war. He reduced Brundufium, and in his fecond
confulfliip he took 64 and funk 30 galleys of the Car¬
thaginian fleet, on the coafts of Sicily. Afterwards
he landed in Africa j and fo rapid was his fuccefs, that
in a fhort time he made himfelf mafter of about 200
places of confequence on the coatf. 1 he Carthaginians
fued for peace, but the conqueror refufed to grant it $
and foon after he was defeated in a battle by Xanthip-
pus, and 30,000 of his men were left on the field of
battle, and 15,000 taken prifoners. Reguius was in
the number of the captives, and he was carried in tri¬
umph to Carthage. He was fent by the enemy to
Rome, to propofe an accommodation and an exchange
of prifoners j and if his commiflion was unfuccefsful^ he
was bound by the moft folemn oaths to return to Car¬
thage without delay. When he came to Rome, Regu¬
ius difluaded his countrymen from accepting the terms
which the enemy propofed •, and when his opinion had
had due influence on the fenate, Reguius retired to Car¬
thage agreeable to his engagements. The Carthagini¬
ans were told that their offers of peace had been rejec¬
ted at Rome by the means of Reguius •, and therefore
they prepared to punirti him with the greateft feverity.
His eye-brows were cut, and he was expofed for fome
days to the exceflive heat of the meridian fun, and af¬
terwards confined in a barrel, whofe fides were every¬
where filled with large iron fpikes, till he died in the
greateft agonies. His fufferings were heard of at Rome ;
and the fenate permitted his widow to inflift whatever
puniftirtient Ihe pleafed on fome of the moft illuftrious
captives of Carthage which were in their hands. She
confined them alfo in preffes filled with- (harp iron points j
and was fo exquifite in her cruelty, that the fenate in¬
terfered, and flopped the barbarity of her punifhment.
Reguius died about 251 years before Chrift.—Mem-
mius, a Roman, made governor of Greece by Caligula.
While Reguius was in his province, the emperor wiftred
to bring the celebrated ftatue of Jupiter Olympius by
Phidias to Rome, but this was fupernaturally prevented j
and according to ancient authors, the fhip which was to
convey it was deftroyed by lightning, and the workmen
who attempted to remove the ftatue were terrified away
by fudden noifes.—A man who condemned Sejanus.
-^•Rofcius, a man who held the confulfhip but for one
day, in the reign of Vitellius.
Regulus, in AJlronomy, a ftar of the firft magnitude,
in the conftellation Leo; called alfo, from its fituation,
Cor Leonis, or the Lion's Heart; by the Arabs, Alhabor ;
and by the Chaldeans, Kalbelcced, or Karbeleceid; from
an opinion of its influencing the affairs of the heavens.
Regulus, in Chemiflry, the metallic matter that falls
to the bottom of the crucible, in the melting of ores or
impure metallic fubftances. It is the fineft or pureft
part of the metal ; and, according to the alchemifts, is
denominated regulus, or little king, as being the firft-
born of the royal metallic blood. According to them,
ik is really a fon, but not a perfect man j i. e. not yet a
3 ] R E I
perfect metal, for want of time and proper nourirtunenf. Regulus
To procure the regulus of metals, &c. flux powders ^ ||
are commonly ufed ; as nitre, tartar, &c. which purge , Re!(f
the fulphureous part adhering to the metal, by attracting ^“V—■
and abforbing it to themfelves.
REHEARSAL, in Mujic and the Drama, an effay
or experiment of fome compofition, generally made in
private, previous to its reprefentation or performance in
public, in order to render the aCtors and performers more
perfeCt in their parts.
REICHENBERG, in Bohemia, 95 miles weft of
Prague, 205 north-weft of Vienna, N. Lat. 50. 2. E,
Long. 12. 25. is only remarkable as the place where the
Pruflian army defeated the Auftrians on the 2lit of April
1757. The Auftrian army, commanded by Count Kxh
nigfeck, was ported near Reichenberg, and was attacked
by the Pruftians under the command of the prince of
Brunfwick Bevern. The Pruftians were 20,000 and the
Auftrians 28,000 : the aCtion began at half after fix in
the morning, when the Pruftian lines were formed, and
attacked the Auftrian cavalry, which was ranged in three
lines of 30 fquadrons, and their two wings fuftained by
the infantry, which was polled among felled trees and
intrenchments. The Auftrians had a village .on their
right, and a wood on their left, where they were intrench¬
ed. The Pruflian dragoons and grenadiers cleared the
intrenchment and wood, and entirely routed the Auftrian
cavalry ; at the fame time, the redoubts that covered
Reichenberg were taken by General Leftewitz ", and the
Auftrians were entirely defeated. I he Pruffians had
feven officers and 100 men killed j 14 officers and .150
men wounded. 1 he Auftrians had 1000 men killed
and wounded } 20 of their officers and 400 men taken
prifoners. The aClion ended at eleven.
REID, Thomas, D. D. an eminent philofopber and
diftinguifhed literary charaCler, was the fon of Lewis
Reid, minifter of the pariffi of Strachan in the county of
Kincardine, North Britain. His mother was the daugh¬
ter of Mr Gregory of Kinnairdie in Banffshire, was one
of twenty-nine children, and was lifter to David, James,
and Charles Gregories, who ’were at the fame period
profeffors of aftronomy or mathematics, in the univerfi-
ties of Oxford, Edinburgh, and St Andrews.
Dr Reid was born at the parfonage houfe of Strachan,
in April 1710, and received the elementary parts of his
education at the parifh-fchool of Kincardine-o-niel. T. he
parochial fchools of Scotland are faid to have been much
fuperior at that period to what they are at prefent, and
young men went from them well furnilhed with philo¬
logical learning to the different univerfities. The early
progrefs of young Reid mull have been very extraordi¬
nary, fince he was qualified to profit by the leflures of
the profeffors at the age of twelve. He foon gave very
linking proofs that he inherited the genius of his mother’s
family, and was confpicuous among the ftudents of ma¬
thematics, in a college where that fcience has always
been cultivated with zeal and fuccefs. He continued
longer at the univerfity than the ufual term of years, as
he had been appointed to the office of librarian, which
was a fituation every way agreeable to him, as it gave*
him fuch an ample opportunity of gratifying his paflion
for lludy. About this time he became intimately attach¬
ed to John Stewart, afterwards profeffor of mathematics
in Marifchal college, which connexion greatly flrength-
ed his predilection for mathematical Itudies.
R E I [ 691 ] R E I
He refigned the office of librarian in the year 1736,
-and accompanied Mr Stewart to England, when they
paid a vifit to London, Oxford, and Cambridge, and
were introduced to feveral perfons of the firft literary
diftindtion. On account of his relation to Dr David
Gregory, he had ready accefs to the celebrated Martin
Folkes, whofe houfe might be faid to contain many of the
moft intereftingobjedls to be met with in the metropolis.
He faw Dr Bentley at Cambridge, with whofe erudition
he was much delighted, as well as amufed with his va¬
nity ; and he alfo converfcd frequently with Saunderfon,
the blind mathematician. Dr Reid refers in his fpecu-
lations to this gentleman’s blindnefs, as a Angular pheno¬
menon in the hiftory of the human mind.
Dr Reid maintained an uninterrupted friendffiip with
the learned and amiable Mr Stewart till the year 1766,
at which time Mr Stewart -was carried off by a malig¬
nant fever. The circumllances attending the death of
this excellent man deeply wounded the fenfibility of
Dr Reid ; for his wife and daughter were carried off
by the fame diforder, and buried with him in one grave.
The King’s college of Aberdeen prefented Dr Reid
to the living of New-Machar in the year 1737*, but
fuch was the zeal of the people againft the law of pa¬
tronage at that time, that he not only met with violent
oppofition, but was alfoexpofed to perfonal danger. But
his attention to the duties of his office wasfo exemplary,
his temper fo mild and forbearing, and his fpirit of hu¬
manity fo active, that in a fliort time he fubdued their
prejudices ; and when at laft called in the courfe of pro¬
vidence to a different fituation, the very people who had
been guilty of grofs and indecent outrages againft him
followed him, on his departure, with their benedidions
and tears.
In 1740, he married Elizabeth, daughter of his uncle,
Dr George Reid, phyfician in London, after which his
popularity at New-Machar very much increafed. Her
manners were fo accommodating, and fo numerous were
her kind offices to the fick and the indigent, that the
departure of the family from the neighbourhood was look¬
ed upon as a general misfortune. The manner in which
feveral old men rvere accuftomed to fpeak upon the fub-
jed is worthy of being kept in remembrance. “ We
fought, faid they, againjl Dr Reid when he came, and
we would have fought for him when he went away.”
The greater part of his refidence at New-Machar was
devoted to the moft intenfe ftudy, particularly direding
his attention to the laws of external perception, and of
the other principles which conftitute the bafis of human
knowledge. He unbended his mind by the amufements
of gardening and botany, of which he wras extremely
fond, even in old age.
The profeffors of King's College, in the year 1752,
made choice of Dr Reid to be profeffor of philofophy,
originating wholly from the high opinion they were led
to entertain of his talents and erudition. We are not
acquainted with the particular plan which he adopted
and purfued in the courfe of his ledures ; but his depart¬
ment at that period comprehended mathematics and phy-
lics, logic and ethics,—a pradice then followed in the
otheruniverfitiesof Scotland, inftead of appointing a pro-
feffor for each diftind branch.
Dr Reid had not been long in Aberdeen, till in con-
jundion with Dr John Gregory, he projeded a liter¬
ary foci ety which continued for a number of years, and
met once a week. The writings of Reid, Gregory,
Campbell, Beattie and Gerard, evince the numerous ad¬
vantages which the members derived from this inftitution,
as they were in the habit of fubjeding fuch works as they
intended for publication, to the teft of friendly criti-
cifm.
It is perhaps not too much to affert, that of all the
publications which appeared about this time, the Inquiry
into the Human Mind by Dr Reid, difcovered by far
the greateft originality and profound thinking. It ap¬
pears that he had conceived the plan, and deeply medi¬
tated upon it, long before its publication j yet without
the applaufe of his literary affociates, it is more than
probable that his native modefty might have prevented
him from giving it to the world.
The publication of Mr Hume’s Treatife of Human
Nature, in 1739, led him to queftion the principles
commonly received with regard to the human underftand-
ing. He admitted, when a youth, but without any at¬
tentive examination, the opinions on which Mr Hume’s
fcepticifm was raifed ; but when he carefully adverted
to the confequences which thefe principles appeared to
involve, he inftantly began to fufpeft their truth. To
fubvert the fceptical theory of Mr Hume was the grand
objeft of Dr Reid’s Inquiry, which he fubmitted to the
examination of Mr Hume himfelf. That philofopher,
even after he had feen fome parts of the Work, difcovers
not a little of the Jewifti fpirit of unbelief that any good
thing ftiould come out of Nazareth ; and confidering his
antagonift as a clergyman, and belonging to an order of
men from whom prejudice would not allow him to ex-
pe£t any foundnefs of reafoning in matters of fcience,
he betrays more than want of good humour, as Di-
Reid’s biographer expreffes himfelf, when he fays in no
very courteous language in a letter to Dr Blair, “ I
with that the parfons would confine themfelves to their
old occupation of worrying one another, and leave phi-
lofophers to argue with temper, moderation, and good
manners.” But though Mr Hume, as appears from the
words juft quoted, was very angry that a clergyman
ftiould become a philofopher, on a fecund perufal of the
Inquiry, he feems to have held very different fentiments,
when he wrote to the author himfelf in the following terms.
“ By Dr Blair’s means, I have been favoured with the
perufal of your performance, which I have read with
great pleafure and attention. It is certainly very rare,
that a piece fo deeply philofophical is wrote (written)
with fo much fpirit, and affords fo much entertainment to
the reader ; though I muft ftill regret the difadvantages
under which I read it, as I never had the whole perfor¬
mance at once before me, and could not be able fully to
compare one part with another. To this reafon, chiefly,
I afcribe fome obfcurities, which, in fpite of your fliort
analyfis or abftradt, ftill feem to hang over your fyftem.
For I muft do you the juftice to own, that when I enter¬
ed into your ideas, no man appears to exprefs himfelf
with greater perfpicuity than you do ; a talent which,
above all others, is requifite in that fpecies of literature
which you have Cultivated. — As I was defirous to be of
fome ufe to you, I kept a watchful eye all along over
your ftyle but it is really fo corredt, and fo good Eng-
lifh, that I found not any thing worth the remarking.
There is only one paffage in this chapter, where you
make ufe of the phrafe hinder to do inftead of hinder
from doing, which is the Englilh one ; but I could not
4^2 find
ft E I [ 692 3 R E I
H*kU
find the paffage when I fought for it. ^ ou may judge
how unexceptionable the whole appeared to me, when
I could remark fo fmall a blemith.” ^ _
The impreffion made on the minds of fpeculative men
by the publication of Dr Reid’s Inquiry was as great as
could reafonably be expedled irom the nature of his un¬
dertaking. It was not level to the comprehenfion of
the multitude, nor even addreffed to them j and as it
examined opinions with the utmoli freedom which Lad
obtained the fan&ion of the higheft authorities, it had
little profpeft of conciliating the favour of the learned.
Some, however, there were, who perceived the extent of
his views, and beheld in his pages the true fpirit and
language of indudfive inveftigation, which, made profe-
lyt es of many, and was, by them, warmly recommend¬
ed to the attention of others. The Inquiry of Dr Reid
was fo much etteemed by the learned body of teachers
then in the univerfity of Glafgow, that they gave him
an invitation to the vacant profefforfhip of moral philo-
fophy, in the year 1763. It was no doubt with a con-
liderable degree of reluftance that he refolved to leave
Aberdeen \ yet fo numerous were the allurements which
Glafgow prefented to a man of his extenfive erudition
and deep refearch, that he gave it the preference. That
feminary of learning could then boaft of a Moor, a Sim-
fon, a Black, a Leechman, the two Wilfons, father and
fon, and an acute, diferiminating Millar, with all of
whom he was more or lefs intimate, and whofe fafcina-
ting converfation made him in fome meafure forget that
he was long acquainted with men of genius in the uni¬
verfity of Aberdeen.
Dr Reid’s merit as a public teacher arofe principally
from that fund of original philofophy which is charadle-
riftic of his writings *, and from his invincible patience
and perfeverance in recommending fuch principles as he
conceived to be of the laft importance to human happi-
nefs. His ftyle, too, was fimple and perfpicuous ; his
charafter grave and poffeffed of authority \ and his ftu-
dents felt fuch an intereft in the doftrines which he in¬
culcated, that he never failed to be heard with the moll
profound attention.
In the year 1773 his remarks on Ariftotle’s logic ap¬
peared in Lord Karnes’s Sketches of the Hiftory of Man,
of which he himfelf has favoured us with the following
account. “ In attempting to give fome account of the
Analytics, and of the Topics of Ariftotle, ingenuity ob¬
liges me to confefs, that though I have often purpofed to
read the whole with care, and to underftand what is- in¬
telligible, yet my courage and patience always failed
before I had done. Why Ihould I throw away fo much
time and painful attention upon a thing of fo little
ufe ? If I had lived in thofe ages when the knowledge
of Ariftotle’s Organon entitled a man to the highefl:
rank in philofophy, ambition might have induced me to
employ upon it fome years of painful ftudy •, and lefs, I
conceive, would not be fufficient. Such reflections as
thefe always got the better of my refolution when the
firft ardour began to cool. All I can fay is, that I have
read fome part of the different books with care, fome
Rightly, and fome perhaps not at all. I have glanced
o\Ter the whole often ■, and when any thing attracted my
attention have dipped into it till my appetite was fatis-
fied.”
But in fpite of his modeft declarations, it is matter of
«3oubt with fome, whether any of his publications does
2
him more honour than his perfpicuous view of this com¬
plicated fyltem. It is unqueftionably fuperior to any
other analyfis of thefe writings we have yet feen, an opi¬
nion amply confirmed by the fentiments of different li¬
terary charaders who were intimately acquainted with
the works of Ariftotle.
Dr Reid declined reading lectures in the univerfity
for fome years before his death ; and he devoted this
period to the talk of preparing for the prefs bis great
work, which was publilhed in two volumes 4to, the firfi:
in 1785, entitled, “ Effays on the Intellectual Powers
of Man and the fecond in 1788, entitled, “ Effays
on the Active Powers of Man.” His Ej/ay on Quantity,
occa/ioned by reading a Treatife, in •which Simple and
Compound Ratios are applied to Virtue and Merit, and
compofed previous to the year 1748, and was publilhed
in the Philofophical TranfaCtions of London for that
year. This paper affords fome light with regard to the
progrefs of his fpeculations about this time. The In¬
quiry into the Human Mind, of which we have already
taken notice, appeared in 1764) and at this time he was
complimented with the degree of DoCtor in Divinity.
In the year 1796 (the laft of his mortal exiftence),
he was prevailed upon to fpend with his friends at Edin¬
burgh a few weeks during the fummer. From that vifit
he returned to Glafgow in his ufual health and fpirits,
and for fome time continued to devote a portion of his
time to the exercife both of body and mind. About the
end of September the fame year, he was feized with a
violent diforder, with which he maintained a fevere
ftruggle $ and this, together with repeated llrokes of
the palfy, put a final period to his long and ufeful life
on the 7th of October, and in the 87th year of his
age.
As to his bodily conftitution, few men have been
more indebted to nature than Dr Reid. In this refpeCt
he was athletic and vigorous, and his mufeular ftrength
was uncommonly great j advantages which w’ere power¬
fully feconded by his temperance, exercife, and the
unclouded ferenity of his temper. Deep and collect¬
ed thought was very confpicuous in his countenance,
and all his looks were expreflive of kindnefs and good
will.
With refpeCt to his character, his reCtitude was. in¬
flexible and intrepid j his attachment to truth was purej
and he had an entire command over all his pafiions,
which he acquired by the unwearied exertions of a long
life. When, therefore, he found it neceffary to difpute
the conclufions of others in any of his writings, he ne¬
ver employed any expreflions to irritate thofe whom he
was anxious to convince, and the afperity of his op¬
ponents could not provoke him to reprefs his fpirit of li¬
berality and good-humour j for he confidered the intem¬
perance with which controverfy is ufually carried on, as
an enemy to the progrefs of ufeful knowledge, and as
having done more harm to the pra&iee than fervice to
the theory of morality. He uniformly maintained the
dignity of philofophy in private life, and he united in
his charafter the moft amiable modefty and gentlenefs,
with the nobleft fpirit of independence. He never fob-
cited any favours from the great, and all his academical
or other preferments were conferred upon him by thofe
who were real judges of his merit, and thought he .de¬
fended them. To a found, cautious, and diferiminating
judgment, a lingular patience and perfeverance ot
R E I [ 693 ] R E L
Reid thought, and fixed attention to the operations of his own
Reike h® added the curiofity of a naturalift and the
■ eyes of an obferver, and of courfe his information was
accurate and extenfive. His fenfibility was of an ac¬
tive and lively nature, and wherever he could command
the means of relieving the diftreffed, he always employ¬
ed them with the utmoft fecrecy poflible.
His works are now in the hands of the public, and we
believe we may venture to affert, that they will always
be much efteemed, while found fenfe continues to be
preferred to unintelligible jargon, fophiftry, or impiety.
He has divefted metaphyfics of myftery, and rendered
intelligible the moft profound fpeculations, by the regu¬
lar and conftant ufe of words in one determined fenfe.
In the ftate in which he found the philofophical world,
it was Dr Reid’s opinion, that his talents could not be
fo ufefully employed, as in combating the fchemes of
thofe who aimed at the complete fubverfion of religion,
both natural and revealed. He apprehended the opera¬
tions of his own mind with a clearnefs which gave to his
language a perfpicuity and precifion that the language of
Locke never poffeffed ; and in this refpeft he is deci¬
dedly fuperior to all his predeceflbrs.
REIN-deer, or Tarandus. See Cervus, Ento¬
mology Index.
REINS, in Anatomy, the fame with Kidneys. See
Anatomy Index.
Reins of a Bridle, are two long flips of leather, faf-
tened on each fide of a curb or fnaffle, which the rider
holds in his hand, to keep the horfe in fubje£Hon.
There is alfo what is called falfe reins ; which is a
lath of leather, palled fometimes through the arch of the
banquet, to bend the horfe’s neck.
REJOINDER, in Law, is the defendant’s anfvver
to the plaintiff’s replication or reply. Thus, in the
court of chancery, the defendant puts in an anfwer to
the plaintiff’s bill, which is fometimes alfo called an ex¬
ception ; the plaintiff’s anfvver to that is called a replica¬
tion, and the defendant’s anfwer to that a rejoindre.
REISKE, John James, a profound fcholar and emi¬
nent critic, was born in 1706 at a fmall town in the
duchy of Anhalt in Germany. His connexions, it
Would appear, were in a humble fituation of life ; and in
confequence of the narrow circumftances in which he
was placed, he had many difficulties to ftruggle with du¬
ring the early part of his education. Thefe, however,
by unabating perfeverance he furmounted, and in 1733
went to Leipfic, where he remained for five years in the
ardent purfuit of his ftudies. Here he acquired an ex¬
tenfive knowledge of the Arabic, and was engaged in
the tranflation of a book from that language, which
was afterwards publifhed. With the view of profecuting
with greater advantage the ftudy of Arabic, which had
become with him a favourite objeX of purfuit, he tra¬
velled on foot to Leyden, where new difficulties attend¬
ed him. While he remained in Leyden he was employed
in arranging the Arabic manufcripts belonging to the
univerfity ; and for this labour he received a very fmall
remuneration. During his refidence here, part of his
time was occupied in the tranflation of various effays
from the German and French languages into Latin.
Thefe eflavs afterwards appeared in the Mifcellanea Cn-
iica. About the fame time alfo our learned author tranf-
lated into Latin the whole of the Chariton from the
Greek, and the Geography of Abulfeda from the Ara- Reitke,
bic. . _ , Reland;
Having fpent eight years at Leyden, Reifke was dri- T
ven from this place by jealoufy and calumny, which it x
is faid were excited againft him chiefly by the younger
Burman, in confequence of his critical ftriXures on the
edition of Petronius publiflied by that author j but be¬
fore his departure from this learned feminary, he had
obtained the degree of doXor of phyfic, which was con¬
ferred in a manner highly to his honour. He after¬
wards vifited different parts of Germany, and at laft fet¬
tled a fecond time at Leipfic, where he remained for
twelve years. But although he had received the ap¬
pointment of profeffor of Arabic, the emoluments of his
office were fo feanty, that he had yet to ftruggle with
all the difficulties attendant on poverty, and merely to
procure a fubfiftence was obliged to engage in the hum¬
bler employments of literary labour, and fubmit to the
fevere and ill-requited drudgery of editing works for
bookfellers, or contributing detached papers to periodi¬
cal publications. About this time the Acia Eruditorum
were greatly indebted to the labours of our author.
But in the midft of all the difficulties and hardffiips now
alluded to, he prepared and publiffied a work of pro¬
found learning and great merit. This work, which ex¬
tended to five volumes, appeared under the title of Ani-
madverfones in AuBores Grcecos, and added much to our
author’s reputation.
In the year 1758, in conlequence of the death of Hal-
taufius, he obtained a fituation, which was not only
honourable but lucrative. This was the place of rec¬
tor of the academy of Leipfic, in which he continued
during the remainder of his life. He was now raifed
above want, and being free from the difficulties and
embarraffments which had hitherto conftantly attended
him, he was thus enabled in the midft of learned eafc
to profecute his favourite ftudies.
In the year 1764 Reilke married E. C. Muller, a wo¬
man of great learning, and of whom it is faid that her
knowledge, efpecially in Greek literature, was little in¬
ferior to that of her hulband. In all his literary labours
flie was an ufeful affociate; but the affiftance which ffie
contributed to his great work, the edition of the Greek
Orators, was particularly valuable. Thus paffed the
latter period of the life of this learned man. He died
in 1774, poffefling a very diftinguiftied reputation as a
fcholar and a critic. The number of the works which
he fuperintended and publiffied is very great. The moft
approved are the following. “ Remarks upon Greek
Authors.” An “ Edition of the Greek Orators,” in
12- vols. 8vo, which was completed by his widow'.
“ Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis,” in 7 vols. “ Plutarch’s
Works,” in 9 vols. “ Theocritus,” &c.
RELAND, Adrian, an eminent Orientalift, born
at Ryp, in North Holland, in 1676. During three
years ftudy under Surenhufius, he made an uncommon
progrefs in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and Arabic
languages, and thefe languages were always his fa¬
vourite ftudy. In 1701, he was, by the recommenda¬
tion of King William, appointed profeffor of Oriental
languages and ecclefiaftical antiquities in the univerfity
of Utrecht, and died of the fmall-pox in 1718. He
was diftinguiftied by his modefty, humanity, and learn¬
ing j and carried on a correfpondence with the moft:
eminent
EEL [ 694 ] EEL
Reland eminent fcholars of his time. His principal works are,
il 1. An excellent defcription of Paleltine. 2. live dif-
Rele.afe. pertatjons on the Medals of the ancient Hebrews, and
feveral other differtations on different fubjefts. 3. An
Introduction to the Hebrew Grammar. 4. The An¬
tiquities of the ancient Hebrews. 5. On the Maho¬
metan Religion. Thefe works are all written in La¬
tin.
RELATION, the mutual refpeCt of two things, or
what each is with regard to the other. See Metaphy¬
sics, N° 93, &c. and 1 28, &c.
Relation, in Geowzd’/ry. See Ratio.
Relation, is alfo ufed for analogy. See Analogy
and Metaphysics.
RELATIVE, fomething relating to or refpeCting
another.
Relative, in Mu pc. See Mode.
Relative Terms, in Logic, are words which imply
relation j fuch are mafter and fervant, hulhand and
wife, &c.
In grammar, relative words are thofe which anfwer
to fome other word foregoing, called the antecedent;
fuch are the relative pronouns qm, qucc, quod, &c. and
in Englifh, vdho, whom, which, &e. The word an-
fwering to thefe relatives is often underftood, as, “ I
know whom you mean 5” for “ I know the perfon
whom you mean.”
RELAXATION, in Medicine, the aft of loofening
or Hackening; or the loofenefs or llacknefs of the fibres,
nerves, mufcles, &c.
RELAY, a fupply of horfes placed on the road, and
appointed to be ready for a traveller to change, in order
to make the greater expedition.
RELEASE, in Law, is a difcharge or conveyance
of a man’s right in lands or tenements, to another that
hath fome former eftate in poffeflion. The wordsgeneral-
3y ufed therein are “ remifed, releafed, and for ever quit-
Blackjl. claimed;” And thefe releafes may enure, either, 1. By
Comment, way of enlarging an ejlate, or enlarger Reflate: as, if
there be tenant for life or years, remainder to another in
fee, and he in remainder releafes all his right to the par¬
ticular tenant and his heirs, this gives him the eftate in
fee. But in this cafe the releffee muft be \r\pojfejjion of
fome eftate', for the releafe to work upon-, for if there
be leffee for years, and, before he enters and is in poffef-
■fion, the leffor releafes to him all his right in the rever-
■ fion, fuch releafe is void for want of poffeflion in the re¬
leffee. 2. By way of pajjing an ejlate or mitter Reflate:
as when one of two coparceners releafeth all his right to
the other, this paffeth the fee-fimple of the whole. And,
•in both thefe cafes, there muft be a privity of eftate be¬
tween the releffor and releffee; that is, one of their eftates
muft be fo related to the other, as to make but one and
the fame eftate in law. 3. By way oipafling a right
or mitter le droit: as if a man be diffeifed, and releafeth
to his diffeifor all his right j hereby the diffeifor acquires
-a new right, which changes the quality of his eftate,
and renders that lawful which before was tortius. 4.
By way of extinguifhment: as if my tenant for life makes
a leafe to A for life, remainder to B and his heirs, and
I releafe to A-, this extinguifhes my right to the rever-
lion, and (hall enure to the advantage of B’s remainder
as well as of A’s particular eftate. 5. By way of entri/
and feoffment: as if there be two joint difftifors, and the
diffeifee releafes to one of them, he (hall be foie feifed,
and (hall keep out his former companion; whichisthe fame
in effeCt as if the difleifee had entered, and thereby put
an end to the diffeifin, and afterwards had enfeoffed one
of the diffeifors in fee. And hereupon w7e may obferve,
that when a man has in himfelf the poffeflion of lands,
he muft at the common law convey the freehold by
feoffment and livery; Avhich makes a notoriety in the
country : but if a man has only a right or a future
intereft, he may convey that right or intereft by a mere
releafe to him that is in poffeflion of the land : for the
occupancy of the releffee is a matter of fufficient notoriety
already.
RELEVANCY, in Scots Law. See Law, N®
clxxxvi. 48.
RELICS, in the Romifti church, the remains of the
bodies or clothes of faints or martyrs, and the rnftruments
by which they were put to death, devoutly preferved, in
honour to their memory; kiffed, fevered, and carried in
proceflion.
The refpefl which vras juftly due to the martyrs and
teachers of the Chriftian faith, in a few ages increafed
almoft to adoration; and at length adoration w as really paid
both to departed faints and to relics of holy men or holy
things. The abufes of the church of Rome, with refpedt
to relics, are very flagrant and notorious. For fuch was
the rage for them at one time, that, as F. Mabillon a Be-
nedidline juftly complains, the altars were loaded with
fufpedled relics; numerous fpurious ones being every-
v.'here offered to the piety and devotion of the faithful.
He adds, too, that bones are often confecrated, which,
fo far from belonging to faints, probably do not belong to
Chriftians. From the catacombs numerous relics have-
been taken, and yet it is not known who were the per-
fons interred therein. In the 1 ith century, relics were
tried by fi^j and thofe which did not confume were reck¬
oned genuine, and the reft not. Relics were, and ftill
are, preferved on the altars whereon mafs is celebrated;
a fquare hole being made in the middle of the altar, big
enough to receive the hand, and herein is the relic depo-
fited, being firft wrapped in red (ilk, and inclofed in a
leaden box.
The Romanifts plead antiquity in behalf of relics :
For the Manichees, out of hatred to the flefti, which
they confidered as an evil principle, refufed to honour
the relics of faints; w'hich is reckoned a kind of proof
that the Catholics did it in the firft ages.
We know, indeed, that the touching of linen cloths
on relics, from an opinion of fome extraordinary virtue
derived therefrom, w7as as ancient as the firft ages, there
being a hole made in the coffins of the 40 martyrs at
Conftantinople exprefsly for this purpofe. The honour¬
ing the relics of faints, on which the church of Rome
afterwards founded her fuperftitious and lucrative ufe of
them, as objedls of devotion, as a kind of charms or
amulets, and as inftruments of pretended miracles, ap¬
pears to haye originated in a very ancient cuftom, that
prevailed among Chriftians, of affembling at the ceme¬
teries or burying places of the martyrs, for the purpofe
of commemorating them, and of performing divine wor-
fhip. When the profeflion of Chriftianity obtained the
proteftion of the civil government, under Conftantine
the Great, (lately churches were erefted over their fe-
pulchres, and their names and memories were treated
with every poffible token of affeftion andrefpefl. This
reverence, however, gradually exceeded all reafonable
bounds;
R E L l 695 ] R E L
ics. bounds ; and tiiofe prayers and religious fervices were
' ' thought to have a peculiar fanftity and virtue, which
were performed over their tombs. Hence the practice,
which afterwards obtained, of depofiting relics of faints
and martyrs under the altars in all churches. This
practice was then thought of fuch importance, that St
Ambrofe would not confecrate a church becaufe it had
no relics •, and the council of Conftantinople in Trullo
ordained, that thole altars fhould be demolilhed under
which there were found no relics. The rage of procuring
relics for this and other purpofes of a fimilar nature, be¬
came fo exceilive, that in 386 the emperor Theodofius
the Great was obliged to pafs a law, forbidding the
people to dig up the bodies of the martyrs, and to traf¬
fic in their relics.
Such was the origin of that refpedl for facred relics,
which afterwards was perverted into a formal worftiip of
them, and became the occafion of innumerable procef-
fims, pilgrimages, and miracles, from which the church
of Rome hath derived incredible advantage.—In the end
of the ninth century, it was not fufficient to reverence
departed faints, and to confide in their interceffions and
i’uccours, to clothe them with an imaginary power of
healing difeafes, working miracles, and delivering from
all forts of calamities and dangers j their bones, their
clothes, the apparel and furniture they had poffefied
during their lives, the very ground which they had
touched, or in which their putrified careafes were laid,
were treated with a ftupid veneration, and fuppofed to
retain the marvellous virtue of healing all diforders both
of body and mind, and of defending fuch as pofleffed
them againft all the aflaults and devices of the devil.
The confequence of all this was, that every one was ea¬
ger to provide himfelf with thefe falutary remedies ;
confequently, great numbers undertook fatiguing and
perilous voyages, and fubjected themfelves to all forts of
hardlhips ; while others made ufe of this delufion to ac¬
cumulate their riches, and to impofe upon the miferable
multitude by the moft impious and fhocking inventions.
As the demand for relics was prodigious and univerfal,
the clergy employed the utmoft dexterity to fatisfy all
demands, and were far from being nice in the methods
they ufed for that end. The bodies of the faints were
fought by fading and prayer, inftiluted by the priefl in
order to obtain a divine anfvver and an infallible direc¬
tion, and this pretended dire£tion never failed toaccom-
pliih their defires ; the holy carcafe was always found,
and that always in confequence, as they impioufiy gave
out, of the fuggeftion and infpiration of God himfelf.
Each difeovery of this kind was attended with exceflive
demonftrations of joy, and animated the zeal of thefe
devout feekers to enrich the church ftill more and more
with this new kind of treafure. Many travelled with
this view into the eaflern provinces, and frequented the
places which Chrifi: and his difciples had honoured with
their prefence, that, with the bones and other facred re¬
mains of the firil: heralds of the gofpel, they might com¬
fort dejefted minds, calm trembling confciences, fave
finking Rates, and defend their inhabitants from all forts
of calamities. Nor did thefe pious travellers return
home empty •, the craft, dexterity, and knavery of the
Greeks, found a rich prey in the ftupid credulity of the
Latin relic-hunters, and made a profitable commerce of
this new devotion. The latter paid confiderable fums
for legs and arms, Ikulls and jaw-bones (feveral of which
I
were Pagan, and fome not human), and other things
that were fuppofed to have belonged to the primitive
■worthies of the Chriftian church •, and thus the Latin
churches came to the poffeflion of thofe celebrated relics
of St Mark, St James, St Bartholomew, Cyprian, Pan-
taleon, and others, which they {how at this day with fo
much oftentation. But there were many who, unable
to procure for themfelves thefe fpiritual treafures by voy¬
ages and prayers, had recourfe to violence and theft ;
for all forts of means, and all forts of attempts in a caufe
of this nature, were eonfidered, when fuccefsful, as pious
and acceptable to the Supreme Being. Befides the ar¬
guments from antiquity to which the Papifts refer, in
vindication of their worftiip of relics, of which the read¬
er may form fome judgment from this article, Bellar-
mine appeals to Scripture in fupport of it, and cites the
following paflages, viz. Exod.xiii. 9. ; Deut. xxxiv. 6. j
2 Kings xiii. 21.; 2 Kings xxiii. 16, 17, 18. ; Ifaiah
xi. 10.; Matthew xi. 20, 21, 22.; Ads v. 12—15.;
Ads xix. II, 12. See PoPERY.
The Roman Catholics in Great Britain do not ac¬
knowledge any worftiip to be due to relics, but merely
a high veneration and refped, by which means they
think they honour God, who, they fay, has often'
wrought very extraordinary miracles by them. But,
however proper this veneration and refped may be, its
abufe has been fo great and fo general, as fully to war¬
rant the rejedion of them altogether.
Relics are forbidden to be ufed or brought into Eng¬
land by feveral ftatutes; and juftices of peace- are em¬
powered to fearch houfes for popifh books and relics,
which, when found, are to be defaced and burnt, &c.
3 Jac. I. cap. 26.
RELICT, in Law, the fame with Widow.
RELIEF (Relevamen ; but, in Domefday, Re/evatio,
Relevium'), fignifies a certain fum of money, which the
tenant, holding by knight’s fervice, grand ferjeanty, or
other tenure (for which homage or legal fervice is due),
and being at full age at the death of his anceftor, paid
unto his lord at his entrance. See Primer.
Though reliefs had their original while feuds were
only life eftates, yet they continued after feuds became
hereditary ; and were therefore looked upon, very juft-
ly, as one of the greateft grievances of tenure : efpe-
cially when, at the firft, they were merely arbitrary
and at the will of the lord ; fo that, if he pleafed to de¬
mand an exorbitant relief, it was in effeft to difinherit
the heir. The Englifh ill brooked this confequence of
their newly adopted policy ; and therefore William the
Conqueror by his laws afeertained the relief, by direct¬
ing (in imitation of the Danifh heriots), that a certain
quantity of arms, and habiliments of war, fhould be paid
by the earls, barons, and vavafours refpeCtively ; and,
if the latter had no arms, they fliould pay 100 {hillings.
William Rufus broke through this compofition,and again
demanded arbitrary uncertain reliefs, as due by the feo-
dal laws ; thereby in effeCt obliging every heir to new-
purchafe or redeem his land : but his brother Henry I.
by the charter before mentioned, reftored his father’s
law ; and ordained, that the relief to be paid ftiould be
according to the law fo eftablifhed, and notan arbitrary-
redemption.—But afterwards, when, by an ordinance
in 27 Hen. II. called the ajfife of arms, it was provided,
that every man’s armour fhould defeend to his heir, for
defence of the realm, and it thereby became impraCU-
cable.-
R E L [
-IRelief cable to pay thefe acknowledgements in arms according
II to the laws of the Conqueror, the compofition was um-
Religion. Vtrfany accented of XOO (hillings for every knight s fee,
***“**"“"* as we it ever after eftablifhed. But it mull be re¬
membered, that this relief was only then payable if the
heir at the death of his anceftor had attained his lull
age of 2i years. .
To RELIEVE the GUARD, is to put frefli men up¬
on guard, which is generally every 24 hours.
To Relieve the Trenches, is to relieve the guard 01
the trenches, by appointing thofe for that duty who
have been there before.
To RELIEVE the Sentries, is to put frefli men upon
that duty from the guard, which is generally done every
two hours, by a corporal who attends the relief, to fee
that the proper orders are delivered to the foldier w ho
relieves. .
RELIEVO, or Relief, in Sculpture, &c. is the
projedure or Handing out of a figure which arifes pro¬
minent from the ground or plane on which it is formed j
•whether that figure be cut with the chifel, moulded, or
xaft. ...
There are three kinds or degrees of relievo, viz. alto,
baffo, and demi-relievo. The alto-relievo, called alio
haut-relief, or high-relievo, is when the figure is formed
after nature, and projects as much as the life. Baffo-
relievo, bafs-relief, or low-relievo, is when the work is
raifed a little from the ground, as in medals, and. the
frontifpieces of buildings 5 but particularly in the hifto-
ries, fefteons, foliages, and other ornaments of friezes.
Demi-relievo is when one half of the figure rifes front
the plane. When, in a baffo-relievo, there are parts that
Hand clear out, detached from the refl, the work is call¬
ed a demi-hajfb.
In architefture, the relievo or proje£lure of the orna¬
ments ought always to be proportioned to the magnitude
of the building it adorns, and to the diilance at which
it is to be viewed.
Relievo, or Relief, in Tainting, is the degree of
boldnefs with which the figures feem, at a due diftance,
to Hand out from the ground of the painting.
The relievo depends much upon the depth of the Iha-
dow, and the ftrength of the light; or in the height of
the different colours, bordering on one another j and
• particularly on the difference of the colour of the figure
from that of the ground : thus, when the light is fo dil-
pofied as to make the neareft parts of the figure advance,
and is well diffufed on the maffes, yet infenfibly diminilh-
ing, and terminating in a large fpacious fhadow, brought
off infenfibly, the relievo is faid to be bold, and the
clare obfcure well underftood.
RELIGION (Religio), is a Latin word derived,
?-<//)^tU~according to Cicero*, from rele^ere, “ to re-confider
lib. ii.kut according to Servius and moll modern grammarians,
1 from religare, “ to bind faff.” The reafon affigned by
the Roman orator for deducing religio from rtlego, is in
thefe words, “qui autem omnia, quae ad cultum deorum
pertinerent, diligenter retra£larent, et tanquam relege-
rent, funt difli religioji ex relegendo.” The reafon
given by Servius for his derivation of the word is,
“ quod mentem religio religer.” If the Ciceronian ety¬
mology be the true one, the word religion will' denote
the diligent ffudy of whatever pertains to the worfiiip
of the gods 5 but according to the other derivation,
which we are inclined to prefer, it denotes that obliga-
rum
§ 2S
Religion
defined:
0 ] R E L
tion which we feel on our minds from the relation in Religion,,
which we Hand to fome fuperior power. In either cafe,' —"v——i
the import of the word religion is different from that ofand
theology, as the former fignifies a number of pra&ical gl1jflled
duties, and the latter a fyffem of fpeculative truths, from theo«
Theology is therefore the foundation of religion, or the logy,
fcience from which it fprings j for no man can ftudy
what pertains to the worlhip of fuperior powers till he
believe that fuch powers exift, or feel any obligation on
his mind from a relation of which he knows nothing.
This idea of religion, as diftinguilhed from theology,
comprehends the duties not only of thofe more 'refined
and complicated fyftems of theifm or polytheifm which
have prevailed among civilized and enlightened nations,
fuch as the polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, and
the theifm of the Jews, the Mahometans, and the Chrif-
tians \ it comprehends every fentiment of obligation
which human beings have ever conceived themfelves un¬
der to fuperior powers, as well as all the forms of wor-
fhip which have ever been pra£Hfed through the world,
however fantaftic, immoral, or abfurd. 3
When we turn our eyes to this feature of the human It is anim»
charader, we find it peculiarly interefting. Mankind po«antfim»
are diftinguilhed from the brutal tribes, and eleyate^toJcuiation.
a higher rank, by the rational and moral faculties with
which they are endowed j but they are ftill more widely
diftinguilhed from the inferior creation, and more high¬
ly exalted above them, by being made capable of reli¬
gious notions and religious fentiments. The llightefl:
knowledge of hiftory is fufficient to inform us, that reli¬
gion has ever had a powerful influence in moulding the
fentiments and manners of men. It has fometimes dig¬
nified, and fometimes degraded, the human character.
In one region or age it has been favourable to civiliza¬
tion and refinement; in another, it has occafionally
cramped the genius, depraved the morals, and deformed
the manners of men. The varieties of religion are in¬
numerable •, and the members of every diftinft fe£t muft
view all who differ from them as more or lefs miftaken
with refpeft to the moft important concerns of man.
Religion feems to be congenial to the heart of man ;
for wherever human fociety fubfifts, there we are certain
of finding religious opinions and fentiments. ^
It muft, therefore, be an important fubje£t of fpecu--phree quek
lation to the man and the philofopher to confider the tions con-
origin of religion j to inquire, How far religion in ge- cerning re»
neral has a tendency to promote or to injure the order 'o1011'
and happinels of fociety ? and, above all, to examine.
What particular religion is beft calculated to produce a
happy influence on human life ?
We Ihall endeavour to give a fatisfaftory anfwer to
each of thefe queftions •, referving to the article Theo¬
logy the eonfideration of the dogmas of that particular
religion which, from our prefent inquiries, Ihall appear
to be true, and to have the happieft influence on human
life and manners. . c
I. The foundation of all religion refts on the belief of Of the
the exiftence of one or more fuperior beings, who govern
the world, and upon whom the bappinefs .or mifery 0£ reiigion,
mankind ultimately depends. Of this belief, as it may
be faid to have been univerfal, there feem to be but
three fources that can be conceived. Either the image
of Deity muft be ftamped on the mind of every human
being, the favage as well as the fage $ or the founders
of focieties, and other eminent perfons, tracing, by the
efforts
It E L [ 697 ] - R E L
Religion, efforts of their own reafon vihble effects to invifible
-v —n,1 caufeSj muft have difcovered the exiflence of fuperior
powers, and communicated the difcovery to their affo-
ciates and followers; or, laftly, the univerfal belief in
fuch powers muff have been derived by tradition from
a primaeval revelation, communicated to the progenitors
6 of the human race.
It does not One or other of thefe hypothefes muff be true, be¬
anie from caufe a fourth cannot be framed. But we have elfe-
ftamp'on'1 vvhere (Polytheism, N° 2.) examined the reafoning
the mind; which has been employed to eftablilh the firft, and (hewn
that it proceeds upon falfe notions of human nature.
We Ihould likewife pronounce it contrary to faft, could
we believe, on the authority of fome of its patrons, who
are not alhamed to contradict one another, that the
Kamtfchatkans and other tribes, in the loweft ftate of
reafoning and morals, have no ideas whatever of Deity.
We proceed, therefore, to confider the fecond hypo-
thefis, which is much more plaufible, and will bear a
7 ftriCter fcrutiny.
nor from That the exiftence and many of the attributes of the
reafoning; Deity are capable of rigid demonftration, is a truth
which cannot be controverted either by the philofopher
or the Chriftian •, for “ the invifible things of Him from
the creation of the world are clearly feen, being un-
derftood by the things that are made, even His eternal
power and Godhead,” (fee Metaphysics, Part III.
chap. vi. and Theology, N° 8, 9.). But furely it
would be raffi t» infer, either that every truth for which,
when it is known, the ingenuity of man can frame a de¬
monftration, is therefore dijcoverab/e by human fagacity,
or that all the truths which have been difcovered by a
Newton or a Loche might therefore have been dilcovered
by untaught barbarians. In mathematical fcience there
are few demonftrations of eafier comprehenfion than that
given by Euclid, of the theorem of which Pythagoras
is the reputed author j yet no man ever dreamed that a
boy capable of being made to underffand that theorem,
muff therefore have fagacity equal to the fage of Samos;
or that fuch a boy, having never heard of the relation
between the hypothenufe and other two fides of a right-
angled triangle, would be likely to difcover that the
fquare of the former is precifely equal to the fum of the
fquares of the latter. Juft fo it feems to be with the
fundamental truths of theology. There can hardly be
conceived a demonftration lefs intricate, or more con-
clufive, than that which the man of fcience employs to
prove the exiftence of at leaft one God, poffeffed of
boundlefs power and perfeft wifdom. And could we
fuppofe that the human race had remained without any
knowledge of God in the world, till certain lucky indi¬
viduals had by fome means or other made themfelves
inafters of the rules of logic, and the philofophy of
caufes, there can be no doubt but that thefe individuals
might have difcovered the exiftence of fuperior powers,
arid communicated their difcovery to their affociates and
followers. But this fuppofition cannot be admitted, as
it is contradifled by the evidence of all hiftory. No
nation or tribe has ever been found, in which there is
not reafon to believe that fome notions were entertained
of fuperior and invifible powers, upon which depends
the happinefs or mifery of mankind: and from the moft
authentic records of antiquity, it is apparent that very
nure principles of theifm prevailed in fome nations long
Vol. XVII. Part II.
before the rules of logic, and the philofophy of caufes,
were thought of by any people under heaven.
'I he fuppofition before us is inadmiflible upon other
accounts. Some modern philofophers have fancied that
the original progenitors of mankind were left entirely to
themfelves from the moment of their creation ; that they
wandered about for ages without the ufe of fpeech and
in the loweft ftate of favagifm ; but that they gradually
civilized themfelves, and at laft ftumbled upon the con¬
trivance of making articulate founds fignificant of ideas,
which was followed by the invention of arts and feien-
ces, with all the blefiings of religion and legiilation in
their train. But this is a wild reverie, inconfiltent with
the phenomena of human nature.
It is a well known faff, that a man blind from his
birth, and fuddenly made to fee, would not by means of
his newly acquired fenfe difeern either the magnitude or
figure or diftance of objedls, but would conceive every
thing which communicated to him vifible fenfations as
infeparably united to his eye or his mind (fee Meta¬
physics, N° 49—J3-)- .How lon8 his fenfe of fight
would remain in fuch an imperfeft ftate, w'e cannot po~
fitively fay ; but from attending to the vifible fenfations
of infants, w'e are confident that wrecks, if not months,
elapfe before they can diftinguilh one thing from ano¬
ther. We have indeed been told, that Chefelden’s fa¬
mous patient, though he was at firft in the ftate which
we have deferibed, learned to diftinguilh objefts by
fight in the courfe of a few hours, or at the moft of a few
days : but admitting this to a certain extent to be true, it
may eafily be accounted for. The difeafe called a cata-
raB does not always occafion total blindnefs j but let
us fuppofe the eyes of this man to have been fo com¬
pletely dimmed as to communicate no fenfation what¬
ever upon being expofed to the rays of light j ftill we
muft remember that he had long poffeffed the power of
loco-motion and all his other fenfes in perfection. He
was therefore well acquainted with the real, i. e. the
tangible magnitude, figure, and diftance of many ob¬
jects ; and having been often told that the things which
he touched would, upon his acquifition of fight, com¬
municate new fenfations to his mind, differing from
each other according to the diftance, figure, and mag¬
nitude of the objeCts by which they were occafioned,
he would foon learn to infer the one from the other,
and to diftinguifh near objeCts by means of his fight.
The progenitors of the human race, however, if left
to themfelves from the moment of their creation, had
not. the fame advantages. When they firft opened*
their eyes, they had neither moved, nor handled, nor
heard, nor fmelled, nor tafted, nor had a fingle idea or
notion treafured up in their memories •, but were in all
thefe refpeCls in the ftate of new born infants. Now
we fhould be glad to be informed by thofe fages who
have conduCled mankind through many generations in
which they were mutum et turpe pecus to that happy-
period when they invented language, how the firft men
were taught to diftinguilh objeCts by their fenfe of
fight, and how they contrived to live till this moft ne-
ceffary faculty was acquired > It does not appear that
men are like brutes, provided with a number of inftinCts
which guide them blindfold and without experience to
whatever is neceffary for their own prefervation (fee
Instinct) : On the contrary, all voyagers tell us that
R E L [
Keligion. i„ ftrange and uninhabited countries, they dare not ven-
t—v ture to taite unknown fruits unlefs they perceive that
thefe fruits are eaten by the fowls of the air. But with¬
out the aid of inftina, or of fome other guide equally
to be depended upon, it is not in our power to conceive
how men dropt from the hands of their Creator, and
left from that inftant wholly to themfelves, could move
a fingle ftep without the moft imminent danger, or
even ftretch out their hands to lay hold of that food
which we may fuppofe to have been placed within
their reach. They could not, for many days,, diltin-
guilh a precipice from a plane, a rock from a pit, or a
river from the meadows through which it rolled. And
in fuch circumftances, how could they poflibly exiit,
till their fenfe of fight had acquired fuch perfettfon as
to be a fufficient guide to all their neceffary motions ?
Can any confident theift fuppofe that the God whofe
goodnefs is fo confpicuoufly difplayed in all his works,
would leave his nobleft creature on earth, a creature for
whofe comfort alone many other creatures feem to have
been formed, in a fituation fo forlorn as this, where his
immediate deftruftion appears to be inevitable ? No !
This fuppofition cannot be formed, becaufe mankind
3- ftill exift.
but from Will it then be faid, that when God formed the firlt
an original men, he not only gave them organs of fenfation, and
revelation. fouls’capable of arriving by difcipline at the exercife of
reafon, but that he alfo impreffed upon their minds
adequate ideas and notions of every objeift in which
they were interefted ; brought all their organs, external
and internal, at once to their utmoft poflible date of per-
feftion ; taught them indantaneoudy the laws of reaion-
ing ; and, in one word, dored their minds with every
branch of ufeful knowledge ? This is indeed our own
9 .
This opi-
able to the
writings of
Jrlofes.
nion agree- 0pinion • and it is perfectly agreeable to what we are
,l'“ taught by the Hebrew lawgiver. When God had
formed Adam and Eve, Mofes does not fay that he
left them to acquire by dow degrees the ufe of their
fenfes and reafoning powers, and to didinguidi as they
could fruits that were falutary from thofe that were
poifonous. No : he placed them in a garden where
every tree but one bore fruit fit for food; he warned
them particularly againd the fruit of that tree j he
brought before them the various animals which roamed
through the garden; he arranged thefe animals into
their proper genera and fpecies 5 and by teaching Adam
to give them names, he communicated to the fird pair
the elements of language. This condefcenfion appears
in every refpeft worthy of perfect benevolence ; and
indeed without it the helplefs man and woman could
not have lived one whole week. But it cannot be fup-
pofed, that amidd fo much ufeful indru&ion the gra¬
cious Creator would negledt to communicate to his ra¬
tional creatures the knowledge of himfelf j to inform
them of their own origin, and the relation in which
they dood to him 5 and to date in the plained terms
the duties incumbent on them in return for fo much
goodnefs.
In what manner all this knowledge was communica¬
ted, cannot be certainly known. It may have been in
either of the following ways conceivable by us, or in
others of which we can form no conception. God may
have miraculoudy dored the minds of the fird pair with
adequate ideas and notions of fenfible and intellectual
objects; and then by an internal operation of his own
698 ] • R E L
Spirit have enabled them to exert at once their rational Religion,
faculties fo as to difcover his exidence and attributes, v—'
together with the relation in which as creatures they
dood to him their Almighty Creator. Or, after ren¬
dering them capable of didinguilhing objefts by means
of their fenfes, of comparing their ideas, and underdand-
ing a language, he may have exhibited himfelf under
fome fenfible emblem, and conduced them by degrees
from one branch of knowledge to another, as a fchool-
mader condufts his pupils, till they were fufficiently
acquainted with every thing relating to their own hap-
pinefs, and duty, as rational, moral, and religious crea¬
tures. In determining the quedion before us, it is of
no importance whether infinite wifdom adopted either
of thefe methods, or fome other different from them,
both which we cannot conceive. The ordinary procefs
in which men acquire knowledge is, by the laws of their
nature, extremely tedious. They cannot reafon before
their minds be dored with ideas and notions ; and they
cannot acquire thefe but through the medium of their
fenfes long exercifed on external obje&s. . „
The progenitors of the human race, left to inform But whe-
themfelves by this procefs, mud have inevitably perifhed dier inter-
before they had acquired one didinft notion ; and it is^Tt'waT
the fame thing with refpeft to the origin of religion, equ’ally a
whether God preferved them from dedru&ion by an revelation.
internal or external revelation. If he dored their minds
at once with the rudiments of all ufeful knowledge, and
rendered them capable of exerting their rational facul¬
ties, fo as, by tracing effe&s to their caufes, to difcover
his being and attributes, he revealed himfelf to them as
certainly as he did afterwards to Mofes, when to him he
condefcended to fpeak face to face. I3 -
If this reafoning be admitted as fair and conclufive, Such a re-
10
The mode
ef commu-
Aication
not certain
ty known.
and we apprehend that the principles on which it pro-velatlon
ceeds cannot be confidered as ill-founded, we have ad-^“ly^tU"
vanced fo far as to prove that mankind mull have been hanaed to
originally enlightened by a revelation. But it is fcarce pofterity.
neceffary to obferve, that this revelation muft have been
handed down through fucceeding generations. It could
not fail to reach the era of the deluge. It is not abfurd
to fuppofe, that he who fpake from heaven to Adam,
fpake alfo to Noah. And both the revelation which had
been handed down to the poftdiluvian patriarch by tra¬
dition, and that which was communicated immediately
to himfelf, would be by him made known to his defeen-
dants. Thus it appears almoft impoflible that fome part
of the religious fentiments of mankind fhould not have
been derived from revelation ; and that not of the reli¬
gious fentiments of one particular family or tribe, but of
almoft all the nations of the earth. 13
This conclufion, which we have deduced by fair rea-The autho-
foning from the benevolence of God and the nature of^y
man, is confirmed by the authority of the Jewifti and
Chriftian Scriptures, which are entitled to more im-fcriptures,
plicit credit than all the other records of ancient hi-&c.
ftory.
"When we review the internal and external evidence
of the authenticity of thefe facred books, we cannot for
a moment hefitate to receive them as the genuine word
of God. If we examine their internal charafter, they
everywhere appear to be indeed the voice of Heaven.
The creation of the world—the manner in which this
globe was firft peopled—the deluge which fwept away
its inhabitants-—the fucceeding views of the ftate. of
mankind
R E L
[
Religion.
14
The five
books of
Mofes
proved to
be divine:
15
for it was
other wife
impoffible
to impofe
them on
the Jews in
the era to
which they
relate, or
mankind in the next ages after the deluge—the calling
of Abraham—the legiilation of Mofes—the whole fe-
ries of events which befel the Jewilh nation—the pro¬
phecies—the appearance of Jefus Chritt, and the pro¬
mulgation of his gofpel, as explained to us in the Scrip¬
tures—-form one feries, which is, in the higheft degree,
illuftrative of the power, wifdom, and goodnefs of the
Supreme Being.
While it mull be allowed that the human mind is
ever prone to debafe the fublime principles of true reli¬
gion by enthuliafm and fuperftition, reafon and can¬
dour will not for a moment hefitate to acknowledge, that
the whole fyftem of revelation reprefents the Supreme
Being in the moft fublime and amiable light: that, in
it, religion appears effentially conne£ted with morality :
that the legiflative code of Mofes was fuch as no le-
giflator ever formed and eftablilhed among a people
equally rude and uncultivated : that the manners and
morals of the Jews, vicious and favage as they may in
fome inftances appear, yet merit a much higher cha-
rafter than thofe either of their neighbours, or of almoft
any other nation, whofe circumftances and chara&er
were in other refpefts fimilar to theirs : that there is an
infinite difference between the Scripture prophecies and
the oracles and predi£tions which prevailed among hea¬
then nations : and that the miracles recorded in thofe
■writings which we efteem facred were attended with
circumftances which entitle them to be ranked in a very
different clafs from thofe which en<:hufiafm and impof-
ture have fabricated among other nations. See Mira¬
cle and Prophecy.
But as the evidence of the divine origin of the prime¬
val religion refts particularly on the authority of the firft
five books of the Old Teftament, it may be thought in.
cumbent on us to fupport our reafoning on this fubjeft,
by proving, that the author of thofe books was indeed
infpired by God. This we {hall endeavour to do by
one decifive argument; for the nature of the article,
and the limits prefcribed us, admit not of our entering
into a minute detail of all that has been written on the
divine legation of Mofes.
If the miracles recorded in the book of Exodus, and
the other writings of the Hebrew lawgiver, were really
performed; if the firft-born of the Egyptians were all cut
off in one night, as is there related ; and if the children
of jlfrael paffed through the Red fea, the waters being
divided, and forming a wall on their right hand and on
their left—it muft neceffarily be granted, that Mofes was
fent by God ; becaufe nothing lefs than a divine power
was fufficient to perform fuch wonderful works. But
he who fuppofes that thofe works were never performed,
muft affirm that the books recording them were forged,
either at the era in which the miracles are faid to have
been wrought, or at fome fubfequent era : There is no
other alternative.
That they could not be forged at the era in which
they affirm the miracles to have been wrought, a very
fewrefle&ions will make incontrovertibly evident. Thefe
books inform the people for whofe ufe they were written,
that their author, after having infli&ed various plagues
upon Pharaoh and his fubjefts, brought them, to the
number of 600,000, out of Egypt with a high hand ;
that they were led by a pillar of cloud through the day,
and by a pillar of fire through the night, to the brink
of the Red fea, where they were almoft overtaken by
699 ] K £ L
the Egyptians, who had purfued them with chariots Religioti.
and horfes; that, to make a way for their efcapc, Mofes
ftretched out his rod over the fea, which was immediate¬
ly divided, and permitted them to pafs through on dry
ground, between two walls of water; and that the E-
gyptians, purfuing and going in after them to the midft
of the fea, were all drowned by the return of the waters
to their ufual ftate, as foon as the Hebrews arrived at
the further ftiore. Is it poflible now that Mofes or any
other man could have perfuaded 600,coo perfons, how¬
ever barbarous and illiterate we fuppofe them, that they
had been witneffes of all thefe wonderful works, if no
fuch works had been performed ? Could any art or elo¬
quence perfuade all the inhabitants of Edinburgh and
Leith, that they had yefterday walked on dry ground
through the Frith to Kinghorn, the waters being di¬
vided and forming a wall on their right hand and on their
left ? If this quellion muft be anfwered in the negative,
it is abfolutely impoflible that the books of Mofes, fup-
pofing them to have been forged, could have been re¬
ceived by the people wrho were alive when thofe won¬
ders are faid to have been wrought. 16
Let us now inquire, whether, if they be forgeries, *n any aftei:
they could have been received as authentic at any fub- Peri0^
fequent period ; and we (hall foon find this fuppofition
as impoflible as the former. The books claiming Mofes
for their author fpeak or themfelves as delivered by him,
and from his days kept in the ark of the covenant * ; an * Deut.
ark which, upon this fuppofition, had no exiftence prior XXX1*
to the forgery. They fpeak of themfelves iikewife, not 2^‘
only as a hiftory of miracles wrought by their author,
but as the ftatutes or municipal law of the nation, of
which a copy was to be always in the poffeflion of the
priefts, and another in that of the fupreme magiftratef. f 9?ut*
Now, in whatever age we fuppofe thefe books to haveXVU1'
been forged, they could not poflibly be received as au¬
thentic ; becaufe no copy of them could then be found
either with the king, with the priefts, or in the ark,
though, as they contain the ftatute law of the land, it
is not conceiveable that, if they had exifted, they could
have been kept fecret. Could any man, at this day,
forge a book of ftatutes for England or Scotland, and
make it pafs upon thefe nations for the only book of fta¬
tutes which they had ever known ? Was there ever
fince the world began a book of fham ftatutes, and thefe,
too, multifarious and burdenfome, impofed upon any peo¬
ple as the only ftatutes by which they and their fathers
had been governed for ages ? Such a forgery is evident¬
ly impoflible.
But the books of Mofes have internal proofs of au¬
thenticity, which no other books of ancient ftatutes ever
had. They not only contain the laws, but alfo give
an hiftorical account of their enaflment, and the reafons
upon which they were founded. Thus they tell us f, that f Gen. xvii,
the rite of circumcifion was inftituted as a mark of the
covenant between God and the founder of the Jewifti
nation, and that the practice of it was enforced by the
declaration of the Almighty, that every uncircumcifed
man-child (hould be cut off from his people. They in¬
form us that the annual folemnity of the paffover was
inftituted in commemoration of their deliverance, when
God flew, in one night, all the firft-born of the Egyp¬
tians ; that the firft-born of Ifrael, both of men and
beaft, were on the fame occafion dedicated for ever to
God, who took the Levites inftead of the firft-born of
4 T 2 the
R E L
[ 700 ] R E L
Religion, the men* ; that this tribe was confecrated as priefts, by
‘ —' whafe hands alone the ihenficos of the people 'were to
* Exod. xu. offerec] . tjiat it was death for any perfon of a differ-
and Numb.ent tribe to approach the altar, or even to touch the ark
of the covenant} and that Aaron’s budding rod was
kept in the ark in memory of the wonderful deftrufiion
of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, for their rebellion againft
the prieithood. ‘
Is it poffible now, if all thefe things had not been
praflifed among the Hebrews from the era of Mofes,
with a retrofpedl to the fignal mercies which they are
faid to commemorate, that any man or body of men
could have perfuaded a whole nation, by means of for¬
ged books, that they had always religioufly obferved
fuch inftitutions? Could it have been poflible, at any pe¬
riod pofterior to the Exodus, to perfuade the Ifraelites
that they and their fathers had all been circumcifed on
the eighth day from their birth, if they had been confci-
ous themfelves that they had never been circumcifed at
all ? or that the paffover was kept in memory of their
deliverance from Egyptian bondage, if no fuch feftival
■was known among them ?
But let us fuppofe that circumcifion has been prac-
tifed, and all their other rites and ceremonies obferved
from time immemorial, without their knowing any rea-
fon of fuch inflitutions : frill it mull be confeffed, that
the forger of thefe books, if they were forged, con-
ftrudled his narrative in fuch a manner as that no man
of common fenfe could receive it as authentic. He fays
it was death to touch the ark ! As fuch an affertion was
never heard of before, and as the ritual he was endea¬
vouring to make them efteem facred was oppreffively
multifarious *, furely fome daring fpirit would have ven¬
tured to put his veracity to the tell by moving the ark
and even offering facrifices j and fuch a teff would at
once have expofed the impofture. The budding rod,
too, and the pot of manna, which, though long prefer-
ved, were never before heard of, muft have produced
inquiries that could not fail to end in deteftion. Thefe
books fpeak likewifeof weekly fabbaths, daily facrifices,
a yearly expiation, and monthly feftivals, all to be kept
in remembrance of great things, particularly fpecified as
done for the nation at an early period of its exiftence.
If this was not the cafe, could the forger of the books
have perfuaded the people that it really was fo ? The
enlightened reafoners of this nation would be offended
were we to compare them with the ancient Ifraelites 5
but furely they will not fay that we are partial to that
people, if we bring them to a level with the moft favage
tribes of the Ruffian empire, who profefs Chriflianity ?
Now, wer^a book to be forged containing an account
of many ftrange things done a thoufand years ago in
Siberia by an Apollonius, or any other philofopher or
hero, numbers of the barbarians inhabiting that coun¬
try would, we doubt not, give implicit credit to the
legend: But were the author, in confirmation of his nar¬
rative, to affirm, that all the Siberians had from that
day to this kept facred the firft day of the week in me¬
mory of his hero •, that they had all been baptized or
circumcifed in his name ; that in their public judica¬
tories they had fworn by his name, and upon that very
book which they had never feen before; and that the
very fame book was their law and their gofpel, by which
tor a thoufand years back the afrionsof the whole people
had been regulated—furely the groffeft favage among
Z
them would reject with contempt and indignation a for- Religion,
gery fo palpable. » "-J
If this reafoning be conclufive, the books of Mofes
muft indubitably be authentic, and he himfelf muff have
been infpired by the fpirit of God. But this point be¬
ing eftabliffied, the queftion refpefting the origin of the
primaeval religion is completely anfwered. The writer
of the book of Genefis informs us, that Adam and Noah
received many revelations from the Author of their be¬
ing, and that their religion was founded on the princi¬
ples of the pureft theifm. How it degenerated among
the greater part of their defcendants into the grolfeft
idolatry, has been ffiown at large in another place. See
Polytheism. i?
II. Having thus anfwered the firft queftion propofed Of the in¬
fer difeuffion in the prefent article, we now proceed toflllfnceof
confider the feeond, and to inquire whether and how far!!ell.g'on 0n
religious fentiments have a tendency to injure or to pro-
mote the welfare of fociety ? This is a lubjefl of the
utmoft importance $ and if we prove fuccefsful in our in¬
quiries, we flrall be enabled to determine whether the
governors of mankind ought carefully to fupport religi¬
ous eftabliftiments, or whether the philofopher who calls
himfelf a citizen of the world, and profelfes to feel the
moft eager defire to promote the interefts of his fpecies,
a£ts confiftently when he labours to exterminate religion
from among men.
A celebrated French financier*, a man of abilities
and virtue, who has publiffied a book on the importance
of religious opinions, labours to fhow that religious efta-
blithments are indifpenfably neceffary for the maintenance
of civil order, and demonftrates how weak the influence
of political inftitutions is on the morals of mankind 5 but
he refufes to review the hiftory of paft ages in order to
difeover how far religious opinions have actually been in¬
jurious or beneficial to the welfare of fociety 5 choofing
rather to content himfelf with the refult of a feries of
metaphyfical difquiiitions.
We admire the fpirit which induced a man who had
fpent a confiderable part of his life amid the hurry of
public bufinefs, to become the ftrenuous advocate of re¬
ligion •, but we cannot help thinking that, notwithftand-
ing the eloquence, the acutenefs, and the knowledge of
mankind which he has difplayed, his refufing to admit
the evidence of fa£ls, concerning the influence of reli¬
gion on fociety, may poffibly be regarded by its enemies
as a tacit acknowledgment that the evidence of fafts
would be unfavourable to the caufe which he wifties to
defend. The fallacy of general reafonings, and the in¬
utility of metaphyfies for the purpofes of life, are fo uni-
verfally acknowledged, that they have long been the lg
theme of declamation. Though the abufes of religion,Triumphs
as well as the abufes of reafon, the perverfion of anyof the feep-
of the principles of the human mind, and the mifap-tic on
plication of the gifts of Providence, may have often^™gS°0f *
produced effeHs hurtful to the virtue and the happinefsreiigion.
of mankind ; yet, after tracing religion to a divine ori¬
gin, we cannot, for a moment, allow ourfelves to think
that the primary tendency of religion muft be hoftile
to the intereft of fociety, or that it is neceffary to view
it abftra&ly in order that we may not behold it in an
odious light. Often has the fceptic attacked religion
with artful malice •, but perhaps none of his attacks has
been fo fkilfully direfted as that which has firft ridi¬
culed the abfurdity ef the, moft abfurd fuperftitions,
and.
R E L
Religion, and afterwards laboured to prove that the moft abfurd
fydem of polytheifm is more favourable to the interefts
of fociety than the pureft and moft fublime theifm. In-
ftances in which the abufe of religion had tended to
deprave the human heart, and had led to the moft
fhocking crimes, have been afliduoufty collefted, and
difplayed in all the aggravating colours in which elo¬
quence could array them, till at length even the friends
of true religion have been abafhed $ and it has become
a faftiionable opinion, that nothing but felf-intereft or
bigotry can prompt men to reprefent religion as the
friend of civil order. But let us try if, by a candid
confideration of what effe&s have refulted to fociety
from religious principles, in general, without Compar¬
ing thefe with regard to truth or falfehood, we can
advance any thing to vindicate the chara&er of reli¬
gion.
Notions of Deity in general, of various orders of di¬
vinities, of their moral character, of their influence on
human life, of a future ftate, and of the immortality
of the human foul, conftitute the leading articles of re¬
ligion. Let us view thefe together with the rites to
which they have given rife j and we may perhaps be
enabled to form fome well-grounded notions on this im-
,p portant point.
Thefirftre- I. Having proved that the firft religious principles
ligiousopi- entertained by men were derived from revelation, it is
^?^e”ter‘impoflible to fuppofe that they could produce eflefls in¬
men could jurious to fociety. If religion of any kind has ever lef-
not pofiibly fened the virtue or difturbed the peace of men, it muft
be injurious have been that religion which fprings from a belief in
to foeiety. a multitude of fuperior powers actuated by paflions, and
of whom fome were conceived as benevolent and others
as malicious beings. That fuch fentiments Ihould have
20 produced vices unknown in focieties where pure theifm
The effeift is profeifed, will be readily admitted. Even the few
of atheifm atheijls who live in Chriftian or Mahometan countries
on tlie are reftrained by the laws, by a delire to promote the
aations*0 h°nour of the feft, and by many other confiderations,
from indulging in practices which the example of the
falfe gods of antiquity famftioned in their votaries. But
in determining the prefent queftion, we muft not com¬
pare the virtues of the pagan world with thofe of indi¬
vidual atheifts in modern Europe, but with thofe of
nations profefling atheifm j and fuch nations are nowhere
to be found. We can however eafily conceive, that in
a fociety unawed by any notions of God or a future ftate,
no fuch laws would be enadled as thofe which reftrain
the fenfual appetites 5 of which the criminal indulgence
was one of the greateft ftigmas on the pagan worlhip of
antiquitv. In fuch focieties, therefore, thofe vices would
be praftifed conftantly to which paganifm gave only an
occafional fan&ion ; and many others, in fpite of the
utmoft vigilance of human laws, would be perpetrated
in fecret, which the moft profligate pagans viewed with
horror. Confcience, though aifting with all her energy,
would not be able to command any regard to the laws
of morality : No virtue would be known ; focial order
would be nowhere obferved j the midnight alTaflin
would everywhere be found *, and in the general fcramble
mankind would be exterminated from the face of the
4 earth.
The worft fpecies of paganifm, even that which pre¬
vails among favages who worlhip evil fpirits, affords
greater fecurity than this. It is indeed Ihocking to
R E L
think that demons Ihould be worlhipped, while deities, Religion,
who are regarded as being all benevolence, are treated ”
with contempt: And it has been alked. If the influence W[)Ujj be
of fuch religious fentiments on the moral pradlice of themore ma-
idolaters muft not naturally be, to caufe them to treatiignant
their friends and benefactors with ingratitude, and
humble themfelves with mean fubmiflion before a power-
ful enemy ? furd paga-
They do not appear to have produced fuch effeCtsnifm.
on the morality of the favages by whom they were en¬
tertained. The benevolent deities were negleCted, only
becaufe their benevolence was neceffary. A voluntary
favour merits a grateful return : a defigned injury pro¬
vokes refentment. But when you become, by accident,
the inftrument of any man’s good fortune, the world
will fcarce confider him as OAving you any obligation :
the ftone Avhich bruifes your foot excites only a momen¬
tary emotion of refentment. Thofe gods Avho could
not avoid doing good to men might not receive a pro-
fulion of thanks for their fervices } and yet a favour
conferred by a human benefaClor commands the warm-
eft gratitude. But thofe rude tribes appear to have had
fo much Avifdom as to confer a lefs abfolute malice on
their malevolent deities, than the benevolence Avhich
they attributed to their more amiable order of fuperior
beings : though the latter could not poflibly do them
any thing but good, and that conftantly •, yet the for¬
mer were not under an equally indifpenfable neceflity of
perfevering in depreffing them under calamities. On
their malevolent deities they conferred a freedom of
agency which they denied to the benevolent. No won¬
der, then, that they Avere more afliduous in paying
their court to the one than to the other. They might
Avith as much propriety have thought of being grate¬
ful to the boar or flag whofe flefli fupported them, as
to deities who were always benevolent, becaufe they
could not poflibly be otherAvife. Though negligent
of fuch deities, this can fcarce be thought to have had
any tendency to render them ungrateful to benefac¬
tors like themfelves. And yet, it muft not be dif-
femble?!, that the American Indians, among Avhom
fuch religious fentiments have been found to prevail,
are faid to be very little fenfible to the emotions of
gratitude. An Indian receives a prefent Avithout think¬
ing of making any grateful acknowledgments to the
beftower. He pleafes his fancy or gratifies his appetite
Avith what you have given, Avithout feeming to confider
himfelf as under the fmalleft obligation to you for the
gift.
It may be doubled, hoAvever, whether this fpirit of
ingratitude originates from, or is only collateral with,.
that indifference which refufes adoration and worfliip to
the benevolent divinities. If the former be actually the
cafe, Ave muft acknowledge that thofe religious notions
which Ave now confider, though preferable to general
atheifm, are in this refpeft unfriendly to virtue. But
if the Indians may be thought to owe the ingratitude
for which they are diftinguifhed to the opinion which
they entertain of the exiltence of a benevolent order of
deities, whofe benevolence is neceffary and involuntary,
their ideas of the nature of their malevolent demons do
not appear to have produced equal effe&s on their mo¬
ral fentiments. HoAvever fubmiflive to thofe dreaded
beings, they are far from fhowing the fame tame and
coAvardly fubmiflion to their human enemies; toAvards
them
[ 701 1
R E L
[ 702 1
R E L
Religion.
21
The influ
ence of
Roman po
lytheifm
them theyTeem rather to adopt the fentiments of their
demons. Inveterate rancour and brutal fury, inhuman
cruelty and inconceiveable cunning, are difplayed in the
hoftilities of tribes at war j and we know not, after all,
if even thefe fentiments do not owe fomewhat ot their
force to the influence of religion.
Yet let us remember that thefe fame Indians have not
been always reprefented in fo unamiable a light 5 or, at
lead, other qualities have been afcribed to them which
feem’ to be inconfiftent with thofe barbarous difpofitions.
They have, been defcribed as peculiarly fufceptible of
conjugal and parental love ; and he who is fo cannot be
deftitute of virtue.
2. But leaving the religion of favagee, of which very
Greek and little is known with certainty, let us proceed to examine
what is the natural influence of that mixed fyftem of
theology which reprefents to the imagination of men a
number of fuperior and inferior divinities, aftuated by
the fame paflions and feelings with themfelves, and often
making ufe of their fuperior power and knowledge for
no other purpofe but to enable them to violate the laws
of moral order with impunity. 1 his is the celebrated
polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, and moft other
nations of antiquity (fee POLYTHEISM). Could its in-
22 fluence be favourable to virtue ?
apparently a firft view every perfon will readily declare, that
friendiy m fuch a fyft em muft have been friendly to profligacy. If
profligacy; ^ commit the government of the univerfe, and the
infpe&ion of human fociety, to a fet of beings who are
often difpofed to regard vice with a no lefs favourable
eye than virtue, and who, though there be an eftablilh-
ed order by which virtue is difcriminated from vice, and
right from wrong, yet fcruple not to violate that order
in their own conduct; you cannot expeft them to require
in you a degree of reftitude of which they themfelves
appear incapable. A Mercury will not difcourage the
thievilh arts of the trader ; a Bacchus and a Venus can¬
not frown upon debauchery ; Mars will behold with fa-
vage delight all the cruelties of war. The Thracians
indeed, one of the moft barbarous nations of antiquity,
whofe ferocity was little if at all inferior to that of the
Indians who have been diftinguifhed as cannibals, was
the favourite nation of Mars $ among whom flood his
palace, to which he repaired when about to mount his
chariot, and arm himfelf for battle. Even Jupiter, who
had been guilty of fo many a<fts of tyrannical caprice,
had been engaged in fuch a multitude of amorous in¬
trigues, and feemed to owe his elevated ftation as mo¬
narch of the iky, not to fuperior goodnefs or wifdom,
but merely to a fuperior degree of brutal force, could
not be feared as the avenger of crimes, or revered as the
impartial rewarder of virtues.
That this fyftem had a pernicious effect on morals,
and that, as compared with pure theifm, it was injuri¬
ous to fociety, cannot be denied ; but yet, when con-
trafted with atheifm, it was not without its favourable
effefls. It was fo conne&ed with the order of fociety,
that, without its fupport, that order could fcarce have
effedls were been maintained. The young rake might perhapsju-
favourable: ftify himfelf by the example of Jupiter, or Apollo, or
fome other amorous divinity *, the frail virgin or matron
might complain of Cupid, or boaft of imitating Venus j
and the thief might praftife his craft under the patron¬
age of Mercury : But if we take the whole fyftem
together, if we confider with what views thofe deities
*3
but when
contrafted
with a-
theifm its
were publicly worftiipped, what temples were raifed, Religion,
what rites inftituted, what facrifices offered, and what "“■’Y—"“J
ferice confecrated j we ftiall perhaps find it neceffary to
acknowledge that the general effe&s even of that mixed
and incoherent fyftem of polytheifm which prevailed
among the Greeks and Romans were favourable to fo¬
ciety. To ftate a particular inftance; the ancilia of
Mars and the fire of Vefta were thought to fecure the
perpetuity of the Roman empire. As long as the fa-
cred ancile, which had been dropped from heaven for
that benevolent purpofe, was fately preferved in thofe
holy archives in which it had been depofited ; and as
long as the facred fire of Vefta was kept burning, with¬
out being once extinguiftied, or at leaft fuffered to
remain for an inftant in that ftate j fo long was Rome
to fubfift and flourifti. And, however, fimple and ab-
furd the idea which conne&ed the profperity c>f a na¬
tion with the prefervation of a piece of wood in a cer¬
tain place, or with the conftant blazing of aflame upon
an hearth ; yet no faft can be more certain, than that
the patriotifm and enthufiaftic valour of the Romans,
which we fo much extol and admire, were, in many in-
ftances, owing in no inconfiderable degree to the vene¬
ration which they entertained for the anciha and the
veftal fire. # # 24
A numerous feries of faffs occur in the Roman hi- as is pro-
ftory, which ftiow the happy effedts of their religious'’ed by a
opinions and ceremonies on their fentiments concerning^™
focial order and the public welfare. How powerful faas &Ct
was the influence of the facramentum adminiftered to
the foldiers when they enlifted in the fervice of their
country ? The promifes made, the idea of the powers
invoked, and the rites performed on that occafion, pro¬
duced fo deep and fo awful an impreflion on their minds,
that no danger, nor diftrefs, nor difcontent, could
prompt them to violate their engagements. The re-
fponfes of the oracles, too, though the diftates of de¬
ceit and impofture, were often of fingular fervice to
thofe to whom they were uttered ; Avhen they infpired
the warrior, as he marched out to battle, with the con¬
fidence of fuccefs, they communicated to him new vi¬
gour, and more heroic valour, by which he was a&u-
ally enabled to gain, or at leaft to deferve, the fuccefs
which they promifed. Again, when in times of pub¬
lic diftrefs, the augur and the prieft dire&ed fome games
to be celebrated, certain facrifices to be offered, or fome
other folemnities to be performed, in order to appeafe
the wrath of the offended deities •, it is plain that the
means were not at all fuited to accomplifti the end pro-
pofed by them j yet ftill they were highly beneficial.
When the attention of the whole people was turned en¬
tirely to thofe folemnities by which the wrath of hea¬
ven was to be averted, they were roufed from that de-
fpondency under which the fenfe of the public diftrefs
or danger might have otherwife caufed them to fink:
the public union was at the fame time more clofely ce¬
mented, and the hearts of the people knit together*,
and when perfuaded, that by propitiating the gods they
had removed the caufe of their diftrefs, they acquired
fuch calmnefs and ftrength of mind as enabled them to
take more direft and proper meafures for the fafety of
the ftate.
Could we view the ancient Greeks and Romans a£l-
ing in public or in private life under the influence of
that fyftem of fuperftition which prevailed among them j
could
25
Their no.
tion of a
turnincor
red:
R E L [
Religioin. could we perceive how much it contributed to
i—-'v ■■■"" maintenance of civil order ; could we behold Numa and
Lycurgus eftablifhing their laws, which would other-
wife have met with a very different reception, under
the fandtion of divinities j could we obferve all the be¬
neficial effedts which arofe to communities from the ce¬
lebration of religious ceremonies, we fhould no longer
hefitate to acknowledge, that thofe principles in the hu¬
man heart by which we are fufceptible of religious fen-
timents, are fo eminently calculated to promote the hap-
pinefs of mankind, that even when perverted and abu-
fed, their influence is {fill favourable.
The ideas which prevailed among the nations of the
heathen world concerning a future Hate of retribution
future date were, it muff be confefled, not very corredt. Some of
of retribu- the poets, we believe, have reprefented them in no un-
■ fair light: both Homer and Virgil have condudted their
heroes through the realms of Pluto, and have taken oc-
cafion to unfold to us the fecrets of thofe dreary abodes.
The fcenes are wild.and fanciful $ the rewards of the
juft and virtuous are of no very refined or dignified na¬
ture : and of the punifhments inflidfed on the guilty, it
is often hard to fay for what ends they could be in-
flidted j whether to corredt and improve, or for the gra¬
tification of revenge or whim : they are often fo whim-
lical and unfuitable, that they cannot with any degree
of propriety be afcribed to any caufe but blind chance
or wanton caprice. A great dog with three tongues,
a peevifti old boatman with a leaky ferry boat, de¬
manding his freight in a furly tone, and an uxorious
monarch, are objedls too familiar and ludicrous not to
degrade the dignity of thofe awful fcenes which are
reprefented as the manfions of the dead, and to prevent
them from making a deep enough impreflion on the
imagination. The adtions and qualities too, for which
departed fpirits were admitted into Elyfium, or doom¬
ed to the regions of fuffering, were not always of fuch
a nature as under a well-regulated government on earth
would have been thought to merit reward, or to be
worthy of puniftiment. It was not always virtue or
wifdom which condudted to the Elyfian fields, or gain¬
ed admiffion into the lociety of the immortal gods.—
Ganimede was for a very different reafon promoted to
be the cup-bearer of Jove ; and Hercules and Bacchus
could not furely plead that any merits of that kind en¬
titled them to feats in the council, and at the banquets
of the immortals. That dodtrine, likewife, which re¬
prefented mortals as hurried by fate to the commiflion
of crimes, which they could no more abftain from com¬
mitting than the fword can avoid to obey the impulfe
of a powerful and furious arm plunging it into the breaft
of an unrefifting antagonift, could not but produce ef-
fedls unfavourable to virtue ; and it afforded a ready ex-
cufe for the moft extravagant crimes.
Yet, after all, he who attentively confiders the ideas
of the Greeks and Romans concerning the moral go-
vourable to vernment of the world and a future ftate of rewards and
puniftiments, will probably acknowledge, that their ge¬
neral influence muft have been favourable to virtue and
moral order. Allow them to have been incorredt and
dallied with abfurdity ; ftill they reprefent punilhments
prepared for fuch qualities and adtions as were injurious
to the welfare of fociety j whilft, for thofe qualities which
rendered men eminently ufeful in the world, they hold
forth a reward. Though incurred!, their ideas con-
-703 ] R E L
the cerning a future ftate were exceedingly diftindt j they Religion*
were not vague or general, but fuch as might be readi- v J
ly conceived by the imagination, in all their circum-
ftances, as really exifting. When a man is told that
for fuch a deed he will be put to death, he may Ihud-
der and be alarmed, and think of the deed as what he
muft by no means commit j but place before him the
feene and the apparatus for his execution, call him to
behold fome other criminal mounting the fcaffold, ad-
drefling his laft words in a wild feream of defpair to
the furrounding fpedtators, and then launching into
eternity— his horror of the crime, and his dread of the
punilhment, will now be much more powerfully excited.
In the fame manner, to encourage the foldier marching
out to battle, or the mariner fetting fail under the pro-
fpedl of a ftorm, promife not, merely in general terms,
a liberal reward j be fure to fpecify the nature of the
reward which you mean to beftow j deferibe it fo as that
it may take hold on the imagination, and may rife in
oppofition to the images of death and danger with which
his courage is to be affailed.
If thefe phenomena of the human mind are fairly
ftated, if it be true that general ideas produce no very
powerful effefts on the fentiments and difpofitions of
the human heart, it muft then be granted, that though
the fcenes of future reward and punifhment, which the
heathens confidered as prepared for the righteous and
the wicked, were of a fomewhat motley complexion j
yet ftill, as they were diftimft and even minute draughts,
they muft have been favourable to virtue, and contribu¬
ted in no inconfiderable degree to the fupport of civil
order.
Another thing of which we may take notice under The notion
this head, is the vaft multiplicity of deities with which of deities
26
but never-
thelefs fa-
virtue and
moral or-
ier.
the Greek and Roman mythology peopled all the re- Peopdng
gions of nature. Flocks and fields, and woods and
oaks, and flowers, and many much more minute objects, tendency
had all their guardian deities. Thefe were fomewhat when com-
capricious at times, it is true, and expedted to have at- Pared with
tention paid them. But yet the faithful Ihepherd, athe*fm‘
and the induftrious farmer, knew generally how to
acquire their friendfhip j and in the idea of deities en-
joying the fame Ample pleafures, partaking in the fame
labours, prote&ing their poffeflions, and bringing for¬
ward the fruits of the year, there could not but be fome-
thing of a very pleafing nature, highly favourable to
induftry, which would animate the labours, and cheer
the feftivals, of the good people who entertained fuch
a notion : nay, would diffufe a new charm over all the
fcenes of the country, even in the gayeft months of the
year.
From all of thefe particular obfervations, we think
ourfelves warranted to conclude, that notwithftanding
the mixed characters of the deities who were adored by
the celebrated nations of antiquity ; though they are in
many inftances reprefented as confpicuous for vices and
frolics; however vain, abfurd, and morally criminal,
fome of the rites by which they were worftiipped may
have been, and however incorreft the notions of the
heathens concerning the moral government of the uni-
verfe and a future ftate of retribution ; yet ftill, after
making a juft allowance for all thefe imperfections, the
general influence of their religious fyftem was rather
favourable.than unfavourable to virtue and to the order
and happinefs of fociety.
It
■Religion.
R E L [ 7°4
It was not without good reafon that the earlieii I'-ft'11'-
28
The advan¬
tage of
eftablifliing
law, &-G.
on the ba-
& of reli¬
gion.
lators generally endeavoured to eftabhlh their laws and
conftitutions on the bafis of religion j government needs
the fupport of opinion 5 the governed mull be im-
preffed with a belief that the particular eftablilhment
to which they are required to fubmit, is the belt calcu¬
lated for their fecurity and happinefs, or is fupported
on fome fuch folid foundation, that k mull prove im-
pofiible for them to overturn it, or is connefted with
fome awful fandlion, which it would be the moil hei¬
nous impiety to oppofe. Of thefe feveral notions, the.
laft will ever operate on moft men with the moft fleady
'influence. We are frequently blind to our own intereif;
even when eager for the attainment of happinefs, we often
refufe to take the wifeft meafurfis for that end. The
great bulk of the people in every community are fo lit¬
tle capable of reafoning and lorefight, that the public
minifler who (hall mofl iteadily direft his views to the
public good will often be the mofl; unpopular. Thofe
laws, and that fyflem of government, which are the
moft5 beneficial, will often excite the ftrongeft popular
difcontents. Again, it is not always eafy to perfuade
] R E L
But if fuch be the natural tendency of thofe princi- Religion,
pies by which the human heart is made fufceptible of —v——^
religious fentiments, that even the enthufiafm and abfurd The^finite
fuperftition are productive of beneficial effeCts more than advantage
fufficient to counterbalance whatever is malignant in of a pure,
their influence op fociety—furely a pure rational reli-rational,
gion, the doClrines of which are founded in undeniable
truth, and all the obfervances which it enjoins caicu- 0
the obfervances which it enjoins
lated to promote by their direCt and immediate effedts
fome ufeful purpofes, muft be in a very high degree
conducive to the dignity and the happinefs of human
nature. Indeed one collateral proof of the truth of
any religion, which muft have very confiderable weight
with all who are not of opinion that the fyftem of the
univerfe has been produced and hitherto maintained in
order and exiftence by blind chance, will be its having
a ftronger and more direCl tendency than others to pro¬
mote the interefts of moral virtue and the happinefs of
mankind in the prefent life. Even the teftimony of
thoufands, even miracles, prophecies, and the fanClion
of remote antiquity, will fcarce have fufficient weight
to perfuade us, that a religion is of divine origin, if its
people that your" power is fuperior to theirs, when it is general tendency appear to be rather unfavourable than
not really fo. No one man will ever be able to perfuade advantageous to moral virtue. 30
a thoufand that he is ftronger than they all together : III. We ffiall therefore, in the next place, endea-Compara-
and therefore, in order to perfuade one part of his fub- vour to determine, from a comparative view of the ef- tive view
lefts or army that it is abfolutely neceffary for them to fefts produced on the diarafter and circuraftances °f^seJ-
fubmit to him, becaufe any attempts to refill his power fociety by the moft eminent of thefe various fyftems of different
religion which have been in different ages or in differ-religious
how far any fyftems.
would prove ineffeftual, a monarch or general muft take
care firft to perfuade another part that it is for their in-
tereft to fubmit to him; or to imprefs the whole with a
belief that, weak and pitiful as he himfelf may appear,
when viewed fingly in oppofition to them all, yet by the
affiftance of fome awful invifible beings, his friends and
proteftors, he is fo powerful, that any attempts to re¬
fill his authority muft prove prefumptuous folly. Here,
then, the aid of religion becomes requifite. Religious
fentiments are the moft happily calculated to ferve this
purpofe. Scarce ever was there a fociety formed, a
mode of government eftablilhed, or a code of laws
framed and enafted, without having the religious fenti¬
ments of mankind, their notions of the exiftence of fu¬
perior invifible beings, and their hopes and fears from
thofe beings, as its fundamental principle. Now, we
believe, it is almoft univerfally agreed, that even the
rudeft form of fociety is more favourable to the happi¬
nefs of mankind, and the dignity of the human charac¬
ter, than a folitary and favage ftate. And if this, with
what we have afferted concerning religion as the bafis
of civil government, be both granted, it will follow,
that even the" moft imperfeft religious notions, the moft
foolilh and abfurd rites, and the wildeft ideas that have
been entertained concerning the moral government of
the univerfe by fuperior beings, and a future ftate of
retribution, have been more advantageous than atheifm
to the happinefs and virtue of human life. We have al¬
ready granted, nor can it be denied, indeed, that many
of the religious opinions which prevailed among the an¬
cient heathens, did contribute, in fome degree, to the
depravation of their morals : and all that we argue for
is, that on a comparative view of the evil and the good
which refulted from them, the latter muft appear more
than adequate to counterbalance the effefts of the
. former.
ent countries eftabliffied in the world,
one of them has in this refpeft the advantage over the
reft ; and, if the utility of a fyftem of religion w^ere to
be received as a left of its truth, what particular fyftem
might, with the beft reafon, be received as true, while
the reft were rejedled.
I ft, The principle upon which we here fet out is,
that all, or almoft all, fyftems of religion with which we
are acquainted, whether true or falfe, contribute more
or lefs to the welfare of fociety. But as one field is
more fruitful, and one garden lefs overgrown with
weeds than another; fo, in the fame manner, one fyf¬
tem of religious opinions and ceremonies may be more
happily calculated than others to promote the truell in¬
terefts of mankind. In oppofition to thofe philofophers Advantage
who are fo vehement in their declamations againft the of civiliza-
inequality of ranks, we have ever been of opinion,tlon i
that refinement and civilization contribute to the hap¬
pinefs of human life. The character of the folitary la- -
vage is, we are told, more dignified and refpeftable
than that of the philofopher and the hero, in pro¬
portion as he is more independent. He is indeed
independent j but his independence is that of
3'
more
a ftone, which receives no nouriftiment from the
earth or air, and communicates none to animals or
vegetables around it. In point of happinefs, and in
point of refpeflability, we cannot hefitate a moment,
let philofophers fay what they will, to prefer a virtu¬
ous, enlightened, and poliflred Briton, to any of the
rudeft favages, the leaft acquainted with the reftraints
and the fympathies of focial life, that wander through ^
the wild forefts of the weftern rvorld. But if we pre-ar)j there-
fer civilization to barbarifm, we muft admit, that m fore of
this view Chrillianity has the advantage over every ClmiUa-
other religious fyftem which has in any age or country1111^
prevailed
/
Pi E L [ 705 ] PEL
Religion, prevailed among men •, for nowhere has civilization and
v——v ufeful fcience been carried to fuch a height as among
Chrillians.
“XX * • •
view of If is not? indeed, m any confiderable degree that the
the various abfurd fuperftitions of thofe rude tribes, who can fcarce
religious he foid to be formed into any regular fociety, can con-
P^an na to their happinefs. Among them the faculty
of reafon is but in a very low (late ; and the moral prin¬
ciple ufually follows the improvement or the depreffion
of the reafoning faculty. Their appetites and merely
animal paffions are almofl: their only principles of ac¬
tion : their firft religious notions, if we fuppofe them
not to be derived from revelation or tradition, are pro¬
duced by the operation of gratitude, or grief, or hope,
or fear, upon their imaginations. And to thefe, however
wild and fanciful, it is not improbable that they may
owe fume of their earlieft moral notions. The idea of
fuperior powers naturally leads to the thought that
thofe powers have fome influence on human life. From
this they will moft probably proceed to fancy one fet
of actions agreeable, another offenfive, to thofe beings
to whom they believe themfelves fubjeff. And this,
perhaps, is the firfl: diftin&ion that favages can be fup-
pofed to form between affions, as right or wrong, to
be performed or to be avoided. But if this be the
cafe, we muft acjknowledge, that the religious notions
of the favage, however abfurd, contribute to elevate
his charadter, and to improve his happinefs, when
they call forth the moral principle implanted in his
breafl:.
But if the focial ftate be preferable to a flate of wild
and folitary independence, even the rude fuperftitions of
unenlightened tribes of favages are in another refpedl
beneficial to thofe among whom they prevail. They
ufually form, as has been already obferved under this
article, the bafis of civil order. Religious opinions
may lead the great body of the community to reve¬
rence fome particular fet of inftitutions, fome indivi¬
dual, or fome family, which are reprefented to them as
peculiarly connedled with the gods whom they adore.
Under this fandlion fome form of government is efta-
blifhed; they are taught to perform focial duties, and
rendered capable of focial enjoyments. Not only Nu-
raa and Lycurgus, but almofl; every legiflator who has
fought to civilize a rude people, and reduce them un¬
der the reftraints of legal government, have endeavour¬
ed to imprefs their people with an idea that they afted
with the approbation, and under the immediate direc¬
tion of fuperior powers. We cannot but allow that
the rude fuperftitions of early ages are productive of
thefe advantages to fociety •, but we have already ac¬
knowledged, and it cannot be denied, that they are al-
fo attended with many unhappy efi’eCls. When we
view the abfurdities intermixed with the fyftems of re¬
ligion which prevailed among moft of the nations of
antiquity, we cannot help lamenting that fo noble a
principle of human nature as our religious fentiments
fhould be liable to fuch grofs perverfion 5 and when we
view the effefts which they produce on the morals of
mankind, and the forms of fociety, though we allow
them to have been upon the whole rather beneficial than
hurtful, vet we cannot but obferve, that their unfavour¬
able effe&s are by far more numerous than if they had
been better direCled. What unhappy effeCls, for inftance,
have been produced bv falfe notions concerning the
Vol. XVII. Part if.
condition of human fouls in a future ftate. Various na- Religion,
tions have imagined that the feenes and objefts of the —y—'
world of fpirits are only a fhadowy reprefentation of
the things of the prefent world. Not only the fouls
of men, according to them, inhabit thofe regions ; all
the inferior animals and vegetables, and even inanimate
bodies that are killed or deftroyed here, are fuppofed
to pal’s into that vilionary world j and, exifting there
in unfubftantial forms, to execute the. fame funClions,
or lerve the fame purpofes, as on earth. Such are the
ideas of futurity that were entertained by the inhabi¬
tants of Guinea. And by thefe ideas they were indu¬
ced, when a king or great man died among them, to
provide for his comfortable accommodation in the world
of fpirits, by burying with him meat and drink for his
fubfiftence, {laves to attend and ferve him, and wives
with whom he might hill enjoy the pleafures of love.
His faithful fubjedls vied with each other in offering,
one a fervant, another a wife, a third a fon or daugh¬
ter, to be fent to the other world in company with the
monarch, that they might there be employed in his
Ifrvice. In New Spain, in the ifland of Java, in the
kingdom of Benin, and among the inhabitants of In-
doftan, limftar pra&ices on the lame occafion, owing no
doubt to fimilar notions of futurity, have been preva¬
lent. But fuch practices as theft cannot be viewed
with greater contempt on account of the opinions
which have given rife to them, than horror on account
of their unhappy effefts on the condition of thofe
among whom they prevail. A lively impreflion of the
enjoyments to be obtained in a future ftate, together
with fome very falfe or incorrect notions concerning
the qualities or aftions which were to entitle the de¬
parting foul to admiflion into the fcene of thofe enjoy¬
ments, is faid to have produced equally unhappy ef¬
fects among the Japanefe. They not only bribe their
priefts to folicit for them ; but looking upon the enjoy¬
ments of the prefent life with difguft or contempt, they
ufed to dafti themfelves from precipices, or cut their
throats, in order to get to paradife as foon as poffible.
Various other fuperftitions fubfifting among rude na¬
tions might here be enumerated, as inftances of the
perverfion of the religious principles of the human
heart, which render them injurious to virtue and hap¬
pinefs. The aufterities which have been pra&ifed,
chiefly among rude nations, as means of propitiating
fuperior powers, are efpecially worthy of notice.—
When the favourite idol of the Banians is carried in
folemn proceftion, fome devotees proftrate themfelves
on the ground, that the chariot in which the idol is
carried may run over them •, others, with equal enthu-
fiafm, dafli themfelves on fpikes faftened on purpofe to
the car. Innumerable are the ways of torture which *■
have been invented and pradlifed on themfelves by men
ignorantly flriving to recommend therr.felves to the fa¬
vour of heaven. Thefe we lament as inftances in which
religious fentiments have been fo ill diredled by the in¬
fluence of imagination, and unenlightened erring rea¬
fon, as to produce unfavourable effedts on the human
character, and oppofe the happinefs of focial life.—
Though we have argued, that even the moft abfurd fy¬
ftems of religion’ that have prevailed in the world, have
been upon the whole rather beneficial than injurious to
the dignity and happinefs of human nature 5 yet if it
ftiall not appear, as we proceed farther in our compara-
4 U - ' ‘ tive
R E L [
live view of the rttVct- of religion onfucic-ty, that others
have been attended with happier effects than thefe ju-
perftitions which belong to the rude ages of fociety,
we may fcarce venture to brand the infidel with the ap¬
pellation of/00/, for refufing to give his affent to reli¬
gious doftrines, or to act under their influence.
2d The polytheifm of the Greeks and Romans, and
other’heathen nations in a fimilar Rate of civilization,
we have already confidered as being, upon the whole,
rather favourable than unfavourable to virtue; but
we muft not partially conceal its defe&s. Ihe vici¬
ous charaaers of the deities which they worlhipped,
the incorrea notions which they entertained concern¬
ing the moral government of the univerfe and a future
retribution, the abfurdity of their rites and ceremonies,
and the criminal praaices which were intermixed with
them, muft have altogether had a tendency to pervert
both the reafoning and the moral principles of the hu¬
man mind. The debaucheries of the monarch of the
gods, and the fidelity with which his example m that
refpea was followed by the whole crowd of the inferior
deities, did, we know, difpofe the devout heathen, when
he felt the fame paflions which had afferted their power
over the gods, to gratify them without fcruple. It is
a truth, however, and we will not attempt to deny or
conceal it, that the genius of the polytheifm of the
Greeks and Romans was friendly to the arts , to fuch
of them efpecially as are raifed to excellence by the vi¬
gorous exertion of a fine imagination ; mufic, poetry,
fculpture, architedure, and painting, all of thefe arts
appear to have been confiderably indebted for that per-
feflion to which they attained, efpecially among the
Greeks, to the fplendid and fanciful fyftem of mytholo¬
gy which was received among that ingenious people.—
But we cannot give an equally favourable account of
its influence on the fciences. There was little in that
fyftem that could contribute to call forth reafon. We
may grant indeed, that if reafpn can be fo (hocked with
abfurdity as to be roufed to a more vigorous exertion
of her powers, and a more determined affertion of her
rights in confequence of furveying it ■, in that cafe, this
fyftem of mythology might be favourable to the eicer-
cife and improvement of reafon j not otherwife.
The connexion of paganifm with morality was too
itnperfeft for it to produce any very important effefts
on the morals of its votaries. Sacrifices and prayers,
and temples and feftivals, not purity of heart and in¬
tegrity of life, were the means prefcribed for propitia-
ating the favour of the deities adored by the Pagans.
There were other means, too, befides true heroifm and
patriotifm, of gaining admiflion into the Elyfian fields,
or obtaining a feat in the council of the gods. Xeno¬
phon, in one of the moft beautiful parts of his Memoirs
of Socrates, reprefents Hercules wooed by Virtue and
Pleafure in two fair female forms, and deliberating
with much anxiety which of the two he (hould prefer.
But this is the fiftion of a philofopher defirous to im¬
prove the fables of antiquity in fuch a way as to render
them truly ufeful. Hercules does not appear, from the
tales which are told us of his adventures, to have been
at any fuch pains in choofing his way of life. He was
received into the palace of Jove, without having occa-
fion to plead that he had through life been the faithful
follower of that goddefs to whom the philofopher makes
him give the preference 5 bis being the fon of Jove, and
706 J R E L
his wild adventures, were fufficient without any other Religion,
merits to gain him that honour. The fame may be faid -y—w
concerning many of the other demi-gods and heroes
who were advanced to heaven, or conveyed to the blifs-
ful fields of Elyfium. And whatever might be the
good effedVs of the religion of Greece and Rome in ge¬
neral upon the civil and political eftablifhments, and
in fome few inftances on the manners of the people,
vet ftill it muft be acknowledged to have been but ill
calculated to imprefs the heart with fuch principles as
might in all circumftances direft to a firm, uniform te¬
nor of virtuous conduft.
But after what has been faid on the charafter of
this religion elfewhere (fee Polytheism), and in the
fecond part of this article, we cannot without repeti¬
tion enlarge farther on it here. Of the Jewifh reli¬
gion, ho-wever, we have as yet faid little, having on
purpofe referved to this place whatever we mean to in¬
troduce under the article, concerning its influence on
fociety. . < 34
3d, When we take a general view of the circum- View of
ftances in which the Jewi(h religion was eftablifhed, the ludaifm,
effects which it produced on the charafter and fortune
of the nation, the rites and ceremonies which it enjoin¬
ed, and the Angular political inftitutions to which it
gave a fanftion, it may perhaps appear hard to deter¬
mine, whether it were upon the whole more or lefs be¬
neficial to fociety than the polytheifm of the Egyp¬
tians, Greeks, and Romans. But if fuch be the judge¬
ment which preconceived prejudices, or a hafty and
carelefs view, have induced fome to form of this celebra¬
ted fyftem j there are others who, with equal keennefs,
and founder reafoning, maintain, that it was happily
calculated, not only to accompliftt the great defign of
preparing the way for the promulgation of the Gofpel,
but likewife to render the Jews a more refined and vir¬
tuous people, and a better regulated community, than
any neighbouring nation. In the firft place, the attri¬
butes of the Deity were very clearly exhibited to the
Jews in the eftablifhment of their religion. The mi¬
racles by which he delivered them from fervitude, and
conduced them out of Egypt, were ftriking demon-
ftrations of his power ; that condefcenfion with which
he forgave their repeated afts of perverfenefs and rebel¬
lion, was a rnoft convincing proof of his benevolence j
and the impartiality with which the obfervance and the
violation of his laws were rewarded and punifhed, even
in the prefent life, might well convince them of his
juftice. A part of the laws which he diftated to Mo-'
fes are of eternal and univerfal obligation j others of
them were local and particular, fuited to the charafter
of the Jews, and their circumftances in the land of Ca¬
naan. The Jewifti code, taken altogether, is not to be
confidered as a complete fyftem of religion, or laws cal¬
culated for all countries and all ages of fociety. When
we confider the expediency of this fyftem, we muft take
care not to overlook the defign for which the Jews are
faid to have been feparated from other nations, the cir¬
cumftances in which they had lived in Egypt, the cu-
ftoms and manners which they had contracted by their
intercourfe with the natives of that country, the man¬
ner in which they were to acquire to themfelves fettle-
ments by extirpating the nations of Canaan, the rank
which they were to hold among the nations of Syria
and the adjacent countries, together with the difficulty
of
R E L
[ 7°7 1
R E L
35
The tab-
bath,
Religion, of reftraming a people fo little civilized and enlighten-
-—ed from the idolatrous worlhip which prevailed among
their neighbours: All thefe circumftances were cer¬
tainly to be taken into account j and had the legiflator
of the Jews not attended to them, his inftitutions muft
have remained in force only for a Ihort period } nor
could they have produced any lading effe&s on the
character of the nation. With a due attention to thefe
circumftances, let us defcend to an examination of par¬
ticulars.
Although in every religion or luperftition that has
prevailed through the world, we find one part of its in¬
ftitutions to confift in the enjoining of certain feftivals
to be celebrated by relaxation from labour, and the per¬
formance of certain ceremonies in honour of the gods }
yet in none, or almoft none befides the Jewifh, do we
find every feventh day ordained to be regularly kept
holy. One great end which the legiflator of the Jews
had in view in the inftitution of the Sabbath was, to im-
prefs them with a belief that God was the maker of the
univerfe. In the early ages of the world a great part
of mankind imagined the ftars, the fun, the moon, and
the other planets, to be eternal, and confequently ob-
je£ts highly worthy of adoration. To convince the If-
raelites of the abfurdity of this belief, and prevent them
from adopting that idolatry, Mofes taught them, that
thofe confpicuous objects which the Gentile nations re¬
garded as eternal, and endowed with divine power and
intelligence, were created by the hand of God ; who,
after bringing all things out of nothing, and giving
them form, order, and harmony, in the fpace of fix
days, refted on the feventh from all his works. Vari¬
ous paffages in the Old Teftament concur to (how,
that this was one great end of the inftitution of the
Sabbath. The obfervance of the Sabbath, and detefta-
tion of idolatrous worftiip, are frequently inculcated to¬
gether $ and, again, the breach of the Sabbath, and the
worftiip of idols, are ufually reprobated at the fame
time. Another good reafon for the inftitution of a
Sabbath might be, to remind the Jews of their delive¬
rance from bondage, to infpire them with humanity to
ftrangers and domeftics, and to mitigate the rigours of
fervitude.
The purpofes for which the other feftivals of the
Jewifh religion were inftituted appear alfo of fufficient
importance. The great miracle, which, after a feries
of other miracles, all direfled to the fame end, finally
effe&ed the deliverance of the Jews out of Egypt, and
their a&ual departure from that land of fervitude, might
well be commemorated in the feaft of the paflfover. 1 o
recal to the minds of pofterity the hiftory of their an-
ceftors, to imprefs them with an awful and grateful fenfe
of the goodnefs and greatnefs of God, and to make
them think of the purpofes for which his almighty
power had been fo fignally exerted, were furely good
reafons for the inftitution of fuch a feftival. The feaft;
of Pentecoft celebrated the firft declaration of the law
by Mofes, in the fpace of fifty days after the feaft of
the paflbver. It ferved alfo as a day of folemn thankf-
giving for the bleftings of a plenteous harveft. On the
feaft of tabernacles, they remembered the wanderings of
their anceftors through the wildernefs, and exprefled
their gratitude to heaven for the more comfortable cir¬
cumftances in which they found themfelves placed.
The feaft of new moons ferved to fix their kalendar, and
j 36
and other
feftivals.
determine the times at which the other feftivals were Religion-
to be celebrated j on it trumpets were founded, to give v "
public notice of the event which was the caufc of the
feftival} no fervile works were performed, divine fer-
vice was carefully attended, and the firft fruits of the
month were offered to the Lord. T. he Jewillr legifla¬
tor limited his fcftivals to a very fmall number, while
the heathens devoted a confiderable part of the year to
the celebration of theirs. But we perceive the occa-
fions upon which the Jewith feftivals were celebrated to
have been of fuitable importance 5 whereas thofe of the
heathens were often celebrated on trifling or ridiculous
occafions. Piety and innocent recreation {hared the
Jewifti feftival $ the feftivals of the heathens were chiefly
devoted to debauchery and idlenefs. 37
The Hebrews had other folemn feafons of devotion the fabM-
befides the weekly Sabbath and thefe annual feftivals. ^
Every feventh year they refted from labour : they were-j^^’ '1‘
then neither to plough, to forv, nor to prune ; and what- ufury.
ever the earth produced fpontaneouily that year belong¬
ed rather to ftrangers, orphans, and the poor, than to
the proprietors of the ground. On this year infolvent
debtors were difeharged from all debts contracted by
purchafing the neceffaries of life 5 and the great end of
this releafe from debts contra&ed during the preceding
fix years, appears to have been to prevent the Hebrew
from flying to the Gentiles and forfaking his religion
when embarraffed in his circumftances. None but na¬
tive Ifraelites and profelytes of righteoufnefs were ad¬
mitted to this privilege ; it was refufed to ftrangers,
and even to profelytes of the gate. The jubilee was
a feftival to be celebrated every fiftieth year. It pro¬
duced the fame effeft with the fabbatical year as to
reft from labour and the difeharge of debts with this
addition, that in the year of the jubilee flaves obtained
their freedom, and the lands reverted to the old pro¬
prietors. On the year of the jubilee, as on the fabba¬
tical year, the lands were to reft uncultivated, and lav-
fuits were now to terminate. The chief defign of this
inftitution appears to have been, to preferve the order
of ranks and property originally eftabliftied in the He¬
brew ftate. None but Ifraelites or circumcifed con¬
verts could enjoy the benefit of this inftitution *, nor
could even thefe hope to regain their eftates on the
year of the jubilee, if they fold them for any other pur-
pofe but to fupply their neceflities. The law relative
to ufury was evidently founded on the fame plan of
polity with refpeft to property. To almoft any other
nation fuch a law, it muft be confeffed, would have been
unfuitable and unjuft : but as the Jews were not de-
figned for a trading nation, they could have little occa-
fion to borrow, unlefs to relieve diftrefs j and as an in¬
dulgence to people in fuch circumftances, the Jew was
forbidden to exa6t ufury from his brother to whom he
had lent money. 3*
The Jewifti legiflator, we may well think, would be Of clean
difpofed to adopt every proper method to prevent his and unclean
nation from falling away into the idolatry of heathen
nations. Ptobably one reafon of the diftinflions be- 0f worihip.
tween clean beads which they were permitted to eat,
and unclean beads, the eating of which they were taught
to confider as pollution, was to prevent them from con¬
vivial intercourfe with profane nations, by which they
might be feduced to idolatry. We do not readily fit
down at table with people who are fond of difties which
4 U 2 we
Religion.
39 .
Other <ii-
ftinguifh-
ing partial,
lars in the
Jewifh ri¬
tual.
R E L [ 7°8 ]
we regard with abhorrence. And if the. Jews were
taught to loathe the flelh of fome of thofe animals which
were among the greateft delicacies of the Gentiles, they
would naturally of confequence avoid fitting down at
meat with them, either at their ordinary. meals or'at
thofe entertainments which they prepared in honour of
their deities*, and this we may with good reafon con-
fider as one happy mean to preferve them from idola¬
try. Befides, the Jews were permitted, or rather en¬
joined, to eat animals which the Gentiles reverenced as
facred, and from which they religioufly withheld all
violence. Goats, flreep, and oxen, were worlhipped in
Egypt (fee Polytheism and Pan) ; and feveral lear¬
ned writers are of opinion, that Moles diredled his
people to facrifice and eat certain of the favourite animals
of the Egyptians, in order to remove from their minds
any opinions which they might have other wife enter¬
tained of the fan&ity of thofe pretended deities. Many
of the obfervances which Mofes enjoined with regard to
food, appear to have been intended to infpire the Ifrael-
ites with contempt for the fuperftitions of the people
among whom they had fo long fojourned. They were
to kill the animal which the Egyptians worlhipped ; to
roalt the flefh which that people ate raw ; to eat the
head, which they never ate *, and to drefs the entrails,
which they fet,apart for divination. Thefe diftimflions
concurred with the peculiarities of their drefs, language,
government, cuftoms, places and times of w’orfliip, and
even the natural fituation of their country, by which
they were in a manner confined and fortified on all
fides, to feparate them in fuch a manner from neigh¬
bouring nations, that they might efcape the infection of
their idolatry. And if we reflect both on the defign
for which Providence feparated the Ifraelites from other
nations, and on the probability that, in the ftate of fo-
ciety in which mankind were during the earlier period
of the Jewith hiftory, the Jews, by mixing with other
nations, would rather have been themfelves converted to
idolatry than have converted idolatrous nations to the
worfhip of the true God ; we cannot but be fatisfied,
that even this, however it may at firft appear, was a
benefit, not a difadvantage; and in the author of their
legifiation wifdom, not caprice.
But not only in the diftiniflions of meats, and be¬
tween clean and unclean animals, does the legiflator of
'the Jews appear to have laboured to fix a barrier be¬
tween them and other nations, which might preferve
them from the contagion of idolatry—we (hall not err,
perhaps, if we afcribe many particulars of their worfirip
to this defign in the inftitutor. The heathens had
gods who prefided over rvoods, rivers, mountains, and
valleys, and to each of thefe they offered facrifices, and
performed other rites of vvorlhip in a fuitable place.
Sometimes the grove, fometimes the mountain top, at
other times the bank of the river or the brink of the
fpring, was the fcene of their devotions. But as the
unity of the divine nature was the truth the tr.oft ear-
neftly inculcated on the children of Ifrael; fo in order
to imprefs that truth on their minds with the more
powerful efficacy, they were taught to offer their facri-
fices and other offerings only in one place, the place
chofen by the Lord ; and death was threatened to thofe
who dared to dilobey the command. To confirm this
idea, one of the prophets intimates, that when idolatry
ffiould be abolilhed, the worthip of God fliculd not be
R E L
confined to Jerufalem, but it would then be lawful to Religion,
worfhip him anywhere.   v——'
The whole inftitutions and obfervances of the Jewifh Fff J.0
religion appear to have been defigned and happily cal- t^efe ^
culated to imprefs the minds of the people with vene-tutions, &c.
ration and refpeft for the Deity. All the feftivals‘n impref-
which either commemorated fome gracious difpenfation “ng are'
of his providence towards their anceilors, or ferved as^r^1-
days of thankfgiving for the confiant returns of his ^
goodncfe to thofe who celebrated them, and all the
other rites defigned to fortify them againft idolatry,
ferved at the fame time to imprefs their hearts with
awful reverence for the God of Jacob. Various other
particulars in the inflitutions of the Jewifh economy ap¬
pear to have been direcled folely to that end. Into
the moft facred place, the Holy of Holies, none but the
high priefi was admitted, and he only once a-year. Nu
fire was ufed in facrifice but what was taken from the
altar. Severe punifliments were on various occafions
inflidied on fuch as prefumed to intermeddle in the fer-
vice of the fanctuary in a manner contrary to what the
law had directed. All the laws rcfpe&ing the charac¬
ter, the circumfiances, and the fervices, of the priefts
and the Levites, appear plainly to have a fimilar ten¬
dency.
In compliance with the notions of Deity which na¬
turally prevailed amongagrofs and rude people, though
no viable objeft of worfhip was granted to the Jews,
yet they were allowed in their wanderings through the
wildernefs to have a tabernacle or portable temple, in
which the fovereign of the univerfe fometimes deigned
to difplay fome rays of his glory. Incapable as they
were of conceiving aright concerning the fpiritual na¬
ture and the omniprefence of the Deity, they might
poflibly have thought Jehovah carelefs and indifferent
about them, had they been at no time favoured with a
vifible demonftration of his prefence.
The facrifices in ufe among the Gentiles in their 3acrjfices
worfhip of idols were permitted by the Jewifh legifla-and kftra*
tor ; but he dire£led them to be offered with view’s ve-bons.
ry different from thofe with which the Gentiles facri-
ficed to their idols. Some of the facrifices of the Jew¬
ifh ritual were defigned to avert the indignation of the
Deity *, fome to expiate offences and purify the heart;
and all of them to abolish or remove idolatry. Luflra-
tions or ablutions entered (ike wife into the Jewifh ritual j
but thefe were recommended and enjoined by Mofes for
purpofes widely different from thofe which induced the
heathens to place fo high a value upon them. The
heathens praftifed them with magical and fuperftitious
ceremonies^ but in the Jewifh ritual they were intend¬
ed fimply for the cleanfing away of impurities and pol¬
lutions.
The theocratical form of government to which the-pen[ft211Cy '
Jews were fubjedl, the rewards which they were fure of0f the theo
receiving, and the punifhments which they were equally rracy and
liable to fuffer in the prefent life, had a powerful effeft
to remove fuperflition and preferve them from idolatry,
as well as to fupport all the foeial virtues among them.
They were promifed a numerous offspring, a land flow¬
ing w’ith milk and honey, long life, and vidtory over
their enemies, on the condition of their paying a faith¬
ful obedience to the will of their heavenly Sovereign 5
plague, famine, difeafe, defeats, and death, were threat¬
ened as the punifhments to be inflidled on thofe who
, violated
R E L
Religion.
• 43 j
Rites and
prohibi¬
tions of
lefs appa¬
rent utility.
[ 7°9 ]
K E L
44
The whole
admirably
calculated
for the pur-
pofes in¬
tended.
45
View of
Chriftia-
nity.
46
The doc¬
trines pure
and rites
funple.
violated his laws j and thefe fandHons, it muft be al¬
lowed, Avere happily accommodated to the genius of a
rude and carnal-minded people, attentive only to pre-
fent objedts, and not likely to be influenced by remote
and fpiritual confiderations.
There were other rites and prohibitions in the Mo-
faic law, which appear to have had but little connedtion
with religion, morals, or policy. Thefe may be more
liable to be objedfed againft, as adding an unneceflary
weight to a burden which, though heavy, might yet
have been otherwife borne in confideration of the ad¬
vantages connedted with it. Even thefe, however, may
perhaps admit of being viewed in a light in which they
fliall appear to have been in no way unfavourable to the
happinefs of thofe to whom they were enjoined. They
appear to have had none of them an immoral tendency :
all of them had, in all probability, a tendency to re¬
move or prevent idolatry, or to fupport, in feme way
or other, the religious and the civil eftablilhment to
which they belonged.
From thefe views of the fpirit and tendency of the
Jewifh religion, we may fairly conclude it to have been
happily calculated to promote the welfare of fociety.
In comparing it with other religions, it is neceflary to
refledt on the peculiar purpofes for which it was given j
that its two principal objedts were to preferve the Jews
a feparate people, and to guard them againft the con¬
tagion of the furrounding idolatry. When thefe things
are taken into confideration, every candid mind acquain¬
ted with the hiltory of ancient nations will readily ac¬
knowledge that the whole fyflem, though calculated in¬
deed in a peculiar manner for them, was as happily
adapted for the purpofes for which it had been wifely
and gracioufly intended, as it is poflible to imagine any
fuch fyftem to be. It would be unhappy, indeed, if,
on a comparifon of pure theifm with polytheifm, the
latter, with all its abfurdities, fhould be found more be¬
neficial to mankind than the former. The theifm of
the Jews was not formed to be dilEminated through the
earth ; that would have been inconfiftent with the pur¬
pofes for which it is faid to have been defigned. But
while the Jews were feparated by their religion from all
other nations, and perhap6, in feme degree, fixed and
rendered flationary in their progrefs towards refinement,
they were placed in circumftances, in refpedl: to laws,
and government, and religion, and moral light, which
might with good reafon render them the envy of every
other nation in the ancient world.
IV. The Chriflian religion next demands our atten¬
tion. It is to he confidered as an improvement of the
Jewifh, or a new fuperftru&ure raifed on the fame ba-
fis. If the effefts of the Jewifh religion were benefi¬
cial to thofe among whom it was eftabliflied, they were
confined almnft to them alone. But is the fpirit of
Chriflianity equally pure and benignant ? Is its influ¬
ence equally beneficial and more diffufive than that of
Judaifm ? Does it really merit to have triumphed over
both the theifm of the Jews and the polytheifm of the
heathens?
If we confider the do&rines and precepts of the Chri-
ftian religion, nothing can be more happily calculated
to raife the dignity of human nature, and promote the
happinefs of mankind. The hapninefs of the individual
is befl promoted by the exercife of love and gratitude
towards God; and refignation to his providence j of
humanity, integrity, and good will towards men ; and Religion.
by the due government of our appetites and paffions. v
Social happinefs again proceeds from the members of fo¬
ciety entertaining a difinterefted regard for the public
welfare ; being actively induftrious each in his proper
fphere of exertion ; and being ftriftly juft and faithful,
and generoufly benevolent in their mutual intercourfe.
The tenor of the gofpel inculcates thefe virtues ; it
feems everywhere through the whole of the Chriftian
code to have been the great defign of its Author to in-
fpire mankind with mild, benevolent, and peaceable dif-
pofitions, and to form them to courteous manners. Chri-
ftianity again reprcfents the Deity and his attributes in
the faireft light; even fo as to render our ideas of his
nature, and the manner in which he exerts his power,
confident with the moft correft principles of morality
that can be collected from all the other religions that
have prevailed in the earth, and from the writings of
the moft admired philofophers. The ritual obfervances
which Chriftianity enjoins are few in number, eafy to
perform, decent, expreffive, and edifying. It inculcates
no duties but what are founded on the principles of hu¬
man nature, and on the relation in which men ftand to
God, their Creator, Redeemer, and Samftifier j and it
prefcribes accurate rules for the regulation of the con-
duft. The afliftance of the fpirit of God is promifed in
this facred volume to thofe who affiduoufly labour to
difcharge the duties which it enjoins •, and it exhibits a
ftriking example of fpotlefs purity, which we may fafely
venture to imitate. The gofpel teaches that worldly
afflictions are incident to both good and bad men •, a doc¬
trine highly conducive to virtue, which confoles us in
diftrefs, prevents defpair, and encourages us to perfift:
firmly in our integrity under every difficulty and trial.
Chriflianity reprefents all men as children of the fame
God, and heirs of the fame falvation, and levels all di-
ftinftions of rich and poor, as accidental and infignificant
in the fight of him who rewards or punifties with im¬
partiality according to the merits or demerits of his crea¬
tures. This doftrine is highly favourable to virtue, as
it tends to humble the proud, and to communicate dig¬
nity of fentiment to the lowly •, to render princes and
inferior magiftrates moderate and juft, gentle and con-
defeending, to their inferiors. It farther requires huf-
bands to be affeftionate and indulgent to their Avives,
AA’ives to be faithful and refpeftful to their hufbands, and
both to be true and conftant to each other. Such is the
purity of the gofpel, that it forbids us even to harbour
impure thoughts ; it requires us to abandon our vices,
however dear to us j and to the cautious Avifdom of the
ferpent it dire&s us to join the innocent fimplieity of the
dove. The Chriflian difpenfation, to prevent a per-
feverance in immorality, offers pardon for the paft, pro¬
vided the offender forfake his vicious practices, with a
firm refolution to aft differently in future. The fanc-
tions of the gofpel have a natural tendency to exalt the
mind above the paltry purfuitsof this world, and to ren¬
der the Chriflian incorruptible by Avealth, honours, or
pleafures. The true Chriflian not only abflains from
injuflice towards others, but even forgives thofe injuries
Avhich he himfelf fuffers, knowing that he cannot other-
Avife hope for forgivenefs from God. Such are the pre¬
cepts, fuch the fpirit, and fuch the general tendency of
the gofpel. Even thofe avIio refufed to give credit to
its doftrines and hiftory have yet acknowledged the ex¬
cellence
R E
it recom¬
mends un-
oftenta-
tious.
L [ 7>
Religion, cellence of its precepts. They have acknowledged,
’ -v ' that “ no religion ever yet appeared in the world ot
which the natural tendency was fo much directed to
promote the peace and happinefs of mankind as.the
Chriftian ; and that the gofpel of Chrift is one continu¬
ed leflbn of the ftriaeft morality, of juflice, benevolence,
and univerfal charity.” Thefe are the words of Boling-
broke, one of its keeneft and moft infidious opponents.
Without examining the effedb of this religion on focie-
ty, we might almoft venture to pronounce with confi¬
dence, that a religion, the precepts of which are fo hap¬
pily formed to promote all that is juft and excellent,
cannot but be in the higheft degree beneficial to man¬
kind. By reviewing the effefts which it has a&ually
produced, the favourable opinion which wTe naturally
conceive of it, after confidering its precepts, cannot but
be confirmed.
The virtues One circumftance we muft take notice of as rather
unfavourable to this review. It is really itnpoflible to
do juftice to Chriftianity by fuch a difcuffion of its me¬
rits. The virtues which it has a natural tendency to
produce and cherifh in the human heart, are not of a
noify oftentatious kind ; they often efcape the obferva-
tion of the world. Temperance, gentlenefs, patience,
benevolence, juftice, and general purity of manners, are
not the qualities which moft readily attraft the admi¬
ration and obtain the applaufe of men. The man of
Rofs, whom Mr Pope has fo juftly celebrated, was a
private character •, his name is now likely to live, and
his virtues to be known to the lateft pofterity : and yet,
however difinterefted his virtues, however beneficial his
influence to all around him, had his chara&er not at-
tra£ted the notice of that eminent poet, his name would
perhaps ere this time have been loft in oblivion. Indi¬
viduals in private life feldom engage the attention of
the hiftorian •, his objeft is to record the aftions of
princes, warriors, and ftatefmen. Had not the profef-
fors of Chriftianity in the earlier ages of its exiftence
been expofed to perfecutions, and unjuft accufations
from which they were called on to vindicate themfelves,
we fliould be ftrangers to the.names and virtues of faints
and martyrs, and to the learning and endowments of
the firft apologifts for Chriftianity. We can therefore
only trace the general influence of the inftitutions of
nations'3 ^ Cliriftianity on fociety. We cannot hope to make an
accurate enumeration of particulars. In many of the
countries in which it has been eftablifhed, it has pro¬
duced a very favourable change on the circumftances of
domeftic life. Polygamy, a praftice repugnant to the
will of our Creator (fee Polygamy), who has declar¬
ed his intentions in this inftance in the plaineft manner,
by caufing nearly equal numbers of males and females
to be brought into the world, was never completely
abolifhed but by Chriftianity.
The pfa&ice of divorce, too, though in fome cafes
proper and even neceffary, had been fo much abufed at
the time of our Saviour’s appearance in the world, that
he found reafon to declare it unlawful, unlefs in the cafe
of adultery. The propriety and reafonablenefs of this
prohibition will fufficiently appear, if we confider, that
when divorces are eafily obtained, both parties will often
have nothing elfe in view at the period of marriage than
the diffolution of their nuptial engagements after a ftiort
cohabitation j the interefts of tke hulband and the wife
will almoft always be feparate ; and the children of fuch
R E L-
43
Its effects
on the
° ]
a marriage arfe fcarce likely to enjoy the cordial affec- R-tllgiai,
tion and tender watchful care of either parent. The "
hufband in fuch a cafe will naturally be to his wife, not
a friend and protedftor, but a tyrant y fear and deceit,
not love, gratitude, or a fenfe of duty, will be the prin¬
ciples of the wife’s obedience.
In another inftanee, likewife, Chriftianity has pro¬
duced an happy change on the circumftances of domef-'
tic life; it muft be acknowledged to have contributed
greatly to the abolition of flavery, or- at leaft to the
mitigation of the rigour of fervitude. The cuftoms and
laws of the Romans in relation to {laves were cruel and
fevere. Matters were often fo inhuman as to remove
aged, fick, or infirm Haves, into an ifland in the Tiber,
where they fuffered them to perifli without pity or af-
fiftance. The greater part of the fubjedts of many of
thofe republics which enjoyed the moft liberty, groaned
under tyrannical oppreflion j they Were condemned to
drag out a miferable exiftence in hard labouivunderIn¬
human ufage, and to be transferred like beafts from one
matter to another. The hardfhips of flavery were eafed,
not by any particular precept of the Gofpel, but by the
gentle and humane fpirit which breathed through the
.general tenor of the whole fyftem of dodlrines and pre¬
cepts of which the Gofpel confifts. It muft indeed be
allowed, that a trade in Haves is at prefent carried on by
people who prefume to call themfelves Chriflians, and
protefted by the legiflature of Chriftian ftates: but the
fpirit of the Chriftian code condemns the pradlice, and
the true Chriftian will not engage in it.
Partly by the diredt and confpicuous, partly by the
fecret and unfeen, inHuenceof Chriftianity fince its pro¬
mulgation in the world, the hearts of men have been
gradually Ibftened ; eveh barbarians have been formed
to mildnefs and humanity j the influence of felfiflinefs
has been checked and reftrained j and even war, amid
all the pernicious improvements by which men have
fought to render it more terrible, has aflumed much more
of the fpirit of mildnefs and peace than ever entered into
it during the reign of heathenifm.
If we review the hiftory of mankind with a view to
their political circumftances, we {hall find, that by fome
means or other, it has happened, fince the time when the
Gofpel was firft preached, that both fyftems of legiflature
and forms of government have been raifed to much
greater perfection, at leaft in thofe parts of the world
into which the religion of Jefus has made its way, and
obtained an eftabliihment.
The popular government of the Roman#, notwith-
ftanding the multiplicity of their laws, and the imper¬
fections of their political conftitution, was, no doubt,
happily enough adapted to promote the increafe of the
power and the extenfion of the empire of Rome. In
Greece there were various republics, the wifdom and
impartiality of whofe laws have been highly celebrated.
But We apprehend that there is a fufficient number of
well authenticated faCts to warrant us to affirm, that
fince Chriftianity has been propagated, and has had fuf¬
ficient time to produce its full effeCl on arts, manners,
and literature, even under governments the form of
which might appear lefs favourable than the celebrated
models of antiquity to the liberty and banpinefs of the
people in general, thefe aCtually have been much better
provided for than under the laws of Athens or Sparta,
or even of Rome in the days of the confuls. It is a
juft
R EL [ 7,
'Religion, juft and happy obfervation of Montefquleu, who has
""v " ' attributed fo much to the influence of climate and local
circumftances, that “ the mildnefs fo frequently recom¬
mended in the Gofpel is incompatible with the defpo-
tic rage with which an arbitrary tyrant punifhes his fub-
jefts, and exercifes himfelf in cruelty. It is the Chrif-
tian religion (fays he) which, in fpite of the extent of
empire, and the influence of climate, has hindered def-
potifm from being eftablifhed in Ethiopia, and has car¬
ried into Africa the manners of Europe. The heir to
the empire of Ethiopia enjoys a principality, and gives
to other fubjefts an example of love and obedience.—
Nor far from hence may be feen the Mahometan (hut¬
ting up the children of the king of Sennaar, at whofe
death the council fends to murder them in favour of
the prince who afcends the throne. Let us fet before
our eyes (continues that eloquent writer), in the third
chapter of the 24th book of his fpirit of Laws, on one
hand the continual maflacres of the kings and generals
of the Greeks and Romans, and on the other the de-
ftru&ion of people and cities by the famous conquerors
Timur Beg and Jenghiz Khan, who ravaged Afia j and
we (hall perceive, that we owe to Chriftianity in go¬
vernment a certain political law, and in war a certain
law of nations, which allows to the conquered the great
advantages of liberty, laws, wealth, and always reli¬
gion. when the conqueror is not blind to his own in-
tereft.”
Thefe are the refleftions of no common judge in this
matter, but one who had long ftudied the hiftory of
nations, and obferved the phenomena of the various
forms of fociety, with fuch fuccefs as few others have
attained;
Its effe&s ®ut on no 0CC3^0n ^as t^ie *nfluence Chrifti-
in foftening anity been more eminently difplayed, or more happily
and huma-° exerted, than in foftening and humanizing the barba¬
rians who overturned the Roman empire. The idola¬
trous religion which prevailed among thofe tribes before
their converfion to Chriftianity, inftead of difpofing
them to cultivate humanity and mildnefs of manners, .
contributed ftrongly to render them fierce and blood-
thirfty, and eager to diftinguifti themfelves by deeds of
favage valour. But no fooner had they fettled in the
dominions of Rome, and embraced the principles of
Chriftianity, than they became a mild and generous
people.
We are informed by Molheim, who was at pains to
collefl his materials from the mod authentic fources,
that in the 10th century Chriftian princes exerted them¬
felves in the converfion of nations whofe fiercenefs they
had experienced, in order to foften and render them
more gentle. The mutual humanity with which nations
at war treat each other in modern times, is certainly
owing, in a great meafure, to the influence of the mild
precepts of the Gofpel. It is a fad worthy of notice,
too, that during the barbarous ages, the fpiritual courts
of juftice were more rational and impartial in their de-
cifions than civil tribunals.
How many criminal pra&ices which prevailed among
heathen nations have been abolifhed by their converfion
to Chriftianity ! Chriftians of all nations have been ob¬
ferved to retain the virtues and rejeft the vicious prac¬
tices of their refpe&ive countries. In Parthia, where
polygamy prevailed, they are not polygamifts j in Perfia,
the Chriftan father does not marry his own daughter.
nizing bar
barians.
1 ] R E L
By the laws of Zoroafter the Perfians committed inceft i Rfchgi01*-.
until they embraced the Gofpel j after which period 1 —»
they abftained from that crime, and obferved the duties
of chaftity and temperance, as enjoined by its precepts.
Even the polifhed and enlightened Romans were cruel
and blood-thirfty before the propagation of the Gofpel.
The breaking of a glafs, or fome fuch trifling offence,
was fufficient to provoke Vidius Pollio to call his (laves
into fifh-ponds to be devoured by lampreys. The effu
(ion of human blood was their favourite entertainment j
they delighted to fee men combating with beafts, or
with one another j and we are informed on refpeflable
authority, that no wars ever made fuch havock on man¬
kind as the fights of gladiators, which fometimes depri¬
ved Europe of 20,000 lives in one month. Not the
humanity of Titus, nor the wifdom and virtue of Tra¬
jan, could abolifh the barbarous fpe£facle. However
humane and wife in other inftances, in this practice thofe
princes complied with the cuftom of their country, and
exhibited fplendid (hows of gladiators, in which the
combatants were matched by pairs ; wdio, though they
had never injured nor offended each other, yet were ob¬
liged to maim and murder one another in cold blood.
Chriftian divines foon exercifed their pens againft thefe
horrid pra&ices j the Chriftian emperor Contlantine re-
ftrained them by edicts, and Honorius finally abolifhed
them. It would be tedious to proceed through an enu¬
meration of particulars j but wherever Chriftianity has
been propagated, it has conftantly operated to the civi¬
lization of the manners of mankind, and to the abolition
of abfurd and criminal praftices. The Irifh, the Scotch,
and all the ancient inhabitants of the Britifh ifles, were,
notwithftanding their intercourfe with the Romans, rude
barbarians, till fuch time as they were converted to Chri¬
ftianity. The inhuman prafticeofexpofing infants, which
once prevailed fo generally over the world, and dill pre¬
vails among fome Pagan nations, even under very hu¬
mane and enlightened legiflatures, yielded to the influ¬
ence of Chriftianity.
Let us likewife remember, in honour of Chriftianity, Learning
that it has contributed eminently to the diffufion of*8 much
knowledge, the prefervation and the advancement of‘n^e^t.efl.t0
learmng. When the barbarians overipread Europe, ty#
what muft have become of the precious remains of po¬
lifhed, enlightened antiquity, had there been nq other
depofitaries to preferve them but the heathen priefts ?
We allow that even the Romifh clergy during the dark
ages did not ftudy the celebrated models of ancient
times with much advantage themfelves, and did not
labour with much afliduity to make the laity acquaint¬
ed with them. It muft even be acknowledged, that
they did not always preferve thofe monuments of ge¬
nius with fufficient care, as they were often ignorant
of their real value. Yet, after all, it will be granted,
it cannot be denied, that had it not been for the clergy
of the Chriftian church, the lamp of learning would, in
all probability, have been entirely extinguifhed, during
that night of ignorance and barbarity in which all -Eu'^ene
rope was buried for a long feries of centuries, after thef^i influ_
irruption of the barbarians into the Roman empire. ence of
Such is the excellence of the Chriftian fyftem, and
fuch its tendency to meliorate the human chara&er, that
its beneficial influence has not been confined to thofe t0
who have received its doftrines and precepts, and have who have
profeffed themfelves Chriftians j it has even produced not embra-
many
ced it.
R E L [ 7'
Beligion. niany happy effedls on the circumdances and the cha-
 v rafters of Pagans and infidels, who have had opportuni¬
ties of beholding the virtues of Chriftians, and learning
the excellence of the morality of the gofpel. Thofe
virtues which diftinguilhed the charafter of the apoftate
Julian were furely owing in no inconfiderable degree to
his acquaintance with Chriftianity ; and it is an undeni¬
able faft, that after the propagation of Chriftianity
through the Roman empire, even while the purity of
that holy religion was gradually debafed, the manners
of thofe Pagans who remained unconverted became more
pure, and their religious doftrines and worftiip It is im¬
moral and abfurd.—We might here adduce a tedious
feries of fafts to the fame purpofe. Whenever Chrifti¬
ans have had any intercourfe with Pagan idolaters, and
have not concealed the laws of the gofpel, nor (hewn by
their conduft that they difregarded them, even thoi’e
who have not been converted to Chriftianity have, how¬
ever, been improved in their difpofitions and manners by
its influence. The emperor, whofe virtues we have men¬
tioned as arifing, in a certain degree, from his acquaint¬
ance with Chriftianity, in a letter to an Heathen pontiff,
defires him to turn his eyes to the means by which the
fuperftition of Chriftians was propagated ; by kindnefs to
ftrangers, by fanftity of life, and by the attention which
they paid to the burial of the dead. He recommends
an imitation of their virtues, exhorts him to caufe the
pr efts of Galatia to be attentive to the worftiip of their
gods, and authorifes him to ftrip them of the facerdotal
funftion, unlefs they obliged their wives, children, and
fervants, to pay attention to the fame duties. He like-
' wife enjoins works of beneficence, defires the prielt to
relieve the diftreffed, and to build houfes for the accom¬
modation of ftrangers of whatever religion ; and fays it
is a difgrace for Pagans to difregard thofe of their own
religion, while Chriftians do kind offices to ftrangers
and enemies; This is indeed an eminent inftance of the
happy influence of Chriftianity even on the fentiments
and manners of thofe who regarded the Chriftian name
with abhorrence.
Upon the whole, then, may we not, from the particu¬
lars here exhibited concerning the influence of this re¬
ligion on the manners and happinefs of men in fociety,
conclude that Chriftianity is infinitely fuperior to the
fuperftitions of Paganifm ? as being in its tendency uni¬
formly favourable to the virtue and the happinefs of
mankind, and even to the fyftem of religion and laws
delivered by Mofes to the children of Ifrael : becaufe,
while the religion of the Jews was calculated only for
one particular nation, and it may almoft be faid for one
particular ftage in the progrefs of fociety, Chriftianity
is an univerfal religion, formed to exert its happy in¬
fluence in all ages and among all nations; and has a
tendency to difpel the {hades of barbarifm and ignorance,
to promote the cultivation of the powers of the human
underftanding, and to encourage every virtuous refine¬
ment of manners.
V. Another religion, which has made and ftill makes
a confpicuous figure in the " orld, remains yet to be ex¬
amined. The religion of Mahomet is that which we
here ahude to. Whether we confider through what
an extenfive part of the globe that religion prevails, the
political importance of the nations among whom it is
profeffed,^ or the {hiking peculiarity of charatfer by
,’1 11 *s diftinguifhed from all other religious fyftems
.S1
Chriftiani¬
ty to be pre.
fe.reu e ■ ai.
other reli¬
gions.
S3
View of
IVlabome
tanifm.
2 ] R E L
—it is for all thefe reafons well worthy of particular Religion,
notice. Like the Jewifh religion, it is not barely a fy-
ftem of religious dodfrines and general moral precepts j
it forms both the civil legiflature and the religious fy¬
ftem of thofe nations among whom it is profeffed ; and,
like it too, it would appear to be calculated rather for
one particular period in the progrefs of mankind from
rudenefs to refinement, than for all ages and all ftates
of fociety.
The hiftory of its origin is pretty well knorvn, and
we have had occafion to enlarge upon it under a former
article (fee Mahomet and Mahometanism). We
are not here to trace the impoftures of the prophet, or
to confider the arts by which he fo fuccefsfully accom-
pliilted his defigns} but merely to confider the mora¬
lity of his religion, and its influence on civil order and
the happinefs of fociety.
If we view the ftate of the nations among whom itlt is fr-end-
is eftablifhed, we cannot hefitate a moment to declare b to igno-
it friendly to ignorance, to defpotiim, and to impurit\ rarice, def.
of manners. The Turks, the Perfians, and the Malays, A
are all Mahometans ; and in reviewing their hiftory and
confidering their prefent ftate, wre might find a fuffi-
cient number of fadls to juftify the above afl'ertion :
and we muft not ncgledf to obferve, that, as thefe na¬
tions are not know n to have ever been fince their con-
verfion to M a home tanifm under a much happier govern¬
ment, or in a much more civilized ftate than at prefent,
it cannot be, with any degree of fairnefs, argued, with
refpedt to Mahometanifm as with refpedf to Chriftiani¬
ty, that it is only when its influence is fo oppofed by
other caufes as to prevent it from producing its full ef-
fedfis, that it does not condudf thofe focieties among
which it is eftablifhed to a high ftate of civilization and
refinement.
One, and that by no means an inconfiderable, part of Remarks
the Koran, was occafionaliy invented to folve fome dif-011 theKo-
ficulty with which the prophet found himfelf at theran’
time perplexed, or to help him to the gratification of
his ruling paffions, luft and ambition. When he and his
followers were, at any time, unfuccefsful in thofe wars
by which he fought to propagate his religion, to pre¬
vent them from falling away into unbelief, or finking
into defpondency, he took care to inform them that
God fuffcred fuch misfortunes to befal believers, as a
puniftiment for their fins, and to try their faith. The
doftrine of predeftination, which he affiduoufly inculca¬
ted, had a happy effedl to perfuade his followers to
rufh boldly into the midft of death and danger, at his
command. He prevailed with Zeyd to put away his
wife, married her himfelf, and pretended that his crime
had the approbation of heaven j and, in the Koran, he
introduces the Deity approving of this marriage. Be¬
ing repulfed from the fiege of Mecca, he made a league
with the inhabitants; but on the very next year, find¬
ing it convenient to furprife the city, by violating this
treaty, he juftified his perfidy by teaching his followers
to difregard promifes or leagues made with infidels. In
fome inftances again, w^e find abfurd prohibitions enjoin¬
ed for fimilar reafons : his officers, having on fome occa¬
fion drunk to excefs, excited much riot and confufion in
the camp, he prohibited the ufe of wine and other in¬
ebriating liquors among his followers in future. Now,
though it muft be acknowledged that many evils arife
from the ufe of thefe liquors, v,et we cannot but think
that.
Religion.
56
Mahome-
tanifm a
mixture of
Chriftia-
nity, Ju-
daifm, and
the fuper-
ftitions of
Arabia.
•S7 r
Notion or
heaven and
hell.
R E L [7
that, when ufed in moderation, they are in many cafes
beneficial to men ; and certainly as much allowed by
God as opium, which the Mahometans have fubftituted
in their place.
Mahomet is allowed to have copied from the Chriftian
and the Jewilh religions, as well as frcm the idolatrous
fuperftitions which prevailed through Arabia, and thus
to have formed a motley mixture of j-eafon and abfurdi-
ty, of pure theifm and wild fuperftition. He confidered
alfo the circumftances of his country, and the prejudices
of his countrymen. When be attended to the former,
he was generally judicious enough to fuit his dodtrines
and decifions to them with fufficient fkillm, the latter he
alfo managed with the greateft art : but he entered into
accommodation with them in inftances when a true pro¬
phet or a wife and upright legillator would furely have
oppofed them with decifive vigour. Where the prophet
indulges his own fancy, or borrows from the fuperfti¬
tions of his countrymen, nothing can be more ridiculous
than that rhapfody of lies, contradictions, and extrava¬
gant fables, which he delivers to his followers. Ama¬
zing are the abfurdities which he relates concerning the
patriarchs, concerning Solomon, and concerning the
animals that were aflembled in Noah’s ark.
But in the whole tiflue of abfurdities of which his
fyftem confilts, there is nothing more abfurd, or more
happily calculated to promote impurity of manners, than
his descriptions of heaven and hell ; the ideas of future
rewards and punifhments which he fought to imprefs
on the minds of his followers. Paradife was to abound
with rivers, trees, fruits, and fhady groves j wine which
would not intoxicate was to be there plentifully ferved
up to believers ; the inhabitants of that happy region
were all to enjoy perpetual youth 5 and their powers of
enjoyment were to be enlarged and invigorated, in or¬
der that fo many fine things might not be thrown away
upon them. “ Inflead of infpiring the bleffed inhabi¬
tants of paradife with a liberal tafle for harmony and
fcience, converfation and iriendfliip (fays Mr Gibbon),
Mahomet idly celebrates the pearls and diamonds, the
robes of fiJk, palaces of marble, difhes of gold, rich
wines, artificial dainties, numerous attendants, and the
whole train of fenfual luxury.—Seventy two houris, or
black-eyed girls of refplendent beauty, blooming youth,
virgin purity, and exquifite. fenfibility, will be created
for the ufe of the meaneft believer; a moment of plea-
fure will be prolonged for 1000 years, and his faculties
will be increafed 100 fold, to render him worthy of his
felicity.” It muft be acknowledged that he allows be¬
lievers other more refined enjoyments than thefe $ thus
they are to fee the face of God morning and evening;
a pleafure which is far to exceed all the other pleafures
of paradife. The following is his defcription of the pu-
nifhments of hell: The wicked are there to drink no¬
thing but boiling ftinking water j breathe nothing but
hot winds 5 dwell for ever in continual burning fire and
fmoke ; eat nothing but briars and thorns, and the fruit
of a tree that rifeth out of the bottom of hell, whofe
branches refemble the heads of devils, and whofe fruits
(hall be in their bellies like burning pitch.
All that we can conclude from a general view of the
religion of Mahomet, from confidering the chara&er of
the prophet, or from reviewing the hiftory of the nations
among whom it has been eftablifiied, is, that it is one
tiflue of abfurdities, with a few truths, however, and
Vol, XVII. Part II.
i3 ] R E L
valuable precepts incongruoufly intermixed; that a great Religion,
part of it is unfavourable to virtuous manners, to wife ,
and equal laws, and to the progrefs of knowledge and
refinement. It often inculcates in a diredt manner fen-
timents that are highly immoral 5 it fubftitutes trifling
fuperftitious obfervances in the room of genuine piety
and moral virtue j and it gives fuch view's of futurity as
render purity of heart no neceffary qualification for fee¬
ing God. _ 5s
Surely, therefore, even the deift, who rejefts all but Mahome-
natural religion, would not hefitate to prefer Chrvftiani-tanifm to
ty, and even Judaifm, to the religion of Mahomet. Ju- le^
daifm, calculated for a peculiar people, was undoubted-
ly much more fublime and much more happily framed
to render that people virtuous and happy in the circum¬
ftances in which they were placed; and Chriftianity we
find to be an univerfal religion, fuited to all circumftan¬
ces and to all the ftages of fociety, and a&ing, where-
ever it is received, with more or lefs force to the fup-
port of civil order, virtuous manners, improvement of
arts, and the advancement of fcience. However, as Ma-
hometanifm forms in fome meafure a regular fyftem, as
it has borrowed many of the precepts and doctrines of
Judaifm and Chriftianity, not indeed without corrupting
and degrading them ; and as it has contributed confider-
ably to the fupport of civil government, although in a
very imperfeft form, in thofe countries in which it hai
obtained an eftablilhment ; for all thefe reafons we can¬
not but give it the preference to the fuperftitions of Pa-
ganifm.
The whole refult of our inquiries under this article, Concision,
therefore, is, 1. That as man, by the conftitution of his
mind, is naturally fitted for acquiring certain notions
concerning the exiltence of invifible fuperior beings, and
their influence on human life ; fo the religious ideas
which we find to have in all ages of the world, and in
all the different ftages of the progrefs of fociety, prevail¬
ed among mankind, appear to have originated partly
from the natural exertions of the human imagination,
underftanding, and paflions, in various circumftances,
and partly from fupernatural revelation.
2. That though religious opinions, together with the
moral precepts, and the rites of worlhip conne&ed with
them, may appear to have been in numerous inftances
injurious to the virtue and happinefs of fociety ; yet, as
they have often contributed to lead the mind to form
moral diftindions, when it would otherwife in all proba¬
bility have been an entire ftranger to fuch diftindions;
and as they have always contributed in an effential man¬
ner to the eftablilhment and the fupport of civil govern¬
ment—it muft therefore be acknowledged that they have
always, even in their humbleft ftate, been more benefi¬
cial than hurtful to mankind.
3. That when the different fyftems of religion that
have prevailed in the world are comparatively viewed
with refped to their influence on the welfare of fociety,
we find reafon to prefer the polytheifm of the Greeks
and Romans to the ruder, wilder, religious ideas and
ceremonies that have prevailed among favages; Maho-
metanifm, perhaps in fome refpeds, to the polytheifm of
the Greeks and Romans ; Judaifm, however, to Maho-
metanifm ; and Chriftianity to all of them.
RELIGIOUS, in a general fenfe fomething that
relates to religion.—.We fay, a religious life, religious
4 X fociety,
REM [ 714 1 REM
Religions fodety, &c.—Churches and churchyards are religious
Rembrandt. ,,]aePS- A religious war is alfo called a croifade. bee
"" ' 'v Croisade. . „ _ r
Religious, is alfo ufed fubftantially for a pci ion en-
gaged bv folemn vows to the monadic life •, or a perfon
diut up in a mnnadery to lead a life of devotion and au-
deriiy, under fume rule or indilution. I he male reli
gious we popularly czW monks and friars ; the female,
tiuns and canoneffes.
REMBRANDT Van Rhin, a Flemilhpainter and
engraver of great eminence, was born in 1606, in a
mill upon the banks of the Rhine, from whence he de¬
rived his name of F«/z Rhin. I his mader was boin
with a creative genius, which never attained perfe£fion.
It was laid of him, that he would have invented paint¬
ing, if he had not found it already difcovered. With-
out’dudv, without the adidance of any mader, but by
his own inftinft, he formed rules, and a certain pradi-
cal method for colouring •, and the mixture produced
the defigned effeft. Nature is not fet off to the greateft
advantage in his piftures j but there is fuch a driking
truth and fimplicity in them, that his heads, particular¬
ly his portraits, feem animated, and rifing from the can¬
vas. He was fond of drong contrads of light and thade.
The light entered in his working-room only by a hole,
in the manner of a camera obfcura, by which he judged
with greater certainty of his productions, i his artid
confide.red painting like the dage, where the characters
do not ftrike unlefs they are exaggerated. He did not
purfue the method of the Flemidi painters of finidiing
his pieces. He fometimes gave his light fuch thick
touches, that it feemed more like modelling than paint¬
ing. A head of his has been diown, the nofe of which
was as thick of paint, as that which he copied from
nature. He was told one day, that by his peculiar me¬
thod of employing colours, his pieces appeared rugged
and uneven—he replied, he was a painter, and not a
dyer. He took a pleafure in dreding his figures in an
extraordinary manner : with this view he had colleCled
a great number of eadern caps, ancient armour, and
drapery long fince out of fadiion. When he was ad-
vifed to confult antiquity to attain a better tade in
drawing, as his was ufually heavy and uneven, he took
his counfellor to the clofet where thefe old vedments
were depofited, faying, by ivay of derifion, thofe were
his antiques.
Rembrandt, like mod men of genius, had many ca¬
prices. Being one day at work, painting a whole fa¬
mily in a fingle piiffure, word being brought him that
his monkey was dead, he was fo affefted at the lofs of
this animal, that, without paying any attention to the
perfons who were fitting for their piftures, he painted
the monkey upon the fame canvas. This whim could
not fail of difpleafing thofe for whom the piece was de¬
figned ; but he would not efface it, choofing rather to
lofe the fale of his piCIure.
This freak will appear dill more extraoi dinary in
Rembrandt, when it is confidered that he was extremely
avaricious ; which vice daily grew upon him. He prac-
tifed various dratagems to fell his prints at a high price.
The public were very defirous of purchafing them, and
not without reafon. In his prints the fame tade prevails
as in his pictures ; they are rough and irregular, but
piClurelque. In order to heighten the value of his
prints, and increafe their price, he made his fon fell them
4
as if he had purloined them from his father ; others he Rembrandt Bel
expofed at public fales, and went thither himfelf in dif- II
guile to bid for them ; fometimes he gave out that he ^
was going to leave Holland, and fettle in another coun- > ^
try. Thefe dratagems were fuccefsful, and he got his
own price for his prints. At other times he would print
his plates halt finilhed, and expofe them to laie •, he af¬
terwards finilbed them, and they became freth plates.
When they wanted retouching, he made feme altera¬
tions in them, which promoted the fale of his prints a
third time, though they differed but little from the firit
impreflions.
His pupils, who were not ignorant of his avarice,
one day painted fome pieces of money upon cards*, and
Rembrandt no fooner law them, than he was going to
take them up. He was not angry at the pleafantry ;
but it had no effect in checking his avaiice. Fie died
in 1674.
REMEMBRANCE, is when the idea of fomething
formerly known recurs again to the mind without the
operation of a like objeCt on the external fenfory. See
Memory and Reminiscence.
REMEMBRANCERS, anciently called clerks of
the remembrance, certain officers in the exchequer,
whereof three are didinguilhed by the names of the king's
remembrancer, the lord treafurer's remembrancer, and
the remembrancer of the firjl fruits. The king’s remem¬
brancer enters in his office all recognizances taken be¬
fore the barons for any of the king’s debts, for appear¬
ances or obferving of orders ; he alfo takes all bonds for
the king’s debts, &c. and makes out proceffes thereon.
He likewife iffues proceffes againd the collectors of the
cudoms, excife, and others, for their accounts ; and in¬
formations upon penal datutes are entered and fued in
his office, where all proceedings in matters upon Englitk.
bills in the exchequer-chamber remain. His duty far¬
ther is to make out the bills of compofitions upon penal
laws, to take the datement of debts ; and into his office
are delivered all kinds of indentures and other evidences
which concern the alluring any lands to the crown. He
every year in crafino animarum, reads in open court
the datute for eleftion of ffieriffs *, and likewife openly
reads in court the oaths of all the officers, when they
are admitted.
The lord treafurer’s remembrancer is charged to make
out procefs againd all ffieriffs, efeheators, receivers, and
bailiffs, for their accounts. He alfo makes out writs of
fieri facias, and extent for debts due to the king, either
in the pipe or with the auditors j and procefs for all fuch
revenue as is due to the king on account of his tenures.
He takes the account of ffieriffs *, and alfo keeps a re¬
cord, by which it appears whether the ffieriffs or other
accountants pay their proffers due at Eader and Mi¬
chaelmas *, and at the fame time he makes a record,
whereby the ffieriffs or other accountants keep their pre¬
fixed days : there are likewife brought into his office all
the accounts of cuftomers, comptrollers, and account¬
ants, in order to make entry thereof on record $ alfo all
edreats and amercements are certified here, &c.
The remembrancer of the firlt-fruits takes all com¬
pofitions and bonds for the payment of fird-ffuits and
tenths *, and makes out procefs againd fuch as do not
pay the fame.
REMINISCENCE, that power of the human mind,
whereby it recolle&s itfelf, or calls again into its remem-
brance,.
HEM [ 715 ] REM
Reminif- brance, fuch ideas or notions as it had really forgot : in
cence 'which it diifers from memory, which is a treafuring up
Remphan. ’n the mind, and keeping them there, without
■ . t forgetting them.
REMISSION, in P/iy/tcs, the abatement of the
power or efficacy of any quality ; in oppofition to the
increnfe of the fame, which is called intenfion.
Remission, in Law, &c. denotes the pardon of a
crime, or giving up the punilhment due thereto.
Remission, in Medicine, is when a diftemper abates
for a time, but does not go quite off.
REMITTANCE, in Commerce, the traffic or re¬
turn of money from one place to another, by bills of ex¬
change, orders, or the like.
REMONSTRANCE, an expoftulation or humble
fupplication, addreffed to a king, or other fuperior, be-
feeching him to refleft on the inconveniences or ill con-
fequences of fome order, edifl, or the like. This
word is alfo ufed for an expoftulatory counfel, or ad¬
vice 5 or a gentle and handfome reproof, made either
in general, or particular, to apprize of or correft fome
fault, &c.
REMONSTRANTS, inchurch hiffory, a title which
was given to the Arminians in confequence of the re-
monffrance made by them in the year 1610 -n the ftates
of Holland, againft the fentence of the fynod of Dort,
which pronounced them to be heretics. The chief lead¬
ers of the Remonffrants were Epifcopius and Grotius *,
and their principles were firft openly countenanced in
England by Archbiffiop Laud. In oppofition to the
reprefentation or remonftranpe of the Arminians, the
Dutch Calviniffs prefented an addrefs, which was called
a counter-remonftrance 5 and hence they obtained the
denomination of Counter-remonjirants. A great deal of
keen controverfy was agitated in this affair, by thefe
rival fedls. See Arminians.
REMORA, or Sucking-fish, a fpecies of Eche-
neis. See Echeneis, Ichthyology Index.—Many
incredible things are related of this animal by the an¬
cients *, as that it had the power of flopping the largeft
and fwifteft veflel in its courfe ; and even to this day it
is afferted by the fifhermen in the Mediterranean, that
it has a power of retarding the motion of their boats by
attaching itfelf to them ; for which reafon they kill it
whenever they fancied this retardation took place.
REMORSE, in its worft fenfe, means that pain or
anguilh which one feels after having committed fome
bad action. It alfo means tendernefs, pity, or fympathe-
tic forroiv. It is moft generally ufed in a bad fenfe, and
is applied to perfcns who feel compunftion for fome
great crime, as murder and fuch like. Murders which
have been committed with the utmoft circumfpection
and fecrecy, and the authors of which could never have
been difcovered by any human inveftigation. have been
frequently unfolded by the remorfe and confeflion of the
perpetrators, and that too many years afterwards. Of
this there are numerous inffances, which are well au¬
thenticated, and which are fo generally known that it
is needlefs to relate them here. See REPENTANCE.
REMPHAN, an idol or Pagan god whom St Ste¬
phen favs the Ifraelites rvorffiippcd in the wuldernefs as
they paffed from Egypt to the land of Promife : “ Yea,
ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the ftar of
your god Remphan ; figures which ye made to worfhip
them.” That the martyr here quotes the following
words of the prophet Amos, all commentators are a- Remphan,
greed : “ Ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch, v
and Chiun your images, the ftar of your god, which
ye made to yourfelves.” But if this coincidence be¬
tween the Chriftian preacher and the Jewifh prophet
be admitted, it follows, that C/iiun and Remphan are
two names of one and the fame deity. This is indeed
farther evident from the LXX tranlLtors having fub-
ftituted in their verfion the word Txiiput, infteadotTV/zzw,
which we read in the Hebrew and Englifh Bibles. But
the queftion which ftill remains to be anfwered is, what
god was worfhipped by the name of Remphan, Raiphan,
or Chum ? for about the other divinity here mentioned
there is no difpute. See Moloch.
1 hat Chiun or Remphan was an Egyptian divinity,
cannot be queftioned ; for at the era of the Exodus the
Hebrews muft have been ftrangers to the idolatrous
worfhip of all other nations •, nor are they ever accufed
of any other than Egyptian idolatries during their 40
years wanderings in the wildernefs, till towards the end
of that period that they became infe£led by the Moa¬
bites with the worfhip of Baalpeor. 'That Moloch, Mo¬
led:, Melek, or Milcom, in its original acceptation, de¬
notes a king or chief, is known to every oriental fcholar ;
and therefore when it is ufed as the name of a god, it
undoubtedly fignifies the fun, and is the fame divinity
with the Egyptian Of ns. Reafoning in this, way, many
criticq and we believe Selden is in the number, have
concluded that Chiun, and of courfe Remphan, is the
planet Saturn ; becaufe Chiun is written Ciun, Cevan,
Ceuan, Chevvin ; all of which are modern oriental names
of that planet.
But againft this hypothefis infurmountable objedlions
prefent themfelves to our minds. It is univerially al¬
lowed (fee Polytheism), that the firft objedls of ido¬
latrous worfhip were the fun and moon, confiden d as the
king and queen of heaven. The fixed ftars, indeed, and
the planets, were afterwards gradually admitted into the
Pagan rubric *, but w'e may be fure that thofe would be
firft affociated with the turn prime luminaries which moft
refembled them in brightnefs, and were fuppofed to be
moft benignant to man. But the planet Saturn appears
to the naked eye with fo feeble a luftre, that, in the in¬
fancy of aftronomy, it could not make fuch an impref-
fion on the mind as to excite that admiration which we
muft conceive to have always preceded planetary wor-
flrip. It is to be obferved, too, that by the Pagan wri¬
ters of antiquity Saturn is conftantly reprefented as a
ftar of bahfful influence. He is termed the leaden pla¬
net; the planet of malevolent of peel; the difmal, the in¬
humane far. That the Egyptians, at fo early a period
as that under confideration, fhould have adored as one
of their greateft gods a planet obfeure in its appearance,
diftant in its fituation, and baleful in its influence, is
wholly incredible.
There is, however, another ftar which they might
naturally adore, and which we know they adlually did
adore, as one of their moft beneficent gods, at a very
early period. This is the oKrl^Kvav or of the
Greeks, the cam's or fella canicularis of the Romans,
and the dog-far of modern Europe. By the Egyptians
it was called Sothis or Soth, which fignifies ffety^bene¬
ficence, fecundity; and it received this name, becaufe
making its appearance in the heavens at the very time
when the Nile overflowed the country, it was fuppofed
4X2 t©
Remphan.
REM
to reoulate the inundation. On this account Plutarch
(//I et Oftr.) tells us, they believed the foul of their il-
luftrious benefaftrefs IJis to have tranfmigrated into the
liar Sothis, which they therefore worlhipped as the divi¬
nity which rendered their country fruitful. It made its
appearance, too, on the firfl day of the month 1 hoth (a),
which was the beginning of the Egyptian year, and as
fuch celebrated with feafting and feftivity ; and being
by much the brighteft liar in the heavens, Horapollo
(cap. 3.) informs us it was confidered as fovereign over
the reft. A combination of fo many important circum-
ftances might have induced a people lefs fuperftitious
than the Egyptians to pay divine homage to that glori¬
ous luminary, which was confounded with IJis, who had
been long regarded with the higheft veneration 5 and as
His was the wife and lifter of Oliris, and always afibci-
ated with him, the liar of His or Remphan was natu¬
rally affociated with Moloch, the fame with Oliris.
But it will be alked, how the ftar which by the E-
gyptians was called Soth or Sothis came to be w'orHup¬
ped bv the Hebrews under the appellation of Chiun or
Remphan? This is a very pertinent queftion, and we
fhall endeavour to anfwer it.
Every one knows that the pronunciation of oriental
words is very uncertain ; and that as the vowels were
often omitted in writing, it is of very little importance
to the meaning how they be fupplied, provided we re¬
tain the radical confonants. The word Chiun may with
equal propriety be written Kiun, Kion, or even Kyon,
the Hebrew jod being convertible into the Greek v or
the Roman y; but the words Cane, Chan, Kan, or
Khan, which are often diverfified into Khen, Kijn, Cohen,
Cahan, lignifying Head, Chief, Prince, King, &c. are
diffufed through a great part of Alla and Europe. In
the Chinefe language ^jiin, which lignifies a King, is
fo fimilar to the word Chiun or Khiun under confidera-
tion, that no etymologift will helitate to pronounce them
of the fame original and the fame import. The word
Kan or Khan is univerfally known to be an honorary
title in Tartary 5 and Kaian or Kain, which is manifell-
ly cognate of the word Chiun or Kiun, is, in the Plhevi
or old Perfian language, the epithet applied to the dy-
nafty of princes which fucceeded Cyrus the Great.
Among the Scythians or ancient Tartars, Ghiun figni-
fies the Sun and likewife the day; and Kung, Kinung,
Kun, runs through all the dialers of the Gothic
tongue, everywhere &e.x\o\\vi<g chief fovereign. In
the Syrian dialed, Kon lignifies a prince ; and hence
the Almighty is ftyled (Gen. xiv. 19.) Konah, which
is tranflated pojfejfor, but might have, with perhaps more
propriety, been rendered Sovereign of heaven and earth.
In Hebrew, the word Kalian or Kahen, which is the
very fame with Khan or Kan, fignifies either a priejl or
a prince; and in Egypt Kon was the name of the firfl;
Hercules or the //*«. Hence the fame word in compo-
fition denotes greatnefs, as Can-obus the great ferpent j
Can-athoth, the great Thoth or Mercury j Can-ofris, the
great Ofiris.
From this dedu&ion we would conclude, that the
word, which is found in fo many tongues, and always
REN
denotes Chief Prince, Sovereign, is the very word Chiun Remphan
which the Egyptians and Hebrews applied to Sothis, as ll
being, in their conceptions, the chief or fovereign of all 1 e^®un*
the ftars. This will appear ftill more probable, when
we have afcertained the import of the word Remphan,
or, as the LXX have it, Raiphan.
Phan, the latter part of this word, is tmqueftionably
the fame with Pan, the moft: ancient of the Egyptian
gods (fee Pan). It is likewife a cognate of the Hebrew
Phanah, confpexit, fpeftavit, vidit; and the radical
word feems to be phah, which fignifies fometimes the
countenance, and fometimes light. Hence Phaethcn,
which is compounded o{pha, “light,” eth or efh, “fire,’*
and on, “ ftrength,” came to be one of the names of the
fun. Rai, which we commonly write Rajah, has long
fignified, among the Indians, a fubordinate prince j and
we know, that between India and Egypt there was a
very early intercourfe. Raiphan, therefore, may be ei¬
ther the royal light or the bright prince, fubordinate to
Ofiris; and in either fenfe, it was a very proper epithet
of Sothis in the Egyptian kalendar. The word Rem or
Rom, again (for it is fometimes written Remphan, and
fometimes Rompha), is no other than the Hebrew cm,
Rum, “ high, exalted.” Hence Remphan is the high
or exalted light, which Sothis certainly was.
For this etymological difquifition we are indebted to
Dr Doig, the learned author of Letters on the Savage
State, who has written a differtation on Chiun and Rem¬
phan, of fuch value that we hope it will not be much
longer withheld from the public. The afeertaining
the identity of thofe names, and the god to which they
belonged, is the leaft of its merit; for it will be found to
throw much light upon many palfages in the Old Tef-
tament. What confirms his interpretation is, that the
idol confecrated by the Egyptians to Sothis or the dog-
flar, was a female figure with a ftar on her head *, and
hence the prophet upbraids his countrymen with having
borne the Star of their deity.
Action of REMOVING, in Scots Law. See
Law, N° clxvii. 18.
REMURIA, feftivals eftablilhed at Rome by Romu¬
lus to appeafe the manes of his brother Remus. They
were afterwards called Lemuria, and celebrated yearly.
REMUS, the brother of Romulus, was expofed to¬
gether with his brother, by the cruelty of his grandfa¬
ther. In the conteft which happened between the two
brothers about building a city, Romulus obtained the
preference, and Remus, for ridiculing the rifing walls,
was put to death by his brother’s orders, or by Romulus
himfelf (fee Romulus). The Romans were affli&ed
with a plague after this murder; upon which the oracle
was confulted, and the manes of Remus appeafed by the
inftitution of the Remuria.
RENAL, fomething belonging to the reins or Kid¬
neys.
RENCOUNTER, in the military art, the encoun¬
ter of two little bodies or parties of forces. In which
fenfe rencounter is ufed in oppofition to a pitched bat¬
tle.
Rencounter, in fingle combats, is ufed by wav of
contradiftin£lion
[ 7‘6 1
Re»«
Rent
(hi
(j) ThJs 'vas t^ie ca^e at a ver7 remote period; but it is otherwife at prefent, owing to the PRECESSION of
the Equinoxes. See that article.
$
REN [7
Rencounter contradiftin&ion to duel.—When two perfons fall out
II and fight on the foot without having premeditated the
Renfrew- a 
thire.
combat, it is called a rencounter.
RENDEZVOUS, or Rendevous, a place appoint¬
ed to meet in at a certain day and hour.
RENDSBURG, the frontier town in Holftein, is
regularly built, and better fortified than any in the Da-
nifii dominions. It is fituated on a canal which runs
from the Baltic. This is a work of confiderable com¬
mercial confequence, and deferves to be particularly no¬
ticed. It has its fource three miles north of Keil, form¬
ing the boundary of Holftein and Slefwick, and by
means of it ftrips of 140'tons can come up from the Bal¬
tic. This canal was begun in 1777, and it is intended
to make it ftretch acrofs the whole peninfula, the utility
of which will be clearly perceived by all thofe who are
acquainted with the value of inland navigation. Rendf-
burg is a place of confiderable trade, and contains about
2800 inhabitants, including the garrifon which is ufu-
ally ftationed there.
RENEALMIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
inonandria cla&. See Botany Index.
RENEGADE, or Renegado, a perfon who has
apoftatized or renounced the Chriftian faith to embrace
fome other religion, particularly Mahometanifm.
RENFREW, a royal borough, and the county town
of Renfrewftiire, fituated not far from the fouth bank of
the Clyde, about five miles weft from Glafgow, and three
north from Paiftey. It has only one narrow ftreet half
a mile long, and its trade is inconfiderable, though fa¬
vourably fituated for commerce. The river Clyde having
fhifted its bed, a canal was formed in it>, by which veffels
of 2oo tons burden can come up to the town during
fpring tides. The manufafture of thread has been long
carried on here, and that of foap and candles to a great
extent. Many looms are conftantly employed in the fa¬
brication of fiik and mufiin. In the year 1164 it be¬
came memorable for a battle between Somerled thane of
Argyle and Gilchrift earl of Angus, in which the former
was defeated. King Robert II. made it a royal borough ;
and charters were afterwards granted to it by James VI.
and Queen Anne. Its political conftitution confifts of
a provoft, two bailies, and 16 counfellors, who have the
management of about 360I. of annual revenue, arifing
from lands,, falmon fifhing, &c. In the year 1791 the
population amounted to 1628. The foil confifts of clay,
fand, and rich loam, the latter of which is the moft pre¬
dominant. The whole of the land is enclofed and well
cultivated. It is a place of very great antiquity, as we
find mention is made of it in the chartularies of the ab-
bevs of Dunfermline and Paifley.
RENFRE WSHIRE, a fmall but populous county of
Scotland, bounded on the fouth-weft by the hills which
run along the northern part of Avrfhire ;• towards the
weft and north by the river Clyde, and on the eaft by
Lanarkfhire. It is'rather level along the north eaft and
north part of it *, and it has few hills which rife to any
confiderable height. But the fummits of Balagieh and
Dun ware, in the parifh of Eagleftiam, are about 1000
feet above the level of the fea.
The waters of Renfrewftiire are not extenfive, but
i7 ] KEN
human induftry has rendered them of confiderable ini- Rentrew
portance; and they are rather employed to turn fome , 1 “rc‘
vaft water wheel or other pieces of machinery, than to
give variety to the beauties of a park, or to pleafe the
eye with the romantic fcenery which nature fometimes
delights to difplay. The chief rivers are the White
and Black Carts, and the Grief, which ultimately form
a jun&ion and difcharge themfelves into the Clyde be¬
low Inchinnan bridge.
The number of lakes in this county is increafed for
the purpofe of colledling water to give motion to the
machinery of cotton mills, or to anlwer the demands of
extenfive bleach fields.
The general appearance of this county is favourable
to agriculture, the population being very extenfive, and
the inclofures numerous, while manure in abundance is
obtained from the neighbouring towns. Commerce and
manufadlures have been fo often fuccefsfully purfued,
producing great and fudden riches, that in a greater or
lefs degree they occupy the attention of almoft every
individuaL Although a confiderable part of it might
be conftantly kept with advantage under arable crops,
yet fo extenfive is the demand for the produdls of the
dairy, that a very large proportion of the foil is perpe¬
tually kept in grafs. With refpeft to crops, potatoes
generally conftilute a part of every rotation. 1 his is
the ufual arrangement: Oats from grafs j potatoes or
barley dunged j oats, with five pounds of red clover and
3 firlots of rye-grafs 5 hay for two years ; pafture.
The proprietors of land in this county have ihewn a
laudable zeal for the making of excellent roads, which
are conftantly kept in the beft repair, and fteelyards are
fixed at every toll-bar to prevent carts from being over¬
loaded ; 15 cwt. being allowed in the vicinity of Paiftey
as the load for a cart with one horfe.
The mineral produ&ions are not very extenfive, but
they are very abundant in the vicinity of Paiftey. No
coal has been met with near Greenock or Port Glaf¬
gow ; but what is called ofmund Jlone is found in the
parifhes of Eagle (ham and Kilbarchan, fo very foft at
firft that it may be cut with a chifel, but it becomes
much harder by expofure to the air. It is of various co¬
lours; breaks in every direftion ; readily abforbs water ;
and if recently heated in the fire, the abforption is ac¬
companied with a biffing noife. There are two mineral
fprings in the fame vicinity of Eaglefham ; the one poB
felling a purgative quality, and the other is regarded
as a remedy for what is called the moor-ill in black
cattle.
The moft remarkable field of minerals is in the vici¬
nity of Paiftey ; the moft lingular being the coal at
Quarreltown, upwards of 30 feet thick, confifting of five
ftrata in contaft with each other (a). The Hurlet coal,
belonging to Lord Glafgow, about three miles fouth-eafi:
of Paiftey, is five feet three inches thick, and fuppofed
to have been wrought for more than two centuries. In¬
flammable air and fixed air are met with in this mine,
but from the precautions adopted accidents are not fo
frequent as might otherwife be apprehended. The coal¬
mines of Hurlet have for a long time afforded the ma¬
terials for a copperas manufa'Rory on a fmall fcale; and
one
(a) For a detailed account of this Angular mafs of coal, the reader is referred to the Appendix to Williams’s
Mineral Kingdom, by Dr Millar, 2 vols, 8vo, 1809,
Renfrew.
fhire.
REN [ 7'8 ] REN
one of the moft extenfive manufa&ories of alum in Bri¬
tain has been eftabliftied and fuccefsfully carried on by a
fpirited and enterprifingcompany, for feveral years patt,
at the fame place. Coal is aH'o found in the upper part
of the county, as in the parilh of Cathcart, and alfo not
far from Renfrew. Limeftone is abundant in many parts
of the county, as in the parirti of Cathcart; and at Lord
Glafgow’s coal work at Hurlet, it forms a very confi-
derable ftratum covering the coal. But one of the moft
remarkable maffes of limeftone is found at the entrance
to a romantic glen called Glenniffer, three miles to the
fbuth of Paifley. The limeftone is in a mafs of about
jo feet thick, dips to the centre, and is wrought by dri¬
ving mines under a thick mafs of whinftone which co¬
vers it. Ironftone is alfo abundant along with the coal
ftrata in fome parts of the county.
The ruins of an old caftle, called the Peel, to which
the lairds of Semple retreated in times of imminent dan¬
ger, are ftill to be feen in an ifland of Caftle Semple
loch ; and the ruins of the callle of Newark, lower
down the country, are even at this day deferving of at¬
tention. They are lofty, and have ftill an air of magni¬
ficence, and fome parts of it were inhabited about half
a century ago. It is fituated on the eaftern part of the
bay containing the town and harbour of Port Glafgow
and Newark. This caftle is very ancient, is the pro¬
perty of Lord Belhaven, but when it was erected cannot
be fully afcertained. Mearns Caftle, another ruin, ftands
in the fouth-eaft part of the county near the village and
church of the fame name. Crookftone Caftle is fituated
about three miles to the fouth-eaft of Paifley. 1 he
ftrong pofition and commanding profpeft of this magni¬
ficent ruin muft have rendered it a favourite refidenee of
the powerful family of Lennox, to whom it originally
belonged. Near the caftle there is a yew tree, venera¬
ble from its antiquity, but ftill more fo, according to the
legendary lore of the country, as having afforded its
ftiade to the unfortunate (^ueen Mary and her equally
unfortunate hufband Darnley. If this be true, the faid
tree is not lefs than three centuries old.
There are four cups in the parifh of Kilmacolm which
were ufed by the celebrated reformer John Knox at the
difpenfation of the Lord’s fupper. They are formed of
the pureft filver, and feem to have been originally in¬
tended for candlefticks, although neceflity converted
them into communion cups. This facred ufe of them,
joined to their antiquity, makes them much efteemed by
the people at large.
Renfrew is the only royal borough in this county, a
privilege w'hich was conferred upon it by Robert Bruce.
It eleifts a member of parliament along with Glafgow7,
Dunbarton, and Rutherglen.
The other towns are Paifley, Greenock, Port Glaf¬
gow , and fome of fmaller note, as Kilbarchan, Loch-
winnoch, Neilfton, Gourock, and Auldkirk. Among
thefe deferves alfo to be mentioned Johnfton, which
within a period of little more than 20 years has become
a large town, owing to the progrefs and profperity of the
cotton manufacture.
The manufacture of filk gauze-was introduced into
Paifley about the year 1760, in imitation of that of
Spittalfields in London ; experiencing at firft many dif¬
ficulties to which new inventions are very frequently ex-
pofed. Patterns and defigns of fancy rvorks were ori¬
ginally compofed at Paris j but the manufacturers at
Paifley eftablifhed draughtfmen of their own, and the Renffew-
patterns thus executed were fent to London and Paris in
order to be approved of. By means of induftry and ge- . ei^nes*
nius properly encouraged, the moft curious fabrics came
to be devifed; and the vaft variety of elegant and
highly ornamented gauze manufactured here is allowed
to be fuperior to every thing of the kind which had for¬
merly made its appearance. Even London itfelf was
obliged to relinquiih this manufacture ; merchants from
the metropolis came to carry it on at Paifley , and
warehoufes were opened in London, in Dublin, and Pa¬
ris for vending their commodities. We formerly faid
that Paifley muft contain upwards of 25,000 inhabitants
(fee Paisley) ; but wre have fince feen a more recent
computation, by which they are ftated at upwards of
31,000.
The whole population of Renfrewfhire amounted ta
78,000 in 1801, of which Paifley alone contains much
more than a third. In the year J 755 the population of
this county was 26,645, 'B3*- *n ^ie courfe of half a
century it has been nearly tripled. T he following table
exhibits a view of the. population of each parifh accord¬
ing to the reports communicated to the Statiftical Hif*
tory of Scotland.
Pari/hes.
I Cathcart
Eagle (liam
Eaftwood
Erfkine
5 Greenock
Houfton
Inchinnan
Innerkip
Kilbarchan
10 Kilmacolm
Lochwinnoch
Mearns
Neilfton
Paifley, town
15 Ditto, Abbey parifh
Port Glafgow
17 Renfrew
Population
in 1755-
499
1103
1142
829
3858
947
347
1590
1485
1495
J53°
886
1299
4290
2509
1695
1091
Population in
179c—179S.
697
JOCO
2642
808 -
1 ?,ooo
1034
306
1280
2506
951
2613
1430
233°
13,800
10,792
4036
1628
26,645
62,853
26,645
Increafe 36,208
RENNES, a town of France, in Bretagne, and ca¬
pital of that province. Before the revolution it had a
bifhop’s fee, two abbeys, a parliament, and a mint. It
is very populous •, the houfes are fix or feven ftories
high, and the fuburbs of larger extent than the town
itfelf. The cathedral church is large, and the parlia-
ment-houfe a handfome ftru&ure. The great fquare
belonging to it is furrounded with handfome houfes.
There is a tower, formerly a pagan temple, which now
contains the town clock. It is feated on the river Vil-
laine, which divides it into two parts, and was anciently
fortified, but the walls are now in ruins, and the ditch
nearly filled up. The fiege of the city by Edward III.
king of England is very celebrated in hiftory. I he
Englifh and Breton army confifted of 40,000 men *, and
neverthelefs, after having remained before it fix months,
were
Be]*
‘—1
I Id
0
ttCu
/"•
Reprifals
II
Repertory.
* Lf tires']
Edifimtes
et Curieu-
fes.
HEP [71
were obliered to retire without fuccefs. E. Lone. o. 25.
N. Lat. 48. 7.
RENNET. See RunneT.
RENT, in Zrtiy, a fum of money, or other confidera-
tion, iiTuing yearly out of lands or tenements.
REN FERING, in the manufactories, the fame with
fine-drawing. It confifts in fewing two pieces of cloth
edge to edge, without doubling them, fo that the feam
fearcely appe&rsj and hence it is denominatedJine-draw-
ing. It is a French word meaning the fame thing, and
is derived from the Latin retrahere, of re, in, and tra-
here, becaufe the feam is drawn in or covered. We are
told *, that in the Eatt Indies, if a piece of fine muflin
be torn and afterwards mended by the fine drawers, it
will be impolhble to difeover where the rent was. In
this country the dexterity of the fine-drawers is not fo
great as that of thofe in the eaft j but it is {fill fuch as
to enable them to defraud the revenue, by fewing a head
or flip of Englilh cloth on a piece of Dutch, Spanifh, or
other foreign cloth j or a flip of foreign cloth on a
piece of Englilh, fo as to pafs the whole as of a piece,
and by that means avoid the duties, penalties, &c. The
trick was difeovered in France by M. Savary.
Rentering, in tapeftry, is the working new warp
into a piece of damaged tapeftry, whether eaten by the
rats or otherwife deftroyed, and on this warp to reftore
the ancient pattern or defign. The warp is to be of
woollen, not linen. Among the titles of the French
tapeftry-makers is included that of renterers. Fine-
drawing is particularly ufed for a rent or hole, which
happens in dreffing or preparing a piece of cloth artfully
fewed up or mended with filk. All fine-drawings are
reckoned defefts or blemilhes, and fhould be allowed
for in the price of the piece.
RENVERSE, Inverted, in Heraldry, is when any
thing is fet with the head downwards, or contrary to its
natural way of Handing. Thus, a chevron renverfe is a
chevron with the point downwards. They ufe alfo the
fame term when a beaft is laid on its back.
RENUNCIATION, the a£t of renouncing, abdi¬
cating, or relinquifhing, any right, real or pretended.
REPARTEE, a fmart, ready reply, efpeeially in
matters of wit, humour, or raillery. See Raillery.
REPEALING, in Law, the revoking or annulling
of a ftatute or the like.
No a£I of parliament ftiall be repealed the fame feffion
in which it was made. A deed or will may be repealed
in part, and ftand good for the reft. It is held that a
pardon of felony may be repealed on difproving the fug-
geftion thereof.
REPELLENTS, in Medicine, remedies which are
fuppofed to drive back a morbid humour into the mafs
of blood, from whence it was unduly fecreted.
REPENTANCE, in general, means forrow for any
thing paft. In theology it means fuch a forrow for fin
as produces nevvnefs of life, or fuch a conviction of the
evil and danger of a finful courfe as is fufficient to pro¬
duce ftiame and forrow in the review of it, and effectual
refolutions of amendment. In this fenfe the evangelical
writers ufe pirctp.i'KuoL and (AiTxvomi. See PENITENCE
and Theology.
REPERCUSSION, m Mufic, a frequent repetition
of the fame found.
REPERTORY, a place wherein things are orderly
difpofed, fo as to be eafily found when wanted. The
fhowing where the Repertory
Common-place books R(,,Jevy
9 1 R E
indices of books are repertories,
matters fought for are treated of.
are alfo kinds of repertories.
REPETEND, in Arithmetic, fignifies that part of
an infinite decimal fraftion, which is continually repeat¬
ed Thus in the numbers 2. 13 ^ T3&c.
the figures 13 are the repetend and marked thus 1 3.
Thefe repetends chiefly arife in the redu&ion of vulgar
fractions to decimals. Thus, y=ro.333
REPETITION, the reiterating of an aCtion.
Repetition, in Mufic, denotes a reiterating or play¬
ing over again the fame part of a compofition, whether
it be a whole ftrain, part of a ftrain, or double ft rain,
&c.
When the fong ends with a repetition of the fir ft
ftrain, or part of it, the repetition is denoted by da
capo, or D C. i. e. “ from the beginning.”
Repetition, in Rhetoric, a figure which gracefully
and emphatically repeats either the fame word, or the
fame fenfe in different words. See Oratory, N° 67
—80.
The nature and defign of this figure is to make deep
impreflions on thofe rve addrefs. It expreffes anger and
indignation, full affurance of what we affirm, and a ve¬
hement concern for what we have efpouled.
RE PH I DIM, in Ancient Geography, a ftation of the
Ifraelites near Mount Horeb, where they murmurtxl for
want of water; when Mofes was ordered to finite the
rock Horeb, upon which it yielded water. Here Jo-
ffiua difeomfited the Amalekites. This rock, cut of
which Mofes brought water, is a ftone of a prodigious
height and thicknefs, rifing out of the ground; on two
fides of which are feveral holes, by which the water ran.
(Thevenot).
REPLEGIARE, in Law, fignifies to redeem a
thipg taken or detained by another, by putting in legal
fureties.
Dil homine REPLEGIANDO. See Homine.
REPLEVIN, in Law, a remedy granted on a di-
ftrefs, by which the firft poffeffor has his goods reftored
to him again, on his giving fecurity to the ftieriff that
he will purfue his aftion againft the party diftraining,
and return the goods or cattle if the taking them (hall
be adjudged lawful.
In a replevin the perfon diftrained becomes plaintiff;
and the perfon diftraining is called the defendant ox avow¬
ant, and his juftification an avowery.
At the common law replevins are by writ, either out
of the king’s-bench or common-pleas; but by ftatute,
they are by plaint in the ffieriff’s court, and court-ba¬
ron, for a perfon’s more fpeedily obtaining the goods
diftrained.
If a plaint in replevin be removed into the court of
king’s bench, &c. and the plaintiff makes default and
becomes non-fuited, or judgment is given againft him,
the defendant in replevin (hall have the writ of retorno
hahendo of the goods taken in diftrefs. See the next
article.
REPLEVY, in Imw, is a tenant’s bringing a writ of
replevin, or replegiarifacias, where his goods are taken
by diftrefs for rent; which muft be done within five days
after the diftrefs, otherwife at the five days end they are
to be appraifed and fold.
This word is alfo ufed for bailing a perfon, as in the
cafe of a homine replegando.
REPORT,.
REP
Report REPORT, the relation made upon oath, by officers
II or perfons appointed to vifit, examine, or eftimate the
Rrpneie. ^ate^ eXp6nces, &c. of any thing. . . .
v Report, in Law, is a public relation of caies judici¬
ally argued, debated, refolved, or adjudged in any of the
king’s courts of juftice, with the caufes and realons of
the fame, as delivered by the judges. Alfo when the
• court of chancery, or any other court, refers the dating
of a cafe, or the comparing of an account, to a mafter
of chancery, or other referee, his certificate thereon is
called a report.
REPOSE, in Foetry, &c. the fame with relt and
-paufe. See Rest, &c.
Repose, in Painting, certain maffes or large affiem-
blages of light and ffiade, which being well condufted,
prevented the confulion of objects and figures, by enga¬
ging and fixing the eye fo as it cannot attend to the
other parts of the painting for fome time •, and thus lead¬
ing it to confider the feveral groups gradually, proceed¬
ing as it were from ftage to ftage.
REPRESENTATION, in the drama, the exhibi¬
tion of a theatrical piece, together with the fcenes, ma-
• cliincry'j ^£.c#
REPRESENTATIVE, one who perfonates or fup-
plies the place of another, and is invefted with his right
.and authority. Thus the houfe of commons are the re-
prefentatives of the people in parliament. See Commons
and Parliament.
REPRIEVE, in Criminal Law, (from repremlre, “ to
take back”) is the withdrawing of a fentence for an in¬
terval of time \ whereby the execution is fufpended. See
Judgment.
filackft. This may be, firft, ex arbitrio judicis, either before or
Comment, after judgment: as, where the judge is not fatisfied with
the verdift, or the evidence is fufpicious, or the indict¬
ment is infufficient, or he is doubtful whether the of¬
fence be within clergy: or fometimes if it be a fmall
felony, or any favourable circumftances appear in the
criminal’s character, in order to give room to apply to
the crown for either an abfolute or conditional pardon.
Thefe arbitrary reprieves may be granted or taken off
by the juftices of gaol-delivery, although their feffion
be finifhed, and their commiffion expired : but this ra¬
ther by common ufage than of ftriCt right.
Reprieves may alfo be ex necejjitate legis : as where
a woman is capitally conviCted, and pleads her preg¬
nancy. Though this is no caufe to ftay judgment, yet
it is to refpite the execution till ffie be delivered. This
is a mercy dictated by the law of nature, in favor em pro-
lis ; and therefore no part of the bloody proceedings in
the reign of Queen Mary hath been more juftly deteft-
ed, than the cruelty that was exercifed in the ifland of
Guernfey, of burning a woman big with child j and,
when through the violence of the flame the infant
fprang forth at the flake, and was preferved by the by-
ftanders, after fome deliberations of the priefts who af-
fifted at the facrifice, they caft it into the fire as a young
heretic. A barbarity which they never learned from
the laws of ancient Rome ; which direCt, with the fame
humanity as our own, quodprccgnantis mulieris damnatce
poena differatur, quoadpariat: which doCtrine has alfo
prevailed in England, as early as the firft memorials of
our laws will reach. In cafe this plea be made in ftay
of execution, the judge muft direCt a jury of twelve ma¬
trons or difcreet women to inquire into the faCt: and
REP
if they bring in their verdiCt quick with child (for bare- Reprieve W
ly with child, unlefs it be alive in the womb, is not fuf- R<*prifals.
ficient), execution fhall be ftaid generally till the next
feffion ; and fo from feffion to feffion, till either fhe is
delivered, or proves by the courfe of nature not to have
been with child at all. But if fhe once hath had the
benefit of this reprieve, and been delivered, and after¬
wards becomes pregnant again., fhe fhall not be intitled
to the benefit of a farther refpite for that caufe. For
fhe may now be executed before the child is quick in the
womb •, and ffiall not, by her own incontinence, evade
the fentence of juftice.
Another caufe of regular reprieve is, if the offender
become non compos between the judgment and the award
of execution : for regularly, though a man be compos
w'hen he commits a capital crime, yet if he becomes
non compos after, he fhall not be indidted ; if after in-
didtment, he fhall not be convidted ; if after convidtion,
he fhall not receive judgment j if after judgment, he
fhall not be ordered for execution : for furiqfus folo fu¬
rore punitur ; and the law knows not but he might have
offered fome reafon, if in his fenfes, to have flayed thefe
refpedtive proceedings. It is therefore an invariable
rule, when any time intervenes between the attainder
and the award of execution, to demand of the prifoner
what he hath to allege why execution fhould not be
awarded againft him ; and, if he appears to be infane,
the judge in his difcretion may and ought to reprieve
him. Or, the party may plead in bar of execution ;
which plea may be either pregnancy, the king’s par¬
don, an adt of grace, or diverfity of perfon, viz. that
he is not the fame that was attainted, and the like. In
this cafe a jury fhall be impanelled to try this colla¬
teral iffue, namely, the identity of his perfon ; and not
whether guilty or innocent, for that has been decided
before. And in thefe collateral iffues the trial fhall be
injlanter; and no time allowed the prifoner to make his
defence or produce his witneffes, unlefs he will make
oath that he is not the perfon attainted : neither fhall
any peremptory challenges of the jury be allowed the
prifoner, though formerly fuch challenges were held to
be allowable whenever a man’s life was in queftion. If
neither pregnancy, infanity, non-identity, nor other plea,
will avail to avoid the judgment, and ftay the execution
confequent thereupon, the laft and fureft refort is in the
king’s molt gracious pardon ; the granting of which is
the moft amiable prerogative of the crown. See the ar¬
ticle Pardon.
REPRISALS, a right which princes claim of ta¬
king from their enemies any thing equivalent to what
they unjuftly detain from them or their fubjedts. For
as the delay of making war may fometimes be detri¬
mental to individuals who have fuffered by depredations
from foreign potentates, our laws have in fome refpedts
armed the fubjedt with powers to impel the preroga¬
tive $ by diredting the minifters of the crown to iffue
letters of marque and reprifal upon due demand : the
prerogative of granting which is nearly related to, and
plainly derived from, that other of making war j this
being indeed only an incomplete flate of hoftilities, and
generally ending in a formal denunciation of war. Thefe
letters are gran table by the law of nations, whenever the
fubjedts of one Hate are oppreffed and injured by thofe
of another •, and juftice is denied by that ftate to which
the oppreffor belongs. In this cafe letters of marque
[ 720 1
Reprifal,
Reproba¬
tion-
REP [72
and reprlfal (words ufed as fynonymous j and fignify-
ing, the latter a taking in return, the former the pafling
the frontiers in order to fuch taking) may be obtained,
' in order to feize the bodies or goods of the fubjefts of
the offending date, until fatisfaftion be made, where-
ever they happen to be found. And indeed this cuftom
of reprifals feems diftated by nature herfelf j for which
reafon we find in the mod ancient times very notable
indances of it. But here the neceflity is obvious of
calling in the fovereign power, to determine when re¬
prifals may be made j elfe every private fufferer would
be a judge in his own caufe. In purfuance of which
principle, it is with us declared by the dat. 4 Hen. V.
e. 7. that, if any fubje&s of the realm are oppretfed in
time of truce by any foreigners, the king will grant
marque in due form, to all that feel themfelves grieved.
Which form is thus direfted to be obferved : the fufferer
mud fird apply to the lord privy-feal, and he (hall make
out letters of requed under the privy-feal; and if after
fuch requed of fatisfa&ion made, the party required do
not within convenient time make due fatisfaflion or re-
ftitution to the party grieved, the lord chancellor diall
make him out letters of marque under the great feal $
and by virtue of thefe he may attack and feize the pro¬
perty of the aggredor nation, without hazard of being
condemned as a robber or pirate.
Reprisal, or Recaption, is a fpecies of remedy al¬
lowed to an injured perfon. This happens when any
one has deprived another of his property in goods or
chattels perfonal, or wrongfully detains one’s wife, child,
or fervant : in which cafe the owner of the goods, and
the hufband, parent, or matter, may lawfully claim and
retake them, wherever he happens to find them ; fo it
be not in a riotous manner, or attended with a breach
of the peace. The reafon for this is obvious; fince it
may frequently happen that the owner may have this
only opportunity of doing himfelf juftice : his goods
may be afterwards conveyed away or deftroyed : and
his wife, children, or fervants, concealed or carried out
of his reach if he had no fpeedier remedy than the or¬
dinary procefs of law. If therefore he can fo contrive
it as to gain poflefiion of his property again, without
force ux terror, the law favours and will juftify his pro¬
ceeding. But, as the public peace is a fuperior con-
iideration to any one man’s private property; and as, if
individuals were once allowed to ufe private force
as a remedy for private injuries, all focial juftice mutt
ceafe, the ftrong would give law to the weak, and
every man would revert to a ftate of nature ", for thefe
reafons it is provided, that this natural right of recap¬
tion ttiall never be exerted, where fuch exertion mutt
occafion ftrife and bodily contention, or endanger the
peace of fociety. If, for inftance, my horfe is taken
away, and I find him in a common, a fair, or a public
inn, I may lawfully feize him to my own ufe ; but I
cannot juftify breaking open a private liable, or entering
on the grounds of a third perfon, to take him, except
he be felonioufly ftolen j but mull have recourfe to an
aclion at law.
REPROBATION, in Theology, means the aft of
abandoning, or ftate of being abandoned, to eternal de-
ftruftion *, and is applied to that decree or refolve which
God has taken from all eternity to punilh finners who
ft)all die in impenitence ; in which fenfe it is direftly
oppofed to election. When a finner is fo hardened as to
Vol. XVII. Part II.
1 1
feel
REP
noremorfe or mifgiving of confcience,it isconfidered R-eprob;*
as a fign of reprobation ; which by the cafuifts has been ^'
diftinguiftied into pofitive and negative. The firft is that t;on
whereby God is fuppofed to create men with a pofitive u—,
and abfolute refolution to damn them eternally. This
opinion is countenanced by St Auguftine and other
Chriftian fathers, and is a peculiar tenet of Calvin and
mod of his followers The church of England, in The
thirty-nine Articles, teaches fomething like it; and the
church of Scotland, in the ConfeJJion of Faith, maintains
it in the ftrongeft terms. But the notion is generally
exploded, and is believed by no rational divine in either
church, being totally injurious to the juftice of the Deity.
Negative or conditional reprobation is that whereby God.
though he has a fincere delire to fave men, and furnifties
them with the neceflary means, fo that, all if they will
may be faved, yet fees that there are many who will not
be laved by the means, however powerful, that are af¬
forded them ; though by other means which the Deity-
fees, but will not afford them, they might be faved.
Reprobation refpefts angels as well as men, and refpi dls
the latter either fallen or unfallen. See Predestina¬
tion.
REPRODUCTION is ufually underftcod to mean
the reftoration of a thing before exiiling, and fince de¬
ftroyed. It is very well known that trees and plants
may be raifed from flips and cuttings; and fome late ob-
fervations have Ihown, that there are fome animals which
have the fame property. The polype * w'as the firft in- * See Fe-
ftance we had of this ^ but ive had fcarce time to WQn-’ypui-
der at the difeovery Mr Trombley had made, when Mr
Bonnet difeovered the fame property in a fpecies of wa¬
ter-worm. Amongft the plants which may be raifed from
cuttings, there are fome which feem to poffefs this quality
in fo eminent a degree, that the fmalleft portioir of them
will become a complete tree again.
It deferves inquiry, whether or not the great Author
of nature, when he ordained that certain infedls, as thefe
polypes and worms, ftiould referable thofe plants in that
particular, allowed them this pow'er of being reproduced
in the fame degree ? or, which is the fame thing, whe¬
ther this reproduction will or will not take place in what¬
ever part the worm is cut ? In order to try this, Mr
Bonnet entered on a courfe of many experiments on the
water-worms which have this property. Thefe are, at
their common growth, from two to three inches long,
and of a brownith colour, with a call of reddifh. From
one of thefe worms he cut off the head and tail, taking
from each extremity only a fmnll piece of a twelfth of an
inch in length 5 but neither of thefe pieces were able to
reproduce what was wanting. They both perifhed in
about 24 hours ; the tail firft, and afterwards the head.
As to the body of the worm fcom which thefe pieces were
feparated, it lived as well as before, and feemed indeed
to fuffer nothing by the lofs, the head-part being imme¬
diately ufed as if the head was thereon, boring the crea¬
ture’s way into the mud. There are, befides this, two
other points in which the reproduction will not take place;
the one of thefe is about the fifth or fixth ring from the
head, and the other at the fame diftance from the tail ;
and in all probability the condition of the great artery
in thefe parts is the caufe of this.
What is faid of the want of the reproductive power
of thefe parts relates only to the head and tail ends ;
for as to the body, it feels very little inconvenience from
4 Y the
REP t 722 ] R E P
Reproduc- the lofs of what is taken ofF, and very ipeedily repro-
tion. f]uces th0fe parts. Where then does the principle of
1 ' life refide in fueh worms, which, after having their
heads cut off, will have not only the fame motions but
even the inclinations, that they had before? and yet
this difficulty is very fmall, compared to feveral others
which at the fame time offer themfelves to our reafon.
Is this wonderful reprodnflion of parts only a natural
eonfetjuence of the laws of motion ? or is there lodged
in the’body of the creature a chain of minute buds or
{hoots, a fort of little embryos, already formed and pla¬
ced in fuoli parts where the reproductions are to begin ?
Are thefe worms only mere machines ? or are they,
like more perfeft animals, a fort of compound, the
fprings of whofe motions are aftuated or regulated by a
fort of foul ? And if they have themfelves fuch a prin¬
ciple, how is it that this principle is multiplied, and is
found in every feparate piece ? Is it to be granted, that
there are in thefe worms, not a fingle foul (if it is to
be fo called) in each, but that each contains as many
fouls as there are pieces capable of reproducing perfed
animals ? Are we to believe with Malpighi, that thefe
forts of worms are all heart and brain from one end to
the other! This may be $ but yet if we knew that it
was fo, we fhould know in readily but very little the
more for knowing it: and it feems, after all, that in
cafes of this kind we are only to admire the works of
the great Creator, and fit down in filence.
The nice fenfe of feeling in fpiders has been much
talked of by naturalifts*, but it appears that thefe worms
have yet fomewhat more furprifing in them in regard
to this particular. If a piece of flick, or any other
fubffance, be brought near them, they do not flay for
its touching them, but begin to leap and frilk about as
foon as it comes towards them. There want, however,
feme farther experiments to afeertain whether this be
really owing to feeling or to fight •, for though we can
difeover no diftinft organs of fight in thefe creatures,
yet they feera affefied by the light of the fun or a
candle, and always frilk about in the fame manner at
the approach of either ; nay, even the moon-light has
foine effe£f upon them.
A twig of willow, poplar, or many other trees, being
planted in the earth, takes root, and becomes a tree,
every piece of which will in the fame manner produce
other trees. The cafe is the fame with thefe worms:
they are cut in pieces, and thefe feveral pieces become
perfect animals •, and each of thefe may be again cut
into a number of pieces, each of which will in the fame
manner produce an animal. It had been fuppofed by
fome that thefe worms were oviparous : but Mr Bon¬
net, on cutting one of them to pieces, having obferved
a ilender fubftance, refembling a fmall filament, to move
at the end of one of thefe pieces, feparated it; and on
examining it with glaffes, found it to be a perfect worm,
of the fame form with its parent, which lived and grew
larger in a vefiel of water into which he put it. Thefe
fmall bodies are eafily divided, and very readily complete
themfelves again, a day ufually ferving for the produc¬
tion of a head to the part that wants one j and, in ge¬
neral, the fmaller and llenderer the worms are, the foon-
cr they complete themfelves after this operation. When
the bodies of the large worms are examined by the mi-
crofcope, it is very eafy to fee the appearance of the
young worms alive, and moving about within them :
5
but it requires greater precifion and exaflnefs to be eer- Rcprodae. ftepn
tain of this; finee the ramifications of the great artery t‘on- tic
have very much the appearance of young worms, and E<p
they are kept in a fort of continual motion by the fy- ! ^
Holes and diaftoles of the feveral portions of the artery,
which ferve as fo many hearts. It is very certain, that
what we force in regard to thefe animals by our opera¬
tions, is done alfo naturally every day in the brooks and
ditches where they live. A curious obferver will find
in thefe places many of them without heads or tails, and
fome without either j as alfo other fragments of various
kinds, all which are then in the add of completing them¬
felves : but whether accidents have reduced them to
this (late, or they thus purpofely throw off parts of their
own body for the reproduftion of more animals, it is
not eafy to determine. They are plainly liable to many
accidents, by which they lofe the feveral parts of their
body, and muft perilk very early if they had not a power
of reproducing what was loft : they often are broken
into two pieces, by the refiftance of fome hard pieces of
mud which they enter 5 and they are fubjt<d to a difeafe,
a kind of gangrene, rotting off the feveral parts of their
bodies, and muft inevitably perifli by it, had they not
this furprifing property.
This worm was a fecond inftance, after the polype,
of the furprifing power in an animal of recovering its
molt effential parts when loft. But nature does not
feem to have limited her beneficence in this refpedit to
thefe two creatures. Mr Bonnet tried the fame expe¬
riments on another fpeeies of water-worm, dilfering from
the former in being much thicker. This kind of worm,
when divided in the funnner feafon, very often ftiows the
fame property : for if it be cut into two or three pieces,
the pieces will lie like dead for a long time,, but after¬
wards will move about again ; and will be found in this
ftate of reft to have recovered a head, Or a tail, or both.
After recovering their parts, they move very little ;
and, according to this gentleman’s experiments, feldom
live more than a month.
It ftiould feem, that the more difficult fuccefs of this
laft kind of worm, after cutting, and the long time it
takes to recover the loft parts, if it do recover them at
ail, is owing to its thicknefs *, fine© We always find in
that fpecies of worms which fucceeds beft of all, that
thofe which are thinneft always recover their parts much
fooner than the others.
1 he water-infe&s alfo are not the only creatures
which have this power of recovering their loft parts.
The earth affords us fome already discovered to grow in
this manner from their cuttings, and thefe not lefs de-
ferving our admiration than thofe of the water: the
common earth-worms are of this kind. Some of thefe
worms have been divided into two, others into three or
four pieces ; and fome of thefe pieces, after having paf-
fed two or three months without any appearance of life
or motion, have then begun to reproduce a head or tail,
or both. The reproduction of the anus, after fuch a
date of reft, is no long work ; a few days do it: but it
is otherwife with the head, that does not feem to per¬
form its functions in the divided pieces till about feven
months after the reparation. It is to be obferved, that
in all thefe operations both on earth and water-worms^
the hinder part fuffers greatly more than the fore part
in the cutting j for it always twills itfelf about a long
time, as if aCluated by ftrong convulfioas j whereas the
head
REP r 723 ] re P
Reptiles.
'Repvocluc- head ufually crawls away without the appearance of any
tion, great uneafinefs.
The reproduction of feveral parts of lobfters, crabs,
&c. makes alfo one of the great curiofities in natural
hiftory. That, in lieu of an organical part of an ani¬
mal broken off, another (hall rife perfectly like it, may
feem inconfiftent with the modern fyftem of generation,
where the animal is fuppofed to be wholly formed in
the egg. Yet Ins the matter of fad been well attefted
by the fi(hermen, and even by feveral virtuofos who have
taken the point into examination, particularly M. de
Reaumur and M. Perrault, whofe (kill and accuracy in
things of this nature will hardly be qucftioned. The
legs of loblters, &c. confiit each of five articulations:
now, when any of the legs happen to break by any ac¬
cident, as in walking, &c. which frequently happens,
the fraclure is always found to be in a part near the
fourth articulation; and what they thus lofe is precife-
ly reproduced fome time afterwards; that is, a part
of a leg (hoots out, confiding of four articulations, the
firll whereof has two claws as before ; fo that the lofs
is entirely repaired.
If a lobder’s leg be broken off by defign at the fourth
or fifth articulation, what is thus broken off always
comes again; but it is not fo if the frafture be made
in the fird, fecond, or third articulation. In thofe cafes,
the reproduftion is very rare if things continue as they
are. But what is exceedingly furprifing is, that they
do not; for, upon vifiting the lobder maimed in thefe
barren and unhappy articulations, at the end of two or
three days, all the other articulations are found broken
off to the fourth; and it isfufpeftcd they have perform¬
ed the operation on themfelves, to make the reproduc¬
tion of a leg certain.
The part reproduced is not only perfeftly like that
retrenched, but alfo, in a certain (pace of time, grows
equal to it. Hence it is that wre frequently fee lob-
ders, which have their two big legs unequal, and that
in all proportions. This (hows the fmaller leg to be a
new one.
A part thus reproduced being broken, there is a fe¬
cond reproduftion. The fummer, wjvich is the only
feafon of the year when the lobders eat, is the mod
favourable time for the reproduction. It is then per¬
formed in four or five weeks; whereas it takes up eight
or nine months in any other feafon. The fmalllegs are
fometimes reproduced, but more rarely, as well as more
(lowly, than the great ones: the horns do the fame.
The experiment is mod ealily tried on the common
crab.
REPTILES, in Natural HiJlonj, a kind of animals
denominated from their creeping or advancing on the
belly. Or reptiles are thofe animals, which, indead of
feet, red on one part of the body, while they advance
forward with the red. Such are earthworms, fnakes,
caterpillars, See. Indeed, mod of the reptiles have feet;
only thofe very {mail, and the legs (liort in proportion
to the bulk of the body.
Naturalids obferve a world of artful contrivance for
the motion of reptiles. Thus, particularly in the earth¬
worm, Ur Willis tells us, the whole body is only a chain
of annular mufcles; or, as Dr Derham fays, it is only
one continued fpiral mufcle, the orbicular fibres where¬
of being contracted, render each ring narrower and
longer than before; by which means it is enabled, like
the worm of an augre, to bore its pafiage into the
earth. Its reptile motion might alfo be explained by
a wire wound on a cylinder, which when (lipped off,
and one end extended and held fad, will bring the
other near to it. So the earthworm having (hot out
or extended his body (which is with a wreathing),
it takes hold by thefe fmall feet it hath, and fo con-
trafls the hinder part of its body. Dr Tyfon adds,
that when the forepart of the body is dretched out,
and applied to a plane at a didance, the hind part
relaxing and (liortening is eafily drawn towards it as a
centre.
Its feet are difpofed in a quadruple row the whole
length of the worm, with which, as with fo many hooks
it faftehs down fometimes this and fometimes that part
of the body to the plane, and at the fame time dretches
out or drags after it another.
The creeping of ferpents is effecled after a fomew hat
difterent manner; there being a difference in their druc-
ture, in that thefe lad have a compages of bones articu¬
lated together.
The body here is not drawn together, but as it were
complicated ; part of it being applied on the rough
ground, and the red ejaculated and Oiot from it, which
being fet on the ground in its turn, brings the other af¬
ter it. The fpine of the back varioully wreathed has
the fame effect in leaping, as the joints in the feet of
other animals; they make their leaps by means of muf¬
cles, and extend the plicae or folds. See Erpetology
and Ofhiology.
REPTILIA, the name of one of the orders of the
elafs amphibia, including tortoifes, frogs, lizards. See
Erpetology.
REPUBLIC, or Commonwealth, apopulardate or
government; or a nation where the people have the
government in their own hands. See Government,
Aristocracy, Democracy, and Monarchy.
REPUBLIC of Letters, a phrafe ufed collectively of
the whole body of the dudious and learned people/
RLPUDIATION, in the Civil Law, the aft of di¬
vorcing. See Divorce.
REPULSION, in PhjJics, that property of bodies
whereby they recede from each other, and, on certain
occafions, mutually avoid coming into contaft.
Repulsion, as well as attraction, has of late been
confidtred as one of the primary qualities of all matter,
and has been much ufed in explaining the phenomena
of nature: thus the particles of air, fire, (team, electric
(laid, &c. are all laid to have a repulfive power with
refpeft to one another.—That this is the cafe with the,
air, and vapour of all kinds, is certain; becaufe when
they are compreffed into a fmall fpace, they expand
with great force: but as to fire, light, and eleftricity,
our experiments fail; nay, the fuppofition of a repulfive
power among the particles of the eleftric fluid is incon-
fidend with the phenomena, as has been demondrated
under the article Electricity. Even in thofe fluids,
air and fleam, where a repulfive power mod manifelilv
exids, it is demonflrable that the repulfion cannot be a
priuiary quality, fince it can be increafed to a great de¬
gree by heat, and diminifiied by cold: but it is impof-
Able that & primary quality of matter can be increafed
or diminiChed by any external cireumflances whatever;
for whatever property depends upon external eircum-
ftancts, is not a primary but a fecondary one.—The re-
4 Y-2 pulfion
Reptiles
I!
Repulfion.
R E Q
[ 724 ]
E E 0,
Repulfion
I!
Kequefts.
Hlackjl.
Comment-
pulfion of eleSrifed bodies is explained under »rUcle
Ei reTRiciTY : that of others is lefs fubjeft to inveiti
gallon j and the moft that can be faid concerning it is
that in many cafes it feems to be the confequence of a
modification of fire, and in others ofeleancly.
REPUTATION means credit, honour, or the cna
racler of good ; and fince ive are deftined to live in lo-
ciety, is neceffary and ufeful more or lefs to every hu¬
man being. There is no man, except one who is over-
grown with pride and felf-conceit, or whofe aftions are
bad, but pays attention to his reputation, and wifties to
poffefs the good opinion of his neighbours or the world.
The love of reputation and of fame are moft powerful
fnrings of aftion j but though they^ proceed from the
fame principle, the means of attaining them, and the
effe&s of them, are not altogether the fame.
Many means indeed ferve equally to fupport the re¬
putation, and to increafe the fame, differing only in de¬
grees ; others, however, belong peculiarly either, to the
one or to the other. An honcft reputation is within the
reach of the bulk of mankind j it is obtained by the io-
cial virtues and the conftant pra&ice of the common du¬
ties of life. This kind of reputation indeed is neither
extenfive nor brilliant, but it is often the moft ufeful in
point of happinefs. Wit, talents, and genius, are the
neceffary requifites for fame *, but thofe advantages are
perhaps lefs real in their confequences than thofe arifmg
from a good reputation. What is of real ufe cofts little $
things rare and fplendid require the greateft labour to
procure, and yield perhaps a more ideal happinefs.
Fame can be poffeffed, comparatively fpeaking, but
by few individuals ; as it requires either very fuperior
abilities, fupported by great efforts, or very fortunate
circumftances. It is conftituted by the applaufe of man¬
kind, or at leaft by that of a fingle nation •, whilft repu¬
tation is of much lefs extent, and arifes from different
circumftances. That reputation which is founded on
deceit and artifice is never folid j and the moft honour¬
able will always be found to be the moft ufeful. Every
one mav fafely, and indeed ought to, afpire to the confi-
deration and praife due to his condition and merit; but
he who afpires to more, or who feeks it by diftioneft
means, will at length meet with contempt.
REQUEST, in Law, a fupplication or petition pre¬
ferred to a prince, or to a court of juftice •, begging re¬
lief in fome confcionable cafes where the common law
grants no immediate redrefs.
Court of Requests (curia requejitionum') was a court
of equity, of the fame nature with the court of chan¬
cery, but inferior to it; principally inftituted for the
relief of fuch petitioners as in confcionable cafes addref-
fed themfelves by fupplication to his maje.fty. Of this
court the lord privy-feal was chief judge, aflifted by the
mafters of requefts; and it had beginning about the 9
Hen. VII. according to Sir Julius Caefar’s traftate upon
this fubjedl : though Mr Gwyn, in his preface to his
Readings, faith it began from a eommiffion firft granted
by King Henry VIII. This court, having affumed
great power to itfelf, fo that it became burthenfome,
Mich, anno 40 and 41 £//». in the court of common-
pleas it was adjudged upon folemn argument, that
the court of requefts was no court of judicature, &c.
and by ftat. 16 and 17 Car. I. cap. 10. it was taken
away.
There are ftill courts of requefts, or courts of con-
fcience, conftituted in London and other trading and
populous diftri&s for the recovery of fmall debts. ^
The firft of thefe -was eftablifhed in London fo early
as the reign of Henry VIII. by an aft of their common
council ; which however was certainly infufficient for
that purpofe, and illegal, till confirmed by ftatute 3 Jac.
I. c. 15. which has fince been explained and amended
by ftatute 14 Geo. II. c. 10. The conftitution is this :
two aldermen and four commoners fit twice a week
to hear all caufes of debt not exceeding the value of
forty ftiillings ; which they examine in a fummary way,
by the oath of the parties or other witneffes, and
make fuch order therein as is confonant to equity and
good confcience. The time and expence of obtain¬
ing this fummary redrefs are very inconfiderable, which
make it a great benefit to trade ; and thereupon divers
trading towns and other diftrifts have obtained afts
of parliament for eftablifiiing in them courts of con¬
fcience upon nearly the fame plan as that in the city of
London.
By 25 Geo. III. c. 45. (which is confined to profe-
cutions in courts of confcience in London, Middlefex,
and the borough of Southwark), and by 26 Geo. III.
c. 38. (which extends the provifions of the former aft
to all other courts inftituted for the recovery of fmall
debts), it is enafted, that after the firft day of Septem¬
ber 1786, no perfon whatfoever, being a debtor or de¬
fendant, and who has been or Ihall be committed to any
gaol or prifon, by order of any court or commiflioners
authorifed by any aft or afts of parliament for conftitu-
ting or regulating any court or courts for the recovery
of fmall debts, where the debt does not exceed twenty
(hillings, (hall be kept or continued in cuftody, on -any
pretence whatfoever, more than twenty days from the
commencement of the laft-mentioned aft ; or from the
time of his, her, or their commitment to prifon : and
where the original debt does not amount to or exceed
the fum of forty (hillings, more than forty days from the
commencement of the laid aft, or from the time ot his,
her, or their commitment as aforefaid ; and all gaolers
are thereby required to difcharge fuch perfons accord¬
ingly. And by feft. 2. if it (hall be proved to the fa-
tisfaftion of the court, that any fuch debtor has money
or goods which he has wilfully and fraudulently com
cealed : in that cafe the court (hall have power to en¬
large the aforefaid times of imprifonment for debts un¬
der t wenty (hillings, to any time not exceeding thirty
days, and for debts under forty (hillings, to any time not
exceeding fixty days ; which faid ground of farther de¬
tention (hall be fpecified in the faid commitment. And
that (by feft. 3.) at the expiration of the laid refpec-
tive times of imprifonment, every fuch perfon (hall im¬
mediately be difcharged, without paying any fum of
money, or other reward or gratuity whatfoever, to the
gaoler of fuch gaol on any pretence whatfoever; and
every gaoler demanding or receiving any fee for the dif¬
charge of any fuch perfon, or keeping any fuch perfon
prifoner after the faid refpeftive times limited by the faid
aft, (hall forfeit five pounds, to be recovered in a fum¬
mary way before two juftices of the peace, one moiety
thereof to be paid to the overfeers of the poor of the pa-
ri(h where the offence (hall he committed, and the other
to the informer.
REQUIEM, in the Romilh hiftory, a mafs fung mr
the reft of the foul of a perfon deceafed.
RESCISSION,
Hequefts,
ItequieiB.
R
b
RES
[ 725 J
RES
^efciffion
II
Refem-
blance.
Elem. of
Criticifm.
f See No¬
velty.
RESCISSION, in the Civil Law, an action intend¬
ed for the annulling or fetting ahde any contraft, deed,
&c.
RE^^RIPT, an anfvver delivered by an emperor, or
a pope, when confulted by particular perfons on fome
difficult queffion or point of law, to ferve as a decifion
thereof.
RESEDA, a genus of plants belonging to the dode-
candria clafs , and in the natural method ranking under
the 54th order, Mifee/ianece. See Botaxy Index.
The Luteola or Dtjer's-weed, Yellow-weed, Weld, ox
Wild-wood, is one of the molt valuable of the fpecies,
on account of its extenfive ufe in dyeing. See Dyeing.
The %odorata or mignionette is well known for the fweet-
nefs of its fragrance, and as an ornament of the flower-
garden.
RESEMBLANCE Dissimilitude, the rela¬
tions of likenefs and difference among obje&s. See
Comparison.
The connexion that man hath with the beings around
him, requires fome acquaintance with their nature, their
powers, and their qualities, for regulating his conduft.
For acquiring a branch of knowledge fo effential to our
well-being, motives alone of reafon and intereft are not
fufficient: nature hath providentially fuperadded curio-
fity, a vigorous propenfity, which never is at reft. This
propenfity alone attaches us to every new objeft f j and
incites us to compare obje&s, in order to difcover their
differences and refemblances.
Refemblance among obje&s of the fame kind, and
diflimilitude among objects of different kinds, are too
obvious and familiar to gratify our curiofity in any de¬
gree : its gratification lies in difcovering differences
among things where refemblance prevails, and refem¬
blances where difference prevails. I hus a difference in
individuals of the fame kind of plants or animals,, is
deemed a difcovery, while the many particulars in which
they agree are neglefted \ and in different kinds, any
refemblance is greedily remarked, without attending to
the many particulars in which they differ.
A comparifon of the former neither tends to gra¬
tify our curioflty, nor to fet the obje&s compared in
a ftronger light: two apartments in a palace, fimilar
in ftiape, fize, and furniture, make feparately as good
a figure as when compared •, and the fame obfervation
is applicable to two fimilar compartments in a garden :
on the other hand, oppofe a regular building to a fall
of water, or a good pi&ure to a towering hill, or even
a little dog to a large horfe, and the contraft will pro¬
duce no effeft. But a refemblance between obje£L of
the fame kind, have remarkably an enlivening effeft.
The poets, fuch of them as have a juft tafte., draw, all
their fimilies from things that in the main differ wide¬
ly from the principal fubjeft ; and they never attempt
a contraft, but where the things have a common genus,
and a refemblance in the capital circumftances : place
together a large and a fmall fixed animal of the fame
fpecies, the one will appear greater, the other lefs, than
when viewed feparately : when we oppofe beauty to
deformity, each makes a greater figure by the compa¬
rifon. We compare the drefs of different nations with
curiofity, but without furprife ; becaufe they have no
fuch refemblance in the capital parts as to pleafe us by
tontrafting the fmaller parts. But a new cut of a
fleeve, or of a pocket, enchants by its novelty ; and, in
oppofition to the former fathion, raifes fome degree of
furprife.
That refemblance and diflimilitude have an enliven¬
ing effect upon objects of fight, is made fufficiently.evi-
dent; and that they have the fame effe£t upon objects
of the other fenfes, is alfo certain. Nor is that law con¬
fined to the external fenfes; for charafters contrafted
make a greater figure by the oppofition : lago, in the
tragedy of Othello, fays,
He hath a daily beauty in his life
That makes me ugly.
The charafter of a fop, and of a rough warrior, are
nowhere more fuccefsfully contrafted than in Shake-
fpeare :
Hotfpur. My liege, I did deny no prifoners :
But I remember, when the fight was done,
When I was dry with rage, and extreme toil,
Breathlefs and faint, leaning upon my fword,
Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly drefs’d,
Freth as-a bridegroom ; and his chin, new-reap’d,
Show’d like a ftubble-land at harveft-home.
He was perfumed like a milliner j
And ’twixt his finger and his thumb he held
A pouncet-box, which ever and anon
He gave his nofe :—and ftill he fmil’d and talk’d
And as the foldier’s bare dead bodies by,
He call’d them untaught knaves, unmannerly,
To bring a flovenly unhandfome corfe
Betwixt the wind and his nobility.
With many holiday and lady terms
He queftion’d me : among the reft, demanded
My pris’ners in your Majefty’s behalf.
I then, all fmarting with my wounds j being gall’d
To be fo pefter’d with a popinjay,
Out of my grief, and my impatience,
Anfwer’d, negledlingly, I know not what
He ftiould, or flrould not j for he made me mad,
To fee him ftiine fo brilk, and fmell fq fweet,
And talk fo like a waiting gentlewoman,
Of guns, and drums, and wounds, (God fave the mark!)
And telling me, the fovereign’ft thing on earth
Was parmacity for an inward bruife j
And that it was great pity, fo it was,
This villanous faltpetre ftiould be digg’d
Out of the bowels of the harmlefs earth,
Which many a good, tall fellow had deftroy’d
So cowardly : and but for thefe vile guns,
He would himfelf have been a foldier. 
FirJI part, Henry IV. aft i. fc. 4.
Paflions and emotions are alfo inflamed by compari¬
fon. A man of high rank humbles the byftanders even
to annihilate them in their own opinion : Caefar, behold¬
ing the ftatue of Alexander, was greatly mortified, that
now, at the age of 32, when Alexander died, he had
not performed one memorable aftion.
Our opinions alfo are much influenced by comparifon.
A man whofe opulence exceeds the ordinary ftandard
is reputed richer than he is in reality •, and wifdom or
weaknefs, if at all remarkable in an individual, is ge¬
nerally carried beyond the truth.
The opinion a man forms of his prefent diftrefs
R E vS [ 726 ] R E S
is heightened by contrafting it with his former happi-
nefs:
    Could I forget
What I have been, I might the better bear
What I’m defin’d to. I’m not the firft
That have been wretched : but to think how much
I have been happier.
Southern's Innocent Adultery, act u.
The diftrefs of a long journey makes even an indif¬
ferent inn agreeable : and, in travelling, when the road
is good, and the horfeman well covered, a bad day
may be agreeable, by making him fenfible how fimg
r he is.
The fame effect is equally remarkable, when a man
oppofes his condition to that of others. A Ihip tof-
fed about in a ftorm, makes the fpetfator rtflea upon
his own eafe and fecurity, and puts thefe in the Itrongeft
light.
A man in grief cannot bear mirth ; it gives him a
more lively notion of his unhappinefs, and of courfe
makes him more unhappy. Satan, contemplating the
beauties of the terreftrial paradife, has the following
exclamation :
With what delight could I have walk’d thee round,
If I could joy in ought, fweet interchange
Of hill and valley, rivers, woods, and plains,
'Now, land, now fea, and Poores with foreft crown’d,
Rocks, dens, and caves! but I in none of thefe
Find place or refuge ; and the more I fee
Pleafurcs about me, fo much more I feel
Torment within me, as from the hateful liege
Of contraries : all good to me becomes
Bane, and in heav’n much worfe would be my Hate.
Paradife Lof, book ix. 1. 1x4.
The appearance of danger gives fometimes pleafure,
iometimes pain. A. timorous perfon upon the battle¬
ments of a high tower, is feifced with fear, which even
the confcioufnefs of fecurity canuot diffipate. But upon
one of a firm head, this fituation has a contrary effeft :
the appearance of danger heightens, by oppofition, the
confcioufnefs of fecurity, and confequently the fatisfac-
tion that arifes from fecurity : here the feeling refem-
bles that above mentioned, occafioned by a Ihip labour¬
ing in a ftorm.
The effeft of magnifying or leflening objefts by
means of comparifon is to be attributed to the in¬
fluence of paffion over our opinions. This will evident¬
ly appear by refle&ing in what manner a fpetlator is af-
fefted, when a very large animal is for the firft time pla¬
ced befide a very fmallene of the fame fpecies. The
firft thing that ftrikes the mind is the difference be¬
tween the two animals, which is fo great as to occafion
furprife j and this, like other emotions, magnifying its
objeft, makes us conceive the difference to be the
greateft that can be : we fee, or feem to fee, the one
animal extremely little, and the other extremely large.
The emotion of furprife arifing from any unufual re-
femblance, ferves equally to explain, why at firft view
we are apt to think fuch refemblance more entire than
it is in reality. And it muft be obferved, that the cir-
curaftances of more and lefs, which are the proper fub-
je&s of comparifon, raife a perception fo indiftinft and
tfague as to facilitate the cffefl deferibed ; we have no
mental ftandard of great and little, nor of the feveral Refem-
degrees of any attribute ; and the mind, thus unreftrain- blance.
ed, is naturally difpofed to indulge its furprife to the ut- —’’
molt extent.
In exploring the operations of the mind, fome of
which are extremely nice and foppery, it is neceffary
to proceed with the utmoft circumfpedlion : and after
all, feklom it happens that fpeculations of that kind
afford any fatisfaftion. Luckily, in the prefent cafe,
our fpeculations are fupported by fads and folid argu¬
ment. Firft, a fmall objed of one fpecies oppofed' to
a great objed of another, produces not, in any degree,
that deception which is fo remarkable when both ob-
jeds are of the fame fpecies. The greateft dif*urity
between objeds of different kinds, is fo common as to
be obferved with perfed indifference ; but fuch difpa-
rity between the objeds of the fame kind being uncom¬
mon, never fails to produce furprife : and may we not
fairly conclude, that furprife, in the latter cafe, is what
occafions the deception, when we find no deception in
the former ? In the next place, if furprife be the foie
caufe of the deception, it follows neeeffarily that the
deception udll vanilh as foon as the. objeds compared
become familiar. This holds fo unerringly, as to leave
no reafonable doubt .that furprife is the prime mover :
our furprife is great, (he firft time a fmall lapdog is
feen with a large maftiff; but when two fuch animals
are conftanlly together, there is no furprife, apd it
makes no difference whether they be viewed feparately
or in company. We fet no bounds to the riches of a
maa who has recently made his fortune ; the furprifing
difproportiun between his prefent and his paft fituation
being carried to an extreme : but with regard to a fa¬
mily that for many generations hath enjoyed great
wealth, the fame falle reckoning is not made. It is
equally remarkable, that a trite fimile has no effed : a
lover compared to a moth fcorching itfelf at the Hame
of a candle, originally a fprightly fimile, has by fre¬
quent ufe loft all force ; love cannot now be compared
to fire, without fome degree of difguft. It has been
juftly oblerved againft Homer, that the lion is too often
introduced into his firniles ; all the variety he is able to
throw into them not being fufticient to keep alive the
reader’s furprife.
To explain the influence of comparifon upon the mind,
we have cbofen the fimpleft cafe, viz. the firft fight of
two animals of the fame kind, differing in fize only; but
to complete the theory, other circumftances muft be ta¬
ken in. And the next fuppofition we make, is where
both animals, feparately familiar to the fpedator, are
brought together for the firft time. In that cafe, the
effed of magnifying and diminilhing is found remarkably
greater than in that firft mentioned ; and the reafon will
appear upon analyfing the operation : the firft feeling we
have is of furprife at the uncommon difference of two
creatures of the fame fpecies ; we are next fenfible, that
the one appears lefs, the other larger, than they did
formerly •, and that new circumftance increafing our fur¬
prife, makes us imagine a ftill greater oppofition between
the animals, than if we had formed no notion of them
beforehand.
Let us make one other fuppofition, that the fpeda¬
tor was acquainted beforehand with one of the animals
only ; the lapdog, for example. This new circumftance
will vary the effed $ for, inftead of widening the natu¬
ral
RES * [ 727 ] RES
Refem- rat difference, by enlarging in appearance the one ani-
b1‘tlice' Inal, and diminifliing the other in proportion, the
whole apparent alteration will reft upon the lapdog:
the furprife to find? it lefs than it appeared formerly,
dire61s to it our whole attention, and makes us conceive
it to be a moft diminutive creature : the maftiff in the
mean time is quite' overlooked. To illuftrate this ef-
fe61 by a familiar example. Take a piece of paper or of
linen tolerably white, and compare it with a pure white
of the fame kind •, the judgment we formed of the firft
obje6f is inftantly varied 5 and the furprife occafioned by
finding it lefs white than was thought, produceth a hafty
conviction that it is much lefs white than it is in reality :
withdrawing now the pure white, and putting in its place
a deep black, the furprife occafioned by that new cir~
eumftance carries us to the other extreme, and makes us
conceive the objeft firft mentioned to be a pure white ;
and thus experience compels us to acknowledge, that
our emotions have an influence even upon our eye-fight.
This experiment leads to a general obfervation, that
whatever is found more ftrange and beautiful than was
expe61ed, is judged to be more ftrange and beautiful than
it is in reality. Hence a common artifice, to depreciate
beforehand what we with to make a figure in the opinion
of others.
The comparifons employed by poets and orators are
of the kind laft mentioned : for it is always a known
objecf that is to be magnified or leffened. The former
is efte61ed by likening it to fome grand obje6t, or by
contrafting it with one of an oppofite chara61er. To
effc61uate the latter, the method muft be reverfed : the
<>bje61 muft be contrafted with fomething fuperior to it,
or likened to fomething inferior. The whole effe6t
is produced upon the principal obje6l; which by that
means is elevated above its rank, or deprefied below it.
In accounting for the effecl: that any unufual refem-
blance or diflimilitude hath upon the mind, no caufe
has been mentioned but furprife • and to prevent con-
fufion, it was proper to difcufs that caufe firft. But
furprife is not the only caufe of the effe61: defcribed : ;
another occurs, which operates perhaps not lefs power¬
fully, viz. a principle in human nature that lies ftill
in obfeurity, not having been unfolded by any writer,
though its effects are extenfive : and as it is not diftin-
guiflied by a proper name, the reader muft be fatisfied
with the following defer!ption. Every man who ftu-
dies himfelf or others, muft be fenfible of a tendency
or propenfity in the mind to complete every work that
is begun, and to carry things to their full perfe6lion.
There is little opportunity to difplay that propenfity
upon natural operations, which are feldom left imper-
fe6t ; but in the operations of art it hath great feepe :
it impels us to perfevere in our own work, and to wilh
for the completion of what another is doing : we feel a
fenfible plcafure when the work is brought to perfec¬
tion •, and our pain is not lefs fenfible when we are dif-
appointed. Hence our uneaftnefs when an interefting,
{lory is broke off in the middle, when a piece of mufic
ends without a clofe, or when a building or garden is
left unfinished. The fame propenfity operates in making
colleflions^ fuch as the whole works, good and bad, or
any author. A certain perfon attempted to colle6l prints
of all the capital paintings, and fucceeded except as to a
few. Ea Bruyere remarks, that an anxious fearch was
made for thefe j not for their value, but to complete the Itefem-
fet. blance.
The final caafe of the propenfity is an additional ' ~^
proof of its exiftence. Human works are of no figni-
ficancy till they be completed*, and reafon is not always
a fufticient counterbalance to indolence : fome prin¬
ciple over ajid above is necefiary to excite our induftry,
and to prevent our flopping (hort in the middle of the
courfe.
We need not lofe time to deferibe the co-operation
of the foregoing propenfity with furprife, in producing
the effe6l that follows any unufual relemblance or dif-
fimilitude. Surprife firft operates, and carries our opi¬
nion of the refemblance or diflimilitude beyond truth.
The propenfity we have been defijribing carries us ftill
farther ; for it forces upon the mind a convidlion, that
the refemblance or difiimilitude is complete. We need
no better illuftration, than the refemblance that is fan¬
cied in fome pebbles to a tree or an infe6l; which re¬
femblance, however faint in reality, is conceived to bo-,
wonderfully perfect. The tendenev to complete a re¬
femblance a6ting jointly with furprife, carries the mind
fometimes fo far, as even to prefume upon future events.
In the Greek tragedy entitled P/iineides, thofe unhappy-
women feeing the place where it was intended they
fhould be llain, cried out with anguifh, “ They now Poet-
faw their cruel deftiny had condemned them to die in ca^‘ 1^’
that place, being the fame where they had been expofed
in their infancy.”
The propenfity to advance every thing to its per-
feflion, not only co-operates with furprife to deceive
the mind, but of ilfelf is able to produce that efft’61.
Of this we lee many inftances where there is.no place
for furprife *, and the firft we Ihall give is of refem¬
blance. Unumrjuodque eoiiem modo dijfalvitvr quo colli-
gutum ej}, is a maxim in the Roman law that has no
foundation in truth *, for tying and loofing, building
and demolifhing, are a6ls oppofite to each other, and
are performed by oppofite means : but when thefe a£ls
are connefled by their relation to the fame fubjefl,
their connedlion leads us to imagine a fort of refem¬
blance between them, which by the foregoing propen¬
fity is conceived to be as complete as poffible. The
next inftance fhall be of contrail. Addifon obferves, fyeflafw,
“ That the paleft features look the molt agreeable in^°s6S*
white *, that a face which is overflufhed appears to advan¬
tage in the deepeft fcarlet; and that a dark complexion
is-not a little alleviated by a black hood.,? The forego¬
ing propenfity ferves to account for thefe appearances :
to make this evident, one of the cafes (hall fuffice. A
complex km, however dark, never approaches to black :
when thefe colours appear together, their oppofition
ftrikes us ; and the propenfity we have to complete the
oppofition, makes tire darkhell of complexion vanilh out
of fight.
The operation of this propenfity, even where there
is no ground for furprife, is not confined to opinion or
conviflion : fo powerful it is, as to make us fometimes
proceed to aflion, in order to complete a refemblance
or diflimilitude. If this appear obfeure, it will be
made clear by the following inftance. Upon what
principle is tire /ex ta/ionis founded, other than to make
the puniftrment refemble the mifehief? Reafon diflates,
that.there ought to be a conformity or reftmblance be¬
tween .
R £ $
[ 72^ 3
Iv ^ ^
ttfeeh a crime and its punidnnent j and tlie foregoing
pronenfity impels us to make the refemblance as com^
plete as poffible. Titus Livies*, under the influence
of that propenfity, accounts for a certain pumfliment, by
a refemblance between it and the crime too fubtile tor
common apprehenfion. Speaking of Mettus Fuftetius,
the Alban general, who, for treachery to the Romans
his allies, was fentenced to be torn to pieces by horfes,
he puts the following fpeech in the mouth of lullus
Hoftilius, who decreed the punifliment. “ Mctte Fuj-
feti, inquit, ft ipfe difcere pojfes fidem ac fadera fervare,
vivo tibi ea difciptina a me adhibita effet. A uric, quo-
mam tuum infanabile ingenium eft, at tu tuofupplicio doce
humanum genus ea fanBa credere, quce a te violatafunt.
Ut igitur pau/o ante animum inter Fidenatem Roma-
namque rem andpitem geftfti, ita jam corpus pa fm dif-
irahendum dabisF By the fame influence, the ientencC
is often executed upon the very fpot where the crime
was committed. In the Ek&ra oi Sophocles, Egif-
theus is dragged from the theatre into an inner room of
the fuppofed palace, to fuffer death where he murdered
Agamemnon. Shakefpeare, whofe knowledge of nature
is not lefs profound than extenflve, has not overlooked
-this propeniity :
“ Othello. Get me forhe poifon, lago, this night.
'I’ll not expofxulate with her, left her body and her
beauty unpvovide my mind again. This night, lago.1’
“ lago. Do it-not With poifon •, ftrangle her inlrer
bed, even in the bed ftie hath contaminated.''’
“ Othello. Good, good : the juftice of it pleafes :
Very good.” Othello, acl iv. fc. 5.
Perfons in their laft moments are generally feized
with an anxiety to be buried with their relations. In
• the Amynta of Taffo, the lover, hearing that his mif-
trefs was torn to pieces by a wolf, exprefles a defire to
die the fame death.
Upon the fubjeft in general we have two remarks
to add. The firft concerns refemblance, which, when
too entire, hath no effect, howevertlifferent in kind the
things compared may be. The remark is applicable
to works of art only; for tiatural objedls of different
• kinds have fcarce ever an entire refemblanee. To give
an example in"a work of art: Marble is a fort of mat¬
ter very different from what compofes an animal ; and
marble cut into a human figure, produces great plea-
fure by the refemblance : but if a marble ftatue be co¬
loured like a pitture, the refetnblance is fo entire as at
a diftance to make the ftalue appear a real perfon : av4s
difeover the miftake when we approach ; and no other
emotion is raifed, but furprife occafioned by the de¬
ception : the figure ftill appears a real perfon, rather
than an imitation ; and we muft ufe reflection to cor-
reCt the miftake. This cannot happen in a picture ;
for the refemblance can never be fo entire as to dif-
guife the imitation.
The other remark belongs to contrail. Emotions
make the greateft figure when contrafted in fucceflion;
but then the fucceflion ought neither to be rapid, nor
immoderately flow : if too flow, the effeCt of contrail
becomes faint by the diftance of the emotions ; and if
rapid, no Angle emotion has room to expand itfelf to
its full fize, but is ftifled, as it were, in the birth by
a fucceeding emotion. The funeral oration of the bi-
41iop of Meaux upon the duchefs of Orleans, is a per-
feCt hodge-podge of cheerful and melancholy reprefen-
tations, following each other in the quickeft fucceflion :
oppofite emotions are belt felt in fucceflion ; but each
emotion feparately Ihould be raifed to its due pitch,
before another be introduced.
What is above laid down, will enable us to deter¬
mine a very important queftion concerning emotions
raifed by the fine arts, viz. Whether ought fimilar
emotions to fuceeed each other, or diflimilar ? The
emotions raifed by the fine arts are for the molt part
too nearly related to make a figure by refemblance ;
•and for that reafon their fucceflion ought to be regu¬
lated as much as poflible by contrail. This holds
confeffedly in epic and dramatic compofitions ; and the
belt writers, led perhaps by tafte more than by rea-
foning, have generally aimed at that beauty. It holds
equally in mufic : in the fame cantata all the variety of
emotions that are within the power of mufic, may not
only be indulged, but, to make the greateft figure,
ought to be contrafted. In gardening, there is an ad¬
ditional teafon for the rule : the emotions raifed by
that art, are at belt fo faint, that every artifice Ihould
be employed to give them their utmoft vigour : a field
may be laid out in grand, fweet, gay, neat, wild, me¬
lancholy feenes ; and when thefe are viewed in fuccef-
fion, grandeur ought to be contrafted with neatnefs,
regularity with vvildnefs, and gaiety with melancholy,
fo as that each emotion may fucceed its oppofite :
nay, it is an improvement to intermix in the fucceflion
rude uncultivated fpots as well as unbounded views,
which in themfelves are difagreeable, but in fucceflion
heighten the feeling of the agreeable objeft ; and .we
have nature for our guide, which in her moft beautiful
landfcapes often intermixes rugged rocks, dirty marflies,
and barren ftony heaths. The greateft mafters of mu¬
fic have the fame view in their compofitions : the fecond
part of an Italian fong feldom conveys any fentiment:
and, by its harflinefs, feems purpofely contrived to give
a greater relifti for the interefting parts of the compofi-
tioti.
A fmall garden, comprehended under a Angle view,
affords little opportunity for that embellifhment. Dif-
fimilar emotions require different tones of mind ; and
therefore in conjunction can never be pleafant : gai¬
ety and fweetnefs may be combined, or wildnefs and
gloominefs ; but a compofition of gaiety and gloomi-
nefs is diftafteful. The rude uncultivated compartment
of furze and broom in Richmond garden, hath a good
effeCl in the fucceflion of objefts ; but a fpot of that
nature would be infufferable in the midft of a polilhed
parteiVe or flower-pot. A garden, therefore, if not of
great extent, admits not diflimilar emotions ; and in
ornamenting a fmall garden, the fafeft courfe is to con¬
fine it to a Angle fexpreflion. For the fame reafon, a
landfcape ought alfo to be confined to a fingle expref-
fion ; and accordingly it is a rule in painting, that if
the fubjeCI be gay, every figure ought to contribute to
that emotion.
It follows from the foregoing train of reafoning, that
a garden near a great city ought to have an air of foli-
tude. The folitarinefs, again, of a wafte country ought
to be contrafted in forming a garden ; no temples,, no
obfeure walks ; but jets d'eau, cafcades, objeCls. aftive,
gay, and fplendid. Nay, fuch a garden fhould in fome
meafure, avoid imitating nature, by taking on an ex-
franrrlinarv
Rcfeifc.
blance.
R'efem-
blance
# Eneid,
lib. v.
t-T/iW.xxiii
879.
RES [ 729 j RES
tfaofdinary appearance of regularity and art, to (how
the bufy hand of man, which in a wafte country has a
fine effedl by contraft.
Wit and ridicule make not an agreeable mixture
with grandeur. Diflimilar emotions have a fine effedt
in a flow fucceflion ; but in a rapid fucceflion, which
approaches to co-exiftence, they will not be reliihed.
In the midft of a laboured and elevated defcription of
battle, Virgil introduces a ludicrous image, which is
certainly out of its place :
Obvius ambuftutn torrem Chorinaeus ab ara
Corripit, et venienti Ebufo plagamque ferenti
Occupat os flammis : iili ingens barba reluxit,
Nidoremque ambufta dedit. xii. 298.
E qual tauro ferito, il fuo dolore
Verfo mugghiatldo e fofpirando fuore.
Gierufal. cant. tv. ft. t.
It would however be too auftere to baniih altoge¬
ther ludicrous images from an epic poem. This poem
doth not always foar above the clouds : it admits great
variety ; and upon occafion can defcend even to the
ground without finking. In its more familiar tones, a
ludicrous fcene may be introduced without improprie¬
ty. This is done by Virgil * in a foot-race : the cir-
cumftances of which, not excepting the ludicrous part*
ar£ copied from Homerf. After a fit of merriment,
we are, it is true, the lefs difpofed to the ferious and
fublime: but then, a ludicrous fcene, by unbending
the mind from fevere application to more interefting
fubje&s, may prevent fatigue, and preferve our relilh
entire.
RESEN, (Mofes) $ a town on the Tigris, built by
Nimrod j thought to be the Lariffa of Xenophon j
which fee. But as Lariffa is a name in imitation of a
Greek city •, and as there were no Greek cities, con-
fequently no Lariffa, in Affyria, before Alexander the
Great; it is probable that the Greeks alking of what
city thofe were the ruins they faw, the Aflyrians might
anfwer, Larefen, “ Of Refen which word Xenophon
expreffed by Lariffa, a more familiar found to a Greek
ear, (Wells).
RESENTMENT, means a ftrong perception of
good or ill, generally a deepfenfeof injury, and may be
diftinguifhed into anger and revenge. “ By anger (fays
Archdeacon Paley), I mean the pain we fuffer upon the
receipt of an injury or affront, with the ufual effe&s of
that pain upon ourfelves. By revenge, the inflifting
of pain upon the perfon who has injured or offended
us, farther than the juft ends of puniftimefit or repara¬
tion require. Anger prompts to revenge ; but it is
poflible to fufpend the effedl when we cannot altoge¬
ther quell the principle. We are bound alfo to endea¬
vour to qualify and correfl the principle itfelf. So that
our duty requires two different applications of the mind :
and for that reafon anger and revenge ftiould be con-
fidered feparately.” See REVENGE.
RESERVATION, in Law, an a£Hon or claufe
whereby fomething is referved, or fecured to one’s felf.
Mental RESERVATION, a propofition which, ftriflly
taken, and according to the natural import of the terms,
is falfe ; but, if qualified by fomething concealed in the
mind, becomes true.
Vol. XVII. Part II.
Mental refervations are the great refuge of religious tteftim-.
hypocrites, who ufe them to accommodate their con- tl°T1
fciences with their interefts : the Jefuits are zealous ad- Refi[juaj.
vocates for mental refervations j yet are they real lies, y——
as including an intention to deceive.
RESERVE, in Law, the fame with refervation. See
Reservation.
Body of RESERVE,or Corps de Reserve, in military
affairs, the third or laft line of an army, drawn up for
battle ; fo called becaufe they are referved to fuftain the
reft as occafion requires, and not to engage but in cafe
of neceffity.
RESERVOIR, a place where water is collefted and
referved, in order to be conveyed to diftant places
through pipes, or fupply a fountain or jet d’eau.
RESET, in Law, the receiving or harbouring an
outlawed perfon. See Outlawry.
Reset of Theft, in Scots Law. See LAW',N°clxxxvii>
29.
RESIDENCE, in the Canon and Common Law, the .
abode of a perfon or incumbent upon his benefice •, and
his afliduity in attending on the fame.
RESIDENT, a public minifter, who manages the
affairs of a kingdom or ftate, at a foreign court.
They are a clafs of public minifters, inferior to am-
baffadors or envoys j but, like them, are under the pro-
tedtion of the law of nations.
RESIDUAL analysis, a calculus invented by Mr
Landen, and propofed as a fubftitute for the method of
fluxions. The defign of it was to avoid introducing the
idea of motion, and of quantities infinitely fmall, into
mathematical inveftigation. The refidual analyfis ac¬
cordingly proceeds, by taking the difference of the fame
function of a variable quantity in two different ftates of
that quantity, and denoting the relation of this difference
to the difference between the two ftates of the faid vari¬
able quantity. This relation being firft generally ex¬
preffed, is next confidered in the cafe when the differ¬
ence of the two ftates of the variable quantity is =0 ;
and by that means it is obvious, that the fame thing is
done as when the funftion of a variable quantity is af-
figned by the ordinary methods.
The evolutions of the fun&ions, confidered in this
very general view, requires the aid of a new theorem,
difcovered by Mr Landen, and remarkable for its fim-
plicity and great extent. It is, that
rn m
if x and v are any two variable quantities -—‘~v ,
x—v
=x”~' X
, v m V* V3 , .
, + x+ls + Ts+---(”’)
I+(^)+(:) +(;) ---«
where Vi and n are any integer numbers.
This theorem is the bafis of the calculus, and from
m m
the expreflions x” — v", and x—v having the form of
what algebraifts denominate ref duals, the inventor gave
to his method the name of the refidual analysis.
Mr Landen publifhed the firft account of this method
in which he denominated ADifcourfe concerning
4 ^ the
\
Refin.
RES f 73° 1 RES
The firft book of the analyfis moft fragrant balfams. It exudes from the bario fpon- Refin
" taneoufly, but more readily if incifions are made. The II
and at firtt it is fluid ; but after _ance:
ReGdual the Rejidual Analyfis.    , . r
appeared in 1764, which contained an explanation of
the principles of the new calculus, with its application
to problems of the direft method of fluxions, and the ie-
cond book folved feveral problems of the inverle me¬
thod, but it was never publiflied.
If we eftimate the value of this analyfis by its prac¬
tical utility, it may be faid to poffefs no great merit.
Its principles are much iefs eafily apprehended than tne
fluxionary calculus ; they are not fo luminous, and lets
direff in their application, as well as. inferior to it for
enlarging the boundaries of mathematical leience.. .
RESIDUAL Figure, in Geometry, the figure remaining
after the fabtraflion of the lefs from the greater.
RESIDUAL Root, is a root compofed of two members
only conne&ed by the fign ■— or minus. 1 bus, u b,
or ^is a refidual root j and is fo called,Jaecaufe its
true value is no more than the refidue, or diiterence be¬
tween the parts a and ^ or 5 and 3> which in this cafe
is 2.
RESIDUE, the remainder or balance of an account,
debt, or obligation.
RESIGN ATION, in general, fignifies the-implicit
fubmiflion of ourfelves, or of fomething we poffels, to
the will of another. In a religious fenfe it fignifies a
perfedl fubmiflion, rvithout difeontent, to the will of
God. See Moral Philosophy, N° 119.
RESIN, in Natural Hifory, a vifeid juice oozing
either fpontaneoufly, or by incifion, from feveral trees,
as the pine, fir, &c.—-A premium for feveral years has
been offered by the London Society for Encouraging
Arts, &c. for dife overing a method of reducing the in¬
flammable quality of refin, fo as to adapt it to the pur-
pofes of making candles j but no fuch difeovery has yet
been made.
Elafic Resin. See Caoutchouc, Chemistry
Index.
Gum RESIN, a mixture of gum and refin. See Che¬
mistry and Materia Medica Index.
Red Gum RESIN, is procured from the red gum tree,
or eucalyptus refinifera •, a tree fo large and lofty as to
exceed in fize the Englifh oak. The wood of the tree
is brittle, and of little ufe but for firewood, from the
large quantity of refinous gum it contains. The tree
is diflinguifhed by having pedunculated flowers, and an
acute or pointed conical calyptra. To obtain the juice
from this tree incifions are made in the trunk of it,
and fometimes upwards of 60 gallons of red refinous
juice have been obtained from one of them. “ When
this juice is dried, it becomes a very powerful aflrin-
gent gum-refin, of a red colour, much refembling that
known in the (hops by the name of kino, and, for all
medical purpofes, fully as efficacious. Mr White ad-
miniftered it to a great number of patients in the dy-
fentery, which prevailed much foon after the landing
of the convi&s, and in no one inftance found it to fail.
This gum-refin diffolves almoft entirely in fpirit of
wine, to which it gives a blood-red tinfture. Water
diffolves about one-fixth part only, and the watery folu-
tion is of a bright red. Both thefe foliations are power¬
fully aftringent.”
Fellow Gum RESIN, is procured from the yellow re¬
fin tree, w'hich is as large as the Engliffi walnut tree.
The properties of this refin are equal to thofe of the
White's
Voyage,
Appendix.
colour of it is yellow,  
being infpiffated in the fun, it becomes lolid. When
burnt on hot coals, it fmeils like a mixture of balfam
of Tolu and benzoin, approaching ibmewbat to ftorax.
“ It is perfectly foluble in fpirit of wine, but not in wa¬
ter, nor even in effential oil of turpentine, unlefs it be White's
digefled in a ftrong heat. The v ami lb which it makes
with either is very weak, and ot little ufe. With re- *
fped to its medicinal qualities, Mr White has found
it, in many cafes, a good pedoral medicine, and very
balfamic. It is not obtainable in fo great abundance as
The red gum produced by the eucalyptus refiniltra.
The plant which products the yellow gum teems to be
perfectly unknown to botanifis, but Mr White has com¬
municated no fpecimens by which its genus or even clafs
could be determined.”
RESINOUS ELECTRICITY, is that kind of ele&ri-
city which is produced by exciting bodies of the refin¬
ous kind, and which is generally negative. See ELEC¬
TRICITY pqfim.
RESISTANCE, or Resisting Force, in Philofophy,
denotes, in general, any power which ads in an oppo-
fite diredion to another, lo as to deftroy or diminilh its
effed. See Mechanics, Hydrodynamics, and Pneu¬
matics. # t
Of all the refiftances of bodies to each, there is un-Importance
doubtedly none of greater importance than the re-^O116111^
firtance or readion of fluids. It is here that we mufOe
look for a theory of naval architedure, for the impulfe
of the air is our moving power, and this mull be modi¬
fied fo as to produce every motion we want by the form
and difpofition of our fails ; and it is the refiifance of
the water which mull be overcome, that the (hip may
proceed in her courfe •, and this mull alfo be modified
to our purpofe, that the ffiip may not drive like a log to
leeward, but on the contrary may ply to windward,
that (he may anfwer her helm brilkly, and that (he may
be eafy in all her motions on the furface of the troubled
ocean. The impulfe of wind and water makes them
ready and indefatigable fervants in a thoufand Ihapes for
driving our machines } and we fhould lofe much of their
fervice did we remain ignorant of the laws of their ac¬
tion : they would fometimes become terrible mailers, if
we did not fall upon methods of eluding or foftening
their attacks. a
We cannot refufe the ancients a confiderable know- The an-
ledge of this fubjeft. It was equally interefting to them
as to us j and we cannot read the accounts of the naval wejj ac.
exertions of Phoenicia, Carthage, and of Rome, exertions quainted
which have not been furpaffed by any thing of modern with it.
date, without believing that they poffeffed much prac¬
tical and experimental knowledge of this fubjedl. It
was not, perhaps, poffeffed by them in a drift and
fyllematic form, as it is now taught by our mathema¬
ticians \ but the mailer-builders, in their dockyards,
did undoubtedly exercife their genius in comparing the
forms of their finelt ffiips, and in marking thofe cir-
cumllances of form and dimenfion which were in fall
accompanied with the defirable properties of a fliip,
and thus framing to themfelves maxims of naval archi-
tefture in the fame manner as we do now. For we
believe that our naval arehitefts are not difpofed to
grant
RES [7.
Befiftance. grant that they have profited much by all the labours
of the mathematicians. But the ancients had not made
any great progrefs in the phyficomathematical feiences,
-which confift chiefly in the application of calculus to
the phenomena of nature. In this branch they could
make none, becaufe they had not the means of invefti-
gation. A knowledge of the motions and a&ions of
fluids is acceflible only to thofe who are familiarly ac-
3 quainted with the fluxionary mathematics; and without
But even this key there is no admittance. Even when pofiefled
now it is of this guide, our progrefs has been very flow, hefita-
not perfect-ting^ ancj dev;ous . ancl we have not yet been able to
flood. er” eftablilh any fet of doftrines which are fufceptible of an
eafy and confident application to the arts of life. If we
have advanced farther than the ancients, it is becaufe
we have come after them, and have profited by their
4 labours, and even by their miftakes.
Sir I. New- sir Ifaac Newton was the firfl: (as far as we can re¬
ton tint ap- coiie&) w]10 attempted to make the motions and ac-
thematics tions of fluids the fubjeft of mathematical difeuflion.
to it. He had invented the method of fluxions long before
he engaged in his phyfical refearches; and he pioceed-
ed in thefe fud mathejlfacem preeferente. Yet even with
this guide he was often obliged to grope bis way, and
to try various bye-paths, in the hopes of obtaining a
legitimate theory. Having exerted all his powers
in eftablilhing a theory of the lunar motions, he was
obliged to reft contented with an approximation in-
ftead of a perfeft folution of the problem which afeer-
, tains the motions of three bodies mutually acling on
Difficulties each other. This convinced him that it was m vain
he met with expe£l an accurate inveftigation of the motions and
»it- actions of fluids, where millions of unfeen particles
combine their influence. He therefore caft about to
find fome particular cafe of the problem which would
admit of an accurate determination, and at the fame
time furnilh circumftances of analogy or refemblance
fufficiently numerous for giving limiting cafes, which
fhould include between them thofe other cafes that did
not admit of this accurate inveftigation. And thus,
by knowing the limit to which the cafe propofed did
approximate, and the circumflance which regulated the
approximation, many ufeful proportions might be de¬
duced for directing us in the application of thefe doc¬
trines to the arts of life.
He therefore figured to himfelf a hypothetical col-
leflion of matter which poffefled the charaaeriftic pro¬
perty of fluidity, viz. the quaqud-verfum. propagation
of preffure, and the mod perfea intermobility (pardon
the uncouth term) of parts, and which formed a phy¬
fical whole or aggregate, whofe parts were conneaed
by mechanical forces, determined both in degree and
in direaion, and fuch as rendered the determination ot
certain important cireumftances of their motion fufcep¬
tible of precife inveftigation. And he concluded, that
the laws which he Ihould difeover in thefe motions mull
have a great analogy with the laws of the motions of
real fluids ; And from this hypothefis he deduced a fe-
ries of propofitions, which form the bafts ot almoft all
the theories of the impulfe and refiftance of fluids which
have been offered to the public fince his time. _
It muft be acknowledged, that the refults of tins
theory agree but ill with experiment, and that, the
1
RES
He propo¬
fed a
fheory,
which does
not, how-
Se5“ « ™J‘icl '' has l‘n P^ficuted by fibfi-
quent mathematicians, it proceeds on principles or af- Renfance.
fumptions which are not only gratuitous, but even falfe. ~
But it affords fuch a beautiful application of geometry
and calculus, that mathematicians have been as it were
fafeinated by it, and have publiftied fyftems fo elegant
and fo extenfively applicable, that one cannot help la¬
menting that the foundation is fo flimfy. John Ber¬
noulli’s theory, in his diflertation on the communica¬
tion of motion, and Bouguer’s in his Traite du Navuy,
and in his Theorie du Manoeuvre et de la Mature des Vaif-
feaux, muft ever be conftdered as among the fineft fpe-
cimens of phyficomathematical fcience which the world g
has feen. And, with all its imperfections, this theory But its utU
ftill furnilhes (as was expected by its illuftrious author) h^y
many propofitions of immenfe pra£tical ufe, they
ing the limits to which the real phenomena of the im¬
pulfe and refiftance of fluids really approximate. So
that when the law by which the phenomena deviate
from the theory is once determined by a well chofen
feries of experiments, this hypothetical theory becomes
almoft as valuable as a true one. And we may add,
that although Mr d’Alembert, by treading warily in
the fteps of Sir Ifaac Newton in another route, has
difeovered a genuine and unexceptionable theory, the
procefs of inveftigation is fo intricate, requiring every
fineffe of the moft abftrufe analyfis, and the final equa¬
tions are fo complicated, that even their moft expert
author has not been able to deduce more than one
Ample propofition (which too was difeovered by Daniel
Bernoulli by a more Ample procefs) which can be ap¬
plied to any ufe. The hypothetical theory of Newton,
therefore, continues to be the groundwork of all our
practical knowledge of the fubjeft.
We fliall therefore lay before our readers a very ftiort
view of the theory, and the manner of applying it. We
fliall then (how its defefts (all of which were pointed
out by its great author), and give a hiftorical account
of the many attempts which have been made to amend
it or to fubftitute another; in all which we think it our
duty to Ihow, that Sir Ifaac Newton took the lead, and
pointed out every path which others have taken, if we
except Daniel Bernoulli and D’Alembert; and we fliall
give an account of the chief fets of experiments which
have been made on this important fubjeft, in the hopes
of eftablifhing an empirical theory, which may be em¬
ployed with confidence in the arts of life. p
We know by experience that force muft be applied The term
to a body in order that it may move through a fluid,
fuch as air or water; and that a body projeiffed "’ith
anv velocity is gradually retarded in its motion, and plained,
generally brought to reft. The analogy of nature
makes us imagine that there is a force a&ing in the
oppofite direction, or oppofing the mot-r.m, and that
this force refides in, or is exerted by, the fluid. And
the phenomena referable thofe which accompany the
known refiftance of active beings,fuch as animals. There¬
fore we give to this fuppofed force the metaphorical
name of Resistance. We alfo know that a fluid in
motion will hurry a folid body along with the ftream,
and that it requires force to maintain it in its place.
A fimilar analogy makes us fuppofe that the fluid exerts
force, in the fame manner as when an a&ive being im¬
pels the body before him ; therefore we call this the
IMPULSION of a Fluid. And as our knowledge of na-
4 Z 2 tur.e
RES C 732 ] RES
&efitlafice.
Sir Ifaac
Newton
fuppofes
two fyftems
funilar in
their parts,
aud each
part ha¬
ving a con-
llant ratio
to each.
II
Effeft of
the fimilar
parts being
put in mo¬
tion.
tuie informs us that the mutual aftions of bodies are in
every cafe equal and oppofite, and that the obferved
change of motion is the only indication, chara&eriftic,
and meafure, of the changing force, the forces are the
fame (whether we call them impulfions or refiftances)
when the relative motions are the lame, and therefore
depend entirely on thefe relative motions. The force,
therefore, which is neceflary for keeping, a body im¬
moveable in a dream of water, flowing with a certain
velocity, is the fame with what is required for moving
this body with this velocity through ftagnant water.
To any one who admits the motion of the earth round
the fun, it is evident that vre can neither obferve nor
reafon from a cafe of a body moving through dill water,
nor of a dream of water preding upon or impelling a
quiefcent body.
A body in motion appears to be redded by a dag-
nant duid, becaufe it is a law of mechanical nature that
force mud be employed in order to put any body in
motion. Now the body cannot move forward without
putting the contiguous fluid in motion, and force mud
be employed for producing this motion. In like man¬
ner, a quiefcent body is impelled by a dream of fluid,
becaufe the motion of the contiguous fluid is diminifli-
ed by this folid obflacle ; the redftance, therefore, or
impulfe, no way differs from the ordinary communica¬
tions of motion among folid bodies.
Sir Ifaac Newton, therefore, begins his theory of the
refidance and impulfe of fluids, by fele&ing a cafe
where, although he cannot pretend to afcertain the mo¬
tions themfelves which are produced in the particles of
a contiguous fluid, he can tell precifely their mutual ra¬
tios.
He fuppofes two fydems of bodies fuch, that each
body of the firfl is fimilar to a correfponding body of
the fecond, and that each is to each in a condant ratio.
He alfo fuppofes them to be fimilarly fituated, that is,
at the angles of fimilar figures, and that the homologous
lines of thefe figures are in the fame ratio with the dia¬
meters of the bodies. He farther fuppofes, that they
attra<51 or repel each other in fimilar dire&ions, and
that the accelerating connefling forces are alfo propor¬
tional •, that is, the forces in the one fydem are te the
correfponding forces in the other fydem in a condant ra¬
tio, and that, in each fydem taken apart, the forces are
as the fquares of the velocities direftly, and as the dia¬
meters of the correfponding bodies, or their didances,
inverfely.
This being the cafe, it legitimately follows, that if
fimilar parts of the two fydems are put into fimilar mo¬
tions, in any given indant, they will continue to move
fimilarly, each correfpondent body defer!bing fimilar
curves, with proportional velocities : For the bodies be¬
ing fimilarly fituated, the forces which aft on a body in
one fyftem, arifing from the combination of any number
of adjoining particles, will have the fame direftion with
the force acting on the correfponding body in the other
fydem, arifing from the combined aftion of the fimilar
and fimilarly directed forces of the adjoining correfpon¬
dent bodies of the other fydem •, and thefe compound
forces will have the fame ratio with the fimpie forces
which conditute them, and will be as the fquares of
the velocities direftly, and as the didances, or any ho¬
mologous lines inverfely j and therefore the chords of
3
curvature, having the direftion of the centripetal or Refinance,
centrifugal forces, and fimilarly inclined to the tangents J
of the curves deferibed by the correfponding bodies,
will have the fame ratio with the didances of the par¬
ticles. The curves deferibed by the correfponding bodies
will therefore be fimilar, the velocities will be propor¬
tional, and the bodies will be fimilarly fituated at the
end of the fird moment, and expofed to the aftion of
fimilar and fimilarly fituated centripetal or centrifugal
forces *, and this will again produce fimilar motions du¬
ring the next moment, and fo on for ever. All this is
evident to any perfon acquainted with the elementary
doftrines of curvilineal motions, as delivered in the
theory of phyfical adronomy. I2
From this fundamental propofition, it clearly follows, Confe-
that if two fimilar bodies, having their homologous lines <llience ^e-
proportional to thofe of the two fydems, be fimilarly jj.uce<^101*
projefted among the bodies of thofe two fydems with any
velocities, they will produce fimilar motions in the two
fydems, and will themfelves continue to move fimilarly 5
and therefore will, in every fubfequent moment, differ fi¬
milar diminutions or retardations. If the initial velocities
of projeftion be the fame, but the denfities of the two
fydems, that is, the quantities of matter contained in an
equal bulk or extent, be different, it is evident that the
quantities of motion produced in the two fydems in the
fame time will be proportional to the denfities \ and if
the denfities are the fame, and uniform in each fydem,
the quantities of motion produced will be as the fquares
of the velocities, becaufe the motion communicated to
each correfponding body will be proportional to the ve¬
locity communicated, that is, to the velocity of the im¬
pelling body ; and the number of dmilarly fituated par¬
ticles which will be agitated will alfo be proportional to
this velocity. Therefore, the whole quantities of mo¬
tion produced in the fame moment of time will be pro¬
portional to the fquares of the velocities. And ladly, if
the denfities of the two fydems are uniform, or the fame
through the whole extent of the fydems, the number of
particles impelled by fimilar bodies will be as the fur-
faces of thefe bodies.
Now the diminutions of the motions of the projefted
bodies are (by Newton’s third law of motion) equal to
the motions produced in the fydems; and thefe diminu¬
tions are the meafures of what are called the refidances
oppofed to the motions of the projefted bodies. There¬
fore, combining all thefe circumdances, the refidances
are proportional to the fimilar furfaces of the moving bo¬
dies, to the denfities of the fydems through which the
motions are performed, and to the fquares of the veloci¬
ties, jointly. ^
We cannot form to ourfelves any didinft notion of a a fluid
duid, otherwife than as a fydem of fmall bodies, or a confidered
colleftion of particles, fimilarly or fymmetrically arran-a* a
ged, the centres of each being fituated in the angles of
regular folids. We mud form this notion of it, whether iarly ar-
we fuppofe, with the vulgar, that the particles are little ranged,
globules in mutual contaft,or, with the partifansof cor-
pufcular attraftions and repulfions, we fuppofe the parti¬
cles kept at a didance from each other by means of thefe
attraftions and repulfions mutually balancing each other.
In this lad cafe, no other arrangement is confident with
a quiefcent equilibrium ; and in this cafe, it is evident,
from the theory of curvilineal motions, that the agi¬
tations
15
Elafticity
of water.
RES [733
Refiftanre. tations of the particles will always be fuch, that the con-
nefting forces, in aftual exertion, will be proportional
to the fquares of the velocities diredlly, and to the chords
of the curvature having the dire&ion of the forces in-
verfely.
Firft law of Prop. I. The refiftances, and (by the third law of mo-
^'ce^&c" tion), the impulfions of fluids on fimilar bodies, are
of fluids. ’ proportional to the furfaces of the folid bodies, to the
denfities of the fluids, and to the fquares of the velo-
citiss, jointly.
We mufl: now obferve, that when we fuppofe the par¬
ticles of the fluid to be in mutual contadt, we may either
fuppofe them elaftic or unelaftic. The motion commu¬
nicated to the colledlion of elaftic particles muft be double
of what the fame body, moving in the fame manner,
would communicate to the particles of an elaftic fluid.
The impulfe and refiftance of elaftic fluids muft therefore
be double of thofe of unelaftic fluids.-—But we muft
caution our readers not to judge of the elafticity of fluids
by their fenfible compreflibility. A diamond is incom¬
parably more elaftic than the fineft foot ball, though not
compreflible in any fenftble degree.—It remains to be
decided, by well chofen experiments, whether water be
not as elaftic as air. If we fuppofe, with Bofcovich, the
particles of perfect fluids to be at a diftance from each
other, Ave {hall find it difficult to conceive a fluid void
of elafticity. We hope that the theory of their impulfe
and refiftance will fuggeft experiments which will decide
this queftion, by pointing out what ought to be the ab-
folute impulfe or refiftance in either cafe. And thus the
fundamental propofition of the impulfe and refiftance of
fluids, taken in its proper meaning, is fufceptible of a ri¬
gid demonftration, relative to the only diftinft notion
that Ave can form of the internal conftitution of a fluid.
We fay, taken in its proper meaning ; namely, that the
impulfe or refiftance of fluids is a preffure, oppofed and
meafured by another prefliire, fuch as a pound Aveight,
the force of a fpring, the preflure of the atmofphere, and
the like. And Ave apprehend that it Avould be very dif¬
ficult to find any legitimate demonftration of this leading
propofition different from this, Avhich Ave have noAv bor-
roAved from Sir Ifaac NeAvton, Prop. 23. B. II. Princip.
We acknowledge that it is prolix and even circuitous :
but in all the attempts made by his commentators and
their copyifts to fimplify it, Ave fee great defeats of
logical argument, or affumption of principles, Avkich
are not only gratuitous, but inadmiflible. We {hall
have occafion, as avc proceed, to point out fome of thefe
defefls; and doubt not but the illuftrious author of this
demonftration had exercifed his uncommon patience and
fagacity in fimilar attempts, and Avas diffatisfied Avith
them all.
Before Ave proceed farther, it Avill be proper to make
a general remark, Avhich Avill fave a great deal of difcuf-
fion. Since it is a matter of univerfal experience, that
every aftion of a body on others is accompanied by an
equal and contrary re-a6Hon ; and fince all that Ave can
demonftrate concerning the refiftance of bodies during
their motions through fluids proceeds on this fuppofition,
(the refiftance of the body being ajfumed as equal and
oppofite to the fum of motions communicated to the par¬
ticles of the fluid, eftimated in the diraBion of the bodies
] RES
motion), we are intitled to proceed in the contrary order, Refiftanee.
and to confider the impulfions Avhich each of the particles 1
of fluid exerts on the body at reft, as equal and oppofite
to the motion Avhich the body Avould communicate to that
particle if the fluid Avere at reft, and the body Avere
moving equally fwift in the oppofite direBion. And
therefore the Avhole impulfion of the fluid muft be con¬
ceived as the meafure of the Avhole motion Avhich the
body Avould thus communicate to the fluid. It muft there¬
fore be alfo confidered as the meafure of the refiftance
Avhich the body, moving with the fame velocity, Avould
fuftain from the fluid. When, therefore, Ave fhall de¬
monftrate any thing concerning the impulfion of a fluid,
eftimated in the dire&ion of its motion, Ave muft con¬
fider it as demonftrated concerning the refiftance of a
quiefcent fluid to the motion of that body, having the
fame velocity in the oppofite direBion. The determi¬
nation of thefe impulfions being much eafier than the
determination of the motions communicated by the body
to the particles of the fluid, this method Avill be follow¬
ed in moft of the fubfequent difcuflions.
The general propofition already delivered is by no
means fufficient for explaining the various important phe¬
nomena obferved in themutual aBions of folids and fluids.
In particular, it gives us no afliftance in afcertaining the
modifications of this refiftance or impulfe, Avhich depend
on the Ihape of the body and the inclination of its impel¬
led or refifted furface to the direBion of the motion. Sir
Ifaac NeAvton found another hypothefis neceffary; name¬
ly, that the fluid ftiould be fo extremely rare that the
diftance of the particles may be incomparably greater
th?n their diameters. This additional condition is necef-
fary for confidering their aBions as fo many feparate col-
lifions or impulfions on a folid body. Each particle muft
be fuppofed to have abundant room to rebound, or other-
Avife efcape, after having made its ftroke, without fenfi-
bly affeBing the fituations and motions of the particles
which have not yet made their ftroke : and the motion
muft be fo fwift as not to give time for the fenfible
exertion of their mutual forces of attraBions and repul-
fions.
Keeping thefe conditions in mind, Ave may proceed to
determine the impulfions made by a fluid on furfaces of
e\rery kind : And the moft convenient method to purfue
in this determination, is to compare them all either with
the impulfe Avhich the fame furface Avould receive from
the fluid impinging on it perpendicularly, or with the
impulfe Avhich the fame freani offluid Avould make Avhen
coming perpendicularly on a furface of fuch extent as to
occupy the Avhole ftream. ^
It Avill greatly abbreviate language, if we make ufe Terms ex-
of a feav terms in an appropriate fenfe. plained.-
By a flream, avc fliall mean a quantity of fluid moving
in one direBion, that is, each particle moving in parallel
lines; and the breadth of the ftream is a line perpendi¬
cular to all thefe parallels.
A filament means a portion of this ftream of very
fmall breadth, and it confifts of an indefinite number of
particles following one another in the fame direBion,
and fucceflively impinging on, or gliding along, the fur¬
face of the folid body.
The bafe of any furface expofed to a ftream of fluid,
is that portion of a plane perpendicular to the ftream,
Avhich is covered or proteBed from the aBion of the
ftream
R E S
[ 734 ]
RES
Refinance, ftrcain by the furface expofed to Sts impute. _ Thus the
    bafe of a fphere expofed to a ftreara of fluid is its great
rrrrrxr circle» whofe Plane is Pen’endicular tor the U
i EC (fig. i.) be a plane furface expofed to the adion
of a ftream of fluid, moving in the direftion DC, then
ER, or SE, perpendicular to DC, is its bafe.
Dire& impulfe ftiall exprefs the energy or afhon of
the particle or filament, or ftream of fluid, when meet¬
ing the furface perpendicularly, or when the furface is
perpendicular to the direflion of the ftream.
Abfolute impulfc means the adlual prefl'ure on. the im¬
pelled furface, arifing from the aftion of the fluid, whe¬
ther ftriking the furface perpendicularly or obliquely *, or
it is the force impreffed on the furface, or tendency to
motion which it acquires, and which muft .be oppofed
by an equal force in the oppofite direction, in order that
the furface may be maintained in its place. It.is of im¬
portance to keep in mind, that this preffure is always
perpendicular to the furface. It is a propofition found¬
ed on univerfal and uncontradi&ed experience, that the
mutual aflions of bodies on each other are always ex¬
erted in a direction perpendicular to the touching fur-
faces. Thus, it is obferved, that when a billiard ball
A is ft ruck by another B, moving in any direftion what¬
ever, the ball A always moves off in the dire&ion per¬
pendicular to the plane which touches the two balls^ in
the point of mutual contaft, or point of impulfe. This
indu£tive propofition is fupported by every argument
which can be drawn from what wre know concerning
the forces which conneft the particles of matter toge¬
ther, and are the immediate caufes of the communica¬
tion of motion. It would employ much time and room
to ftate them here •, and tve apprehend that it is unne-
ceffary : for no reafon can be affigned why the preffure
fhould be in any particular oblique dire&ion. If any
one fihould fay that the impulfe will be in the direction
of the ftream, we have only to defire him to take no¬
tice of the effeft of the rudder of a fhip. This (hows
that the impulfe is not in the direElion of the Jlream, and
is therefore in fome dire&ion tranfverfe to the ftream.—
He will alfo find, that when a plane furface is impelled
obliquely by a fluid, there is no dire&ion in which it
can be fupported but the dire&ion perpendicular to it-
felf. It is quite fafe, in the mean time, to take it as
an experimental truth. We may, perhaps, in fome
other part of this work, give what will be received as
a rigorous demonftration.
Relative or effective impulfe means the preffure on the
furface eftimated in fome particular direftion. Thus
BC (fig. i.) may reprefent the fail of a fhip, impelled
by the wind blow’ing in the direflion DC. GO may
be the direftion of the (hip’s keel, or the line of her
• courfe. The wind ftrikes the fail in the dire&ion GH
parallel to DC •, the fail is urged or preffed in the di-
reftion GI, perpendicular to BC. But we areintereft-
cd to know what tendency this will give the (hip to
move in the direction GO. This is the effeflive or re¬
lative impulfe. Or BC may be the tranfverfe fe£lion of
the fail of a common wind-mill. This, by the conftruc-
tion of the machine, can move only in the direftion GP,
perpendicular to the direftion of the wind ; and it is on¬
ly in this direction that the impulfe produces the defired
effeff. Or BC may be half of the prow of a punt or
lighter, riding at anchor by means of the cable DC, at¬
tached to the prow C. In this cafe, GQ, parallel to
4
DC, is that part of the abfolute impulfe which is em-Refiftance,
ployed in (training the cable.
The angle of incidence is the angle FGC contained be¬
tween the diredtion of the dream FG and the plane BC.
The angle of obliquity is the angle OGC contained
between the plane and the diredtion GO, in which we
with to eftimate the impulfe.
17
Prop. II. The diredt impulfe of a fluid on a plane fur-Second law
face, is to its abfolute oblique impulfe on the fame fur-01 refill-
face, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare of the
fine of the angle of incidence.
Let a ftream of fluid, moving in the diredlion DC,
(fig. I.), adl on the plane BC. With the radius CB Fig. t.
deferibe the quadrant ABE •, draw CA perpendicular
to CE, and draw MNBS parallel to CE. Let the par¬
ticle F, moving in the diredlion FG, meet the plane in
G, and in FG produced take GH to reprefent the mag¬
nitude of the diredl impulfe, or the impulfe which the
particle would exert on the plane AC, by meeting it in
V. Draw GI and HK perpendicular to BC, and HI
perpendicular to GI. Alfo draw BR perpendicular to
DC.
The force GH is equivalent to the two forces GI
and GK ; and GK being in the diredlion of the plane
has no (hare in the impulfe. The abfolute impulfe,
therefore, is reprefented by GI ; the angle GHI is
equal to FGC, the angle of incidence ; and therefore
GH is to GI as radius to the fine of the angle of inci¬
dence : Therefore the diredl impulfe of each particle
or filament is to its abfolute oblique impulfe as radius to
the fine of the angle of incidence. But further, the
number of particles or filaments which llrike the furface
AC, is to the number of thofe which ftrike the furface
BC as AC to NC : for all the filaments between LA
and MB go part the oblique furface BC without ftrik¬
ing it. But BC : NCrrrad. : fin. NBC, = rad. : fin.
FGC, — rad. : fin. incidence. Now the whole impulfe
is as the impulfe of each filament, and as the number of
filaments exerting equal impulfes jointly ; therefore the
whole diredl impulfe on AC is to the whole abfolute
impulfe on BC, as the fquare of radius to the fquare of
the fine of the angle of incidence.
Let S exprefs the extent of the furface, i the angle
of incidence, 0 the angle of obliquity, v the velocity of
the fluid, and d its denfity. Let F reprefent the diredl
impulfe, f the abfolute oblique impulfe, and q> the re¬
lative or effedlive impulfe : And let the tabular fines
and cofines be confidered as decimal fradlions of the ra¬
dius unity.
This propofition gives us F : f=Vd : Sin.* z, = I :
Sin.4 z, and therefore /~FxSin.4z. Alfo, becaufe
impulfes are in the proportion of the extent of furface
fimilarly impelled, we have, in general, /= FS X
Sin.4, i. _ # .
The firft who publiftied this theorem was Pardies, in
his Oeuvres de Mathematique, in 1673. We know that
Newton had inveftigated the chief propofitions of the
Principia before 1670. g
Prop. III. The diredl impulfe on any furface is to the Third Ew.
effedlive oblique impulfe on the fame furface, as the
cube of radius to the folid, which has for its bafe the
fquare of the fine of incidence, and the fine of obli¬
quity for its height.
For,
R E .S
[ 735 1
R E S
T9 .
Proportion
of the di¬
rect nn-
pul.e.
20
Impulfe on
a furface in
motion.
Fig. 2.
Hefiftance. For, when GH reprefents the direfl impulfe of a par-
^v""' tide, GI is the abfolute oblique impulfe, and GO is the
effective impulfe in the direction GO: Now GI is to
GO as radius to the fine of G10, and GIO is the com¬
plement of IGO, and is therefore equal to CGO, the
angle of obliquity.
Therefore f: : Sin. O.
But F : /—R* : Sin.V
Therefore F : iprrR5 : Sin.*/x Sin. O. and
<p=rF X Sin.1/ X Sin. O.
Cor.—The diredl impulfe on any furface is totheef-
fedlive oblique impulfe in the direftion of the dream, as
the cube of radius to the cube of the fine of incidence.
ftive*16F°r draw jq an(j Qp perpendicular to GH, and IP
oblique im.PerPen^‘cu^ai' to > ^ien ^ie aSfdute impulfe GI is
equivalent to the impulfe GQ_ in the direction of the
dream, and GP, which may be called the tranfverfe im-
jydfe. Tlie angle GI£) is evidently equal to the angle
GHI, or FGC, the angle of incidence.
Therefore f : Q — GI : G(^, rr R : Sin. ?.
But F : /= R*: Sin.*/.
Therefore F : <p ~ R3 : 5in.3z.
And <p =z ¥ X Sin 3/. .
Before we proceed further, we {hall confider the im¬
pulfe on a furrace which is alfo in motion. This is evi¬
dently a frequent and an important cafe. It is perhaps
the mod frequent and important: It is the cafe of a ddp
under fail, and of a wind or water-mill at work.
Therefore, let a dream of duid, moving with the di-
reftion and velocity DE, meet a plane BC, (fig. 2.)
which is moving parallel to itfelf in the dire&ion and
with the velocity DF: It is required to determine the
impulfe ?
Nothing is more eafy : The mutual aflions of bodies
depend on their relative motions only. The motion,
DE of the fluid relative to BC, which is alfo in motion,
is compounded of the real motion of the fluid and the
oppofite to the real motion of the body. Therefore pro¬
duce FD till Dyfir:DF, and complete the parallelogram
D/e £, and draw the diagonal D e. The impulfe on
the plane is the fame as if the plane were at red, and
every particle of the duid impelled it in the direction
and with the velocity D e; and may therefore be de¬
termined by the foregoing propofition. This propofition
applies to every podxble cafe j and we (hall not bedow
more time on it, but referve the important modification
of the general propofition for the cafes which lhall oc¬
cur in the praftical applications of the whole doftrine
of the impulfe and refidance of duids.
Prop. IV. The direfb impulfe of a dream of fluid,
whofe breadth is given, is to its oblique effective im¬
pulfe in the direction of the dream, as the fquare of
radius to the fquare of the line of the angle of inci¬
dence.
For the number of filaments which occupy the ob¬
lique plane BC, would occupy the portion NC of a
perpendicular plane, and therefore we have only to
compare the perpendicular impulfe on any point V with
the effective impulfe made by the fame filament FV on
the oblique plane at G. Now GH reprefents the im¬
pulfe which this filament would make at V; and G£)
h the effe&ive impulfe of the fame filament at G, efti-
21
Proportion
of the di¬
rect im¬
pulfe of
a given
ftream to
the effec¬
tive oblique
impulfe in
the fame
direction.
mated in the dire&ion GH of the dream $ and GH is Refiftance^
to Gl.) as GH2 to GI*, that is, as rad.* to fin.* i. *
Cur. I. The eflfedlive impulfe in the dire&ion of the
dream on any plane furface BC, is to the direft impulfe
on its bafe BR or SE, as the fquare of the fine of the
angle of incidence to the fquare of the radius.
2. If an ifofceles wedge ACB (fig. 3.) be expofed toFij. 3.
a dream of fluid moving in the direftion of its height
CD, the impulfe on the lides is to the direft irnpulfe on
the bafe as the fquare of half the bafe AD to the fquare
of the fide AC, or as the fquare of the fine of half the
angle of the wedge to the fquare of the radius. For it
is evident, that in this cafe the two tranfverfe impulfes,
fuch as GP in fig. 1. balance each other, and the only
impulfe which can be obferved is the fum of the two
impulfes, fuch as GQ^of fig. 1. which are to be compar¬
ed with the impulfes on the two halves AD, DB of the
bafe. Now AC : AB ~ rad. : fin. ACD, and ACD
is equal to the angle of incidence.
Therefore, if the angle ACB is a right angle, and
ACD is half a right angle, the fquare of AC is twice
the fquare of AD, and the impulfe on the fides of a
redlangular wedge is half the impulfe on its bafe,
Alfo, if a cube ACBE (fig. 4.) be expofed to aFig. 4.
dream moving in a direction perpendicular to one of its
fides, and then to a dream moving in a direftion per¬
pendicular to one of its diagonal planes, the impulfe in
the firll cafe will be to the impulfe in tire fecond as V2
to 1. Call the perpendicular impulfe on a fide F, and
the perpendicular impulfe on its diagonal plane / and
the effedtive oblique impulfe on its fides cp j—we have
F : / = AC :
/ : <p = AC*:
F : —
very nearly as 10 to 7.
AB - 1
AD2= 2
A and
1. Therefore
vG. =
V/2
i, or
The fame reafoning will apply to a pyramid whofe
bafe is a regular polygon, and whofe axis is perpendicu¬
lar to the bafe. If fuch a pyramid is expofed to a
dream of duid moving in the diredlion of the axis, the
diredt impulfe on the bafe is to the effedfive impulfe on
the pyramid, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare of
the fine of the angle- which the axis makes with the
fides of the pyramid.
And, in like manner, the diredl itnpulfion on the bafe
of a right cone is to the effedtive impulfion on the coni-’
cal furface, as the fquare of the radius to the fquare o£
the fine of half the angle at the vertex of the cone.
This is demondrated, by fuppofing the cone to be a py¬
ramid of an infinite number of fides.
We may in this manner compare the impulfe on any
polygonal furface with the impulfe on its bafe, by com¬
paring apart the impulfes on each plane with thofe in
their correfponding bafes, and taking their fum.
And we may compare the impulfe on a curved furface
with that on its bafe, by refolving the curved furface
into elementary planes, each of which is impelled by an
elementary filament of the dream.
The following beautiful propofition, given by Le
Seur and Jaquier, in their Commentary on the fecond
book of Newton’s Principia, with a few examples of its
application, will fuffice for any further account of this
theory.
Prop.. .
Rxi'nlance.
22
The im-
pulfe on a
curved’fur*
face com¬
pared with
that on its
bafe.
Fig- 5*
It E S [ 736 1 RES
Ppap V T et ADR ffi? ? ) be the fedUon of afarface fquare of the ordinate KM is equal to the Wangle of Refiftancc,
of fimple curvature, fuch as is the furface of a cylin- GK and a onnftant Ime GC : and it is there- *
rig. 6.
der. *Let this be ’expofed to the aaion of a fluid
moving in the direftion AC. Let BC be the fedlion
of the plane (which u'e have called its bafe), perpen¬
dicular to the direction of the ftream. In AC pro¬
duced, take any length CG and on CG defcribe the
femicircle CHG, and complete the reftangle BCGO.
Through any point D of the curve draw ED parallel
to AC, and meeting BC and OG in £) and P. Let
DF touch the curve in D, and draw the chord GH
parallel to DF, and HKM perpendicular to CG,
meeting ED in M. Suppofe this to be done for every
point of the curve ADB, and let LMN be the curve
which paffes through all the points of interfedlion of
the parallels EDP and the correfponding perpendicu¬
lars HKM.
The effe&ive impulfe on the curve furface ADB in
the direftion of the ftream, is to its dire£l: impulfe on
the bafe BC as the area BCNL is to the re&angle
BCGO.
Draw edqmp parallel to EP and extremely near it.
The arch D f/ of the curve may be conceived as the
fedfion of an elementary plane, having the pofttion of
the tangent DF. The angle EDF is the angle of in¬
cidence of the filament ED d e. This is equal to CGH,
becaufe ED, DF, are parallel to CG, GH and (be-
caufe CHG is a femicircle) CH is perpendicular to
GH. Alfo CG : CH=CH : CK, and CG : CK=
CG* : CH*, = rad* : fin.*, CGH, = rad.* : fin.* in-
cid. Therefore if CG, or its equal DP, reprefent the
diredl impulfe on the point Q of the bafe, CK, or its
equal QM, will reprefent the effedlive impulfe on the
point D of the curve. And thus, will repre¬
fent the diredt impulfe of the filament on the element
of the bafe, and ra M will reprefent the ef-
fedlive impulfe of the fame filament on the element
D d of the curve. And, as this is true of the whole
curve ADB, the effedlive impulfe on the whole curve
will be reprefented by the area BCNML ; and the di-
red! impulfe on the bafe will be reprefented by the reel-
angle BCGO and therefore the impulfe on the curve-
furface is to the impulfe on the bafe as the area BLMNC
is to the redtangle BOGC.
It is plain, from the conftrudfion, that if the tangent
to the curve at A is perpendicular to AC, the point N
will coincide with G. Alfo, if the tangent to the
curve at B is parallel to AC, the point L will coincide
with B.
Whenever, therefore, the curve ADB is fuch that an
equation can be had to exhibit the general relation be¬
tween the abfeifia AR and the ordinate DR, we lhall
deduce an equation which exhibits the relation between
the abfeifs CK and the ordinate KM of the curve
LMN -, and this will give us the ratio of BLNC to
BOGC.
Thus, if the furface is that of a cylinder, fo that the
curve BDA£ (fig. 6.), which receives the impulfe of
the fluid, is a femicircle, make CG equal to AC, and
conftrudt the figure as before. The curve BMG is a
parabola, whofe axis is CG, whofe vertex is G, and
whofe parameter is equal to CG. For it is plain, that
CGrrDC, and GH = C£, =MK. And CGXGK
rrGH*z=KM*. That is, the curve is fuch, that the
the abfcilfa GK and a conftant line GC ; and it is there¬
fore a parabola whofe vertex is G. Now, it is well
known, that the parabolic area BMGC is two thirds
of the parallelogram BCGO. Therefore the impulfe
on the quadrant ADB is two thirds of the impulfe on
the bafe BC. The fame may be faid of the quadrant
A.d b and its bafe c b. Therefore, The impulfe on a cy- y,ieY
Under or half cylinder is two thirds of the diretl impulfe p^lfe on'a
on its Iran puerfe plane through the axis; or it is two cylinder,
thirds of the direct impulfe on one fide of a parallele¬
piped of the fame breadth and height.
Prof. VI. If the body be a folid generated by the re¬
volution of the figure BDAC (fig. 5.) round the axis
AC ; and if it be expofed to the adlion of a ftream of
fluid moving in the direflion of the axis AC -, then
the effedtive impulfe in the diredtion of the ftream is
to the diredt impulfe on its bafe, as the folid generated
by the revolution of the figure BLMNC round tllfc
axis CN to the cylinder generated by the revolution
of the redtangle BOGC.
This fcarcely needs a demonftration. The figure
ADBLMNA is a fedtion of thefe folids by a plane paf-
fing through the axis ; and what has been demonftrated
of this fedtion is true of every other, becaufe they are all
equal and fimilar. It is therefore true of the whole fo¬
lids, and (their bafe) the circle generated by the revo¬
lution of BC round the axis AC.
Hence we eafily deduce, that The impulfe on a fphere afphere,
is one half of the direEl impulfe on its great circle, or on and
the bafe of a cylinder of equal diameter.
For in this cafe the curve BMN (fig. 6.) which ge¬
nerates the folid exprefling the impulfe on the fphere
is' a parabola, and the folid is a parabolic conoid. Now
this conoid is to the cylinder generated by the revolution
of the redtangle BOGC round the axis CG, as the fum
of all the circles generated by the revolution of ordinates
to the parabola fuch as KM, to the fum of as many
circles generated by the ordinates to the redtangle fuch
as KT ; or as the fum of all the fquares deferibed on
the ordinates KM to the fum of as many fquares deferibed
on the ordinates KT. Draw BG cutting MK in S. The
fquare on MK is to the fquare on BC or TK as the
abfeiffa GK to the abfcilfa GC (by the nature of the
parabola), or as SK to BC 5 becaufe SK and BC are
refpedtively equal to GK and GC. Therefore the fum
of all the fquares on ordinates, fuch as MK, is to the
fum of as many fquares on ordinates., fuch as TK, as the
fum of all the lines SK to the fum of as many lines TK *,
that is, as the triangle BGC to the redtangle BOGC ;..
that is, as one to two : and therefore the impulfe on the
fphere is one half of the diredt impulfe on its great circle.
From the fame conftrudtion we'may very eafily de-0nthe
duce a very curious and feemingly ufeful truth, that offrullumof
all conical bodies having the circle ivhofe diameter isacone*
AB (fig. 3.) for its bafe, and FD for its height, the
one which fuftains the fmalleft impulfe or meets with
the fmalleft refiftance is the fruftum AGHB of a cone
ACB fo conftrudted, that EF being taken equal to ED,
EA is equal to EC. This fruftum, though more ca¬
pacious than the cone AFB of the fame height, will be
lefs refifted.
Alfo, if the ‘ folid generated by the revolution of
BDAC (fig. 5.) have its anterior part covered with a
fruftum
RES
2(5
Different
inipulfions
compared
with the
preffure of
gravity.
f efiftance. fruftum of a cone generated by the lines Da A,
forming the angle at a of 135 degrees; this folid,
though more capacious than the included folid, will be
lefs refitted.
And, from the fame principles, Sir Ifaac Newton de¬
termined the form of the curve ADB, which would
generate the folid which, of all others of the fame
length and bafe, thouid have the leaft refiftance.
Thefe are curious and important dedu&ions, but are
not introduced here, for reafons which will foon ap¬
pear.
The reader cannot fail to obferve, that all that we
have hitherto delivered on this fubjeft, relates to the
comparifon of different impulfes or refiftances. We
have always compared the oblique impulfions with the
diredl, and by their intervention we compare the ob¬
lique impulfions with each other. But it remains to
give abfolute meafures of fome individual impulfion ; to
which, as to an unit, we may refer every other. And
as it is by their preffure that they become ufeful or hurt¬
ful, and they mutt be oppofed by other preffures, it be¬
comes extremely convenient to compare them all with
that preffure with which we are moft familiarly ac¬
quainted, the preffure of gravity.
The manner in which the comparifon is made, is this.
When a body advances in a fluid with a known velocity,
it puts a known quantity of the fluid into motion (as is
fuppofed) with this velocity; and this is done in a known
time. We have only to examine what weight will put
this quantity of fluid into the fame motion, by adting on
it during the fame time. This weight is conceived as
equal to the refiftance. Thus, let us fuppofe that a
ftream of water, moving at the rate of eight feet per fe-
cond, is perpendicularly obftrudted by a fquare foot of
iolid furface held faff in its place. Conceiving water to
adt in the manner of the hypothetical fluid now defcrib-
ed, and to be without elafticity, the whole effedt is the
gradual annihilation of the motion of eight cubic feet of
water moving eight feet in a fecond. And this is done
in a fecond of time. It is equivalent to the gradually
putting eight cubic feet ,of water into motion with this
velocity ; and doing this by adting uniformly during a
fecond. What weight is able to produce this effedt ?
The weight of eight feet of water, adting during a fe¬
cond on it, will, as is well known, give it the velocity
of thirty-two feet per fecond ; that is, four times greater.
Therefore, the weight of the fourth part of eight cubic
feet, that is, the weight of two cubic feet, adling dur¬
ing a fecond, w’ill do the fame thing, or the weight of
a column of water whofe bafe is a fquare foot, and
whofe height is two feet. This will not only produce
this effedt in the fame time with the impulfion of the
folid body, but it will alfo do it by the fame degrees, as
any one will clearly perceive, by attending to the gra¬
dual acceleration of the mafs of water urged bv one-
fourth of its weight, and comparing this with the gra¬
dual produdlion or extindlion of motion in the fluid by
the progrefs of the refitted furface.
Now it is well known that eight cubic feet of water,
by falling one foot, which it will do in one-fourth of
a fecond, will acquire the velocity of eight feet per fe-
oond by its weight; therefore the force which produ¬
ces the fame effedi in a whole fecond is one-fourth of
this. This force is therefore equal to the weight of a
•oolumn of water, whofe bafe is-a fquare foot, and-whofe
Vou XVII. Part II.
[ 737 1
RES
periments.
height is two feet ; that is, twice rhe height neceffary Refiffanc^.
for acquiring toe velocity of the motion by gravity.
The conclufion is the fame whatever be the furface
that is refitted, whatever be the fluid that refifts, and
whatever be the velocity of the motion. In this induc¬
tive and familiar manner we learn, that t/ie dir-ett im-
pulfe or rejiftance of an unclafic fmd on any plane Jur-
face, is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid hav¬
ing the furface for its bafe, and txvice the fall neceflary
for acquiring the velocity of the motion fonts height: and
if the fluid is confidered as elaftic, the iinpuife or refill-,
ance is twice as great. See Newt. Princip. B. II. prop.
35. and 38. 27
It now remains to compare this theory with experi- ' h's theory
ment. Many have been made, both by Sir Ifaac New-tr*ecJ b-y
ton and by fubfequent writers. It is much to be la-.' " eX"
mented, that in a matter of fuch importance, both to
the philofopher and to the artift, there is fuch a difa-
greement in the refults with each other. We lhall
mention the experiments which feem to have been made
with the greateft judgment and care. Thofe of Sir
Ifaac Newton were chiefly made by the ofcillations of
pendulums in water, and by the defeent of balls both in
water and in air. Many have been made by Mariotte
{Traite de Mouvement des Eaux). Gravefande has pub-
lilhed, in his Syflem of Natural Philofophy, experiments
made on the refiftance or impulfions on folids in the
midft of a pipe or canal. They are extremely well con¬
trived, but are on fo fmall a fcale that they are of very
little ufe. Daniel Bernoulli, and his pupil Profeflor
Krafft, have publiihed in the Comment. Acad. Petropol.
experiments on the impulfe of a ftream or vein of water
from an orifice or tube : Thefe are of great value. The
Abbe Boflut has publilhed others of the lame kind in
his Hydrodynamique. Mr Robins has publithed, in his
New Principles of Gunnery, many valuable experiments
on the impufe and retiftance of air. The Chtv. de
Borda, in the Mem. Acad. Pans, 1763 and 1767, has
given experiments on the refiftance of air and alfo of
water, which are very interefting. The moft complete
collection of experiments on the rtfiftance of water are
thofe made at the public expence by a committee of the
academy of fciences, confifting of the marquis de Con-
dorcet, Mr d’Alembert, Abbe Boflut, and others. The
Chev. de Buat, in his Hydraulique, has publilhed fome
moft curious and valuable experiments, where many im¬
portant circumftances are taken notice of, which had
never been attended to before, and which give a view
of the fubjeCl totally different from what is ufually ta¬
ken of it. Don George d’Ulloa, in his Examine'Ma-
ntimo, has alfo given fome important experiments, fimi-
lar to thofe adduced by Bougu'er in his Manoeuvre des
Vaifleaux, but leading to very different eonclufions. All
thefe Ihould be confulted by fuch as would acquire a
practical knowledge of this fubjeCl. We mull content
ourfelves with giving their moft general and Heady re¬
fults. Such as,
1. It is very confonant to experiment that the refift¬
ances are proportional to the fquares of the velocities.
When the velocities of water do not exceed a few feet
per fecond, no fenfible deviation is obferved. In very
fmall velocities the refiftances are fenfibly greater than
in this proportion, and this excefs is plainly owing to
the vifeidity or imperfeCl fluidity ef water. Sir Ifaac
Newton has fliown that the refiftance arifing from this
5 A caufe
them.
RES [
lUIKHnce.Mufc is conftant, or tlie fame in every velocity ; and
v ,  when he has taken off a certain part of the total rehit-
ance, he found the remainder was very exaftly propor¬
tionable to the fquare of the velocity. His experiments
to this purpofe were made with balls a very little hea¬
vier than water, fo as to defcend very llowly > and they
were made with his ufual care and accuracy, and may
be depended on. ... i
r f In the experiments made with bodies floating on the
its difagree- furface of water, there is an addition to the refiftance
ment with arifing from the inertia of the water. The water heaps
up a little on the anterior furface of the floating body,
and is depreffed behind it. Hence arifes a hydroftatical
preffure, afting in concert with the true refiftance. _ A
fimilar thing is obferved in the refiftance of air, which
is condenfed before the body and rarefied behind it, and
thus an additional refiftance is produced by the unba¬
lanced elafticity of the air •, and alfo becaufe the air,
which is aBually difplaced, is denfer than common air.
Thefe circumftances caufe the refiftances to increafe
fafter than the fquares of the velocities : but, even in¬
dependent of this, there is an additional refiftance ari¬
fing from the tendency to rarefaftion behind a very
fwfft body •, becaufe the preffure of the furrounding
fluid can only make the fluid fill the fpace left with a
determined velocity.
We have had occafion to fpeak of this circumftance
more particularly under Gunnery and PNEUMATICS,
when confidering very rapid motions. Mr Robins had
remarked that the velocity at which the obferved re¬
fiftance of the air began to increafe fo prodigioufly, was
that of about nooor 1200 feet per fecond, and that
this was the velocity with which air would rufti into a
void. He concluded, that when the velocity was great¬
er than this, the ball was expofed to the additional re¬
fiftance arifing from the unbalanced ftatical preffure of
the air, and that this conftant quantity behoved to be
added to the refiftance arifing from the air’s inertia in
all greater velocities. This is very reafonable : But he
imagined that in fmaller velocities there was no fuch
unbalanced preffure. But this cannot be the cafe : for
although in fmaller velocities the air will ftill fill up the
fpace behind the body, it will not fill it up with air of
the fame denfity. This would be to fuppofe the mo¬
tion of the air into the deferted place to be inftantane-
ous. There muft therefore be a rarefaction behind the
body, and a preffure backward ; arifing from unbalan¬
ced elafticity, independent of the condenfation on the
anterior part. The condenfation and rarefaction are
caufed by the fame thing, viz. the limited elafticity of
the air. Were this infinitely great, the fmalleft conden¬
fation before the body would be inftantly diffufed over
the whole air, and fo would the rarefaClion, fo that no
preffure of unbalanced elafticity would be obferved ; but
the elafticity is fuch as to propagate the condenfation
with the velocity of found only, i. e. the velocity of
J142 feet per fecond. Therefore this additional re¬
fiftance does not commence precifely at this velocity,
but is fenfible in all fmaller velocities, as is very juftly
obferved by Euler. But we are not yet able to afcer-
tain the law of its increafe, although it is a problem
which feems fufceptible of a tolerably accurate folu-
tion.
Precifely fimilar to this is the refiflance to the mo-
tren of floating bodies, arifing from the accumulation
738 ] RE S
or gorging up of the water on their anterior furface, Refiftance,
and its depreflion behind them. Were the gravity of''““"v™"'
the water infinite, while its inertia remains the fame,
the wave raifed up at the prow of a fliip would be in¬
ftantly diffufed over the whole ocean, and it would
therefore be infinitely fmall, as alfo the depreflion be¬
hind the poop. But this wave requires time for its
diffufion; and while it is not diffufed, it ads by hydro¬
ftatical preffure. We are equally unable to afcertain the
law of variation of this part of the refiftance, the me-
chanifm of waves being but very imperfedlly under-
ftood. The height of the wave in the experiments of
the French academy could not be meafured with fuffi-
cient precifion (being only obferved en pajfunt) for af
certaining its relation to the velocity. The Chev. Buat
attempted it in his experiments, but without fuccefs. This
muft evidently make a part of the refiftance in all velo.
cities: and it ftill remains an undecided queftion, “ What
relation it bears to the velocities ?” When the folid bo¬
dy is wholly buried in the fluid, this accumulation does
not take place, or at leaft not in the fame way : It
may, however, be obferved. Every perfon may recol-
ledl, that in a very fwift running ftream a large ftone
at the bottom will produce a fmall fwell above it -7 un-
lefs it lies very deep, a nice eye may ftill obferve it.
The water, on arriving at the obftacle, glides paft it in
every dire£Hon, and is deflected on all hands $ and there¬
fore what paffes over it is alfo deflected upwards, and
caufes the water over it to rife above its level. The
nearer that the body is to the furface, the greater will
be the perpendicular rife of the water, but it will be
lefs diffufed •, and it is uncertain whether the ’whole ele¬
vation will be greater or lefs. By the whole elevation
w e mean the area of a perpendicular feftion of the ele¬
vation by a plane perpendicular to the direflion of the
ftream. We are rather difpofed to think that this area
will be greateft when the body is near the furface.
D’Ulloa has attempted to confider this fubjeft feienti-
fically ; and is of a very different opinion, which he
confirms by the fingle experiment to be mentioned by
and by. Mean time, it is evident, that if the water,
which glides paft the body cannot fall in behind it with
fufficient velocity for filling up the fpace behind, there
muft be a void there j and thus a hydroftatical preffure
muft be fuperadded to the refiftance arifing from the
inertia of the water. All muft have obferved, that if
the end of a ftick held in the hand be drawn flowly
through the water, the water will fill the place left by
the ftick, and there will be no curled wave : but if the
motion be very rapid, a hollow trough or gutter is left
behind, and is not filled up till at fome diftance from
the ftick, and the wave which forms its fides is very
much broken and curled. The writer of this article
has often looked into the Avater from the poop of a
fecond rate man of war when the was failing 11 miles
per hour, which is a velocity of l6 feet per fecond
nearly \ and he not only obferved that the back of the
rudder was naked for about two feet below the load
water-line, but alfo that the trough or Avake made by the
(hip A\Tas filled up with AAattr which Avas broken and
foaming to a confiderable depth, and to a confiderable
diftance from the veffel: There muft therefore have been
a void. He never faAV the wake perfeflly tranfparent
(and therefore completely filled with water) Avhtn the
velocity exceeded 9 or 10 feet per fecond. While this
broken
RES
Refiftance
29
Singula¬
rity of
lyUUoa’s
wtperi-
ments.
30
His theory
of refift-
broken ttater is obferved, there can be no doubt that
1 there is a void and an additional refiftance. But even
when the fpace left by the body, or the fpace behind a
ftill body expofed to a ftrearn, is completely filled, it
may not be filled fufficiently fall, and there may be
(and certainly is, as we (hall fee afterwards) a quantity
of water behind the body, which is moving more {low¬
ly away than the reft, and therefore hangs in fome
fhape by the body, and is dragged by it, increafing the
refiftance. The quantity of this muft depend partly on
the velocity of the body or ftream, and partly on the
rapidity with which the furrounding water comes in
behind. This laft muft depend on the preffure of the
furrounding water. It would appear, that when this
adjoining preffure is very great, as muft happen when
the depth is great, the augmentation of refiftance now
fpoken of would be lefs. Accordingly this appears in
Newton’s experiments, where the balls were lefs retard¬
ed as they were deeper under water.
Thefe experiments are fo Ample in their nature, and
were made with fuch care, and by a perfon fo able to
deleft and appreciate every circumftance, that they de-
ferve great credit, and the conclufions legitimately drawn
from them deferve to be confidered as phyfical laws.
We think that the prefent deduftion is unexception¬
able : for in the motion of balls, which hardly defcend-
ed, their preponderancy being hardly fenfible, the effeft
of depth muft have borne a very great proportion to the
whole refiftance, and muft have greatly influenced their
motions j yet they were obferved to fall as if the refift¬
ance had no way depended on the depth.
The fame thing appears in Borda’s experiments,
where a fphere which was deeply immerfed in the water
was lefs refifted than one that moved with the fame ve¬
locity near the furface ; and this was very conftant and
regular in a courfe of experiments. D’Ulloa, however,
affirms the contrary : He fays that the refiftance of a
board, which was a foot broad, immerfed one foot in a
ftream moving two feet per fecond, was 154- lbs. and the
refiftance to the fame board, when immerfed 2 feet in a
ftream moving i-j- feet per fecond (in which cafe the
furface was 2 feet), was 26^ pounds (a).
We are very ferry that we cannot give a proper ac¬
count of this theory of refiftance by Don George Juan
D’Ulloa, an author of great mathematical reputation,
and the infpeftor of the marine academies in Spain. We
have not been able to procure either the original or the
French tranflation, and judge of it only by an extraft
by Mr Prony in his Archite&ure Hijdraulique, § 868,
&c. The theory is enveloped (according to Mr Pro-
ny’s cuftom) in the moft complicated expreflions, fo that
the phyfical principles are kept almoft out of fight.
When accommodated to the fimpleft pofiible cafe, it is
nearly as follows.
Let 9 be an elementary orifice or portion of the fur¬
face of the fide of a veffel filled with a heavy fluid, and
let ft be its depth under the horizontal furface of the
fluid. Let ? be the denfity of the fluid, and p the ac¬
celerative power of gravity, rr 32 feet velocity acquired
in a fecond.
[ 739 1
RES
It is known, fays he, that the water would flow* out Kefiftanco
at this hole with the velocity «= s/K and u'=z2<p h
and h——. It is alfo known that the preffure p on
the orifice oisipo3>5, —, rr i J 0 a*.
2 ip
Now, let this little furface 0 be fuppofed to move
with the velocity v> The fluid would meet it with the
velocity u-j-v, or u—v, according as it moved in the
oppofite or in the fame direftion with the efflux. In
the equation p — 0 u*, fubftitute «=±=^for«, and
we have the preffure on 0 zz p~ — (wrfc^)*, = —^
2 2
(x/2<p//=t=^*).
This preffure is a weight, that is, a mafs of matter
m aftuated by gravity 9, at p zz Q m} and m — 2 «
This elementary furface being immerfed in a ftag-
nant fluid, and moved with the velocity v, will fuftain
on one fide a preffure $ 0 > an(f on the
other fide a preffure i 0 (^/A 7==) $ and the fen
v V 20'
fible refiftance will be the difference of thefe two pref-
fures, which isioq^/A-
d 0 \/ A v
V2~, or to4SAp that is,
-, becaufe 2 f—8 $ a quantity which is in
the fubduplicate ratio of the depth under the furface of
the fluid, and the fimple ratio of the velocity of the
refifted furface jointly.
There is nothing in experimental philofophy more
certain than that the refiflances are very nearly in the
duplicate ratio of the velocities $ and we cannot con¬
ceive by what experiments the ingenious author has fup-
ported this concljufion. „ ?
But there is, befides, what appears to us to be an Defeat in
effential defeft in this inveftigation. The equation ex- his invefti-
hibits no refiftance in the cafe of a fluid without weight. gati°n‘
Now a theory of the refiftance of fluids fhould exhibit
the retardation arifing from inertia alone, and ftiould di-
ftinguiftr it from that arifing from any other caufe : and
moreover, while it ajjigns an ultimate fenfible refiftance
proportional (cceteris paribus) to the fimple velocity, it
ajfumes as a firft principle that the preffure p is as uz±zvx.
It alfo gives a falfe meafure of the ftatical preffures : for
thefe (in the cafe of bodies immerfed in our waters at
leaft) are made up of the preffure of the incumbent wa¬
ter, which is meafured by //, and the preffure of the at*
m»fphere, a conftant quantity.
Whatever reafon can be given for fetting out with
the principle that the preffure on the little furface o%
moving with the velocity w, is equal to (ar±:i>)*t
makes it indifpenfably neceffary to take for the velocity
w, not that with which water would iffue from a hole
whofe depth under the furface is A, but the velocity
5 A 2 with
(a) There is fomething very unaccountable in thefe experiments,
other author has obferved-
The refiftances are much greater than any
RES [ 740
Refinance, with which it will ifftie from a hole whofe depth
t,—u js /z _f. 33 feet. Becaufe the preffure
fphere is equal to that of a column of vvater 33 feet
- • < /• _ _i_. /^.£* j \yj^y][ wllicll
the body. If
of the atmo-
i.t> »- wa* wr   -   water 33 feet
high : for this is the acknowledged velocity with which
it would rufh in to the void left by the body,
therefore this velocity (which does not exift) has any
lhare in the effort, we muft have for the fluxion of
4\/hv but4\A+33b'
This would not
preffure not —7=^,
r J V2<P
only give preffure or refinances many times exceeding
thofe that have been obferved in our experiments, but
would alfo totally change the proportions which this
theory determines. It was at any rate improper to em-
barrafs an inveftigation, already very intricate, with the
preffure of gravity, and with two motions of efflux,
■which do not exift, and are neceffary for making the
preffures in the ratio of a+y* and u—y\
Mr Prony has been at no pains to inform his readers
of his reafons for adopting this theory of refiitance. fo
contrary to all received opinions, and to the moft diftindt
experiments. Thofe of the French academy, made un¬
der greater preffures, gave a much fmaller refiftance j
and the very experiments adduced in fupport of this
theory are extremely deficient, wanting fully one-third
of what the theory requires. The refiftances by experi¬
ment were 15^ and 2&y, and the theory required 20-§-
and 39. - The equation, however, deduced from the
theory is greatly deficient in the expreffion of the pref¬
fures caufed by the accumulation and depreffion, ftating
the heights of them as
2<P
They can never be fo
high, becaufe the heaped-up water flows off at the
fides, and it alfo comes in behind by the fides ; fo that
the preffure is much lefs than half the weight of a co-
lumn whofe height is — : both becaufe the accumul^-
0 2<P
tion and depreffion are lefs at the fides than in the mid¬
dle, and becaufe, when the body is wholly immerfed,
the accumulation is greatly diminifhed. Indeed in this
cafe, the final equation does not include their effedls,
though as real in this cafe as when part of the body is
above water.
Upon the whole, we are fomewhat furprifed that an
author of D’Ulloa’s eminence (hould have adopted a
theory fo unneceffarily and fo improperly embarrafled
with foreign circumftances; and that Mr Prony fhould
have inferted it with the explanation by which he was
to abide, in a work deftined for pradffical ufe.
This point, or the effedl of deep immerfion, is ftill
much contefted •, and it is a received opinion, by many
not accuftomed to mathematical refearches, that the re¬
finance is greater in greater depths. This is affumed as
an important principle by Mr Gordon, author of a Theo¬
ry of Naval Architecture ; but on very vague and flight
grounds : and the author feems unacquainted with the
manner of reafoning on fuch fubje&s. It fhall be con-
fidered afterwards.
With thefe corrections it may be afferted that theory
and experiment agree very well in this refpedl, and that
the refiftance may be afferted to be in the duplicate ra¬
tio of the velocity.
We have been more minute on this fubjedl, becaufe
k is the leading propofition in the theory of the a&ion
Z
1 f 9 1
> was < 'I’M$ l
f / 42,75° f
J Lio4>737J
inffead of
] RES
of fluids. Newton’s demonffration of it takes no notice Refiftanc*-
of the manner in which the various particles of the fiuid
are put in motion, or the motion which each in particu¬
lar acquires. He only fhows, that if there be nothing
concerned in the communication but pure inertia, the
fum total of the motions of the particles, eftimated in
the direction of the bodies motion, or that of the ftream,
will be in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. It was
therefore of importance to fflow that this part of the
theory was juft. To do this, we had to confider the ef-
fedt of every eircumftance which could be combined
with the inertia of the fluid. All thefe had been fore-
feen by that great man, and are moft briefly, though
perfpicuoufly, mentioned in the laft fcholium to prop.
36. B. II.
2. It appears from a comparifon of all the exPeri-xmpjfe
ments, that the impulfes and refiftances are very nearly and relift,
in the proportion of the furfaces. They appear, how-ances near-
ever, to increafe fomeAvhat fafter than the furfaces. The in. Pro*
chevalier Borda found that the refiftance, with the famej^j.®"0
velocity, to a furface of faces,
9 inches'
16
36
81
The deviation in thefe experiments from the theory
increafes with the furface, and is probably much greater
in the extenfive furfaces of the fails of fhips and wind¬
mills, and the hulls of fliips.
3. The refiftances do by no means vary in the dupli?
cate ratio of the fines of the angles of incidence.
As this is the moft interefting circumftance, having
a chief influence on all the particular modifications of
the refiftance of fluids, and as on this depends the whole
theory of the conftrudlion and Avorking of Ihips, and the
adlion of Avater on our moft important machines, and
feems moft immediately connedled with the mechanifm
of fluids, it merits a very particular confideration. Wc
cannot do a greater fervice than by rendering more ge¬
nerally known the excellent experiments of the French
academy.
Fifteen boxes or veffels Avere conftrufted, Avhich Avere^
tAvo feet Avide, two feet deep, and four feet long. One ments 0f
of them was a parallelepiped of thefe dimenfions j the the Frencia
others had prows of a Avedge-form, the angle ACB
(fig. 8.) varying by 12° degrees from 120 to i8q° j g
that the angle of incidence increafed by 6° from one to
another. Thefe boxes Avere dragged acrofs a very large
bafon of fmooth Avater (in which they were immerfed
two feet) by means of a line palling over a wheel con-
ne£Ied with a cylinder, from which the actuating Aveight
was fufpended. The motion became perfectly uniform
after a very little Avay j and the time of palling over 96
French feet Avith this uniform motion Avas very careful¬
ly noted. The refiftance Avas meafured by the Aveight
employed, after dedufting a certain quantity (properly
eftimated) for fri&ion, and for the accumulation of the
Avater againft the anterior furface. The refults of the
many experiments are given in the folloAving table j
where column ill contains the angle of the proAV, co¬
lumn 2d contains the refiftance as given by the preced¬
ing theory, column 3d contains the reliftance exhibited
in the experiments, and column 4th contains the devia¬
tion of the experiment from the theory.
RES
R^fiftance.
34
5Jid others.
I.
180
168
156
144
132
120
108
96
84
72
60
48
36
24
12
II.
10000
9890
9568
9°45
8346
7500
6545
5523
4478
3455
2500
1654
955
432
109
III.
10000
9893
9578
9084
8446
7710
6925
6148
5433
4800
4404
4240
4I42
4063
3999
[
IV.
O
+3
-j-io
+39
-{-100
-j-2I0
+380
+ 625
+955
+ J345
+ 1904
-j-2586
+3i87
+363i
+3890
The refiftance to 1 fquare foot, French meafure, mo¬
ving with the velocity of 2,56 feet per fecond, was very
nearly 7,625 pounds French.
Reducing thefe to Englifh meafures, tve have the fur-
face = 1,1363 feet, the velocity of the motion equal
to 2,7263 feet per fecond, and the refinance equal to
8,234 pounds avoirdupois. The weight of a column
of frefh water of this bafe, and having for its height
the fall neceflary for communicating this velocity, is
8,264 pounds avoirdupois. The refiftances to other ve¬
locities were accurately proportional to the fquares of the
velocities.
There is great diverfity in the value which different
authors have deduced for the abfolute refiftance of wa¬
ter from their experiments. In the value now given
nothing is taken into account but the inertia of the wa¬
ter. The accumulation againft the forepart of the box
was carefully noted, and the ftatical preffure backwards,
arifing from this caufe, was fubtrafted from the whole
refiftance to the drag. There had not been a fufficient
variety of experiments for difcovering the ftiare which
tenacity and friftion produced ^ fo that the number of
pounds fet down here may be confidered as fomewhat
fuperior to the mere effefts of the inertia of the water.
We think, upon the whole, that it is the moft accurate
determination yet given of the refiftance to a body in
motion : but we (hall afterwards fee reafon for believing,
that the impulfe of a running ftream having the fame
velocity is fomewhat greater ; and this is the form in
which moft of the experiments have been made.
Alfo obferve, that the refiftance here given is that to
a veffel two feet broad and deep and four feet long.
The refiftance to a plane of two feet broad and deep
would probably have exceeded this in the proportion of
15,22 to 14,54, for reafons we (hall fee afterwards.
From the experiments of Chevalier Buat, it appears
that a body of one foot fquare, French meafure, and
two feet long, having its centre 15 inches under water,
moving three French feet per fecond, fuflained a preffure
of 1454 French pounds, or 15,65 Englifh. I his redu¬
ced in the proportion of 31 to 2,56* gives 11,43 pounds,
confiderably exceeding the 8,24.
Mr Bouguer, in his Manoeuvre des Vuiffeaux, fays, that
he found the refiftance of fea-water to a velocity of one
foot to be 23 ounces poids des Marc.
The chevalier Borda found the refiftance of fea-water
to the face of a cubic foot, moving againft the water
one foot per fecond, to be 21 ounces nearly. But this-
741 ] RES
experiment is complicated : the wave was not deduced ; Befiftanc*.
and it was not a plane, but a cube. ^
Don George d’Ulloa found the impulfe of a ftream of
fea-water, running two feet per fecond on a foot fquare,
to be 15!; pounds Englifh meafure. This greatly ex¬
ceeds all the values given by others. 35
From thefe experiments we learn, in the firft place, Confequeni
that the direct refiftance to a motion of a plane furface cj^om
through water, is very nearly equal to the weight of atum*
column of water having that furface for its bafe, and
for its height the fall producing the velocity of the mo¬
tion. This is but one half of the refiftance determined
by the preceding theory. It agrees, however, very well
with the beft experiments made by other philofophers on
bodies totally immerfed or furrounded by the fluid ; and
fufficiently ftiows, that there muft be fome fallacy in the
principles or reafoning by which this refult of the theory
is fuppofed to be deduced. We (hall have occafion to
return to this again.
But we fee that the effe£fs of the obliquity of inci¬
dence deviate enormoufly from the theory, and that this
deviation increafes rapidly as the acutenefs of the prow
increafes. In the prow of 6o° the deviation is nearly
equal to the whole refiftance pointed out by the theory,
and in the prow of 12° it is nearly 40 times greater than
the theoretical refiftancei
The refiftance of the prow of 90° ftiould be one-half
the refiftance of the bafe. We have not fuch a prow 5
but the medium between the refiftance of the prow of
96 and 84 is 5790, inftead of 500.
Thefe experiments are very conform to thofe of other
authors on plane furfaces. Mr Robins found the refift¬
ance of the air to a pyramid of 450, with its apex fore-
moft, was to that of its bafe as 1000 to 1411, inftead
of one to two. Chevalier Borda found the refiftance of
a cube, moving in w’ater in the direction of the fide,
was to the oblique refiftance, when it w^as moved in the
dire61ion of the diagonal, in the proportion of 5^- to 7 ;
whereas it ftiould have been that of ^2 to 1, or of 10 to 7
nearly. He alfo found, that a wedge whofe angle was
90°, moving in air, gave for the proportion of the refift¬
ances of the edge and bafe 7281 : 10000, inftead of
5000 : 10000. Alfo, when the angle of the wedge
was 6o°, the refiftances of the edge, and bafe were 52
and 100, inftead of 25 and 100.
In ftiort, in all the cafes of oblique plane furfaces, the
refiftances were greater than thofe which are afligned by
the theory. The theoretical law agrees tolerably with
obfervatien in large angles of incidence, that is, in inci*
deuces not differing very far from the perpendicular ;
but in more acute prows the refiftances are more nearly
proportional to the fines of incidence than to their
fquares.
The academicians deduced from thefe experiments
an expreflton of the general value of the refiftance,
which correfponds tolerably well with obfervation. Thus
let arbe the complement of the half angle, of the prowy
and let P be the direft preffure or refiftance, with ai*
incidence of 90°, and7? the effective oblique preffure:
then p-=z¥ X cofine2 a? +3,153
3>25
This gives
for a prow of 12° an error in defedl about -r^-, and irr
larger angles it is much nearer the truth ; and this is
exaft enough for any prattice.
This is an abundantly Ample formula j but if we in-
troducov
R E S [ 742 ] RES
ReSftance. tyoduce it in our calculations of the refiilanecs of curvi-
lineal prows, it renders them fo complicated as to be al-
moft ufelefs j and what is worfe, when the calculation
is completed for a curvilineal prow, the refiftance which
refuits is found to differ widely from experiment. This
{hows that the motion of the fluid is fo modified by the
a6fion of the moft prominent part of the prow, that its
impulfe on what fucceeds is greatly affedted, fo that we
are not allowed to confider the prow7 as compofed of a
number of parts, each of which is affedfed as if it were
detached from all the reft.
As the very nature of naval architedlure feems to re¬
quire curvilineal forms, in order to give the neceffary
ftrength, it feemed of importance to examine more par¬
ticularly the deviations of the refiftances of fuch prows
from the refiftances afligned by the theory. I he aca¬
demicians therefore made veffels with prows of a cylin¬
drical ftiape •, one of thefe was a half cylinder, and the
other was one-third of a cylinder, both having the fame
breadth, viz. two feet, the fame depth, alfo tsvo feet,
and the fame length, four feet. The refiftance of the
half cylinder was to the refiftance of the. perpendicular
prow in the proportion of 13 to 25, inftead of being as
13 to 19 5. The chevalier Borda found nearly the
fame ratio of the refiftances of the half cylinder, and its
diametrical plane when moved in air. He alfo compa¬
red the refiftances of two prifms or wedges, of the fame
breadth and height. The firft had its fides plane, in¬
clined to the bafe in angles of 6oQ : the fecond had its
fides portions of cylinders, of which the planes were the
chords, that is, their fedtions were arches of circles of
6o°. Their refiftances were as 133 to 100, inftead of
being as 133 to 220, as required by the theory 5 and as
the refiftance of the firft was greater in proportion to
that of the bafe than the theory allows, the refiftance of
^ the laft was lefs.
Mr Robins found the refiftance of a fphere moving
in air to be to the refiftance of its great circle as I to
2.27 ; whereas theory requires them to be as I to 2.
He found, at the fame time, that the abfolute refiftance
was greater than the weight of a cylinder of air of the
fame diameter, and having the height neceflary for ac¬
quiring the velocity. It was greater in the proportion
of 49 to 40 nearly.
Borda found the refiftance of the fphere moving in
water to be to that of its great circle as 1000 to 2508,
and it was one-ninth greater than the weight of the co¬
lumn of water whofe height was that necelfary for pro¬
ducing the velocity. He alfo found the refiftance of air
to the fphere was to its refiftance to its great circle as 1
3(} to 2.45.
The theory It appears, on the whole, that the theory gives the
igives feme refiftance of oblique plane furfaces too fmall, and that
too fmaSr of curved furfaces too great; and that it is quite unfit
and others ^or afeertaining the modifications of refiftance arifmg
too great, from the figure of the body. The moft prominent part
of the prow changes the adlion of the fluid on the fuc-
ceeding parts, rendering it totally different from what it
would be were that part detached from the reft, and ex-
pofed to the ftream with the fame obliquity. It is of no
confequence, therefore, to deduce any formula from the
valuable experiments of the French academy. The ex¬
periments themfelves are of great importance, becaufe
they give us the impulfes on plane furfaces with every
-obliquity. They therefore put it in our power to feleft
■X
the moft proper obliquity in a thoufand important cafes. Refifune*
By appealing to them, we can tell what is the proper
angle of the fail for producing the greateft impulfe in the
direflion of the {hip’s courfe ; or the beft inclination of
the fail of a wind-mill, or the beft inclination of the
float of a water-wheel, &c. &c. Thefe dedudlions will
be made in their proper places in the courfe of this
work. We fee alfo, that the deviation from the Ample
theory is not very confiderable till the obliquity is
great; and that, in the inclinations which other cir-
cumftances would induce us to give to the floats of wa¬
ter-wheels, the fails of wind-mills, and the like, the
refuits of the theory are fufficiently agreeable to experi¬
ment, for rendering this theory of very great ufe in the.
conftruftion of machines. Its great defedl: is in the im-
pulfions on curved furfaces, which puts a flop to our
improvement of the feience of naval architefture, and
the working of Ihips.
But it is not enough to deleft the faults of the theo¬
ry : we (hould try to amend it, or to fubftitute an¬
other. It is a pity that fo much ingenuity {hould have
been thrown away in the application of a theory fo de-
feftive. Mathematicians were feduced, as has been al¬
ready obferved, by the opportunity which it gave for
exercifing their calculus, which was a new thing at the
time of publiftiing this theory. Newton faw clearly
the defefts of it, and makes no ufe of any part of it
in his fubfequent difeuffions, and plainly has ufed it
merely as an introduftion, in order to give fume gene¬
ral notions in a fubjeft quite new, and to give a demon-
ftration of one leading truth, viz. the proportionality qf
the impulfions to the fquares of the velocities. While we
profefs the higheft refpeft for the talents and labours
of the great mathematicians who have followed New¬
ton in this moft difficult refearch, we cannot help being
forry that fome of the greateft of them continued to
attach themfelves to a theory which he neglefted, mere¬
ly becaufe it afforded an opportunity of difplaying their
profound knowledge of the new calculus, of which they
were willing to aferibe the difeovery to Leibnitz. It
has been in a great meafure owing to this that we have
been fo late in difeovering our ignorance of the fub- ^
jeft. Newton had himfelf pointed out all the defefts its defers
of this theory j and he fet himfelf to work to difeover pointed out
another which {hould be more conformable to the na- by Na¬
ture of things, retaining only fuch deduftions from theton‘
other as his great fagacity affured him would ftand the
left of experiment. Even in this he feems to have been
miftaken by his followers. He retained the propor¬
tionality of the refiftance to the fquare of the velocity.
This they have endeavoured to demonftrate in a man¬
ner conformable to Newton’s determination of the
oblique impulfes of fluids j and under the cover of the
agreement of this propofition with experiment, they in¬
troduced into mechanics a mode of expreffion, and even
of conception, which is inconfiftent with all accurate
notions of thefe fubjefts. Newton’s propofition was,
that the motions communicated to the fluid, and there¬
fore the motions loft by the body, in equal times, were
as the fquares of the velocities j and he conceived thefe
as proper meafures of the refiftanees. It is a matter of
experience, that the forces or preffures by which a body
muft be fupported in oppofition to the impulfes of
fluids, are in this very proportion. In determining the
proportion of the dir eft and oblique refiftances of plane
furfaces,
3'
Soct
tiki
tieer
julfe
rfu
ft E S T 743 ] RES
•Jufiftance. fm-faces, he coftfiders the refiftances to arife from mu-
tual collifions of the furface and fluid, repeated at inter¬
vals of time too fmall to be perceived. But in making
this comparifon, he has no occafion whatever to confi-
der this repetition; and when he afligns the proportion
between the refiftance of a cone'and of its bafe, he, in
faff, afligns the proportion between two ftmu/taneous
and inftantaneous impulfes. But the mathematicians
who followed him have confidered this repetition as
equivalent to an augmentation of the initial or firft im-
pulfe ; and in this way have attempted to demonftrate
that the reliftances are as the fquares of the velocities#
When the velocity is double, each impulfe is double,
and the number in a given time is double j therefore,
fay they, the refiftance, and the force which will with-
ftand it, is quadruple j and obfervation confirms their
deduction : yet nothing is more gratuitous and illogi¬
cal. It is very true that the refiftance, conceived as
Newton conceives it, the lofs of motion fuftained by a
body moving in the fluid, is quadruple ; but the inftan¬
taneous impulfe, and the force which can withftand it,
is, by all the laws of mechanics, only double. What is
the force which can withftand a double impulfe ? No-
No compa- thing but a double impulfe. Nothing but impulfe can
rifon be- be oppofed to impulfe j and it is a grofs mifconception
o'ulfe'and" *° an7 kind of comparifon between im-
oreffure. pulfe and preffure. It is this which has given rife to
much jargon and falfe reafoning about the force of
percuffion. This is ftated as infinitely greater than
any preffure, and as equivalent to a preffure infinitely
repeated. It forced the abettors of thefe doftrines at
laft to deny the exiftence of all preffure whatever, and
to affert that all motion, and tendency to motion, was
the refult of impulfe. The celebrated Euler, perhaps
the firft mathematician, and the loweft phiiofopher, of
this century, fays, “ fince motion and impulfe are feen
to exift, and fince we fee that by means of motion pref¬
fure may be produced, as when a body in motion ftrikes
another, or as when a body moved in a curved channel
preffes upon it, merely in confequence of its curvilineal
motion, and the exertion of a centrifugal force 5 and fince
Nature is moft w-ifely economical in all her operations',
it is abfurd to fuppofe that preffure, or tendency to mo¬
tion, has any other origin ; and it is the bufinefs of a
phiiofopher to difcover by what motion any obferved
preffure is produced.” Whenever any preffure is ob-
i’erved, fuch as the preffure of gravity, of magnetifm,
of electricity condenfed air, nay, of a fpring, and of
clafticity and cohefion tbemfelvfes, however difparate,
nay, oppofite, the philnfopber muft immediately caft
about, and contrive a fet of motions (creating pro re
nntd the movers) which will produce a preffure like
the one obferved. Having pleafed his fancy with this,
he cries out v^kcc “ this will produce the preffure et
frujlra Jit per plura quodfieri pot ej} per pandora, “ there¬
fore in this way the preft'ure is produced.” Thus the
vortices of Defcartes are brought back in triumph, and
have produced vortices without number, which fill the
univerfe with motion and preffure.
Such bold attempts to overturn long-received doc¬
trines in mechanics could not be received without much
" criticifm and oppofition ; and many able differtations
appeared from time to time in defence of the common
do£Irines. In confequence of the many objeftions to
the comparifon of pure preffure with pure percuffion
or impulfe, John Bernoulli and others were at laft cbif- Ktfiuanc©
ged to affert that there wrere no perfe&ly hard bodies '***"'> ' l'-J‘
in nature, nor could be, but that all bodies were elafticj
and that in the communication of motion by pereuflion,
the velocities of both bodies were gradually changed by
their mutual elafticity afling during the finite but im¬
perceptible time of the collilion. This was, in faft, gi¬
ving up the whole argument, and banifhing percuffion,
while their aim was to get rid of preffure. For what is
elafticity but a preffure ? and how (ball it be produced ?
To aift in this inftance, muft it arife from a (till fmaller
impulfe ? But this will require another elafticity, and fo
on without end.
rl liefe are all legitimate confequences of this attempt
to date a comparifon between percuffion and prtfibre.
Numberlefs experiments have been made to confirm the
ftatement ; and there is hardly an itinerant lefluring
(bowman who does not exhibit among his apparatus
Gravefande’s machine (Vol. I. plate xxxv. fig. 4.).
But nothing affords fo fpecious an argument as the ex¬
perimented proportionality of the impulfe of fluids to
the fquare of the velocity. Here is every appearance
of the accumulation of an infinity of minute impulfes,
in the known ratio of the velocity, each to each, pro¬
ducing preffures which are in the ratio of the fquares of
the velocities.
The preffures are obferved ; but the impulfes or per-
cuffions, whofe accumulation produces thefe preffures,
are only fuppofed. The rare fluid, introduced by New¬
ton for the purpofe already mentioned, either does not
exift in nature, or does not aft in the manner we have
faid, the particles making their impulfe, and then efca-
pjng through among the reft without affefting their mo¬
tion. We cannot indeed fay what may be the proportion
between the diameter and the diftance of the parlieles.
The firft may be incomparably fmaller than the fecond,
even in mercury, the denfeft fluid which we are famili¬
arly acquainted with : but although they do not touch
each other, they aft nearly as if they did, in confe¬
quence of their mutual nttraftions and repulfions. We
have feen air a thoufand times rarer in fotne experi¬
ments than in others, and therefore the diftance of the
particles at lead ten times greater than their diameters*,
and yet, in this rare ftate, it propagates all preffures or
impulfes made on any part of it to a great diftance, aim oft
in an inftant. It cannot be, therefore, that fluids aft
on bodies by impulfe. It is very poffible to conceive
a fluid advancing with a flat furface againft the flat
furface of a foil’d. The very firft and tuperfieial par¬
ticles may make an impulfe; and if they were annihi¬
lated, the next might do the fame : and if the velocity
were double, thefe impulfes would be double, and would
be withftood by a double force, and not a quadruple,
as is obferved : and this very cireumftance that a oua-
druple force is neceflarv, fhould have made us conclude
that it was not to impulfe that this force was oppofed.
The firft particles having made their ftroke, and not be¬
ing annihilated, muft efcape laterally. In their efea- But a very
ping they effeftually prevent every farther impulfe, be-fmall part
caufe they come in the way of thofe filaments which01 “fluid
would have ftruck the body. The whole procefs feemscan ™ake
to be fomewhat as follows :
When the flat furface of the fluid has come into con-face,
taft with the plane furface AD (fig. 7.), perpendicular pio-. 7
to the direftion DC of their motion, they muft defleft ° 7
t<t
Refiftance.
RES [ 744 ] RE
to both tides equally, and in equal portions, becaufe no fared by the prefure of gravity,
reafon can be afligned why more ihould go to either
the filament EF, which would
40
No impulfe
Fig. 8.
fide. Bv this means the filament iLf, w
have {truck the furface in G, is deflected before U arrives
at the furface, and deicribes a curved path EFIHK.,
continuing its redilineal motion to I, where it is inter¬
cepted by a filament immediately adjoining to EF, on
the fide of the middle filament DC. The different par¬
ticles of DC may be fuppofed to impinge in fucceffion
at C, and to be defkaed at right angles j and gliding
along CB, to efcape at B. Each filament in fuceeffipn,
outwards from DC, is deflected in its turn*, and being
hindered from even touching the furface CB,. it glides
off in a dire6tion parallel to it ; and thus EF is defieft-
ed in I, moves parallel to CB from I to H, and is again
deflefted at right angles, and defcribes HK parallel to
DC. The fame thing may be fuppofed to happen on
the other fide of DC.
And thus it would appear, that except two filaments
Immediately adjoining to the line DC, which bifefts
the furface at right angles, no part of the fluid makes
any impulfe on the furface AB. All the other fila¬
ments are merely preffed againft it by the lateral fila¬
ments without them, which they turn afide, and pre¬
vent from ftriking the furface.
Hu.e In manner> when the fluid {trikes the edge of a
on the edge prifm or wedge ACB (fig. 8.), it cannot be faid that
of a prifm. any real impulfe is made. Nothing hinders us from
fuppofing C a mathematical angle or indivifible point,
not fufceptible of any impulfe, and ferving merely to di¬
vide the ftream. Each filament EF is effe&ually pre¬
vented from impinging at G in the line of its direction,
and with the obliquity of incidence EGC, by the fila¬
ments between EF and DC, which glide along the fur¬
face CA ; and it may be fuppofed to be defle&ed when
it comes to the line CF which bifefts the angle DC A,
and again deflefted and rendered parallel to DC at I.
The fame thing happens on the other fide of DC *, and
we cannot in that cafe affert that there is any impulfe.
The ordt- We now fee plainly how the ordinary theory mufi: be
nary theo- totally unfit for furnilhing principles of naval architec¬
ture, even although a formula could be deduced from
fuch a feries of experiments as thofe of the French Aca¬
demy. Although we ftiould know precifely the impulfe,
or, to fpeak now more cautioufly, the adlion, of the fluid
on a furface GL (fig. 9.) of any obliquity, when it is
alone, detached from all others, we cannot in the fmall-
eft degree tell what will be the adlion of part of a ftream
or fluid advancing towards it, with the fame obliquity,
when it is preceded by an adjoining furface CG, having
a different inclination j for the fluid will not glide along
GL in the fame manner as if it made part of a more ex-
tenfive furface having the fame inclination. The pre¬
vious defle&ions are extremely different in thefe two
cafes •, and the previous deflections are the only changes
which we can obferve in the motions of the fluid, and
the only caufes of that preffure which we obferve the
body to fuftain, and which we call the impulfe on it.
This theory muft, therefore, be quite unfit for afcer-
taining the aftion on a curved furface, which may be
confidered as made up of an indefinite number of fuc-
Cefiive planes.
We now fee with equal evidence howr it happens that
the aftion of fluids on iolid bodies may and muft be op-
l pofed by preffures, and may be compared with and mea-
41
ry of no
ufe in na¬
val archi¬
tecture.
• Fig. 9.
We are not compa-Ttefiftanocc
ring forces of different kinds, percuflions with preffures, v——'
but preffures with each other. Let us fee rvhether this preffu2re
view of the fubjeCt will afford us any method of compa-the action
rifon or abfolute meafurement. of fluids.
When a filament of fluid, that is, a row of corpufcles,
are turned out of their courfe EF (fig. 7.), and forced Fig. 7.
to take another courfe IH, force is required to produce
this change of direction. The filament is prevented
from proceeding by other filaments which lie between it
and the body, and which defleCt it in the fame manner
as if it were contained in a bended tube, and it will
prefs on the concave filament next to it as it would prefs
on the concave fide of the tube. Suppofe fuch a bended
tube ABE (fig. 10.), and that a ball A is projected Fig. ic&
along it with any velocity, and moves in it without fric¬
tion : it is demonftrated, in elementary mechanics, that
the ball will move with undiminiftied velocity, and will
prefs on every point, fuch as B, of the concave fide of
the tube, in a direction BF perpendicular to the plane
CBD, which touches the tube in the point B. This
preflure on the adjoining filament, on the concave fide
of its path, muft be withftood by that filament which
defleCts it; and it muft be propagated acrofs that fila¬
ment to the next, and thus augment the preffure upon
that next filament already preffed by the defleCtion of
the intermediate filament; and thus there is a preffure
towards the middle filament, and towards the body, ari-
fing from the defleCtion of all the outer filaments ; and
their accumulated fum muft be conceived as immediate¬
ly exerted on the middle filaments and on the body, be¬
caufe a perfeCt fluid tranfmits every preffure undimi¬
niftied.
The preffure BF is equivalent to the two BH, EG,
one of which is perpendicular, and the other parallel,
to the direction of the original motion. By the firft
(taken in any point of the curvilineal motion of any fi¬
lament), the two halves of the ftream are preffed toge¬
ther; and in the cafe of fig. 7. and 8. exaCtly balance
each other. But the preffures, fuch as EG, muft be
ultimately withftood by the furface ACB ; and it is by
thefe accumulated preffures that the folid body is urged
down the ftream •, and it is thefe accumulated preffures
which we obferve and meafure in our experiments. We
ftiall anticipate a little, and fay that it is moft eafily de¬
monftrated, that when a ball A (fig. 10.) moves with
undiminiftied velocity in a tube fo incurvated that its
axis at E is at right angles to its axis at A, the accu¬
mulated aClion of the preffures, fuch as BG, taken for
every point of the path, is precifely equal to the force
which would produce or extinguilh the original motion.
This being the cafe, it follows moft obvioufly, that if
the two motions of the filaments are fuch as we have de-
fcribed and reprefented by fig. 7* the whole preffure in
the direction of the ftream, that is, the whole preffure
which can be obferved on the furface, is equal to the 43
weight of a column of fluid having the furface for its Whethe?
bafe, and twice the fall productive of the velocity for
its height, precifely as Newton deduced it from other ^
confiderations •, and it feems to make no odds whether
the fluid be elaftic or unelaftic, if the defleCtions and
velocities are the fame. Now it is a faCt, that no dif¬
ference in this refpeCt can be obferved in the aCtions of
air and water •, and this had always appeared a great
defeCt in Newton’s theory: but it was only a defeCt of
* the
RES
[ 745 ]
RES
-‘S-
44
Important
experi¬
ments by
Sir Charles
Knowles.
tendance, the theory attributed to him. But it is alfo true, that the
obferved action is but one-half of what is juft now de¬
duced from this improved view of the fubjeft. Whence
arifes this difference ? The reafon is this : Wre have gi¬
ven a very erroneous account of the motions of the fila¬
ments. A filament EF does not move as reprefented in
fig. y. with two re&angular inflexions at I and at H,
and a path IH between them parallel to CB. The pro-
cefs of nature is more like what is reprefented in fig. 11.
// is obferved, that at the anterior part of the body AB,
there remains a quantity of fluid ADB, almoft, if not
altogether ftagnant, of a Angular fhape, having two cur¬
ved concave fides A « D, B D, along which the mid¬
dle filaments glide. This fluid is very flowly changed.—
The late Sir Charles Knowles, an officer of the Britifli
navy, equally eminent for his fcientific profeflional
knowledge and for his military talents, made many
beautiful experiments for afcertaining the paths of the
filaments of water. At a diftance up the ftream, he
allowed fmall jets of a coloured fluid, which did not
mix with water, to make part of the ftream j and the
experiments were made in troughs with fides and bottom
of plate-glafs. A fmall taper was placed at a confider-
able height above, by which the fhadows of the colour¬
ed filaments were moft diftinXly projeXed on a white
plane held below the trough, fo that they were accu¬
rately drawn with a pencil. A few important particu¬
lars may be here mentioned.
The ftill water ADC, fig. n. lafted for a long while
before it was renewed •, and it feemed to be gradually
wafted by abrafion, by the adhefion of the furrounding
water, which gradually licked away the outer parts from
D to A and B j and it feemed to renew itfelf in the direc¬
tion CD, oppofite to the motion of the ftream. There
was, however, a confiderable intricacy and eddy in this
motion. Some (feemingly fuperficial) water was conti¬
nually, but flowly, flowing outward from the line DC,
while other water was feen within and below it, coming
inwards and going backwards. 4
The coloured lateral filaments were moft conftant in
their form, while the body was the fame, although the
velocity was in fome cafes quadrupled. Any change
which this produced feemed confined to the fuperficial
filaments.
As the filaments were defleXed, they were alfo con-
ftipated, that is, the curved parts of the filaments were
nearer each other than the parallel ftraight filaments up
the rtream ; and this conftipation was more confiderable
as the prow was more obtufe and the deflexion greater.
The inner filaments were ultimately more defleXed
than thofe without them ; that is, if a line be drawn
touching the curve EFIH in the point H of contrary
flexure, where the concavity begins to be on the fide
next the body, the aggie HKC, contained between
the axis and the tangent line, is fo much the greater as
the filament is nearer the axis.
When the body expofed to the ftream was a box of
upright fides, flat bottom, and angular prow, like a
wedge, having its edge alfo upright, the filaments were
not all defleXed laterally, as theory would make us ex-
peX ; but the filaments near the bottom were alfo de¬
fleXed downwards as well as laterally, and glided along
at fome diftance under the bottom, forming lines of
double curvature. ' .
The breadth of the ftream that was defleXed was much
Vol. XVII. Part II.
greater than that of the body ■, and the fenfible dtflec- Reflf1'
tion began at a confiderable diftance up the rtream, efpe-
cially in the outer filaments.
Laftly, the form of the curves was greatly influenced
by the proportion between the width of the trough and
that of the body. The curvature was always lefs when
the trough was very wide in proportion to the body.
Great varieties were alfo obferved in the motion or
velocity of the filaments. In general, the filaments
increafed in velocity outwards from the body to a cer¬
tain fmall diftance, which was nearly the fame in all
cafes, and then diminilhed all the way outward. This
was obferved by inequalities in the colour of the fila¬
ments, by which one could be obferved to outftrip an¬
other. The retardation of thofe next the body feemed
to proceed from friXion ; and it was imagined that
without this the velocity there would always have been
greateft. 45
Thefe obfervations give us confiderable information With
refpeXing the mechanifm of thefe motions, and the ac-
tion of fluids upon folids. The preflure in the duplicate ,tri
ratio of the velocities comes here again into view. We
found, that although the velocities were very different,
the curves were precifely the lame. Now the obferved
preflures arife from the tranfverfe forces by which each
particle of a filament is retained in its curvilineal path :
and we know that the force by which a body is retain ¬
ed in any curve is direXly as the fquare of the velocity,
and inverfely as the radius of curvature. The curvature,
therefore, remaining the fame, the tranfverfe forces, and
confequently the preflure. on the body, muft be as the
fquare of the velocity : and, on the other hand, we can
fee pretty clearly (indeed it is rigoroufly demonllrated
by D’Alembert), that whatever be the velocities, the
curves wi/l be the fame. For it is known in hydraulics,
that it requires a fourfold or ninefold preflure to pro¬
duce a double or triple velocity. And as all preflures
are propagated through a perfeX fluid without diminu ¬
tion, this fourfold preffure, w'hile it produces a double
velocity, produces alfo fourfold tranfverfe preflures,
which will retain the particles, moving twice as fait, in
the fame curvilineal paths. And thus we fee that the
impulfes, as they are called, and refiftances of fluids,
have a certain relation to the weight of a column of
fluid, whofe height is the height neceffary for producing
the velocity. How it happens that a plane furface, im-
merfed in an extended fluid, fuftains juft half the pref-
fure which it would have fuftained had the motions been
fuch as are Iketched in fig. 7th, is a matter of more
curious and difficult inveftigation. But we fee evidently
that the preflure muft be lefs than what is there afligned >
for the ftagnant water a-head of the body greatly di-
minifties the ultimate defleXions of the filaments : And
it may be demonftrated, that when the part BE of the
canal, fig. 10. is inclined to the part AB in an angle
lefs than 90°, the preffures BG along the whole canal
are as the verfed fine of the ultimate angle of defleXion,
or the verfed fine of the angle which the part BE makes
with the part AB. Therefore, fmee the defleXions re-
femble more the fketch given in fig. 11. the accumulated
fum of all thefe forces BG of fig. 10. muft be lefs than
the fimilar fum correfponding to fig. 7. that is, lefs than
the weight of the column of fluid, having twice the pro-
duXive height for its height. How it is juft one half,
{hall be our next inquiry.
f B And
RES
E 74*5 i
RES
flefiftance.
46
Jnveftiga-
tions of
Newton
47
liable to
great ob-
«j eft ions,
And here we muft return to the labours of Sir Ifaac
Newton. After many beautiful obfervations on the na¬
ture and mechanifm of continued fluids, he fays>
the refiftance which they occafion is but one half of that
occafioned by the rare fluid which had been the fubjeft
of his former propofltion } “ tvhich truth,” (lays he,
with his ufual caution and modefty), “ I fliall endeavour
to fhow.”
He then enters into another, as novel and as dirncu.t
an inveftigation, viz. the laws of hydraulics, and endea¬
vours to afcertain the motion of fluids through orifices
when urged by preffures of any kind. He endeavours
to afcertain the velocity with w'hich a fluid efcapes
through a horizontal orifice in the bottom of a veflel,
by the action of its weight, and the preffure which this
vein of fluid will exert on a little circle which occupies
part of the orifice. To obtain this, he employs a kind
of approximation and trial, of which it would be ex¬
tremely difficult to give an extraft j and then, by in-
creafing the diameter of the velfel and of the hole to in¬
finity, he accommodates his reafoning to the cafe of a
plane furface expofed to an indefinitely extended ftream
of fluid j and, laftly, giving to the little circular furface
the motion which he had before afcribed to the fluid, he
fays, that the refiftance to a plane furface moving through
an unelaftic continuous fluid, is equal to the weight of a
column of the fluid whofe height is one-half of that ne-
ceffary for acquiring the velocity j and he fays, that the
refiflance of a globe is, in this cafe, the fame with that
of a cylinder of the fame diameter. The refiftance,
therefore, of the cylinder or circle is four times lefs, and
that of the globe is twice lefs than their refiftances on a
rare elaftic medium.
But this determination, though founded on princi¬
ples or aflumptions, which are much nearer to the real
ftate of things, is liable to great objedlions. It de¬
pends on hi& method for afcertaining the velocity of
the iffuing fluid ; a method extremely ingenious, but
defedlive. The cataradl, which he fuppofes, cannot
exift as he fuppofes, defcending by the full a£lion of
gravity, and furrounded by a funnel of ftagnant fluid.
For, in fuch circumftances, there is nothing to balance
the hydroftatical prelfure of this furrounding fluid ; be-
caufe the whole preflure of the central cataraft is em¬
ployed in producing its own defcent. In the next
place, the preflure which he determines is beyond all
doubt only half of what is obferved on a plane furface
in all our experiments. And, in the third place, it is
repugnant to all our experience, that the refiftance of
a globe or of a pointed body is as great as that of its
circular bafe. His reafons are by no means convincing^
He fuppofes them placed in a tube or canal; and fince
they are fuppofed of the fame diameter, and therefore
leave equal (paces at their fides, he concludes, that be-
caufe the water efcapes by their fides with the fame ve¬
locity, they will have the fame refiftance. But this is
by no means a neceflary confequenee. Even if the
water ffiould be allowed to exert equal preflures on
them, the preffures being perpendicular to their fur-
faces, and thefe furfaces being inclined to the axis,
while in the cafe of the bafe of a cylinder, it is in
the direction of the axis, there muft be a difference in
the accumulated or compound preffure in the direction
of the axis. He indeed fays, that in the cafe of the
cylinder or the circle obftru&ing the canal, a quantity
2-
of wrater remains ftagnant on its upper furface j viz. Refiftance,
all the water whofe motion would not contribute to ‘““•’■y""—^
the moft ready paffage of the fluid between the cy¬
linder and the fides of the canal or tube j and that
this water may be confidered as frozen. If this be
the cafe, it is indifferent what is the form of the body
that is covered with this mafs of frozen or ftagnant wa¬
ter. It may be a bemifphere or a cone 5 the refiftance
will be the fame.—But Newton by no means afligns,
either with precifion or with diftinft evidence, the form
and magnitude of this ftagnant water, fo as to give con¬
fidence in the refults. He contents himfelf with fay¬
ing, that it is that water whofe motion is not neceffary
or cannot contribute to the moft; eafy paffage of the
water. . _ 4s
There remains, therefore, many imperfeftions in this though
theory. But notwithftanding thefe defedls, we cannot
but admire the efforts and fagacity of this great phi-^reat
lofopher, who, after having difeovered fo many fublime '
truths of mechanical nature, ventured to trace out a
path for the folution of a problem which no perfon had
yet attempted to bring within the range of mathemati¬
cal inveftigation. And his folution, though inaccurate,
(bines throughout with that inventive genius and that
fertility of refource, which no man ever poffeffed in fo
eminent a degree.
Thofe who have attacked the folution of Sir Ifaac
Newton have not been more fuccefsful. Moft of them,
inftead of principles, have given a great deal of calcu¬
lus ; and the chief merit which any of them can claim,
is that of having deduced feme (ingle propofition which
happens to quadrate with fome (ingle cafe of experiment,
while their general theories are either inapplicable,
from difficulty and obfeurily, or are difeordant with
more general obfervation.
We muft, however, except from this number Daniel
Bernoulli, who was not only a great geometer, but
one of the firft philofophers of the age. He poffeffed
all the talents, and was free from the faults of that
celebrated family j and while he was the mathemati¬
cian of Europe who penetrated fartheft in the invefti¬
gation of this great .problem, he was the only perfon
who felt, or at leaft who acknowledged, its great dif-
ficulty.
In the 2d volume of the Comment. Petropol. 1727, heBernuulli'j
propofes a formula for the refiftance of fluids, deduced general for
from confiderations quite different from thofe on which m“la fo“n*
Newton founded his folution. But he delivers it with
modeft diffidence ; becaufe he found that it gave a refif¬
tance four times greater than experiment. In the fame
differtation he determines the refiftance of a fphere to be
one half of that of its great circle. But in his fubfequent
theory of Hydrodynamics (a work which muft ever rank
among the firft produffions of the age, and is equally
eminent for refined and elegant mathematics, and inge¬
nious and original thoughts in dynamics'), he calls this
determination in queftion. It is indeed founded on the
fame hypothetical principles which have been un(kil-
fully detached from the reft of Newton’s phyfics, and
made the groundwork of all the fubfequent theories on
this fubjeft. _ . . , He neats
In 1741, Mr Darnel Bernoulli publiffied another dfl-^g fubjeft.
fertation (in the 8th volume of the Com. Petr opal?) in a paiti-
on the a6Hon and refiftance of fluids, limited to a very cular cafe^
particular cafe j namely, to the impulfe of a vein
RES [ 747 3
Retiftance. fluid falling perpendicularly on an infinitely extended preffed in
plane furface. This he demonftrates to be equal to the
weight of a column of the fluid whofe bafe is the area
of the vein, and whofe height is twice the fall producing
the velocity. 1 his demonftration is drawn from the true
principles of mechanics and the acknowledged laws of
hydraulics, and may be received as a ftrift phyfical de¬
monftration. As it is the only propofition in the whole
theory that has as yet received a demonftration accefli-
ble to readers not verfant in all the refinements of modern
analyfis; and as the principles on which it proceeds will
undoubtedly lead to a folution of every problem which
can be propoied, once that our mathematical knowledge
fhall enable us to apply them—we think it our duty to
give it in this place, although we muft acknowledge,
that this problem is fo very limited, that it will hardly
bear an application to any cafe that differs but a little
from the exprefs conditions of the problem. There do
occur cafes however in practice, where it may be applied
to very great advantage.
Daniel Bernoulli gives two demonftrations ; one of
which may be called a popular one, and the other is
more fcientific and introduftory to further inveftigation.
We fhall give both.
Determines Bernoulli firft determines the whole action, exerted
the adtion in the efflux of the vein of fluid. Suppofe the velocity
exerted in of efflux v is that which would be acquired by falling
the efflux of through the height 7i. It is well known that a body
moving during the time of this fall with the velocity v
would deferibe a fpace 2 h. The effeft, therefore, of
the hydraulic aftion is, that in the time t of the fall h,
there ilfues a cylinder or prifm of water whofe bafe is
the crofs fedtion f ox area of the vein, and whofe length
is 2 h. And this quantity of matter is now moving
with the velocity v. The quantity of motion, therefore,
which is thus produced \s 2 s h v ; and this quantity of
motion is produced in the time t. And this is the ac¬
cumulated effedl of all the expelling forces, eftimated
in the dire&ion of the efflux. Now, to compare this
with the exertion of fome prefflng power with which
we are familiarly acquainted, let us fuppofe this pillar
2 r to be frozen, and, being held in the hand, to be
dropped. It is well known, that in the time t it will
fall through the height //, and will acquire the velocity
£>, and now poffeffes the quantity of motion 2 s h v—
and all this is the effeft of its weight. The weight,
therefore, of the pillar 2 s h produces the fame effedf,
and in the fame time, and (as may eafily be feen) in the
fame gradual manner, with the expelling forces of the
■fluid in the veffel, which expelling forces arife from the
preflure of all the fluid in the veffel. Therefore the
accumulated hydraulic preffure, by which a vein of a
heavy fluid is forced out through an orifice in the bot¬
tom or fide of a veffel, is equal (when eftimated in the
diredtion of the efflux) to the weight of a column of the
fluid, having for its bafe the fedtion of the vein, and
twice the fall produdlive of the velocity of efflux for its
height.
%. 12. Now let ADBC (fig. 12.) be a quadrangular veffel
with upright plane fides, in one of which is an orifice
EF. From every point of the circumference of this
orifice, fuppofe horizontal lines E c, F^ &c. which will
mark a firnilar furface on the oppofite fide of the veffel.
Suppofe the orifice EF to be (hut. There can be no
doubt but that the furfaces EF and ef will be equally
R E
oppofite dirediions.
s
Now open the orifice Refiftaucir#
EF ; the water will ruth out, and the preilure on EF 1 y—
is now removed, There will therefore be a tendency
in the veffel to move back in the diredtion E e. And
this tendency muft be precifely equal and oppofite to the
whole effort of the expelling forces. This is a conclu-
fion as evident as any propofition in mechanics. It is
thus that a gun recoils and a rocket rifes in the air } and
on this is founded the operation of Mr Parents or Dr
Barker’s mill, deferibed in all treatifes of mechanics,
and moft learnedly treated by Euler in the Beilin Me¬
moirs.
Now, let this ftream of water be received on a circu¬
lar plane MN, perpendicular to its axis, and let this
circular plane be of fuch extent, that the vein efeapes
from its fides in an infinitely thin flieet, the water flow¬
ing off in a diredtion parallel to the plane. The vein by
this means will expand into a trumpet-like fiiape, having
curved fides, EKG, FLH fig. 13. We abltradt at pre-Fig. 13.
fent the adtion of gravity which would caufe the vein to
bend downwards, and occafion a greater velocity at H
than at G ; and we fuppofe the velocity equal in every
point of the circumference. It is plain, that if the ac¬
tion of gravity be negledted after the water has iffued
through the orifice EF, the velocity in every point of
the circumference of the plane MN will be that of the
efflux through EF.
Now, becaufe EKG is the natural ftiape affumed by
the vein, it is plain, that if the whole vein were covered
by a tube or mouth-piece, fitted to its fiiape, and per-
fedtly poliftied, fo that the water fliall glide along it,
without any fridlion (a thing which we may always fup¬
pofe), the water will exert no preffure whatever on this
trumpet mouth-piece. Laftly, let us fuppofe that the
plane MN is attached to the mouth-piece by fome bits
of wire, fo as to allow the water to efcape all round by
the narrow chink between the mouth-piece and the plane:
We have now a veffel eonfifting of the upright part
ABDC, the trumpet GKEFLH, and the plane MN j
and the water is efcaping from every point of the cir¬
cumference of the chink GHNM with the velocity v*
If any part of this chink were lliut up, there would be a
preffure on that part equivalent to the force of efflux from
the oppofite part. Therefore, when all is open, thefe
efforts of efflux balance each other all round. There is
not therefore any tendency in this compound veffel to
move to any fide. But take away the plane MN, and
there would immediately arife a preffure in thediredlion
E <? equal to the weight of the column 2 s h. This is
therefore balanced by the preffure on the circular plane
MN, which is therefore equal to this weight, and the.
propofition is demonftrated.
A number of experiments were made by Profeffor
Kraft at St Peterfburg, by receiving the vein on a plane
MN (fig. 12.) which was fattened to the arm of a ba¬
lance OPQ, having a fcale It hanging on the oppofite
arm. The refiftance or preffure on the plane was mea-
fured by weights put into the fcale R •, and the velocity
of the jet was meafured by means of the diftance KH,
to which it fpouted on a horizontal plane.
The refults of thefe experiments were as conformable Difference
to the theory as could he vvilhed. The refiftance vvas|^.tw^en
always a little lefs than what the theory required, but an(i tXperiL
greatly exceeded its half 5 the refult of the generally re ments ac-
ceived theories. This defefl ftiould be expeded ; for counted
? B a thefor-
RES
[
R E S'
RefiUnce. the demonftration fuppofes tne plane MN t° ^
ly extended, fo that the film of water which iflues
through the chink maybe accurately parallel to the
plane. This never can be completely effe&ed. Alio it
was fuppofed, that the velocity was juflly meafured by
the amplitude of the parabola EGK. But it is well
known that the very putting the plane MN in the way
of the jet, though at the diftance of an inch from the
orifice, will diminilh the velocity of the efflux throng i
this orifice. This is eafily verified by experiment. Ub-
ferve the time in which the veffel will be emptied when
there is no plane in the way. Repeat the experiment
with the plane in its place ; and more time will be ne-
ceffary. The following is a note of a courfe of experi¬
ments, taken as they Ifand, without any feleftion.
N° i
Rofift. by theory 1701
Kefift. by experiment 1403
2
1720
M63
3
1651:
14S6
4
1602
1401
5
1528
I4°3
6
1072
257 165 201 125
S1
Gg- 14-
Difference 298
In order to demonftrate this propofition in fuch a man¬
ner as to furnilh the means of inveftigating the whole
mechanifm and aftion of moving fluids, it is necellary to
premife an elementary theorem of curvilineal motions.
If a particle of matter defcribes a curve line ABCE
(fig. 14O by the continual aftion of deflefting forces,
which vary in any manner, both with refpeft to inten-
fity and direftion, and if the aftion of thefe forces, in
every point of the curve, be refolved into two direftionSj
perpendicular and parallel to the initial direction AK j
then,
1. The accumulated effeft of the deflefting forces,
eftimated in a direftion AD perpendicular to AK, is to
the final quantity of motion as the fine of the final change
53 of direftion is to radius.
His propo- Let us fuppofe that the accelerating forces^ a&
fuion de. 1 ftarts, at equal intervals of time, when the body is in
mon ra ed. ^ p0jnts C) £. And let AN be the defle&ing
force, which, afting at A, changes the original direc¬
tion AK to AB. Produce AB till BHrr AB, and
complete the parallelogram BFCH. Then FB is the
force which, by afting at B, changed the motion BH
(the continuation of AB) to BC. In like manner
make C/i (in BC produced) equal to BC, and complete
the parallelogram CfY.h. Cf\s the deflefting force
at C, &c. Draw BO parallel to AN, and GBK per¬
pendicular to AK. Alfo draw lines through C and E
perpendicular to AK, and draw through B and C lines
parallel to AK. Draw alfo HL, h l perpendicular, and
EG, HI, h i, parallel to AK.
It is plain that BK is BO or AN eftimated in the
direftion perpendicular to AK, and that BG is BF
eftimated in the fame way. And fince BH=:AB,HL
or 1M is equal to BK. Alfo Cl is equal to BG.
Therefore CM is equal to AP-J-BG. By fimilar rea-
foning it appears that E m~Y. i-\-h /, = C^-f-CM, ~
C^-f-BG, AP.
Therefore if CE be taken for the meafure of the
final velocity or quantity of motion, E m will be the
accumulated effe£f of the deflefting forces eftimated in
the dire&ion AD perpendicular to AK. But Ezra is
to CE as the fine of m CE is to radius *, and the angle
«?CE is the angle contained between the initial and final
dire&ions, becaufe C m is parallel to AK. Now let the
intervals of time diminiih continually and the frequency
fine of ECM.
Cor. 1. The fame attion, in the dire&ion oppofitfr-
to that of the original motion, is neceflary for caufing
a body to move at right angles to its former dire&iurs
as for ftopping its motion. For in this cafe, the co¬
fine of the change of dire&ion is =: 0, and AO—CE
X cofine ECM=AO—0, = AO, = the original mo¬
tion.
Cor. 2. If the initial and final velocities are the fame,
the accumulated aftion of the accelerating forces, efti¬
mated in the direftion OA, is equal to the produft of
the original quantity of motion by the verfed fine of the
change of direction.
The application of thefe theorems, particularly the
fecond, to our prefent purpofe is very obvious. All the
filaments of the jet w-ere originally moving in the direc¬
tion of its axis, and they are finally moving along the
refilling plane, or perpendicular to their former motion.
Therefore their tranfverfe forces in the direction of the
axis are {in cutnulo) equal to the force which would
{top the motion. For the aggregate of the fimulta-
neous forces of every particle in the whole filament is
the fame with that of the fucceflive forces of one particle,
as it arrives at different points of its curvilincal path.
All the tranfverfe forces, eftimated in a dire&ion per¬
pendicular to the axis of the vein, precifely balance anc
fuftain each other; and the only forces which can pro¬
duce a fenfible effedl are thofe in a direction parallel
to the axis. By thefe all the inner filaments are pref-
fed towards the plane MN, and mull be withftood by it.
It is highly probable, nay certain, that there is a quanti¬
ty of ftagnant water in the middle of the vein which fuf-
tains the preffures of the moving filaments without it,
and tranfmits it to the folid plane. But this does not
alter the cafe. And, fortunately, it is of no confequence
what changes happen in the velocities of the particles
while each is defcribing its own curve. And it is from
this circumftance, peculiar to this particular cafe of per¬
pendicular impulfe, that we are able to draw the con-
clufion. It is by no means difficult to demonftrate that
the velocity of the external furface of this jet is con-
ftant, and indeed of every jet which is not a6ted on by
external forces after it has quitted the orifice : but this
difcufiion is quite unneceffary here. It is however ex¬
tremely difficult to afcertain, even in this meft fimple
cafe, what is the velocity of the internal filaments in the
different points of their progrefs.
h
748 1 . . ,
of the impulfes increafe. The deflettion becomes ulti- Kefiftance-
mately continuous, and the motion curvilineal, and the
propofition is demonftrated.
We fee that the initial velocity and its fubfequenfc
changes do not affedl the conclufion, which depends en¬
tirely on the final quantity of motion.
2." The accumulated effefl of the accelerating forces*
when eftimated in the diredion- AK of the original mo¬
tion, or in the oppoftte diredion, is equal to the differ*
ence between the initial quantity of motion and the pro-
dud of the final quantity of motion by the cofine of tha
change of diredion.
For C m—C l—m /, =BM—/q
BMzrBL—ML,= AK—FG
AK=AO-OK,=AO—PN-
Therefore PN-f-FG-}-/'(£ (the accumulated impulfs
in the diredion OA) —AO—CM,zrAO——CEx co*
Rrefiftance.
Fig- IS*
S4
His theory
attempted
in vain to
be render¬
ed general,
RES
Such is the demonftration w
given of this proportion. Limited as it is, it is highly
valuable, becaufe derived from the true principles of hy¬
draulics.
He hoped to render it more extenfive and applicable
to oblique impulles, when the axis AC of the vein
(fig- 15-) 13 inclined to the plane in an angle ACN.
But here all tire fimplicity of the cafe is gone, and we
are now obliged to afcertain the motion of each fila¬
ment. It might not perhaps be impoffible to deter¬
mine what muft happen in the plane of the figure,
that is, in a plane palling through the axis of the vein,
and perpendicular to the plane MN. But even in this
cafe it would be extremely difficult to determine how
much of the fluid will go in the direftion EKG, and
what will go in the path FLH, and to afcertain the
form of each filament, and the velocity in its different
points. But in the real ftate of the cafe, the water
will dxfiipate from the centre C on every fide 5 and we
cannot tell in what proportions. Let us however con-
fider a little what happens in the plane of the figure,
and fuppofe that all the water goes either in the courfe
EKG or ia the courfe FLH. Let the quantities ot
water which take thefe two_courfes have the propor¬
tions of p and n. Let v/2 « be the velocity at A,
be the velocity at G, and >/2'5 ve^c*j7
at H. ACG and ACH are the two changes of di-
reftion, of which let c and —r be the cofines. Then
adopting the former reafoning, ive have the preffure of
the watery plate GKEA.CM on the plane in the di-
reclion AC=-^- X and the preffure of the
p + n
plate HLFACN =-^-X 2« + 2^, and tlieIr fura
1 749 1 R E s ,f.
kh Mr Bernoulli has uncertain and vague -as it was lure and precife in the for- ‘
mer cafe.
It is therefore without proper authority that the
abfolute impulfe of a vein of fluid on a plane which re¬
ceives it wholly, is afferted to be proportional to the
fine of incidence. If indeed we fuppofe the velocity
in G and H are equal to that at A, then bzzfi, —a, and
the whole impulfe is 2 « as is commonly fup-
pofed. But this cannot be. Both the velocity and
quantity at H are lefs than thofe at G. Nay, frequent¬
ly there is no efflux on the fide H when the obliquity
is very great. We may conclude in general, that the
oblique impulfe will always bear to the direct impulle
a greater proportion than that of the fine of incidence
to radius. If the whole water efcapes at G, and none
 7?X —2cZ>-f nx 2gff-2<f/3 W|1*1C|1 being multiplied
x n
by the fine of ACM, or s/T^?, gives the preffure
perpendicular to the plane MN
X 2a—2c^-|~n X 2a
  7+n
+ 2.1^
But there remains a preffure in the dire£Vion perpen¬
dicular to the axis of the vein, which is not balanced,
as in the former cafe, by the equality on oppofite fides
of the axis. The preffure arifing from the water
which efeapes at G has an effe<a oppofite to that pro¬
duced by the water which efcapes at H. When this
is taken into account, we (hall find that their joint ef¬
forts perpendicular to AC are X 2 a\^i c*, which,
being multiplied by the cofine of ACM, gives the ac-
tion perpendicular to MN= —^X 2acVi—<r*.
The fum or joint effort of all thefe preffures is
X 2 A-*— 2 c £ -{- n X 2 a -j— 2 eft
E+n
p—n
E+n
X ZAA
Vu—c*.
Thus, from this cafe, which is much fimpler than
can happen in nature, feeing that there will always be
a lateral efflux, the determination ef the impulle xs as
goes off laterally, the preffure will be 2ct-\[-2ac—ibcK
^/i—c*. The experiments of the Abbe Boffut (how
in the plaineft manner that the preffure of a vein, flrik-
ing obliquely on a plane which receives it wholly, di-
minifhes falter than in the ratio of the fquare of the
fine of incidence j whereas, when the oblique plane is
wholly immerfed in the ftream, the impulfe is much
greater than in this proportion, and in great obliquities
is nearly as the fine.
Nor will this propofition determine the impulfe of a
fluid on a plane wholly immerfed in it, even wffien the
impulfe is perpendicular to the plane. I he circum-
ftance is now w’anting on which we can eftablifli a
calculation, namely, the angle of final defied!ion. Could
this be afeertained for each filament, and the velocity
of the filament, the principles are completely adequate
to an accurate folution of the problem. In the expe¬
riments which we mentioned to have been made under
the infpedtion of Sir Charles Knowles, a cylinder ot
fix inches diameter was expofed to the adtion cf a
ftream moving precifely one foot per fecond j and when
certain dedudtions were made for the water which was
held adhering to the pofterior bafe (as will be noticed
afterwards), the impulfe was found equal to 3'g- ounces
avoirdupois. There were 36 coloured filaments diftri-
buted on the ftream, in fuch fituations as to give the moft
ufeful indications of their curvature. It was found ne-
ceffary to have fome which paffed under the body and
fome above it ; for the form of thefe filaments, at the
fame diltance from the axis of the cylinder, was confider-
ably different: and thofe filaments which were fituated
in planes neither horizontal nor vertical took a double
curvature. In (hort, the curves were all traced with
great care, and the defledting forces were computed for
each, and reduced to the diredtion of the axis j and
they were fummed up in fuch a manner as to give the
impulfe of the whole ftream. The defledtions were
marked as far a-head of the cylinder as they could be
affuredly obferved. By this method the impulfe was
computed to be 2t| ounces, differing from obfervation
^ of an ounce, or about of the whole ; a difference
which may mort reafonably be aferibed to the adhefion
of the water, which muft be moft fenfible in fuch fmall
velocities. Thefe experiments may therefore be confi-
dered as giving all the confirmation that can be defired
cf the juftnefs of the principles. This indeed hardly ad¬
mits of a doubt : but, alas ! it gives us but fmall aflift-
ance ; for all this is empirical, in as far as it leaves us in
every cafe the talk of obferving the form of the curves
and
RES [ 750 ] RES
Fvefiftance and the velocities in their different points. To derive
v m' ’ fervice from this molt judicious method of Daniel Ber¬
noulli, we muft difcover fome method of determining,
a priori, what will be the motion of the fluid whofe
courfe is obftru&ed by a body of any form. And
here we cannot omit taking notice of the cafual ob-
fervations of Sir Ifaac Newton when attempting to de¬
termine the refiftance of the plane furface or cylinder,
or fphere expofed to a ftream moving in a canal. He
fays, that the form of the refifting furface is of lefs con-
fequence, becaufe there is always a quantity of water
ftagnant upon it, and which may therefore be confider-
ed as frozen *, and he therefore confiders that water
only whofe motion is neceffary for the moft expedi¬
tious difcharge of the water in the vefleh He endea¬
vours to difcriminate that water from the reft ; and
although it muft be acknowledged that the principle
which he affumes for this purpofe is very gratuitous,
becaufe it only fhows, that if certain portions of the wa¬
ter, which he determines very ingenioufly, were really
frozen, the reft will iffue, as he fays, and will exert the
preffure which he affigns 5 ftill we muft admire his fer¬
tility of refource, and his fagacity in thus forefeeing
what fubfequent obfervation has completely confirmed.
We are even difpofed to think, that in this cafual ob¬
fervation Sir Ifaac Newton has pointed out the only
method of arriving at a folution of the problem j and
that, if we could difcover what motions are not necefary
for the mof expeditious pajfage of the water, and could
thus determine the form and magnitude of the ftagnant
water which adheres to the body, we ftiould much more
eafily afeertain the real motions which occafion the ob-
ferved refiftance. We are here difpofed to have recourfe
to the economy of nature, the improper ufe of which we
have fometimes taken the liberty of reprehending. Mr
Maupertuis publifhed as a great difeovery his princi¬
ple of fmalleft aftion, where he (bowed that in all
the mutual adtions of bodies the quantity of adtion was
a minimum 5 and he applied this to the folution of many
difficult problems with great fuccefs, imagining that
he was really reafoning from a contingent law of na¬
ture, feledled by its infinitely wife Author, viz. that on
all occafions there is the fmalleft poffible exertion of na¬
tural powers. Mr D’Alembert has, however, (hown
(vid. Encyclopedia Franpaife, Action) that this was
but a whim, and that the minimum obferved by Mau¬
pertuis is merely a minimum of calculus, peculiar to a
formula which happens to exprefs a combination of ma¬
thematical quantities which frequently occurs in our
way of confidering the phenomena of nature, but which
is no natural meafure of adtion.
A method chevalier D’Arcy has fhown, that in the
recommen- trains of natural operations which terminate in the pro-
ded for ®b- dudtion of motion in a particular diredtion, the interme-
generaia diate communications of motion are fuch that the fmall-
theory. F'ftible quantity of motion is produced. We feem
obliged to conclude, that this law will be oblerved in
the prefent inftance \ and it feems a problem not above
our reach to determine the motions which refult from
it. We would recommend the problem to the eminent
mathematicians in fome fimple cafe, fucb as the propo-
fition already demonftrated by Daniel Bernoulli, or the
perpendicular impulfe on a cylinder included in a tubu¬
lar canal; and if they fiicceed in this, great things may
)s expedled. We think that experience gives great
encouragement. We fee that the refiftance to a plane Refinance,
furface is a very fmall matter greater than the weight v-—
of a column of the fluid having the fall productive of
the velocity for its height, and the fmall excefs is moft
probably owing to adhefion, and the meafure of the real
refiftance is probably precifely this weight. The velo¬
city of a fpouting fluid was found, in fadt, to be that ac¬
quired by falling from the furface of the fluid ; and it
was by looking at this, as at a pole ftar, that Newton,
Bernoulli, and others, have with great fagacity and in¬
genuity difeovered much of the laws of hydraulics, by
fearching for principles which would give this refult.
We may hope for fimilar fuccefs.
In the mean time, we may receive this as a phyfical
truth, that the perpendicular impulfe or refiftance of a
plane furface, wholly immerfed in the fluid, is equal
to the weight of the column having the furface for
its bafe, and the fall producing the velocity for its
height.
This is the medium refult of all experiments made in.
thefe precife circumftances. And it is confirmed by a
fet of experiments of a kind wholly* different, and which
feem to point it out more certainly as an immediate con-
fequence of hydraulic principles. .
If Mr Pitot’s tube be expofed to a ftream of fluidEXpyrimen|.
iffuing from a refervoir or veffel, as reprefented in by Mr Pi-
fig. 16. with the open mouth I pointed diredtly againft tot’s tube,
this ftream, the fluid is obferved to ftand at K in the up-Fig. xQ,
right tube, precifely on a level with the fluid AB in the
refervoir. Here is a moft unexceptionable experiment,
in which the impulfe of the ftream is actually oppofed
to the hydroftatical preffure of the fluid on the tube.
Preffure is in this cafe oppofed to preffure, becaufe the
iffuing fluid is detledfed by what flays in the mouth of
the tube, in the fame way in which it would be defledt-
ed by a firm furface. We (hall have occafion by and
by to mention fome moft valuable and inftruftive expe¬
riments made with this tube.
It was this which fuggefted to the great mathema-£uje^v
tician Euler another theory of the impulfe and refift-theory,
ance of fluids, which muft not be omitted, as it is ap¬
plied in his elaborate performance On the Theory of
the Conftruflion and Working of Ships, in two vo¬
lumes 4to, which was afterwards abridged and ufed as a
text-book in fome marine academies. He fuppofes a
ftream of fluid ABCD (fig. 17.), moving with any ve-Fig. 17.
locity, to ftrike the plane BD perpendicularly, and that
part of it goes through a hole EF, forming a jet
EGHF. Mr Euler fays, that the velocity of this jet
will be the fame with the velocity of the ftream. Now
compare this with an equal ftream iffuing from a hole
in the fide of a veffel with the fame velocity. The one
ftream is urged out by the preffure occafioned by the
impulfe of the fluid ; the other is urged out by the
preffure of gravity. The effefls are equal, and the mo¬
difying circumftances are the fame. The caufes are
therefore equal, and the preffure occafioned by the im¬
pulfe of a ftream of fluid, moving with any velocity, is
equal to the weight of a column of fluid whofe height
is produfHve of this velocity, &c. He then determines
the oblique impulfe by the refolution of motion, and de¬
duces the common rules of refiftance, Sec.
But all this is without juft grounds. This gentle¬
man was always fatisfied with the flighteft analogies
which would give him an opportunity of, exhibiting hie
great
.58
Without
foundation.
RES f 7.
Refinance, great dexterity in algebraic analyfis, and was not after-
" v wards ftartled by any difcordancy with cbfervation.
Anahjn mag is fidendwn is a frequent a Her t ion with him.
Though he wrote a large volume, containing a theory
of light and colours totally oppofite to Newton’s, he
has publifhed many diflertations on optical phenomena
on the Newtonian principles, exprefsly becaufe his own
principles non idea facile anfam prcebebat anahjsi infru-
endce.
Not a fhadow of argument is given for the leading
principle in this theory, viz. that the velocity of the jet
is the fame with the velocity of the dream. None can
be given, but faying, that the preffure is equivalent to
its produ&ion ; and this is alfuming the very thing he
labours to prove. The matter of fa6l is, that the velo¬
city of the jet is greater than that of the dream, and
may be greater almod in any proportion. Which cu¬
rious circumdance was difcovered and ingenioudy ex¬
plained long ago by Daniel Bernoulli in his Hydrodyna-
tmca. It is evident that the velocity mud be greater.
Were a dream of fand to come againd the plane, what
goes through would indeed preferve its velocity un¬
changed : but when a real fluid drikes the plane, all that
does not pals through is deflefted on all fides j and by
thefe defledtions forces are excited, by which the fila¬
ments which furround the cylinder immediately fronting
.the hole are made to prefs this cylinder on all fides, and
as it were fqueeze it between them : and thus the par¬
ticles at the hole mud of neceflity be accelerated, and
the velocity of the jet mud be greater than that of the
dream. We are difpofed to think that, in a fluid per-
feftly incompreflible, the velocity will be double, or at
lead increafed in the proportion of I to If the
fluid is in the fmalled degree compreflible, even in the
very fmall degree that water is, the velocity at the fird
impulfe may be much greater. D. Bernoulli found that
a column of water moving 5 feet per fecond, in a tube
fome hundred feet long, produced a velocity of 1 36 feet
per fecond in the fird moment.
There being this radical defcft in the theory of Mr
Euler, it is needlefs to take notice of its total infuffici-
ency for explaining oblique impulfes and the refidance
j-p of curvilineal prows.
Ingenious We are extremely forry that our readers are deriving
folution of f0 little advantage from all that we have faid ; and that
bertem- having taken them by the hand, we are thus obliged to
grope about, with only a few fcattered rays of light to
direid our deps. Let us fee what aflidance we can get
from Mr d’Alembert, who has attempted a folution of
that problem in a method entirely new and extremely
ingenious. He faw clearly, that all the followers of
Newton had forfaken the path which he had marked
out for them in the fecond part of his invedigation, and
had merely amufed themfelves with the mathematical
difcuflion with which his introduftory hypothefis gave
them an opportunity of occupying themfelves. He
paid the deferved tribute of applaufe to Daniel Ber¬
noulli for having introduced the notion of pure preflure
as the chief agent in this bufinefs *, and he faw that he
was in the right road, and that it was from hydrodati-
cal principles alone that we had any chance of explain¬
ing the phenomena of hydraulics. Bernoulli had only
confidered the preflures which were excited in confe-
quence of the curvilineal motions of the particles. Mr
d’Alembert even thought that thefe preffures were not
j
RES
the confequences, but the caufes, of thefe curvilineal Refinance,
motions. No internal motion can happen in a fluid ■""" v ' 'r
but in confequence of an unbalanced preffure ; and every
fuch motion will produce an inequality of prellure,
which will determine the fucceeding motions. He there¬
fore endeavoured to reduce all to the diicovery of thofe
didurbing preffures, and thus to the laws of hydroda-
ties. He had long before this hit on a very refined
and ingenious view of the aftion of bodies on each
other, which had enabled him to folve many of the mod
difficult problems concerning the motions of bodies, fuch
as the centre of ofcillation, of fpontaneous converfion,
the precefllon of the equinoxes, &c. &.c. with great fa¬
cility and elegance. He faw that the fame principle
W’ould apply to the adtion of fluid bodies. The princi¬
ple is this.
“ In whatever manner any number of bodies arc fup-
pofed to a& on each other, and by thefe aElions come to
change their prefent motions, if we conceive that the mo¬
tion which each body would have in the following in¬
fant {if it became free'), is refolved into two other
motioJis ; one of which is the motion which it really
tabes in the following infant; the other will be fuch,
that if each body had no other motion but this fecond,
the whole bodies would have remained in equilibrial>'>
We here obferve, “ that the motion which each body
would have in the following indant, if it became free,”
is a continuation of the motion which it has in the fird
indant. It may therefore perhaps be better expreffed
thus:
If the motions of bodies, anyhow aBing on each other,
be confdered in two confecutive infants, and if we con¬
ceive the motion which it has in the firf infant as com¬
pounded of two others, one of which is the motion which
it aBually takes in the fecond infant, the other is fuch,
that if each body had only thofe fecond motions, the whole
fystem would have remained in equilibria.
The propofition itfelf is evident. For if thefe fecond
motions be not fuch as that an equilibrium of the whole
fyflem would refult from them, the other component
motions would not be thofe which the bodies really have
after the change 5. for they would neceflfarily be altered
by thefe unbalanced motions. See D’Alembert Efaidc
Hynamique.
Affided by this incontedable principle, M. d’Alem¬
bert demondrates, in a manner equally new and fimple,
thofe propofitions which Newton had fo cautioufly de¬
duced from his hypothetical fluid, fhowing that they
were not limited to this hypothefis, viz. that the mo¬
tions produced by fimilar bodies, fimilarly projefted in
them, would be fimilar*, that whatever were the pref¬
fures, the curves defcribed by the particles would be the
fame *, and that the refifiances would be proportional to
the fquares of the velocities. He then comes to confider
the fluid as having its motions conflrained by the form
of the canal or by folid obdacles interpofed.
We fliall here give a fummary account of his funda¬
mental propofition. ^
It is evident^ that if the body ADCE (fig. 18.) did Summary
not form an obflrudion .to the motion of the water, the account of
particles would deferibe parallel lines TF, OK, PS, Sec.11'5 funda-
But while yet at. a diffance from the body in F, K, S,^r°”
they gradually change their diredions, and deferibe the n*
curves FM, Kw, S«, fo much more incurvated as they l8’
are nearer to the body. At a certain diflance ZY this
curvature.
U E s
[ 75
Refiftarce. curvature will be infenfible, and tl.e fluid jnduded in
  v ' the fpace ZYHQ^ will move uniformly as if the iohd
bodyPwere not there. The motions on the other fide
ofX axis AC will be the fame j and we need only
attend to one-half, and we ftiall confider thefe as in a
^"NotS changes either its direftioB or velocity other-
wife than by infenfible degrees : therefore the particle
which is moving in the axis will not re^c^ } v^r LX
A of the body, where it behoved to detleft inllantane--
cully at right angles. It will therefore begin to be de-
fleaed at fome point F a-head of the body, and will de-
feribe a curve FM, touching the axis m F and the bo¬
dy in M: and then, gliding along the body, will quit
it at fome point L, deferibing a tangent curve, which
will join the axis again (touching it) in R 5 and thus
there will be a quantity of ftagnant water FAM before
or a-head of the body, and another LCR behind or
aftern of it. r 1 a -j •
. Let a be the velocity of a particle of .the fluid m
any inftant, and a' its velocity in the next inftant. 1 he
velocity a may be confidered as compounded of a and
a". If the particles tended to move with the velocities
a'' only, the whole fluid would be in equilibrio (general
principle), and the preflure of the fluid would be the
fame as if all were ftagnant, and each particle were
urged by a force —, t' exprefling an indefinitely fmall
moment of time. (N. B. ~ is the proper expreflion of
the accelerating force, which, by a£fing during the mo¬
ment t', would generate the velocity a" ; and a" is fup-
pofed an indeterminate quantity, different perhaps for
each particle). Now let n be fuppofed conftant, or
a—a'. In this cafe a"—o. That is to fay, no preflhre
whatever will be exerted on the folid body unlefs there
happen changes in the velocities or directions of the
particles.
Let a and a! then be the motions of the. particles in
two confecutive inftants. They would be in equilibrio
a"
if urged only by the forces —. Therefore if y be the
point where the particles which deferibe the curve IM
begin to^change their velocity, the preffure in D would
be equal to the preffure which the fluid contained in the
canal y FMD would exert, if each particle were folicited
a'
by its force —. The queftion is therefore reduced to
the finding the curvature in the canal y FMD, and the
a" . .
accelerating forces — in its different parts.
It appears, in the firft place, that no preflure is ex¬
erted by any of the particles along the curve FM : for
Fig. 19. fuppofe that the particle a (fig. 19.) deferibes the in¬
definitely fmall ftraight line a b in the firft jnftant, and
bem the fecond inftant j produce ab till bd—ab, and
joining dc, the motion ab or bd may be confidered as
compofed of be, which the particle really takes in the
next inftant, and a motion dc which fhould be deftroy-
ed. Draw bi parallel to dc, and ie perpendicular to be.
It is plain that the particle b, folicited by the forces
b e, ei (equivalent to dc) ftiould be in equilibrio. This
being eflablifhed, be muft be ~o, that is, there will be
no accelerating or retarding force at for if there
2 3 11 E S
be, draw b m (kg. 20.) perper dieular to£F, and the Refiftance,
parallel nq infinitely near it. The part b n oi the fluid » 1 -r
contained in the canal bnqm would fuftain fome pref¬
fure from b towards n, or from n towards b. Therefore
fince the fluid in this ftagnant canal ftiould be in equili¬
brio, there muft alfo be fome aftion, at leaft in one of
the parts bm, mq, qn, to counterbalance the afticn on
■the part b n. But the fluid is ftagnant in the fpace
FAM (in confcquence of the law of continuity).
Therefore there is no force which can aft on bm, mq,
q n ; and the preffure in the canal in the direftion bn or
7z £ is nothing, or the force be—o, and the force ie is
perpendicular to the canal and there is therefore no
preffure in the canal FM, except what proceeds from
the part yF, or from the force ei^ which laft being
perpendicular to the canal, there can be no force exert¬
ed on the point M, but what is propagated from the
part y F.
The velocity therefore in the canal FM is conftant
.if finite, or infinitely fmall if variable : for, in the firft
cafe, the force b e would be abfolutely nothing j and in
the fecond cafe, it would be an infinitefimal of the fe¬
cond order, and may be confidered as nothing in com-
parifon with the velocity, which is of the firft order.
We (hall fee by and by that the laft is the real ftate of
the cafe. Therefore the fluid, before it begins.to
change its direftion in F, begins to change.its velocity
in fome point y a-head of F, and by the time that it
reaches F its velocity is as it were annihilated.
Cor. 1. Therefore the preffure in any point D arifts
both from the retardations in the part yF, and from
the particles which are in the canal MD : as thefe laft
move along the furface of the body, the force ——, de-
ftroyed in every particle, is compounded of two others,
one in the dire&ion of the furface, and the other per¬
pendicular to it $ call thefe p and p’. The point D is
preffed perpendicularly to the furface MD j ift, by all
the forcesy) in the curve MD ; 2d, by the force p act¬
ing on the Angle point D. I his may be neglected in
comparifon of the indefinite number of the others :
therefore taking in the arch MD, an infinitely imali
portion N m, = s, the preffure on D, perpendicular to
and this flu-
the furface of the body, will be =fpS!
ent muft be fo taken as to be rzo in the point M.
Cor. 2. Therefore, to find the prefiure on D, we
muft find the force p on any point N. Let u be the
velocity of the particle N, in the direftion N m in any
inftant, and u-\-u its velocity in the following inftant j
we muft have p~
Therefore the whole queftion
is reduced to finding the velocity u in every point N,
in the dire&ion Not. _ # . . 61
And this is the aim of a feries of propofitions which His finai
follow, in which the author difplays the moft accurate equation
and precife conception of the fubjeft, and great
and elegance in his mathematical analyfis. He at length bu{>
brings out an equation which expreffes the. preffure on
the body in the moft general and unexceptionable man¬
ner. We cannot give an abftraft, becaufe the train of
reafoning is already concife in the extreme : nor can we
even exhibit the final equation } for it is conceived in
the
62
From the
imperfect
ftate of
mathema¬
tics, it is
vifelefs.
R E S [ 7^
Refinance, the moft refined and abftrufe form of indeterminate
functions, in order to embrace every poflible circum-
ftance. But we can allure our readers, that it truly ex-
prelfes the folution of the problem. But, alas! it is of
no ufe. So imperfedl is our mathematical knowledge,
that even Mr d’Alembert has not been able to exem¬
plify the application of the equation to the fimpleft cafe
which can be propofed, fuch as the direft impulfe on
a plane furface wholly immerfed in the fluid. All that
he is enabled to do, is to apply it (by fome modifica¬
tions and fubftitutions which take it out of its ftate of
extreme generality) to the direft impulfe of a vein of
fluid on a plane which defle£b it wholly, and thus to
ftiow its conformity to the folution given by Daniel
Bernoulli, and to obfervation and experience. He
ihows, that this impulfe (independent of the deficiency
arifing from the plane’s not being of infinite extent) is
fomewhat lefs than the weight of a column whofe bafe
is the feftion of the vein, and whofe height is twice the
fall necelfary for communicating the velocity. This
great philofopher and geometer concludes by faying,
that he does not believe that any method can be found
for folving this problem that is more direfl and Ample
and imagines, that if the dedudtions from it ftiall be
found not to agree with experiment, we muft give up all
hopes of determining the refiftance of fluids by theory
and analytical calculus. He fays analytical calculus ;
for all the phyfical principles on which the calculus pro¬
ceeds are rigoroufly demonftrated, and will not admit
of a doubt. There is only one hypothefis introduced
in his inveftigation, and this is not a phyfical hypothe¬
fis, but a hypothefis of calculation. It is, that the
quantities which determine the ratios of the fecond flu¬
xions of the velocities, eftimated in the directions pa¬
rallel and perpendicular to the axis AC (fig. 18.) are
functions of the abfcifla AP, and ordinate PM of the
curve. Any perfon, in the lealt acquainted with ma¬
thematical analyfis, will fee, that without this fuppofi-
tion no analyfis or calculus whatever can be inftituted.
But let us fee what is the 'phyfical meaning of this hy¬
pothefis. It is limply this, that the motion of the par¬
ticle M depends on its fituation only. It appears im-
poflible to form any other opinion ; and if we could
form fuch an opinion, it is as clear as day-light that the
cafe is defperate, and that we muft renounce all hopes.
We are forry to bring our labours to this conclufion ;
but we are of opinion, that the only thing that remains
is, for mathematicians to attach themfelves with firm-
nefs and vigour to fome fimple cafes j and, without
aiming at generality, to apply M. d’Alembert’s or Ber¬
noulli’s mode of procedure to the particular circum-
ftances of the cafe. It is not improbable but that, in
the folutions which may be obtained of thefe particular
cafes, circumftances may occur which are of a more ge¬
neral nature. Thefe will be fo many laws of hydrau¬
lics to be added to our prefent very fcanty flock 5 and
thefe may have points of refemblance, which will give
birth to laws of ftill greater generality. And we re¬
peat our expreflion of hopes of fome fuccefs, by endea¬
vouring to determine, in fome fimple cafes, the minimum
pojfbile of motion. The attempts of the Jefuit com¬
mentators on the Principia to afcertain this on the New¬
tonian hypothefis do them honour, and have really given
us great afliftance in the particular cafe which came
through their hands.
Vol. XVII. PartJ!I.
Kg.
63
Mathema¬
ticians
fliould ap¬
ply to
fimple
cafes ;
- 1 RES
And we ftiould multiply experiments on the rcfift- Rehiunre
ancc of bodies. Thofe of the trench academy are un- 6^~'
doubtedly of ineftimable value, and will always be ap- an(J mujtj_
pealed to. But there are circumftances in thofe experi- ply experi¬
ments which render them more complicated than isments.
proper for a general theory, and which therefore limit
the conclufions which we wifti to draw from them. The
bodies were floating on the furface. This greatly mo¬
difies the deflexions of the filaments of water, caufing
fome to defleX laterally, which would otherwife have
remained in one vertical plane 5 and this circumftance
alfo neceflarily produced what the academicians called
the remou, or accumulation on the anterior part of the
body, and depreflion behind it. This produced an ad¬
ditional refiftance, which was mealured with great diffi¬
culty and uncertainty. The effeX of adhefion muft
alfo have been very confiderable, and very different in
the different cafes j and it is of difficult calculation. It
cannot perhaps be totally removed in any experiment,
and it is neceffary to confider it as making part of the
refiftance in the moft important praXical cafes, viz. the
motion of (hips. Here we fee that its effeX is very
great. Every feaman knows that the fpeed, even of a
copper-ffieathed ftup, is greatly increafed by greafing her
bottom. The difference is too remarkable to admit
of a doubt : nor ffiould we be furprifed at this, when we
attend to the diminution of the motion of water in long
pipes. A fmooth pipe four and a half inches diame¬
ter, and 500 yards long, yields but one-fifth of the
quantity which it ought to do independent of friXion.
But adhefion does a great deal which cannot be com¬
pared with friXion. We fee that water flowing through
a hole in a thin plate will be increafed in quantity
fully one-third, by adding a little tube whofe length is
about twice the diameter of the hole. The adhefion
therefore will greatly modify the aXion of the fila¬
ments both on the folid body and on each other, and
will change both the forms of the curves and the velo¬
cities in different points j and this is a fort of objeXion
to the only hypothefis introduced by d’Alembert. Yet
it is only a fort of objeXion 5 for the effeX of this ad¬
hefion, too, muft undoubtedly depend on the fituation
of the particle. . _ 65
The form of thefe experiments of the academy is ill- The expe-
fuited to the examination of the refiftance of bodies rimenc5 °f
wholly immerfed in the fluid. The form of experi-
ment adopted by Robins for the refiftance of air, and Ceptible of
afterwards by the chevalier Borda for water, is freeconfider-
from thefe inconveniences, and is fufceptible of equalable accu-
accuracy. The great advantage of both is the exaXracy*
knowledge which they give us of the velocity of the
motion ; a circumftance effentially neceflary, and but
imperfeXly known in the experiments of Mariotte and
others, who examined quiefcent bodies expofed to the
aXion of a ftream. It is extremely difficult to meafure
the velocity of a ftream. It is very different in its dif¬
ferent parts. It is fwifteft of all in the middle fuperfi-
cial filament, and diminilfies as we recede from this to¬
wards the fides or bottom, and the rate of diminution
is not precifely known. Could this be afcertained with
the neceffary precifion, we ftiould recommend the fol¬
lowing form of experiment as the moft fimple, eafy,
economical, and accurate.
Let a, b, c, d, (fig. 21.) be four hooks placed in a
horizontal plane at the corners of a reXangular paral-
5 C lelogram,
RES
Refiftance.
66
Simple ex¬
periment
for men.far¬
ing' the ve¬
locity of a
ftream.
Jig. IS.
Fig. II.
lelogram, the Tides a b, c d being parallel to the direc¬
tion of the ftream ABCD, and the Tides a b, c d being
perpendicular to it. Let the body G- be fattened to
an axis ef of ftiff-tempered fteel-wire, To that the fur-
faee on which the fluid is to a£t may be inclined to
the itream in the precife angle we defire. Let this
axis have hooks at its extremities, which are hitched
into the loops of four equal threads, fufpended from the
hooks «, b, c, d; and let H e be a fifth thread, fufpend¬
ed from the middle of the line joining the points of
fufpenfion a, b. Let H1K be a graduated arch, whofe
centre is H, and whofe plane is in the direftion of the
ftr^am. It is evident that the impulfe on the body G
•will be meafured (by a procefs well known to every
mathematician) by the deviation of the thread H e from
the vertical line HI; and this will be done without any
intricacy of calculation, or any attention to the centres
of gravity, of ofcillation, or of percuflion. Thefe muft
be accurately afcertained with refpeft to that form in
which the pendulum has always been employed for
raeafuring the impulfe or velocity of a ftream. Thefe
advantages arife from the circumftance, that the axis
cf remains always parallel to the horizon. We may
be allowed to obferve, by the bye, that this would have
been a great improvement of the beautiful experiments
of Mr Robins and Dr Hutton on the velocities of can-
non-fhot, and would have faved much intricate calcu¬
lation, and been attended with many important advan¬
tages.
The great difficulty is, as w-e have obferved, to mea-
fure the velocity of the ftream. Even this may be done
in this way with feme precifion. Let two floating bo¬
dies be dragged along the furface, as in the experiments
of the academy, at Tome diftance from each other late¬
rally, fo that the water between them may not be fen-
fibly difturbed. Let a horizontal bar be attached to
them, tranfverfe to the direction of their motion, at a
proper height above the furface, and let a fpherical pen¬
dulum be fufpended from this, or let it be fufpended
from four points, as here deferibed. Now let the de¬
viation of this pendulum be noted in a variety of velo¬
cities. This will give us the law of relation between
the velocity and the deviation of the pendulum. Now,
in making experiments on the refiftance of bodies, let
the velocity of the ftream, in the very filament in which
the refiftance is meafured, be determined by the devia¬
tion of this pendulum.
It were greatly to be w’ilhed that Tome more palpable
argument could be found for the exiftence of a quantity
of ftagnant fluid at the anterior and pofterior parts of
the body.^ I he one already given, derived from tlse
confideration that no motion changes either its velocity
or direction by finite quantities in an inftant, is unex¬
ceptionable. But it gives us little information. The
fmalleft conceivable extent of the curve FM in fig. 18.
will anfwer this condition, provided only that it touches
the axis in fome point F, and the body in fome point
M, fo as not to make a finite angle with either. But
furely there are circumftances which rigoroufly deter-
mme the extent of this ftagnant fluid. And it appears
without doubt, that if there were no cohefion or fric¬
tion this fpace will have a determined ratio to the fize
oi the body (the figures of the bodies being fuppofed
fimilar). Suppofe a plane Turface AB, as in fig. n.
there can he no doubt but that the figure A a D £ B
[ 754 1 RES
will in every cafe be fimilar. But if we fuppofe an Refiftance.
adhefion or tenacity which is conftant, this may make   v—1
a change both in its extent and its form : for its con-
ftancy of form depends on the diflurbing forces being
always as the fnuares of the velocity ; and this ratio nP
(•ays as tlie fquares of the velocity ; and this ratio of
the difturbing forces is preferved, while the inertia of
the fluid is the only agent and patient in the procefs.
But when we add to this the conftant (that is, invaria¬
ble) difturbing force of tenacity, a change of form and
dimenfions muft happen. In like manner, the friflion,
or fomething analogous to friction, which produces an
effect proportional to the velocity, muft alter this ne-
ceffary ratio of the whole difturbing forces. We may
conclude, that the effedt of both thefe circumftances
will be to diminilh the quantity of this ftagnant fluid,
by licking it away externally ; and to this we muft
afcribe the fadt, that the part FAM is never perfedtly
ftagnant, but is generally difturbed with a whirling mo¬
tion. We may alfo conclude, that this ftagnant fluid
will be more incurvated between F and M than it would
have been, independent of tenacity and fridtien ; and
that the arch LR will, on the contrary, be lefs incur¬
vated.—And, laftly, v'e may conclude, that there will
be fomething oppofite to preffure, or fomething which
we may call abjlradion, exerted on the pofterior part of
the body which moves in a tenacious fluid, or is expof-
ed to the ftream of fucli a fluid ; for the ftagnant
fluid LCR adheres to the furface LC, and the paffing
fluid tends to draw it away both by its tenacity and by
its fridlion. This muft augment the apparent impulfe
of the ftream on fuch a body ; and it muft greatly
augment the refiftance, that is, the motion loft by this
body in its progrefs through the tenacious fluid : for the
body muft drag along with it this ftagnant fluid, and
drag it in oppofition to the tenacity and friction of the
furrounding fluid. The effeft of this is moft remark¬
ably feen in the refiftances to the motion of pendulums-;
and the chevalier Buat, in his examination of Newton’s
experiments, clearly fhows that this conftitutes the
greateft part of the refiftance.
This moft ingenious writer has paid great attention
to this part of the procefs of nature, and has laid the
foundation of a theory of refiftanee entirely different
from all the preceding. We cannot abridge it; and it
is too imperfect in its prefent condition to be offered as
a body of doftrine : but we hope that the ingenious
author will profecute the fubjeft.
fo
We cannot conclude this differtation (which we ac-Account of
knowledge to be very unfatisfa&ory and imperfedt) the cheva-
better, than by giving an account of fome experimentslier B.uat’s
of the chevalier Buat, which feem of immenfe confe-6^1'
quence, and tend to give us very new views of the fub-m ’
jeft.. Mr Buat obferved the motion of water iffuing
from a glafs cylinder through a narrow ring formed by
a bottom of fmaller diameter; that is, the cylinder was
open at both ends, and there was-placed at its lower
end a circle of fmaller diameter, by way of bottom,
which left a ring all around. He threw fome powder¬
ed fealing wax into the water, and obferved with great
attention the motion of its fmall particles. He faw
thofe which happened to be in the very axis of the cy¬
linder defcend along the axis with a motion pretty
uniform,.
'Refillancc.
68
md of the
nftrament
le contri-
/ed for exa
nining his
theory,
fig. 2 2.
fig- 23-
RES.
uniform, till they came very near the bottom
this they continued to defcend very {lowly, till they were
almoft in contact with the bottom ; they then devia¬
ted from the centre, and approached the orifice in
flraight lines and with an accelerated motion, and at
laft darted into the orifice with great rapidity. He
had obferved a thing fimilar to this in a horizontal ca¬
nal, in which he had fet up a fmall board like a dam or
bar, over which the water flowed. He had thrown a
goofeberry into the water, in order to meafure the velo¬
city at the bottom, the goofeberry being a fmall matter
heavier than water. It approached the dam uniform¬
ly till about three inches from it. Here it almoft flood
Hill, but it continued to advance till almoft in contact.
It then rofe from the bottom along the infide of the
dam with an accelerated motion, and quickly efcaped
over the top.
Hence he concluded, that the rvater which covers
the anterior part of the body expofed to the ftream is
not perfe£lly ftagnant, and that the filaments recede
from the axis in curves, which converge to the furface
of the body as different hyperbolas converge to the
fame afiyrnptote, and that they move with a velocity
continually increafing till they efcape round the fides of
the body.
He had eftablifhed (by a pretty reafonable theory,
confirmed by experiment) a propofition concerning the
prelfure which water in motion exerts on the furface
along which it glides, viz. that the prejjure is ecjual to
that which it would exert if at rcjl minus the weight of
the column whofe height would produce the velociti/ of the
pnjjing Jlream. Confequently the prefiure which the
ftream exerts on the furface perpendicularly expofed to
it will depend on the velocity with which it glides along
it, and will diminifh from the centre to the circumfe¬
rence. This, fays he, may be the reafon why the im-
pulfe on a plane wholly immerfed is but one half of that
on a plane which deflects the whole ftream.
He contrived a very ingenious inftrument for exa¬
mining this theory. A fquare brafs plate ABGF (fig.
22. ) was pierced with a great number of holes, and fixed
in the front of a fhallow box reprefented edgewife in fig.
23. The back of this box was pierced with a hole c,
in which was inferted the tube of glafs CDE, Taent
fquare at D. This inftrument was expofed to a ftream
of water, which beat on the brafs plate. The water
having filled the box through the holes, flood at an
equal height in the glafs tube when the furrounding
water was ftagnant ; but when it was in motion, it al¬
ways flood in the tube above the level of the fmooth
water without, and thus indicated the preflure occafioned
by the aflion of the ftream.
When the inftrument was not wholly immerfed, there
was always a confiderable accumulation againft the front
of the box, and a depreflion behind it. The water before
it was by no means ftagnant: indeed it fliould not be,
as Mr Buat obferves ; for it confifts of the water which
was efcaping on all fides, and therefore upwards from
the axis of the ftream, which meets the plate perpendi¬
cularly in c confiderably under the furface. It efcapes
upwards; and if the body were fufficiently immerfed,
it would efcape in this diredtion almoft as eafily as
laterally. But in the prefent circumftances, it heaps
up, till the elevation occafions it to fall off fidewife as
faft as it is renewed. When the inftrument was immer-
70
tern ark-
[ 755 ] RES
, from fed more than its femidiameter under the furface, the Refinance.
water ftill rofe above the level, and there was a great v J
depreflion immediately behind this elevation. In con*
fequence of this difficulty of efcaping upwards, the wa¬
ter flows off laterally ; and if the horizontal dimenfions
of the furface is great, this lateral efflux becomes more
difficult, and requires a greater accumulation. From
this it happens, that the refiftance of broad furfaces
equally immerfed is greater than in the proportion of
the breadth. A plane of two feet wide and one foot
deep, when it is not completely immerfed, will be more
refilled than a plane two feet deep and one foot wide ;
for there will be an accumulation againft both : and
even if thefe were equal in height, the additional fur¬
face will be greateft in the wideft body ; and the ele¬
vation will be greater, becaufe the lateral efcape is more
difficult. ^
The circumftances chiefly to be attended to are thefe. Grcum-
The preffure on the centre was much greater than to-fta.nces
wards the border, and, in general, the height of the wa- ^^end
ter in the tube DE was more than 4 of the height ne-Jj to nT”
ceffary for producing the velocity wdien only the cen-ufing this
tral hole was open. When various holes were openedinftrument*
at different diftances from the centre, the height of the
water in DH continually diminiflied as the hole was
nearer the border. At a certain diftance from the bor¬
der the water at E was level with the furrounding wa¬
ter, fo that no preffure was exerted on that hole. ButR(
the moft unexpected and remarkable circumftance was, able cir-
that, in great velocities, the holes at the very border, cumftance»
and even to a fmall diftance from it, not only fuftained
no preflure, but even gave out water ; for the water in
the tube was lower than the furrounding -water. Mr
Buat calls this a non-prejjion. In a cafe in which the
velocity of the ftream was three feet, and the preffure on
the central hole caufed the water in the vertical tube to
ftand 33 lines or \\ of an inch above the level of the
furrounding fmooth water, the aflion on a hole at the
lower corner of the fquare caufed it to ftand 12 lines
lower than the furrounding water. Now the velocity
of the ftream in this experiment was 36 inches per fe-
cond. This requires 21^ lines for its produdlive fall ;
whereas the preffure on the central hole was 33. This
approaches to the preffure on a furface which defledls
it wholly. The intermediate holes gave every variation
of preffure, and the diminution was more rapid as the
holes were nearer the edge ; but the law of diminu¬
tion could not be obferved.
This is quite a new and moft unexpefled circum-not incon-
ftance in the action of fluids on folid bodies, and ren-whh
ders the fubjeft more intricate than ever ; yet it is by^
no means inconfiftent with the genuine principles ofliroftatics”
hydroftatics or hydraulics. In as far as M. Buat’s < r hydrau-
propofition concerning the preffure of moving fluids hcs*
is true, it is very reafonable to fay, that when the
lateral velocity with which the fluid tends to efcape
exceeds the velocity of percuffion, the height necefia-
ry for producing this velocity muft exceed that which
would produce the other, and a non-preffion muft be
obferved. And if we confider the forms of the la¬
teral filaments near the edge of the body, we fee that
the concavity of the curve is turned towards the bo¬
dy, and that the centrifugal forces tend to diminiffa
their preflure on the body. If the middle alone were
ftruck with a confiderable velocity, the water mmht
5 C 2
even
71
Subftance
of Buat's
theory.
73
Experi¬
ments by
which it is
confirmed.
RES [7
Refiftance. even rebound, as if frequently obferved. This ntfW
-V ' rebounding is here prevented by the furrounding water,
which is moving with the fame velocity : but the prei-
fure may be almoft annihilated by the tendency to re¬
bound of the inner filaments.
Part (and perhaps a confiderable part) of this appa¬
rent non-preffion is undoubtedly produced by the tena¬
city of the water, which licks off with it the water ly¬
ing in the hole. But at any rate, this is an important
la<ff, and gives great value to thefe experiments. It
gives a key to many curious phenomena in the refift¬
ance of fluids', and'the theory of M. Buat deferves a
very ferious confideration. It is all contained in the
two following propofitions.
1. “ If by any caufe whatever, a column of fluid, whe¬
ther making part of an indefinite fluid, or contained in fo-
■ iid canals, come to move with a given velocity, the pref-
fure which it exerted' laterally before its motion, either on
the adjoining fluid or on the fides of the canal, is dimi-
ni/hed by the weight of a column having the height necef-
fary for communicating the velocity of the motion.
2. “ The prejfure on the centre of a plane furface per¬
pendicular to theflream, and wholly immerfed in it is X
of the weight of a column having the height necejfary for
communicating the velocity. For 33 is X of 2i4-n
He attempted to afeertain the medium preffure on
the whole furface, by opening 625 holes difperfed all
over it. With the fame velocity of current, he found
the height in the tube to be 29 lines, or 7-*- more than
the height neceffary for producing the velocity. But
he juftly concluded this to be too great a meafure, be-
caufe the holes were of an inch from the edge : had
there been holes at the very edge, they would have fuf-
tained a non-preffion, which would have diminilhed the
height in the tube very confiderably. He expofed to
the fame ftream a conical funnel, which raifed the wa¬
ter to 34 lines. But this could not be confidered as
a meafure of the preffure on a plane folid furface j for
the central water was undoubtedly fcooped out, as it
were, and the filaments much more defle&ed than they
would have been by a plane furface. Perhaps fomething
of this happened even in every fmall hole in the for¬
mer experiments. And this fuggefts fome doubt as to
the accuracy of the meafurement of the preflure and of
the velocity of a current by Mr Pitot’s tube. Itfurely
renders fome correftions abfolutely neceffary. It is a
fadl, that when expofed to a vein of fluid coming
through a fhort paffage, the water in the tube ftands on
a level with that in the refervoir. Now W'e know that
the velocity of this ftream does not exceed what would
be produced by a fall equal to of the head of wa¬
ter in the refervoir. Mr Buat made many valuable ob-
fervations and improvements on this moft ufeful inftru-
ment, which will be taken notice of in the articles Ri¬
vers and Water-Works.
Mr Buat, by a fcrupulous attention to all the circum-
ftances, concludes that the medium of preffure on the
• 2 C. C
whole furface is equal to —- of the weight of a co-
21.5 6
lumn, having the furface for its bafe, and the produc¬
tive fall for its height. But we think that there is an
uncertainty in this conclufion; becaufe the height of the
water in the vertical tube was undoubtedly augmented
by an hydroftatical preffure arifing from the accumula-
3
56 ] RE S
tion of water above the body which was expofed to the Refiftance.
ftream. 'Tmmi
Since the preffures are as the fquares of the veloci¬
ties, or as the heights h which produce the velocities,
2 C. C
we may exprefs this preffure by the fymbol h, or
1.186/*, or mh, the value of m being 1.186. This
exceeds confiderably the refult of the experiments of
the French academy. In thefe it does not appear that
m fenfibly exceeds unity. Note, that in thefe experi¬
ments the body was moved through ftill water ; here
it is expofed to a ftream. Thefe are generally fuppofed
to be equivalent, on the authority of the third law of
motion, which makes every aftion depend on the rela¬
tive motions. We {hall by and by fee fome caufes of
difference. . 74
The writers on this fubjeft feem to think their talk The adtion
completed when they have confidered the a£Hon of the °n the hin-
fluid on the anterior part of the body, or that part of abo^y of
it which is before the broadeft feftion, and have paid ftip equally
little or no attention to the hinder part. Yet thofe who important
are moft interefted in the fubjecR, the naval architefts,Wlth that
feem convinced that it is of no lefs importance to at- ^ e fore*
tend to the form of the hinder part of a ftiip. AndP
the univerfal practice of all nations has been to make
the hinder part more acute than the fore-part. This
has undoubtedly been deduced from experience j for it
is in direft oppofition to any notions which a perfon
would naturally form on this fubjeft. Mr Buat there¬
fore thought it very neceflary to examine the a£lion of
the water on the hinder part of the body by the fame 75
method. And, previous to this examination, in order to Experiment
acquire fome fcientific notions of the fubjeft, he made?"^s fub'
the following very curious and inftru&ive experiment. ^uat>y
Two little conical pipes AB (fig. 24.) ivere inferted fig. 24.
into the upright fide of a prifmatic veffel. They were
an inch long, and their diameters at the inner and outer
ends w’ere five and four lines. A was 57 lines under
the furface, and B was 73. A glafs fyphon was made
of the ftiape reprefented in the figure, and its internal
diameter was i-J lines. It was placed with its mouth
in the axis, and even with the bafe of the conical pipe.
The pipes being (hut, the veffel was filled with water,
and it was made to ftand on a level in the two legs of
the fyphon, the upper part being full of air. When
this fyphon was applied to the pipe A, and the water
running freely, it rofe 32 lines in the fliort leg, and
funk as much in the other. When it was applied to
the pipe B, the water rofe 41 lines in the one leg of
the fyphon, and funk as much in the other. f
He reafons in this manner from the experiment. ThejH 1113
ring comprehended between the end of the fyphon andj“nlIls * '
the fides of the conical tube being the narroweft part
of the orifice, the water iffued with the velocity cor-
refponding to the height of the water in the veffel
above the orifice, diminiflied for the contraftion. If
therefore the cylinder of water immediately before the
mouth of the fyphon iffued with the fame velocity, the
tube would be emptied through a height equal to this
HEAD OF WATER {charge). If, on the contrary, this
cylinder of water, immediately before the mouth of the
fyphon, were ftagnant, the water in it would exert its
full preffure on the mouth of the fyphon, and the water
in the fyphon would be level with the water in the veffel.
Between
RES [ 757 ] RES
Reftftance. Between thefe extremes we muft find the real ftate of
the cafe, and we muft meafure the force of non-preffure
by the rife of the water in the fypbon.
We fee that in both experiments it bears an accurate
proportion to the depth under the furface. For 57 :
73 = 32 : 41 very nearly. He therefore eftimates the
non-prefiure to be -j-5^ of the height of the water above
^ the orifice.
feetningly We are difpofed to think that the ingenious author
inaccurate, not reafoned accurately from the experiment. In
the firft place, the force indicated by the experiment,
whatever be its origin, is certainly double of what he
fuppofes ; for it muft be meafured by the fum of the
rife of the water in one leg, and its depreftion in the
other, the weight of the air in the bend of the fyphon
being neglefted. It is precifely analogous to the force
afting on the water ofcillating in a fyphon, which is
acknowledged to be the fum of the elevation and de-
preflion. The force indicated by the experiment there¬
fore is °f ^ie height of the water above the ori¬
fice. The force exhibited in this experiment bears a
ftill greater proportion to the productive height } for
it is certain that the water did not iffue wdth the velo¬
city acquired by the fall from the furface, and pro¬
bably did not exceed of it. The effeCt of contraction
muft have been confiderable and uncertain. The velo¬
city ftiould have been meafured both by the amplitude
of the jet and by the quantity of water difcharged. In
the next place, we apprehend that much of the effeCl
is produced by the tenacity of the water, which drags
along with it the water which would have flowly iffued
from the fyphon, had the other end not dipped into
the water of the veffel. We know, that if the hori¬
zontal part of the fyphon had been continued far
enough, and if no retardation were occafioned by fric¬
tion, the column of water in the upright leg would have
accelerated like any heavy body ; and when the laft of
it had arrived at the bottom of that leg, the whole in
the horizontal part would be moving with the velocity
acquired by falling from the furface. The water of the
vefiel which iffues through the furrounding ring very
quickly acquires a much greater velocity than what the
water defcending in the fyphon would acquire in the
fame time, and it drags this laft water along with it both
by tenacity and friCtion, and it drags it out till its aClion
is oppofed by the want of equilibrium produced in the
fyphon, by the elevation in the one leg and the depref-
fion in the other. We imagine that little can be con¬
cluded from the experiment with refpeft to the real non-
preflure. Nay, if the fides of the fyphon be fuppofed in¬
finitely thin, fo that there would be no curvature of the
filaments of the furrounding water at the mouth of the
fyphon, we do not very diftinfUy fee any fource of non-
prelfure : For we are not altogether fatisfied with the
proof which Mr Buat offers for this meafure of the
preffure of a ftream of fluid gliding along a furface, and
obJlruEied by friflion or any other caufe. We imagine
that pafling water in the prefent experiment would be a
little retarded by accelerating continually the water de¬
fcending in the fyphon, and renewed a-top, fuppofing
the upper end open ; becaufe this water would not of it-
felf acquire more than half this velocity. It however
drags it out, till it not only refills with a force equal to
the weight of the whole vertical column, but even ex¬
ceeds it by TW This it is able to do, becaufe the
whole preffure by which the water ilfues from an orifice
has been Ihown (by Daniel Bernoulli) to be equal to v
twice this weight. We therefore confider this beauti¬
ful experiment as chiefly valuable, by giving us a mea¬
fure of the tenacity of the water; and we wilh that it
were repeated in a variety of depths, in order to difco-
ver what relation the force exerted bears to the depth.
It would feem that the tenacity, being a certain deter¬
minate thing, the proportion of 100 to 112 would not
be conftant j and that the obferved ratio would be made
up of two parts, one of them conftant, and the other
proportional to the depth under the furface.
But ftill this experiment is intimately connefled with
the matter in hand ; and this apparent non-preflure
on the hinder part of a body expofed to a ftream, from
whatever caufes it proceeds, does operate in the action
of water on this hinder part, and muft be taken into the
account.
We muft therefore follow the chevalier de Buat in Further
his difcuflions on this fubjecf. A prifmatic body, ha-difcufllous
ving its prow and poop equal and parallel furfaces, andoi ^e^uat’
plunged horizontally into a fluid, will require a force
to keep it firm in the direflion of its axis precifely equal
to the difference between the real preflures exerted on
its prow and poop. If the fluid is at reft, this differ¬
ence will be nothing, becaufe the oppofite dead pref-
fures of the fluid will be equal : but in a ftream, there
is fuperadded to the dead preffure on the prow the ac¬
tive preffure arifing from the defleftions of the filaments
of this fluid.
If the dead preffure on the poop remained in its full
intenfity by the perfect ftagnation of the water behind
it, the whole fenfible preffure on the body would be the
aflive preffure only on the prow, reprefented by mh.
on the other hand, we could fuppofe that the water
behind the body moved continually away from it (being
renewed laterally) with the velocity of the ftream, the
dead preffure would be entirely removed from its poop,
and the whole fenfible preffure, or what muft be op¬
pofed by fome external force, would be tn h-\-h. Neither
of thefe can happen •, and the real ftate of the cafe muft:
be between thefe extremes.
The following experiments were tried : The perfo-Expen¬
rated box with its vertical tube was expofed to thement;s‘
ftream, the brafs plate being turned down the ftream.
The velocity was again 36 inches per fecond.
The central hole A alone being opened, gave a non-
preffure of - - 13 lines.
A hole B, 4 °f an inck from the edge,
gave - - 15
A hole C, near the furface - 15'*/
A hole D, at the lower angle - 13.3
Here it appears that there is a very confiderable
non-preffure, increafing from the centre to the border.
This increafe undoubtedly proceeds from the greater la¬
teral velocity with which the water is gliding in from
the fides. The water behind was by no means ftag-
nant, although moving off with a much fmaller velocity
than that of the pafling ftream, and it was vifibly re¬
moved from the fides, and gradually licked away at its
further extremity.
Another box, having a great number of holes, all
open, indicated a medium of non-preffure equal to
lines.
Another
RES [ 758 ] RES
Refiftance. Another of larger dimenlions, but having fewer holes,
indicated a non-preffure of I2|.
But the moll remarkable, and the moft important
phenomena were the following.
1 The firft box was fixed to the fide of another box, fo
that, when all was made fmooth, it made a perfeft
cube, of which the perforated brafs plate made the
poop.
The apparatus being now expofed on the ftream, with
the perforated plate looking down the ftream,
The hole A indicated a non-preffion - =7.2
B 8
C - - - - - 6
Here was a great diminution of the non-preffions
produced by the diftance between the prow and the
poop.
This box was then fitted in the fame manner, fo as
to make the poop of a box three feet long. In this
fituation the non-preflures were as follows:
Hole A I.C
B 3-2
The non-preffions were ftill farther diminiflied by this
inereafe of length.
The box was then expofed with all the holes open,
in three different fituations :
I ft, Single, giving a non-preffure
2d, Making the poop of a cube
3d, Making the poop of a box three feet long
5-3
3-o
Another larger box:
iff:, Single 12.2
2d, Poop of a cube - _ _ _
^ 3d, Poop of the long box - - 3.2
Great uti- Thofe are moft valuable experiments. They plainly
lity of them ftiow how important it is to confider the aftion on the
m flnp- hinder part of the body. For the whole impulfe or re-
u fiftance, which muff; be withftood or overcome by the
external force, is the fum of the aftive preffure on the
fore-part, and of the non-preflure on the hinder-part;
and they (how that this does not depend folely on the
form of the prow and poop, but alfo, and perhaps chief¬
ly, on the length of the body. We fee that the non-
preffure on the hinder-part was prodigioufly diminiftied
(reduced to one-fourth) by making the length of the
body triple of the breadth. And hence it appears, that
merely lengthening a fliip, without making any change
in the form either of her prow or her poop, will greatly
diminifh the refiftance to her motion through the water j
and this increafe of length may be made by continuing
the form of the midfhip frame in feveral timbers along
the keel, by which the capacity of the fliip, and her
power of carrying fail, will be greatly increafed, and
her other qualities improved, while her fpeed is auv-
8l men ted. 6
Phyfical It is furely of importance to confider a little the phy-
caufe of it fical caufe of this change. The motions are extremely
P amed' complicated, and we muft be contented if we can but
perceive a few leading circumftances.
I he water is turned afide by the anterior part of the
body, and the velocity of the filaments is increafed, and
they acquire a divergent motion, by which they alfo puffi
afide the furrounding water. On each fide of the body,
therefore, they are moving in a divergent diredlion, and
4
with an increafed velocity. But as they are on all TidesRefiftance,
preffed by the fluid without them, their motions gra- '-"—nr"—'
dually approach parallelifm, and their velocities to an
equality with the ftream. The progreflive velocity, or
that in the direfHon of the ftream, is cheeked, at leaft
at firft. But fince we obferve the filaments conftipated
round the body, and that they are not deflefted at right
angles to their former dire&ion, it is plain that the real
velocity of a filament in its oblique path is augmented.
We always obferve, that a ftone lying in the land, and
expofed to the wa(h of the fea, is laid bare at the bottom,
and the land is generally walhed away to fome diftance
all round. This is owing to the increafed velocity of
the water which conies into contact with the ftone. It
takes up more fand than it can keep floating, and it de-
pofits it at a little diftance all around, forming a little
bank, which furrounds the ftone at a fmall diftance.
When the filaments of water have paffed the body, they
are preffed by the ambient fluid into the place ivhieh it
has quitted, and they glide round its ftern, and fill up
the fpace behind. The more divergent and the more
rapid they are, when about to fall in behind, the more
of the circumambient preffure muft be employed to turn
them into the trough behind the body, and lefsof it will
remain to prefs them to the body itfelf. The extreme
of this muft obtain when the ftream is obftunfted by a
thin plane only. But when there is fome diftance be¬
tween the prow and the poop, the divergency of the fila¬
ments which had been turned afide by the prow, is di¬
miniftied by the time that they have come abreaft of the
ftern, and ftiould turn in behind it. They are therefore
more readily made to converge behind the body, and a
more confiderable part of the furrounding preffure re¬
mains unexpended, and therefore preffes the water
againft the ftern ; and it is evident that this advantage
muft be fo much the greater as the body is longer. But
the advantage will foon be fufceptible of no very confi¬
derable increafe : for the lateral and divergent, and ac¬
celerated filaments, will foon become fo nearly parallel
and equally rapid with the reft of the ftream, that a
great increafe of length will not make any confiderable
change in thefe particulars ; and it muft be accompa¬
nied with an increafe of friftion.
Thefe are very obvious reflefiions. And if we attend
minutely to the way in which the almoft ftagnant fluid
behind the body is expended and renewed, we ftiall fee
all thefe effe&s confirmed and augmented. But as ive
cannot fay any thing on this fubje61 that is precife, or
that can be made the fubjeft of computation, it is need-
lefs to enter into a more minute difcuflion. The diminu¬
tion of the non-preffure towards the centre moft probably
arifes from the fmaller force which is neceffary to be ex¬
pended in the inflection of the lateral filaments, already
infleCted in fome degree, and having their velocity dimi-
niihed. But it is a fubjeCt highly deferving the attention
of the mathematicians; and we prefume to invite them
to the ftudy of the motions of thefe. lateral filaments,
pafling the body, and preffed into its wake by forces
which are fufceptible of no difficult inveftigation. It
feems highly probable, that if a prifmatic box, with a
fquare ftern, were fitted with an addition precifely ftiaped
like the water which would (abftraCling tenacity and
fridion) have been ftagnant behind it, the quantity of
non-preffion would be the fmalleft poflible. The ma¬
thematician would furely difcover circumftances which
would.
B. E S [7
Heuftance. would furnilli Tome maxims of conftru&ion for the hin-
' v 1 der part as well as for the prow. And as his fpecula-
tions on this laft have not been wholly fruitlefs, we may
expeci advantages from his attention to this part, fo much
neglected.
In the mean time, let us attend to the dedufliows
which Mr de Kuat has made from his few experiments.
When the velocity is three feet per fecond, requiring
the produ6tive height 21.5 lines, the heights correfpon-
ding to the non-prefi'ure on the poop of a thin plane is
I4-4t liues (taking in feveral circum(lances of judicious
corre&ion, which we have not mentioned), that of a
foot cube is 5.83, and that of a box of triple length is
3-31*
Let q exprefs the variable ratio of thefe to the height
producing the velocity, fo that q h may exprefs the non-
preffure in every cafe \ we have,
S 2
Buat’s de
duftions
fiom his
exjjeri-
ments.
59 1 RES
ferved near the edges of the furface. The general fac- Refiftance.
tor of the preffure of a ftream on the anterior furface "v l*'■'
was m ~ 1.186; but that on a moving body through
a dill fluid is only m~ 1. He obferved no non-preffure
even at the very edge of the prow, but even a fenfible
preflTure. i he preflure, therefore, or refiflance, is more
equably diffufed over the furface of the prow than the
impulfe is.—He alfo found that the refiftances diminilh-
ed in a lefs ratio than the iquares of the velocities, cfpe-
cially in fmall velocities.
1 he non-preflures increafed in a greater ratio tlian the
fquares of the velocities. The ratio of the velocities to a
fmall velocity of 24- inches per fecond increafed geome¬
trically, the value of ^ increafed arithmetically; and we
may determine q for any velocity V by this proportion
T V
For a thin plane
a cube
a box rr 3 cubes
q—o&q
0.271
It is evident that the value of q has a dependence on
the proportion of the length, and the tranfverfe fection
of the body. A feries of experiments on prifmatic bo¬
dies (bowed Mr de Buat that the deviation of the fila¬
ments was fimilar in fimilar bodies, and that this ob¬
tained even in diflimilar prifms, when the lengths were
as the fquare-roots of the tranfverfe fe&ions. Although
therefore the experiments were not fufficiently nume¬
rous for deducing the precife law, it feemed not impof-
fible to derive from them a very ufeful approximation.
By a dexterous comparifon he found, that if / exprefies
the length of the prifm, and s the area of the tranfverfe
feflion, and L expreffes the common logarithm of the
quantity to which it is prefixed, we (hall exprefs the
non-preffure pretty accurately by the formula - —
i . L (,.4,L).
Hence arifes an important remark, that when the
height correfponding to the non-preflion is greater than
yV, and the body is little immerfed in the fluid, there
will be a void behind it. Thus a furface of a fquare
inch, juft immerfed in a current of th1" • feet per fe¬
cond, will have a void behind it. A foot fquare will
be in a fimilar condition when the velocity is 12 feet.
We muft be careful to diftinguifli this non-preffure
from the other caufes of refiftance, which are always
neceffarily combined with it. It is fuperadditive to
the adtive impre.flion on the prow, to the ftatical pref¬
lure of the accumulation a-head of the body, the ftatical
preffure arifing from the depreflion behind it, the effecls
of fridlion, and the eflFedls of tenacity. It is indeed next
to impoflible to eftimate them feparately, and many of
them are adtually combined in the meafures now given.
Nothin g can determine the pure non-prcffures till we
^ can afeertain the motions of the filaments,
fie contro- M. de Buat here takes occafion to controvert the
verts a univerfally adopted maxim, that the preffure occafioned
maxim uni-by a ftream of fluid on a fixed body is the fame with
irei-fally on a bocjy m0ving with equal velocity in a quief-
r . cent fluid. He repeated all thefe experiments with the
perforated box in ftill water. The general diftindlion
was, that both the preffures and the non-preffure in this
safe were lefs, and that the odds were chiefly to be ob-
That is, let
r 35. t'"   2.2
-L- -— . J-—= O.c : and  7-.
2.2 22 J v 2.8
the common logarithm of the velocity, divided by 2-j,
be confidered as a common number ; divide this com¬
mon number by 2t%, the quotient is q, which muft be
multiplied by the produ&ive height. The product is
the preffure.
W hen Pitot’s tube was expofed to the ftream, we had
rx=:i ; but when it is carried through ftill water, ni is
— 1.22. When it was turned from the ftream, we had
q—o.lST, but when carried through ftill water, ^ is —
0.138. A remarkable experiment. " ,
When the tube was moved laterally through the wa-and fup-
ter, fo that the motion was in the direction of the plane ports his
of its mouth, the non-preffure was=i. This is one°Pinion hr
of his chief arguments for his theory of non-preflion.
He does not give the detail of the experiment, and only
inferts the refult in his table.
As a body expofed to a ftream deftedfts the fluid,
heaps it up, and increafes its velocity ; foa body moved
through a dill fluid turns it afide, caufes it to (well up
before it, and gives it a real motion alongfide of it in
the oppofite direction. And as the body expofed to a
ftream has a quantity of fluid almoft ftagnant both be¬
fore and behind ; fo a body moved through a ftill fluid
carries before it and drags after it a quantity of fluid,
which accompanies it with nearly an equal velocity.
This addition to the quantity of matter in motion muft
make a diminution of its velocity ; and this forms a very
confiderable part of the obferved refiftance.
We cannot, however, help remarking that it would The object
require very diftinft and ftrong proof indeed to over-tion not "
turn the common opinion, which is founded on our moft weI1 Lunds*
certain and Ample conceptions of motion, and on a lawe^"
of nature to which we have never obferved an excep¬
tion.^ M. de Buat’s experiments, though moft judi-
ciouily contrived, and executed with fcrupulous care,
are by no means of this kind. They were, of abfolute '
neceflity, very complicated ; and many circumftances,
impoflible to avoid or to appreciate, rendered the obfer-
vation, or at leaft the comparifon, of the velocities, very
uncertain. ^
We can fee but two circumftances which do not ad- Remarks
mit of an eafy or immediate comparifon in- the two ancl exPe~
dates of the problem. When a body is expofed to ariments °n
ftream in our experiments, in order to have an impulfe
made on it, there is a force tending to move the body h, running
backwards, independent of the real impulfe or preffure or (tilt wsu
occafioned by the deflexion of the dream. We cannotter*
have-
RES
Refiftance. a ftream except in confequence of a Hoping ftir-
    'face. Suppofe a body floating on this ftream. 1 wi
not onlv fail down along with thejlream but it will fa
down thejlream, and will therefore go fafter along th
canal than the ftream does: for it is ftoating on an in¬
clined plane *, and if we examine it oy the laws ol hy-
droftatics, we (hall find, that befides its own tendfcncy
to flide down this inclined plane, there is an odds ot
hydrortatical preffure, which pujhes it down this plane.
It will therefore go along the canal fafter than die
ftream. For this acceleration depends on the dille-
rence of preffure at the two ends, and will be more re¬
markable as the body is larger, and efpecially as it is
longer. This may be diftindly obferved. All floating
bodies go into the ftream of the river, becaule there
they find the fmalleft obftruflion to the acquifition ot
this motion along the inclined plane ; and when a num¬
ber of bodies are thus floating down the ftream, the lar-
geft and longeft outftrip the reft. A log of wood float¬
ing down in this manner may be obferved to make its
way very fall among the chips and faw-duft which oat
alongfide of it. . , ,
Now when, in the courfe of our experiments, a body
is fupported againft the affion of the ftream, and theim-
pulfe is meafured by the force employed to fupport it,
it is plain that pan of this force is employed to adt
againft that tendency which the body has to outftrip
the ftream. This does not appear in our experiment,
■when we move a body with the velocity of this ftream
through ftill water having a horizontal furface.
The other diftinguifhing circumftance is, that the re¬
tardations of a ftream arifing from fri&ion are found
to be nearly as the velocities. When, therefore, a
ftream moving in a limited canal is checked by a body
put in its way, the diminution of velocity occafioned by
the friaion of the ftream having already produced its
effea, the impulfe is not affbaed by it *, but when the
body puts the ftill water in motion, the friaion of the
bottom produces fome effea, by retarding the recefs
of the water. This, however, muft be next to no-
thing. _ _ .
The chief difference w7ill arife from its being almoft
impoflible to make an exaa comparifon of the veloci¬
ties : for when a body is moved againft the ftream, the
relative velocity is the fame in all the filaments. But
when we expofe a body to a ftream, the velocity of the
different filaments is not the fame •, becaufe it decreafes
from the middle of the ftream to the Tides.
M, Buat found the total fenfible refiftance of a plate
12 inches fquare, and meafured, not by the height of
water in the tube of the perforated box, but by weights
adling on the arm of a balance, having its centre 15
inches under the furface of a ftream moving three feet
per fecond, to be 19.46 pounds $ that of a cube of
the fame dimenfions was 15*22 *, and that of a prifm
three feet long was 13.87 5 that of a prifm fix feet long
was 14-27. The three firft agree extremely well with
the determination of m and y, by the experiments with
the perforated box. The total refiftance of the laft was
undoubtedly much increafed by fridlion, and by the re¬
trograde force of fo long a prifm floating in an inclined
ftream. This laft by computation is 0.223 pounds *,
this added to h (/Tz-j-y), which is 13.39, gives
leaving 0.46 for the effedl of friftion.
If the fame refiftances be computed on the fuppofi-
760 ] RES
tion that the body moves in ftill water, in which Cafe Refinance,
we have m—i, and y for a thin plate ^0.433 > and v~Tm-'
if y be computed for the lengths of the other two bo¬
dies by the formula-“L 1.42+ —; we (hall get for
J q v “
87
Mr Bust’s
calculation
of refift¬
ance.
the refiftances 14.94 i 12.22 j and 11.49. . 88
Hence M. Buat concludes, that the refiftances in and of the
thefe two ftates are nearly in the ratio of 13 to 10. quantity of
This, he thinks, will account for the difference obferved
in the experiments of different authors. . _ body mo-1
M. Buat next endeavours to afcertain the quantity v;ng in ftin
of water which is made to adhere in fome degree to a water, &C.
body which is carried along through ftill water, or which
remains nearly llagnant in the midft of a ftream. He
takes the fum of the motions in the dire61ion of the
ftream, viz. the fum of the a&ual motions of all thofe
particles which have loft part of their motion, and he
divides this fum by the general velocity of the ftream.
The quotient is equivalent to a certain quantity of wa¬
ter perfeftly ftagnant round the body. Without being
able to determine this with precifion, he obferves, that
it augments as the refiftance diminilhes ; for in the cale
of a^longer body, the filaments are obferved to con¬
verge to a greater diftance behind the body. The
ftagnant mafs a-head of the body is more conftant j for
the defleftion and refiftance at the prow are obferved
not to be affe&ed at the length of the body. M. Buat,
by a very nice analyfis of many ciicumftances, comes
to this conclufion, that the whole quantity of fluid,
which in this manner accompanies the folid body, re¬
mains the fame, whatever is the velocity. . He might
have deduced it at once, from the confideration that the
curves defcribed by the filaments are the fame in all ve¬
locities.
He then relates a number of experiments made to af¬
certain the abfolute quantity thus made to accompany
the body. Thefe were made by caufing pendulums to
ofcillate in fluids. Newton had determined the re¬
fiftances to fuch ofcillation by the diminution of the
arches of vibration. M. Buat determines the quantity
of dragged fluid by the increafe of their duiation j for
the ftagnation or dragging is in fa£l adding a quanti¬
ty of matter to be moved, without any addition to the
moving force. It was ingenioufly obferved by Newton,
that the time of ofcillation was not fenfibly affedled by
the refiftance of the fluid : a compenfation, almoft com¬
plete, being made by the diminution of the arches of
vibration j and experiment confirmed this. If, there¬
fore, a great augmentation of the time of vibration be
obferved, it muft be afcribed to the additional quantity
of matter which is thus dragged into motion, and it may
be employed for its meafurement. Thus, let a be the
length of a pendulum fwinging feconds in vacuo, and
/ the length of a fecond’s pendulum^ fwinging in a fluid.
Let p be the weight of the body in the fluid, and P
the weight of the body difplaced by it j P-J-p will ex-
P4-0
 J-L will be the ratio
P
prefs its weight in vacuo, and
of thefe weights. We fliall therefore have
P
~ and /
a p
PTp
Let n exprefs the fum of the fluid difplaced, and
the fluid dragged along, n being a greater number than
00 unity,
Reitf
I S
ttSlli
Nt
H
RES [7
!*.efi(Unee. unity, to be determined by experiment. The mafs
motion is no longer P ^
weight in the fluid is ftill p.
V
l~
«P+2;:
and «:
P
-+i
in
but P -p «j°> while its
Therefore we mult have
-JL
~P
S9
Change of
efiftance
roduced
iy the void
iehind a
iody.
A prodigious number of experiments made by M.
Buat on fpheres vibrating in water gave values of «,
which were very conftant, namely, from 1.5 to 1.7 j
and by confidering the circumftances which accompa¬
nied the variations of n (which he found to arife chiefly
from the curvature of the path defcribed by the ball),
he ftates the mean value of the number n at 1.583.
So that a fphere in motion drags along with it about
xo of its own bulk of fluid with a velocity equal to its
own.
He made fimilar experiments with prifms, pyramids,
and other bodies, and found a complete confirmation of
his aflertion, that prifms of equal lengths and feftions,
though diflimilar, dragged equal quantities of fluid ;
that fimilar prifms and prifms not fimilar, but whofe
lengths were as the fquare root of their fe£tions, drag¬
ged quantities proportional to their bulks.
He found a general value of n for prifmatic bodies,
which alone may be confidered as a valuable truth j
namely, that «—0.705-^—-{-1.13.
From all thefe circumftances, we fee an intimate con¬
nexion between the preffures, non-preffures, and the
fluid dragged along with the body. Indeed this is im¬
mediately deducible from the firft principles •, for what
Mr Buat calls the dragged fluid is in faX a certain por¬
tion of the whole change of motion produced in the di-
reXion of the bodies motion.
It was found, that with refpeX to thin planes, fpheres,
and pyramidal bodies of equal bafes, the refiftances w'ere
inverfely as the quantities of fluid dragged along.
The intelligent reader will readily obferve, that thefe
views of the Chevalier Buat are not fo much difcoveries
of new principles as they are claflifications of confe-
quences, which may all be deduced from the general prin¬
ciples employed by D’Alembert and other mathemati¬
cians. But they greatly aflift us in forming notions of
different parts of the procedure of nature in the mutual
aXion of fluids and folids on each other. This muft be
very acceptable in a fubjeX which it is by no means
probable that we fhall be able to inveftigate with ma¬
thematical precifion. We have given an account of
thefe laft obfervations, that we may omit nothing of
confequenee that has been written on the fubjeX \ and
we take this opportunity of recommending the Hydrau-
lique of Mr Buat as a moft ingenious work, containing
more original, ingenious, and praXically ufeful thoughts,
than all the performances W'e have met with. His doc¬
trine of the principle of uniform motion of fluids in pipes
and open canals, will be of immenfe fervice to all engi¬
neers, and enable them to determine with fufficient pre¬
cifion the moft important queftions in their profelfion ;
queftions which at prefent they are hardly able to guefs
at. See Rivers and IVATER-Works.
The only circumftance which we have not noticed in
detail, is the change of refiftance produced by the void,
or tendency to a Void, which obtains behind the body ;
and we omitted a particular difcuflion, merely becaufe
VOL. XVII. Part II.
61 ] RES
we could fay nothing fuffieiently precife on the fubjeX. Refiftanct^
Perfons not accuftomed to the difcuflions in the phyfico-
mathematical fciences, are apt to entertairv doubts or
falfe notions conneXed with this circumftance, which
wre (hall attempt to remove j and with this we ftiall con¬
clude this differtation. 90
If a fluid were perfeXly incompreflible, and were Explained,
contained in a veffel incapable of extenfion, it is irn-
poflible that any void could be formed behind the body,
and in this cafe it is not very eafy to fee how motion
could be performed in it. A fphere moved in fuch a
medium could not advance the fmalleft diftance, unlefs
fame particles of the fluid, in filling up the fpace left
by it, moved with a velocity next to infinite. Some
degree of compreflibility, however fmall, feems necel-
fary. If this be infenfible, it may be rigidly demon-
ftrated, that an external force of compreflion will make
nofenflble change in the internal motions, or in the re¬
fiftances. This indeed is not obvious, but is an imme¬
diate confequence of the quaquaverfum preffure of fluids.
As much as the preflure is augmented by the external
compreflions in one fide of a body, fo much is it aug¬
mented on the other fide j and the fame muft be faid of
every particle. Nothing more is neceflary for fecuring
the fame motions by the fame partial and internal forces;
and this is fully verified by experiment. Water re¬
mains equally fluid under any compreflions. In fome
of Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments balls of four inches
diameter were made fo light as to preponderate in wa¬
ter only three grains. Thefe balls defcended in the
fame manner as they would have defcended in a fluid
where the refiftance was equal in every part; yet, when
they w'ere near the bottom of a veffel nine feet deep,
the compreflion round them was at leaf! 2400 times the
moving force; whereas, when near the top of the veflel,
it was not above 50 or 6o times.
But in a fluid fenfibly compreflible, or which is not
confined, a void may be left behind the body. Its mo¬
tion may be fo fvvift that the furrounding preffure may
not fuffice for filling up the deferted fpace ; and, in
this cafe, a ftatical preffure will be added to the refift¬
ance. This may be the cafe in a veffel or pond of wa¬
ter having an open furface expofed to the finite or limi¬
ted preffure of the atmofphere. The queftion now is,
whether the refiftance will be increafed by an increafe of
external preffure ? Suppofing a fphere moving near the
furface of water, and another moving equally fail at
four times the depth. If the motion be fo fwift that a
void is formed in both cafes, there is no doubt but that
the fphere which moves at the greateft depth is moft
refifted by the preffure of the water. If there is no
void in either cafe, then, becaufe the quadruple depth
would caufe the water to flow in with only a double ve¬
locity, it would feem that the refiftance would be
greater; and indeed the water flowing in laterally with
a double velocity produces a quadruple non-preffure.—
But, on the other hand, the preffure at a fmall depth
may be infufficient for preventing a void, while that
below effeXually prevents it ; and this was obferved in
fome experiments of Chevalier de Borda. The effeX,
therefore, of greater immerfion, or of greater compref-
fion, in an elaftic fluid, does not follow a precife ratio
of the preffure, but depends partly on abfolute quanti¬
ties. It cannot, therefore, be ftated by any very Ample
formula what increafe or diminution of refiftance will
5 D refult
RES
t 76
Refiftance. refult from a greater depth } and it is chiefly on this
account that experiments made with models of Ihips and
mills are not conclufive with refpeft to the performance
of a large machine of the fame proportions, without cor-
reftions, fumetimes pretty intricate.^ We affert, how¬
ever, with great confidence, that this is of. all methods
the moft exaft, and infinitely more certain than any
thing that can be deduced from the moft elaborate cal¬
culation from theory. If the refiftances at all depths be
equal, the proportionality of the total refiftanee to.the
body is exaft, and perfectly conformable to obfervation.
It is only in great velocities where the depth has any
material influence, and the influence is not near fo con-
fiderable as we fliould, at firft fight, fuppofe ; for, in
eftimating the effe£l of immerfion, which has a relation
to the difference of preffure, we mult always take in
the preffure of the atmofphere } and thus the preffure
at 33 feet deep is not 33 times the preffure at one foot
deep, but only double, or twice as great. 1 he atmo-
fpheric preffure is omitted only when the refifted plane
is at the vejy furface. D’Ulloa, in his Examino Mari¬
time), has introduced an equation exprefling this rela¬
tion ; but, except with very limited conditions, it will
miflead us prodigioufly. To give a general notion of
25, its foundation, let AB (fig. 25.) be the feflion of a
plane moving through a fluid in the direflion CD, with
a known velocity. The fluid will be heaped up before
it above its natural level CD, becaufe the water will not
be pufhed before it like a folid body, but will be pufli-
ed afide. And it cannot acquire a lateral motion any
other way than by an accumulation, which will diffufe
itfelf in all direftions by the law of undulatory mo¬
tion. The water will alfo be left lou’er behind the
plane, becaufe time mvjl elapfe before the preffure of
the water behind can make it fill the fpace. We may
acquire fome notion of the extent of both the accumu¬
lation and depreflion in this way. There is a certain
depth CF (=r—, where v is the velocity, and <p the
r 2<p
accelerating pow’er of gravity) under the furface, fuch
that water would flow through a hole at F with the ve¬
locity of the plane’s motion. Draw a horizontal line FG.
The water will certainly touch the plane in G, and we
may fuppofe that it touches it no higher up. Therefore
there will be a hollow, fuch as CGE. The elevation
HF. will be regulated by confiderations nearly fimilar.
ED muft be equal to the velocity of the plane, and HE
muft be its produffive height. Thus, if the velocity
of the plane be one foot per fecond, HE and EG will
be yj of an inch. This is fufficient (though not exafl)
for giving us a notion of the thing. We fee that from
this muft arife a preffure in the direftion DC, viz. the
preffure of the whole column HG.
Something of the fame kind will happen although the
plane AB be wholly immerged, and this even to fome
depth. We fee fuch elevations in a fvvift running ftream,
where there are large ftones at the bottom.—This occa-
fion1' an excefs of preffure in the direfHon oppofite to the
plane’s motion ; and we fee that there muft, in every
cafe, be a relation between the velocity and this excefs
of preflure. This D’Ulloa expreffes by an equation.
But it is very exceptionable, not taking properly into
the account the comparative facility with which the wa¬
ter can heap up and diffufe itfelf. It muft always heap
yp till it acquires a.fufficient head of water to produce a
2 ] RES
lateral and progreflive diffufion fufficient for the purpofe, Refiftanee.
It is evident, that a fmaller elevation will fuffice when
the body is more immerfed, becaufe the check or im-
pulfe given by the body below is propagated, not verti¬
cally only, but in every direftion ; and therefore the
elevation is not confined to that part of the furface
which is immediately above the moving body, but ex¬
tends fo much further laterally as the centre of agitation
is deeper: Thus, the elevation neceffary for the paffage
of the body is fo much fmaller ; and it is the height only
of this accumulation or wave which determines the back¬
ward preffure on the body. D’Ulloa’s equation may
happen to quadrate with two experiments at different
depths, without being nearly juft j for amj two points
may be in a curve, without exhibiting its equation.
Three points will do it with fome approach to precifion *,
but four, at leaft, are neceffary for giving any notion of
its nature. D’Ulloa has only given two experiments^
which we mentioned in another place.
We may here obferve, that it is this circumftance
which immediately produces the great refiftance to the
motion of a body through a fluid in a narrow canal.—
The fluid cannot pafs the body, unlefs the area of the
feffion be fufficiently extenfive. A narrow canal pre¬
vents the extenfion fidewife. The w^ater muft therefore
heap up, till the feftion and velocity of diffufion are
fufficiently enlarged, and thus a great backward preffure
is produced. (See the fecond feries of Experiments by
the French Academicians; fee alfo Franklin’s Effays).
It is important, and will be confidered in another place.
Thus have we attempted to give our readers fome
account of one of the moft interefting problems in the
whole of mechanical philofophy. We are forry that fo
little advantage can be derived from the united efforts
of the firft mathematicians of Europe, and that there
is fo little hope of greatly improving our fcientific know¬
ledge of the fubjeft. What we have delivered will,
however, enable our readers to perufe the writings of
thofe who have applied the theories to pra&ical pur-
pofes. Such, for inftance, are the treatifes of John
Bernoulli, of Bouguer, and of Euler, on the conftruc-
tion and working of Ihips, and the occafional differta- pr
tions of different authors on water-mills. In this laft Impulfe of
application the ordinary theory is not without its value, wat®r
for the impulfes are nearly perpendicular 5 in whichwaterB1
cafe they do not materially deviate from the duplicate
proportion of the fign of incidence. But even here this
theory, applied as it commonly is, mifleads us exceed¬
ingly. The impulfe on one float may be accurately
enough ftated by it *, but the authors have not been at¬
tentive to the motion of the water after it has made its
impulfe •, and the impulfe on the next float is ftated the
fame as if the parallel filaments of water, which were
not flopped by the preceding float, did impinge on the
oppofite part of the fecond, in the fame manner, and
with the fame obliquity and energy, as if it were de¬
tached from the reft. But this does not in the leaft re-
femble the real procefs of nature.
Suppofe the floats B, C, D, H (fig. 26.) of a wheel Fig. afr
immerfed in a ftream whofe furface moves in the direc¬
tion AK, and that this furface meets the float B in E.
The part BE alone is fuppofed to be impelled j whereas
the water, checked by the float, heaps up on it to e.—
Then drawing the horizontal line BF, the part CF of
the ■
RES [ 763 ] RES
Refinance, the next float is fuppofed to be all that is impelled by
iRefolutiun. t]ie parallel filaments of the ftream j whereas the water
bends round the lower edge of the float B by the fur¬
rounding preflure, and rifes on the float c all the way
to f. In like manner, the float D, inflead of receiving
an impuife on the very fmall portion DG,is impelled all
the way from D to g, not much below the furface of
the ftream. The furfaces impelled at once, therefore,
greatly exceed what this flovenly application of the
theory fuppofes, and the whole impuife is much greater-,
but this is a fault in the application, and not in the
theory. It will not be a very difficult thing to acquire
a knowledge of the motion of the water which has
pafled the preceding float, which, though not accurate,
will yet approximate confiderably to the truth •, and
then the ordinary theory will furnifla maxims of con-
ftruflion which will be very ferviceable. This will be
attempted in its proper place 5 and we fhall endeavour,
in our treatment of all the practical queftions, to derive
ufeful information from all that has been delivered on
the prefent occafion.
RESOLUTION 0/'Ideas. See Logic, Part I.
chap. iii.
Resolution', in Mujic. To refolve a difcord or dif-
fonance, fays Rouffeau, is to carry it according to rule
into a confonance in the fubfequent chord. There is
for that purpofe a procedure prefcribed, both for the
fundamental bafs of the diiTonant chord, and for the
part by which the diiTonance is formed.
There is no poffible manner of refolving a diflb-
nance which is not derived from an operation of cadence:
it is then by the kind of cadence which we wifh to
form, that the motion of the fundamental bafs is de¬
termined, (See Cadence). With refpefr to the part
by which the diffonance is formed, it ought neither to
continue in its place, nor to move by disjointed gra¬
dations ; but to rife or delcend diatonically, accord¬
ing to the nature of the diflbnance. Thenrifls fay,
that major dilfonances ought to rife, and minor to de-
fcend ; which is not however without exception, fince
in particular chords of harmony, a feventh, although
major, ought not to rife but to defcend, unlefs in
that chord, which is, very incorreftly, called the chord
of the feventh redundant. It is better then to fay, that
the feventh and all its derivative diffonances ought to
defcend; and that the fixth fuperadded, and all its de¬
rivative diflonances, fliould rife. This is a rule truly
general, and without any exception. It is the fame
cafe with the rule of refolving diffbnances. 'I here are
fome diffonances which cannot be prepared ; but there
is by no means one which ought not to be refolved.
With refpeft to the fenfible note improperly called
a major diftmatice, if it ought to afeend, this is lels on
account of the rule for refolving diffonances, than on
account of that which preferibes a diatonic procedure,
and prefers the (horteft road; and in reality, there are
cafes, as that of the interrupted cadence, in which this
fenfible note does not afeend.
In chords bv fuppofition, one Angle chord often
produces two diffonances; as the ffventh and ninth, the
ninth and fourffi, 8cc. Then thefe two diflonances
ought to have been prepared, and both muft likewife
be refolved ; it is becaufe regard fliould be paid to
every thing which is difeordant, not only in the fun¬
damental, but even in the continued bafs.
Resolution, in ChemiJ}ryy the redu£lion of a mixed Refoiutio*
body into its component parts or firft principles, as far as
can be done by a proper analyfis. .
Resolution, in Medicine, the difappearing of any
tumor without coming to fuppuration or forming an
abfeefs.
RESOLVENTS, in Medicine, fuch as are proper for
diffipating tumors, withoutallowingthem tocometo fup¬
puration.
RESONANCE, Resounding, in Mujic, &c. a
found returned by the air inclofed in the bodies of
ftringed inftruments, fuch as lutes, &c. or even in the
bodies of wind-inftruments, as flutes, &c.
RESPIRATION, the a£t of refpiring or breathing
the air. See Anatomy, N° 118. Blood, N° 29. Me¬
dicine, N° 104. and Physiology.
Respiration of Fijhes. See Ichthyology.
RESPITE, in Laxv, fignifies a delay, forbearance,
or prolongation of time, granted to any one for the pay¬
ment of a debt or the like. See Reprieve.
RESPONDENT, in the fchools, one who maintains
a thelis in any art or fcience; who is thus called from
his being to anfwer all the objections propofed by the
opponent.
RESPONDENTIA. See Bottomry.
RESPONSE, an anfwer or reply. A word chiefly
ufed in fpeaking of the anfwers made by the people to
the prieft, in the litany, the pfalms, &c.
RESORT, a French word, fometimes ufed by En-
gliih authors to fignify the jurifdi&ion of a court, and
particularly one from which there is no appeal.—Thus
it is faid, that the houfe of lords judge en dernier reffort^
or in the laft reffort.
REST, the continuance of a body in the fame place,
or its continual application or contiguity to the fame
parts of the ambient or contiguous bodies ; and
therefore is opppofed to motion. See the article Mo¬
tion.
Rest, in Poetry, is a fhort paufe of the voice in
reading, being the fame with the ctefura, which, in
Alexandrine verfes, falls on the fixth fyllable ; but in
verfes of 10 or 11 fyllables, on the fourth. See Poe¬
try, Part III.
REST-HARROW, or Cammock, the Ononis Ar-
venfis. A deco£Hon of this plant has been much re¬
commended to horfes labouring under a ftoppage of
urine. It is the peft of fome corn-fields ; but in its
younger ftate, before the plant has acquired its thorns,
it is a moft acceptable food to (beep.
RESTAUR AT JON, the adlof re-eftablifliingorfet-
ting a thing or perfon in its former good {fate.
RESIT 0, a genus of plants belonging to the dioecia
clafs. See Botany Index.
RESTITUTION, in a moral and legal fenfe, is re-
ftoring a perfon to his right, or returning fomething un-
juftly taken or detained from him.
RESTITUTION of Medals, or Rejlituted Medals, is a
term ufed by antiquaries for fuch medals as were ftruek
by the emperors, to retrieve the memory of their pre-
deceffors.
Hence, in feveral medals, we find the letters rest.
This praftice was firfl: begun by Claudius, by bis lin¬
king afreflh feveral medals of Auguftus. Nero did the
fame; and Titus, after his father’s example, ftruck re-
ftitutions of moil of his predeceffors. Gallienus ftruck
5 D 2 a
RES [ 764 ] RES
Reftitution a general reftitution of all the preceding emperors on
I! two medals 5 the one bearing an altar, the other an
Refurrec- ^ w;thout the REST.
^ tl“n~ , RESTIVE, or RESTY, in the manege, a ftubborn,
unruly, ill-broken horfe, that flops, or runs back, in-
ftead of advancing forward.
RESTORATION, the fame with reftauration. See
Restauration.
In England, the return of King Charles II. in 1660,
is, by way of eminence, called the Rejloration ; and the
29th of May is kept as an anniverlary feftival, in com¬
memoration of that event, by which the regal and epif-
copal government was reftored.
RESTORATIVE, in Medicine, a remedy proper
for reftoring and retrieving the ftrength and vigour both
of the body and animal fpirits.
All under this clafs, fays Quincy, are rather nutri-
mental than medicinal; and are more adminiftered to
repair the waftes of the conftitution, than to alter and
redtify its diforders.
RESTRICTION, among logicians, is limiting a
term, fo as to make it fignify lefs than it ufually does.
RESTRINGENT, in Medicine, the fame with a-
ftringent. See ASTRINGENTS.
RESULT, what is gathered from a conference, in¬
quiry, meditation, or the like j or the conclufion and
! effeifls thereof.
Definition. RESURRECTION, in Theology, is a rifing again
from the date of the dead ; and is that event, the be¬
lief of which conftitutes one of the principal articles in
the Chriftian creed.
Plan of the In treating of this objeft of our faith, it has been
article. ufual to mention, firft, the refurreftion of our Bleffed
Lord, with the character of the witnefles, and the au¬
thenticity of the gofpel hiftory by which it has been
proved, and from which, as a confequence, ours is in¬
ferred. But as moft of the arguments for his refurrec-
tion are contained in the gofpels, and as merely to re¬
peat them would afford, we hope, but little informa¬
tion to moft of our readers, we mean here to take a
view of the feveral grounds on which the belief of a
future exiftence is fuppofed to be founded j to colleft
together fome of the fentiments of authors and nations
concerning the place where departed fpirits refide ; con¬
cerning the nature of their prefent ftate ; concerning
the kinds of their future deftination ; that we may af¬
terwards fee how far their notions differ and agree with
2 what we confider as thfe doftrines of Scripture.
The notion Of a future ftate, there have fometimes been found a
of a future few wandering and obfcure tribes who feemed to enter-
known'to ta*n no not*on at > though it fhould be remarked,
fome ob- that fome of thefe w>ere likewife obferved in fo low a
fcure tribes, degree of favage barbarity as not to be acquainted with
the ufe of the bow, the dart, or the fling, and as not
knowing how to wield a club, or to throw a ftone, as a
* See Ro- weapon of defence *.
hertfon's Wherever the human mind has been cultivated, ©r,
America. fpeaking, begun to.be cultivated, the opinion
^ has likewife generally prevailed that human exiftence
Has been is not confined to the prefent fcene ; nay, fo very gene-
almolt uni- ral has this notion been found among mankind, that
veriai. many are pUZZ]ed how to account for what they fuppofe
to be almoft next to its univerfality.
T. o explain the phenomenon, fome have imagined
that it is a notion derived by tradition from primeval re-
5
vclation. They fuppofe that the firft parent of man- Refturee-
kind, as a moral agent accountable for his conduct, was don.
informed by his Maker of every thing which it was of(~,^^J
importance for him to know 5 that he muft have been Tj.e V jn
acquainted with this doftrine of a future ftate in parti-0f this no-
cular ; and that he could hardly fail to communicate abonderived
matter fo inlerefting to his pofterity. They fuppofe,
too, that the hiftory of the tranflation of Enoch muft
have made a great noife in the world, and that the re-ti0n.
membrance of it muft have been long retained and
widely diffufed 5 and they find in the book of Job plain
intimations of a refurredlion from the dead, which, from
the manner in which they are introduced, they think
that very ancient patriarch muft have received through
this channel. ^
It is not thought to be any obje&ion to thefe fbppo-The ufual
fltions, that the Moft High, when delivering his lawsobjedtions
from the top of Mount Sinai, did not enforce them byt(? ^isopi.
the awful Ian£Hons of a future ftate. The intelligent
reader of the Scriptures knows that the fanftions of a
future ftate belong to a different and more univerfal dif-
penfation than was that of Mofes j that the primeval
revelation related to that difpenfation j and that the
Jewifti lawr, with its temporal famftions, was introduced
only to preferve the knowledge and worfliip of the true
God among a people too grofs in their conceptions to
have been properly influenced by the view of future re¬
wards and puniftnnents, of fuch a nature as eye hath
not feen, nor ear heard, neither hath it entered into
the heart of man to conceive. He fees at the fame time,
everywhere fcattered through the Old Teftament, plain
indications of the Mofaic economy being no more than
preparatory to the bringing in of a better hope $ and
he thinks it evident, that fuch Jews as underftood any
thing of the nature of that better hope, muft have been
csnvinced, that, however the ceremonial rites of their
religion might be fufficiently guarded by temporal fanc-
tions, the fundamental principles of all religion and vir¬
tue are fupported by rewards and puniftiments to be dif-
penfed in a ftate beyond the grave. See Prophecy
and Theology.
That the progenitors of the human race muft have Reafons
been infpired by their Creator with the knowledge offupportof
their immortality, and of every thing neceffary to their t'ne opinion,
everlafting welfare, cannot, we fliould think, be quef-
tioned by any one who believes that the world had a
beginning, and that it is under the government of good-
nefs and juftice. The progrefs from fenfe to fcience is
fo flow, that however capable we may fuppofe the ear-
lieft inhabitants of this earth to have been of making
philofophical difeoveries, we cannot believe that the Fa¬
ther of mercies left his helplefs creature to difeover for
himfelf his future exiftence. Death, when firft pre-
fented to him, muft have been a ghaftly obje£l 5 and
had he been left without any hope of redemption from
it, he would undoubtedly have funk into liftlefs defpon-
dency.
But a profpeft of immortality is fo pleafing to the
human mind, that if it was communicated to the firft
man, it would of courfe be cheriftred by his pofterity ;
and there is no difficulty in conceiving how it might
be handed down by tradition to very remote ages, a-
mong fuch of his defendants as were not fcattered
over the face of the earth in fmall and favage tribes.—
In the courfe of its progrefs, it would frequently be
new-
RES [765
new-modelled by the ever aflive imagination ; and at
lafl many abfurd and fantaftic circuraftances would
doubtlefs be combined with the original truth, that
death puts not an end to human exiftence.
But though we are firmly convinced that the firft
principles of ufeful knowledge, and amc->g them the
doflrine of a future ftate, were communicated to man
by his Maker ; and though this doflrine, in large and
permanent focieties, might certainly be conveyed more
or lefs pure to late pofterity through the channel of tra¬
dition—we are far from attributing fo much to tradition
as fame writers are difpofed to do, or thinking it the
only fource from which mankind could derive the belief
of their exiftence beyond the grave. In fmall tribes of
favages fuch a tradition could hardly be preferved ; #nd
yet fome indiftindt notions of a future ftate have been
found among tribes who are faid to have loft all tradi¬
tionary notions even of the being of a God.
Others, therefore, are inclined to believe that, in¬
dependent of any traditions, mankind might be led by
certain phenomena to form fome conjeftures of a future
conjeaured ^ate- They obferve, that although a few individuals
from natu- perhaps may, yet it feldom happens that the whole in¬
dividuals of any nation are exepapted from dreaming :
They obferve, too, and this obfervation is founded on
experience, that the images of the dead are from the
remaining irapreffions of memory frequently fummoned
up in the fancy : and that it appears from all the lan¬
guages of rude nations, who pay the greateft attention
to their dreams, and who fpeak of feeing the dead in
their vifions, that thefe images (a) have always been
taken by them for realities j nay, fome of the learned,
and the celebrated Baxter is of the number, are difpo¬
fed to doubt whether thefe appearances be not fome-
thing more than illufions of the brain : But whether
they really be fo or not, one thing is certain, that all
nations in all countries, in the darkeft ages and the ru-
deft periods, are aceuftomed to dream ; and whether
fleeping or walking, in the ftillnefs of the night, in the
gloom "of folitude, in the fondnefs of friendfhip, in the
rovings of love, the delirium of fever, and the anguilb
of remorfe, to fee and converfe svith the lhades of the
departed ; and Lucretius * has remarked, that even the
inferior animals are not exempted from fuch illufions of
a reftlefs fancy.
3
Others ima.
gine the
notion
might be
ral pheno¬
mena ;
9
as from
dreaming,
&c.
* Lucret.
lib. iv.
] RES
And foffcer curs, that lie and lleep at hofce.
Do often roufe, and walk about the room,
And bark, as if they faw fome ftrangers come.
And birds will ftart, and feek the woods, by night,
Whene’er the fancy’d hawk appears in fight.
Whene’er they fee his wing or hear him fight.
Creech.
}
Thefe powers of fancy extend wide over animal crea¬
tion } and it is on this general principle that necroman¬
cers and dreamers have in all ages eftabliftied their trade,
that the ftories of goblins have at all times fo very eafily
procured belief, and that
The village matron, round the blazing hearth,
Sufpends the infant audience with her tales,
Breathing aftonifhment ! Of witching rhymes
And evil fpirits ; of the deathbed call
Of him who robb’d the widow and devour’d
The orphan’s portion 5 of unquiet fouls
Ris’n from the grave to eafe the heavy guilt
Of deeds in life conceal’d ; of fhapes that walk
At dead of night, and clank their chains and wave
The torch of hell around the murderer’s head.
Aikenside.
For often fleeping racers pant and fweat,
Breathe {hart, as if they ran their fecond heat j
As if the barrier down with eager pace
They ftretch’d, as when contending for the race.
And often hounds, when fleep hath clos’d their eyes.
They tofs, and tumble, and attempt to rife ;
They open often, often fnuff the air,
As if they preft the footfteps of the deer 5
And fometimes wak’d, purfue their fancy’d prey, T
The fancy’d deer, that feem to run away, ?■
Till quite awak’d, the follow’d ftiapes decay. J
Mankind in general would willingly difpenfe with
thefe troublefome vifits of the dead. To prevent the
return of the %umbi or the ghoft, fome nations of Afri¬
ca ufe many fuperftitious rites * j and Kolben tells us, * Voyage to
that the frighted Hottentots leave in the hut where ^Cottgo and
perfon has died all the utenfils and furniture, left ^^churih'ill's
angry ghoft, incenfed at their avarice, fhould haunt Vcyaget.
them in their dreams, and infeft them in the night.
Divines and moralifts have laboured to fhow that thefe
are merely imaginary terrors : but God and nature feem
to have determined that they (hall produce the fame
effects upon certain minds as if they were real 5 and
that while there is any fenfibility in the heart, wftiile
there is any remembrance of the part, and any conjuring
power in the fancy ; the ignorant, the benighted, the
timid, fhall often meet with the goblins of darknefs, the
fpedtres of the tomb, the apparitions that hover round
the grave, and the forms of the dead in the middle
dream. See SPECTRE. 10
From thefe phenomena, which have been fo common Probable
in all countries and in all ages, what would mankind |.nifercnces
naturally infer? Would they not infer, that there is^reams
fomething in the nature of man that furvives death, and
that there is a future ftate of exiftence beyond the
grave ? Are not ftill many fpecimens of this reaioning
preferved in the ancient poets ? and is it not thus that
Achilles f reafons after imagining that he faw the ghoft
of his friend Patroclus ? !‘>J' xx*“‘
1. 103.
’Tis true, ’tis certain, man, though dead, retains
Part of himfelf 5 th’ immortal mind remains :
The form fubfifts without the body’s aid,
Aerial femblance, and an empty {hade.
This
(a) Thefe images were called by the Greeks E/W* Ocevevlvv and among the Romans they had various names,
as umbra, lemures manes, larva, and were fometimes called occurfacula noBium, bujlorum formidatnina, fepulchrc-
rum terriculamenta> anitna errantes, which are all comprehended under the/pedes mortuorum.
RES
This night mv friend, fo late in battle loft,
Stood at my fide a penfive plaintive ghoft j
Ev’n now familiar as in life he came,
Alas ! how diff’rent, yet how like the fame.
RES
Pope.
*Lib. iii.
Lucretius *, a ftudious obferver of nature, though
no friend to the foul’s immortality, acknowledges frank¬
ly that thefe phantoms often terrify the mind, haunt us
in our fleep, and meet us while awake. He confeffes,
too, that by fuch appearances mankind have been led
to believe the future exiftence of the foul j but, aware
of the confequence,
 Ne forte anirnas Acherunte reamur
Ejfugcre, aut umbras inter vivos volitarc,
he endeavours to explain thefe curious phenomena on
fome of the odd and fantaftic principles of the Epicu¬
reans. In doing this, however, he pretends not to de¬
ny that thefe images appear to be real; but candidly
acknowledges that
-They ftrike and {hake
The airy foul, as when we are awake,
With ftroke fo lively, that we think we view
The abfent dead, and think the image true.
Creech.
it
Folly of al
We here fee how the belief of the foul’s immortality
came to be general among mankind. But for this in¬
formation we are much more indebted to the poets, who
have given us faithful tranferipts of nature, than to the
philofophers who have wiftied to entertain us with then-
own theories, or to thofe laborious men of erudition,
who have dreaded as much to examine the fource of an
ancient report as the friends of Ulyfles to approach the
coaft of Cimmerian darknefs. With them tradition is
lowing^too the ultimate boundary of refearch : and as gorgons,
tradition chimeras, and hydras, have come down to us by tradi¬
tion ; fo they, with great fagacity, fufpeff, that tradi¬
tion muft likewife be at the bottom of the foul’s immor¬
tality, and occafion the vifions and phantoms of the
dead.
To tradition we have allowed all that it can juftly
claim *, but we cannot allow it to be the only fource of
this opinion : and we have felt the higheft indignation
upon hearing men of learning and genius affirm, from
a falfe zeal for the honour of revelation, that mankind,
without this inftruftion, could never have acquired the
art of building huts to fereen them from the cold, or
have learned the method of propagating their fpecies!
The reader muft not here fuppofe that we allude to
Polydore \irgil (b). We have in our eye perfons now
alive, with whom we have converfed on the fubjeft, and
who (terrified at the length to which fome philofophers
have carried the doarine of inftinas, and others the rea-
foning powers of the mind) have contended, with the
766 ]
utmoft earneftnefs, that we know nothing—not even the Refurrtc,
funaions of our animal nature—but by tradition or Un¬
written revelation. 1%"^
Having now feen the fource of the opinion concern-Opinion 0f
ing the future exiftence ot the foul, and pointed out thephilofo.
natural phenomena by which mankind were led to em-I)lle«.
brace it, we come next to review the arguments by which
the philofophers attempted to confirm it.
Pythagoras believed, with the reft of his country, tbatPythago.
annihilation was never the end, and that nonentity wasras’s notion
never the beginning of any thing that is. His generalof tr.anfrai*
do&rine upon this fubjeft was (hortly expreffed in verySIaUon«
few words, Omnia mutuntur, nihil interit. He afterwards
learned from Egyptian priefts that the foul migrates in¬
ter new bodies $ and being, it feems, a perfon of a moft
extraordinary and aftonifhing memory, he found there
was fome truth in the ftory : for after mufing, he began
to remember that be was Eupborbus, the fon of Pan-
theus, that was flain by Menelaus in the Trojan war *,
and upon a jaunt to Peloponnefus, recollefted the ffiield
which he had worn at the time of the fiege, in one of
the temples of Juno at Argos ! That none might quef-
tion the truth of his affertion, his followers prefently re¬
moved all doubts by the famous, argument, the IPSE
DIXIT of Egyptian origin. I4
As Pythagoras taught that human fouls are frequent- Plato’s doc-
ly thruft into brute fliapes, and, as fome imagined, bynineofpre.
way of puniftiment •, it occurred to Plato, that all bo-exiftence*
dies, even the human, are a fort of prifons ; and that, in
confequence of this confinement, the foul was fubje&ed
to the rage of defire, appetite, and paffion, and to all
the wretched miferies of a jail. To explain this my-
fterv, he fuppofed that defires and appetites belong to
a foul that is purely animal refiding in the body. But
he was perplexed with another difficulty ; for as he
thought highly of the goodnefs of Deity, he could not
imagine how he (hould imprifon us without a crime.
He fuppofed, therefore, that prior to its union with the
prefent body the foul had exifted in one of ether, which
it ftill retains ; but that even in this etherial body it bad
felt fometbing of impure defire ; and happening to in¬
dulge the vicious appetite, had contrasted fome ftains of
pollution, for which it was confined in its prefent body
as a houfe of corre&ion to do penance and improve its
morals. j.
To prove this ideal pre-exiftence of the foul, Plato
availed himfelf of an opinion that was general in hisofproving
time, that coincided with the dotrines of Pythagoras,it.
and that was partly founded on a fort of reafoning and
obfervation. He thought that matter and intelligence
are coeternal (fee Platokism) ; that there are various
orders of fouls ; that thofe of both the man and the
brute are parts or emanations (c) of the anima mimdiy
or foul of the world ; that all are ultimately parts or
emanations of Deity itfelf j and that all their faculties
The
lion
Gro
(b) This writer allots part of a chapter to (how, “ Quis primum inftituerit artem meretriciam,” as being in his
opinion a traditionary prasffice. See Lib. iii. cap. 17. De Rerum Inventoribus.
. sc) Deity was conceived by the ancients fometimes as a folid, when inferior fouls were called ctironrttrpctlit,
1. e. ragments or parts broken off from him j and fometimes as a fluid, when they were confidered as or
emanations, but from none of thefe hypothefes did they reafon confequentially. Their xTroo-Trcto-ftxlct were often
a ter eati reunited to the Deity ; and their ctTre^otat often remained feparate and diftinft for a long while, with-
ou owing ack as they ought to have done, and mingling with the great ocean of fpirit,
4
RES r 7S7 3 RES
Refurrec- are more or lefs reftrided and confined, according to
tlon• . thofe organifed fyrtems with which they are connefied.
" y Know firfi: (fays one delivering his do£lrines),
Know firft, that heav’n and earth’s compared frame,
And flowing waters, and the ftarry flame,
And both the radiant lights, one common foul
Infpires, and feeds, and animates the whole.
This a£Hve mind, infus’d through all the fpace,
Unites and mingles with the mighty mafs :
Hence men and beads the breath of life obtain.
And birds of air, and monflers of the main j
The ethereal vigour is in all the fame,
And every foul is fill’d with equal flame j
As much as earthy limbs, and grofs allay
Of mortal members, fubjeft to decay, i-
Blunt not the beams of heav’n and edge of day (d). j
Dryden.
Befides this hypothefis, that in fume meafure was
common to others, Plato had an argument peculiarly
his own. Happening to peep into the region of me-
taphyfics, he was fomewhat furprifed on obferving the
ideas which we derive from reflexion and confcioufnefs j
and fuppofing that they could not have entered by the
fenfes, he naturally, though not very juftly, concluded
that we mud have received them in fome date of prior
cxidence.
As, according to him, the foul was eternal, as well
as the matter which compofed the body, and as their
union was only temporary and accidental, he might
have been fatisfied that the death of the foul was not to
be the confequence of their feparation. But, fome how
er other, fatisfied he was not. He had recourfe to a
new argument. As the foul, he faid, was an addive
principle, and a felf-moving, it did not depend for its
life on another •, and therefore would always continue
to exid, though the body were reduced to the general
mafs out of which it was formed. See Metaphysics,
Part III. chap. iv.
The opi- Whether Plato had borrowed any of his doctrines
rions of the from the eaftern magi, we pretend not to fav. We on-
Gr.oftics. ]y obferve a fluking fimilarity, in fome refpeids, between
his and theirs. In Plato’s philofophy, the fun, moon,
and ftars, were animated beings, and a fort of divinities
that originally had fprung from the great fountain of Refurrec-
heat and light, and our earthly bodies a fort of dun- , tu|n*
geons in which our miferable fouls are benighted and
debafed by defires, appetites, and pafiions. In the ma-
gian philofophy, the Supreme Being was called Oromaf-
des ; was the god of light, or was light itfelf, and re-
prefented by Mithras, a fubordinate divinity, and the
fame with the fun. Another deity of very great power
was Arimanes, the god of darknefs, who prefided over
matter, and was the origin of all evil (fee Polytheism).
The ancient Gnoftics, who derived their tenets from
this fource, believed, with Pythagoras and Plato, in a
great number of fubordinate genii $ and faid, that De*
miurgus, the god of matter and the foul or fpirit of this
world, had contrived the bodies of men and brutes ; and
in the former particularly, as in fo many prifons, had
confined a number of celeflial fpirits, that by expofing
them to the low defires of appetite and paffion, he might
feduce them from their allegiance to the God of light,
and render them more fubmitlive to himfelf. From
thefe prifons the Supreme Being was continually making
attempts to refcue them •, and in the mean time was
frequently fending divine mefiengers to enlighten and
inflruft them, and to render them capable of returning
to the regions of light and happinefs, to which they had
belonged (e).
The Stoics attempted to fimplify this fyflem, which
appears anciently to have pervaded Egypt and the eaft,
and which would feem to be no more than varioufly
modified by Orpheus, Pythagoras, Plato, and others of
the more northerly and weftern nations. None of them
allowed a creation out of nothing ; and the fhaping and
modelling of matter into forms was varioufly explained,
according as they happened to be moft addicted to fu-
perftition, to morals, or to phyfics. Some afcribed thefe
operations to ancient Time, Chaos, and Darknefs, and
explained the future changes in nature by the genealo¬
gies of thefe deities *, fome obferving attraction and
repulfion, or at leaft a fort of agreement and difcor-
dance among bodies, were inclined to afcribe them to
Friendfliip and Hatred, or Love and Antipathy j fome
obferving, that while one body rofe another defcended,
made Levity and Gravity primary agents j and fome
taking notice that living bodies fprung from corruption,
were
(d) The general doftrine, as delivered here in thefe verfes of Virgil, is the fame with that not only of Pytha¬
goras, but of the Stoics.
(e) Plato nidde the ftars the native refidence of inferior fouls ; and when thefe were thoroughly purified below,
returned them home again: and therefore, fays Virgil, alluding to his doftrine,
. , - — ... ■ Some have taught
That bees have portions of ethereal thought,
Endu’d with particles of beav’nly fires j
For God the whole created mafs infpires :
Thro’ heav’n and earth, and ocean’s depth, he throws
His influence round, and kindles as he goes.
Hence flocks, and herds, and men, and beafts, and fowls,
With breath are quicken’d, and attraft their fouls:
Hence take the forms his prefeience did ordain,
And into him at length refolve again.
No room is left for death, they mount the Iky,
AND TO THEIR. OWN CONGENIAL PLANETS FLY. Dnjden,,
RES
[ 763 ]
RES
, 17
Of the sto.
13
Of Arifto-
tle.
Of Critias
and other;
were difpofed to confer the fame powers on Moifture
The nhyfical hypothefes were what had mofl charms
for the Stoics. From their fyftem immaterial beings
were openly excluded j all things were regulated by
phylical laws or inexorable fate •, and all things origi¬
nated in the T« 'Ey or the Tirjl One, which was probably
fuggefted by the Movaj of Pythagoras. This To Ev ap¬
pears to have been a materia prwia devoid of all the
qualities of body. In their language it was an ox
firjl principle, not fubjedl to change. When it was in-
Vefted with the properties of body, it then became
a zlatfriiov or an element; and then, fo far as refpected
its qualities, efpecially its forms, it Was fubjeft to changes
almod perpetual. The gods themfelves mid the fouls
of men were in this fyftem only modifications of matter
(f). Man was compofed of their four elements, Fire,
Air, Water, and Earth ; and upon diffolution, every
part returned to the element from which it had come,
as the water of a velfel fwimming in the fea unites with
the ocean when the veflel is broken.^ This fyftem, it
is plain, cannot poffibly admit of any feparate confciouf-
nefs of exiftence (g). The fame may be faid of the
fyftems of Democritus and Epicurus, and ajl diofe who
undertook to explain things upon phyfical principles (h).
The chief merit of the phyfical fyftems appears to be
this: Abfurd as they were, it would feem from the
whimfical and the almoft childifti reafoning of Lucre¬
tius, that they had a tendency to lead mankind from
extravagant hypothefes to fomething that was fimilar to
obfefvation.
What Ariftotle thought of the feparate exiftence of
the foul after death is"not very certain. . The foul he
calls anEtetetfa*} and ^ ^ reader can divine the mean¬
ing of the word, he perhaps can divine the meaning of
the Stagy rite, and will then be a better diviner than we.
At other times he fays, that the foul is fomething di¬
vine ; that it refembles the element of the ftars ; that it
is fomething of a fiery nature •, that it is the vicegerent
of God in the body *, and that the acutenefs of the fenfes,
the powers of the intelleft, with the various kinds of
appetites and paflions, depend entirely on the qualities
of the blood (1).
Another opinion of very old date was that of the late
’ ingenious Mr Hunter. According to him, the living
principle refides in the blood. This opinion, which is
mentioned by Mofes, was adopted by Critias and others
of the ancients. Harvey likewife embraced it. But Mr
Hunter, who always wilhed to be thought an original,
inclines to ftand at the head of the opinion, and fup-
ports it by experiments fimilar to thofe of the famed
Taliaeotius in mending nofes. Should any of our readers
wilh to extracl the foul’s immortality from fuch an opt- Refunte#
nion, wre muft refer them to the many refources of in- , tlon-
genuity, fophiftry, and logic. 2o
Among the Jews, the belief of a future and feparate of the
exiftence for a long time was deemed no effential article Jews,
of their creed. Some thought that the foul was a. fpark
in the moving of the heart; fome imagined that it was
the breath, and that upon the diflolution of the body
it naturally vaniftied into foft air. The Sadducees de¬
nied the exiftence of either angel or fpirit. Many be¬
lieved the dodtrine of ghofts, and were accuftomed to
invoke them at the grave. It is hence that we hear
the prophets complaining that they were feeking
from the living God unto dead men. Some imagined
that there was a pre-exiftence of iouls; and, in the cale
of a blind man, aiked our Saviour, whether the man or
his parents had finned that he was born blind ? Others
inclined to a revolution of foul and body, and thought
that our Saviour Avas either Elias or one of the old
prophets returned •, and a great many nevv-modelled
their opinion of the foul’s immortality according to cer¬
tain paflages in Scripture. The infpired mother of Sa¬
muel had faid, “ The Lord killeth and maketh alive :
he bringeth down to the grave, and bringeth up.”
I fa i ah had exclaimed, “ Thy dead (hall live ; together
Avith my dead body ftiall they arife : Awake, and fing,
ye that divell in the duft 5 for thy dew is as the deiv of
herbs, and the earth fhall call out the dead.” Daniel
had declared, that many of them that fleep in the duft of
the earth ftiall aAvake to everlafting life, and fome to
ftiame and everlafting contempt. In the vifion of the
valley of dry bones, Ezekiel had feen that “ at the Avord
of the Lord” the bones came together, bone to his bone,
the finews and the fiefti came upon them, and the Ikin
covered them above, and the breath came into the bo¬
dies, and they lived and flood upon their feet. And a
paffage of Job led them to fuppofe, that at fome dif-
tant and future period a particular time, which Avas cal¬
led the lajl or the latter day, Avas appointed by heaven for
the general refurredlion of all thofe Avho are fleeping in
their graves. “ I knoAV (fays Job) my Redeemer liveth,
and that he fhall ftand at the latter day upon the earth $
and though after my fkin worms deftroy this body, yet
in my flefti fhall I fee God.”
Whether thefe paffages Avere fairly interpreted agree¬
ably to their true and original meaning, it is not here
our bufinefs to inquire. It is fufficient for us to ob-
ferve, that from them many of the Jews inferred the
reality of a general refurredlion (k). In this perfua-
fion, Martha, fpeaking of her brother Lazarus, fays to
our Lord, “ I know that he fhall rife again in the re-
furreftion at the laft day.” This refurreftion appears
to
(f) The A§%)! of the Stoics appears to be the fame with the Li of the Chinefe. .
(g) Yet without regarding the inconfiftency, many of the Stoics believed, that the foul continued feparate long
after death ; though all in general feemed to deny a future ftate of reAvards and punifhments.
(h) In his Physical Cofmogony, Plato differed but little from the Stoics ; but he had another fort of cofmogony,
in which all things appear to have fprung from, and to be almoft wholly compofed of metaphyfical entities, as
ideas of forms, numbers, and mathematical figures. Thefe kinds of notions Avere common both to him an y-
thagoras*, and Avere originally borrowed from Egypt, Avhere calculation and geometry Avere half deified. See LA-
TON1SM.
(1) The immortal Harvey has collefted thefe different opinion^ of the Stagyiite in Exercit. 52. De Genet atione
Animalium. .
(k) At prefent fome are for allotving only thofe of their aivn nation to fhare in the benefits of this re orrec-
Refurrec-
tion.
ai
Of the
ChrilUans.
* See Pba-
rifee.
f Hody.
RES [ 769 ] RES
to have been a general opinion among the Pharifees ;
for although it was a notion of the feft of the Saddu-
cees that there was no refurre&ion, neither angel nor
fpirit, yet the Pharifees, we are told, confeffed both.
And this alfertion is plainly confirmed by St Paul him-
felf when his countrymen accufed him before Felix. “ I
confefs unto thee (fays this eminent apoftle), that after
the way which they call herefy fo worfhip 1 the God
of my fathers, believing all things which are written in
the law and in the prophets, and having hope toward
God, which they themfelves alfo allow, that there (hall
be a refurredlion of the dead, both of the iuft and un-
This refurredlion of the dead to judgment, though
not perhaps in the fame fenfe in which the old Phari¬
fees conceived it, is now generally and almoft univer-
fally (l) maintained by Chriftians (m). Yet the Chri-
ftians differ confiderably with refpeft to the nature of the
human foul. Some imagine, that this fpirit is naturally
mortal, and that it is propagated along with the body
from the loins of the parent. In fupport of this opinion,
it has been obferved that a great number of infe&s and
plants transfer their lives to their pofterity, and die (bon
after the aft of propagation ; that after this aft the
vital principle is in the mod vigorous of plants and
animals always found to be much exhauded •, and that
Tertullian a father of the church, in attempting fome
experiments of the kind, became fubjeft to a momentary
blindnefs, and felt a portion of his foul going out of
him (n).
Thefe imagine that immortality was only condition¬
ally promifed to man ; that Adam forfeited this immor¬
tality by his difobedience 5 and that Chrid has redored
us to the hopes of it again by his fufferings and death :
for as in Adam we have all died, fo in Chrid, they
fay, we (hall all be made alive 5 and that now the ding
Vol. XVII. Part II.
is taken front death, and the viftory over our fouls from
the grave.
Others have conceived the human foul as naturally
immortal, and as fetting death and the grave at de¬
fiance. Adam, they fay, died only in a figure ; and
only from the confequences of this figure, which means
fin, has our Lord faved us. In this fenfe Adam died
on the very day in which he had finned ; or he died li¬
terally in 1000 years, which with the Lord are as one
day. To thefe arguments their opponents reply, What
then is the viftory over death and the grave ? You mud
dill have recourfe to a new figure, and betake yourfelves
to the fecond death j though, after all, where is your
grave ? To this it is anfwered, that the foul of itfelf is
naturally immortal, and that it depends not either for
its exidence or the exercife of its faculties upon the
body j that the properties of matter, as figure, magni¬
tude, and motion, can produce nothing that is like to
perception, memory, and confcioufnefs. This is true,
rejoin their opponents ; but befides thefe few properties
of matter, which are only the objefts of that philofophy
which has lately and properly been termed mechanicaly
the chemical philofophy has difcovered other properties
of matter ; has found that matter is of various kinds j
that it very often does not aft mechanically ; that it
acquires many new properties by combination j and that
no man, till farther experiment and obfervation, fhould
venture to affert how far the foul is or is not dependent
on its prefent organifed fydem. The others, proceeding
on their hypothefis, maintain that the foul, as being im¬
material, is not divifible ; and though the body of a frog
may live Avithout the head for a whole day j though
the body of a tortoife may live Avithout the head for a
Avhole month ; though a human limb may for fome mi¬
nutes after amputation continue to perform a vital mo¬
tion, independent of a brain, a (lomach, or a heart;
5 E and
tion $ and fome are not even for allowing them, except they be men of piety and virtue. Fo render this re-
furreftion probable, the rabbins fay, with fome of the Mahometans, that there is a certain bone in the body
which refills putrefaftion, and ferves as a feed for the next body *. Y^hat that bone is, is of no great moment,
as any bone, we believe, in the (keleton Avill anfwer the purpofe equally well. With refpeft to the manner of
this refurreftion, the learned Hody has quoted feveral opinions of the Jevvs, and, among others, that of the Chal¬
dee paraphraft of the Canticles, afferting that the prophet Solomon had faid, “ When the dead (hall revive,
it (hall come to pafs that the Mount of Olives (hall be cleft, and all the dead of Ifrael (hall come out from thence;
and the jull too that died in captivity (hall come through the Avay of the caverns under the earth, and (hall
come forth out of the Mount of Olives.” He has likewife quoted Saunderfon’s Voyage to the Holy Land, in
Avhich, we are told that many of the Jcavs, by their own account, are to rife up in the valley of Jehofiiaphat;
and that in the rowling or devolutton of the caverns, thofe at a dillance mull fcrape theii Avay thither Avith their
nails. ■ '
(l) The feft of the Quakers explain it figuratively.
(m) The laft quoted author f {RefurreEiion of the fame Body, ajferted from the traditions oj the Heathens,
the ancient Jews, and the primitive Church) has endeavoured to (how that this doftrine, in the fame fenfe as we
underftand it, has been afferted by the ancient Magi, and by the prefent heathen Gaurs of Perfia, the relics of
the ancient Magi ; by fome of the ancient Arabians; by fome of the Banians of India ; by the prefent inhabi¬
tants of the ifland of Ceylon, of Java, of Pegu, of Tranfiana ; by fome amongft the Chinefe ; by the Arderians
In Guinea ; and by the ancient Pruffians. The proofs which he brings, it mull be confeffed, are not however
alivays very fatisfaftory. It appears, even from his oavh account, that fome of thefe had derived their notions from
certain Chriftians, Mahometans, or Jews. But the reader may judge of the great accuracy of his ideas from
his bringing old Pythagoras and the Stoics, and even Democritus and Epicurus, in fupport of the (ame or ajimi-
^Tillo ipfo voluptatis ultimae mftu quo genitale virus expellitur, nonne aliquid de anima quoque fentimus
exJre, utque adeo marcefcimus et deA'igefcimus cum lucis detrimen to.
RES [ 77° 1 RES
Refurrec- and though the parts of a plant, a polype, or a worm,
lion. may furvive their feparation and become living wholes*,
* See Pol ‘ yet the °^(°rVe’ *S n0t t0 comPare^
fuslna Ve-the vital principles of plants and animals, nor ought to
production, be divided on reafons fo (lender as thofe of analogy.
Even granting, they fay, that the foul were not natu¬
rally immortal of itfelf; yet the juftice of God, which
is not remarkable for its equal diftribution of rewards
and punifhments in the prefent world, is bound to make
fome amends in the next. And to this again their op¬
ponents anfwer, as to the equal diftribution of juftice
in a future world, of that we are affured on much bet¬
ter grounds than any of your’s : our Lord has declared
it in exprefs terms 5 and whether the foul be immortal
©r not, we can eafily believe what he faid is true, as w7e
know him whom we have trufted.
Thefe, with Plato, fuppofe, that the foul is here as in
prifon j though how or at what time it fhould firft have
come into this dungeon they have not determined. They
have only agreed, that upon its enlargement all its
faculties are to receive an increafe of power 5 and “ ha¬
ving already equipped it fo exquifitely with confcioufnefs,
activity, and perception in and of itfelf, and put it into
fo complete a capacity for happinefs and mifery in a fe-
parate ftate,” their hypothefis does not require them to.
admit tlie lead occafion for a refurredlion 5 which ac¬
cordingly is faid to have been an article of Baxter’s
creed (o).
A third opinion, which extends likewife to every fpe-
cies of plant and animal, is, that all fouls were created at
once with bodies of ether ; that thefe bodies, occupying
only a very fmall fpace, were packed up in their firft
progenitors, and there left to be afterwards evolved and
clothed with matter of a grofler kind by a£ts of gene¬
ration and confequent nutrition. For the proof of this
theory we are referred to the fmall animals feen through
the microfcope, and I’kewife to thofe which are fuppo-
fed to efcape even microfcopic obfervation *, but, above
all, to the eggs of infedls, which, though fcarcely per¬
ceptible, yet contain in embryo a future caterpillar
and all its coats, and within thefe a future butterfly with
its legs and wings. Thefe philofophers can perhaps ac¬
count for the general taint of original fin in fome other
way than has hitherto been done. We have only to
add, that on their fcheme the refurre&ion is not a mat-
aa ter that feems to be indifferent,
the^tead next ^bing that falls to be confidered is the place
near to the dead. From a natural enough affociation of
grave. ideas, an opinion had very early prevailed, that the fpi-
rit continued near to the body *, and the offerings there¬
fore intended for the dead were by moft nations pre-
fented at the grave ; and that on which the departed
fpirit is fuppofed to reft is always placed near the grave
43 in China.
In dark- From the dreams .of the night and the natural ten-
nefs, 0
dency of the fancy to work and to fummon up fpe&res Refurrec*
when the world around us is involved in darknefs, it has
alfo been imagined, that thefe fpirits delight in the v- ^
night and (hadow of death (p), or have been prohibited
from enjoying the exhilarating beams of day. And
hence we are told,
That in the difmal regions of the dead
Th’ infernal king once rais’d his horrid head j
Leap’d from his throne, left Neptune’s arm fhould lay
His dark dominions open to the day,
And pour in light.
The nations, therefore, who have fancied a general
receptacle for the dead, have thus been induced to place
it in the weft (qJ, where the night begins and the day
ends. That part of the world which, in the divifion of
his father’s dominions, fell to Pluto the infernal god,
and where, according to Ladantius, Satan holds the
empire of darknefs, the Friendly Wanders have placed in the
to the weft ward of a certain ifland which they call Te-weft.
jee ; fome tribes of American Indians, in a country be¬
yond the weftern mountains ; and Homer, fomewhere
to the weft ward of Greece at the boundaries of the
ocean,
Where in a lonely land and gloomy cells
The dufky nation of Cimmeria dwells ^
The fun ne’er views th’ uncomfortable feats
When radiant he advances nor retreats.
Unhappy race ! whom endlefs night invades,
Clouds the dull air, and wraps them round in (hades.
Another opinion entertained by the Greeks and fome Under th8
other nations was, that the place of departed fpirits is earth,
under the earth. This opinion is frequently mentioned
in Homer, in Virgil, and alluded to by the Jewifti pro¬
phets. As for the prophets, we know the circumftanc&
from which they borrowed it : it -was borrowed from
thofe fubterraneous vaults where their chiefs were bu¬
ried, and which have been defcribed by modern travel¬
lers. In the fides of thefe caverns there is ranged a
great number of cells ; and in thefe cells the mighty lay
in a fort of ftate, with their weapons of war and their
fwords at their head. To thefe kinds of Egyptian ce¬
meteries Ezekiel alludes, when he fays, “ that they (hall
not lie with the mighty that are fallen of theuncircum-
cifed, who are gone down to hell with their weapons of
war, and they have laid their fwords under their head.”
And Ifaiah, when thus fpeaking of the prince of Baby¬
lon, “ Thou (halt be brought down to hell, to theJides
of the pit. Hell from beneath is moved for thee, to
meet thee at thy coming \ it ftirreth up the dead for
thee, even all the chief ones of the earth ; it hath raifed
up from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All
the kings of the nations, even all of them, lie in glory,
every one in his own houfe.”
Many
(0) An Hijlaricul View of the Controverfy concerning an Intermediate State, and the Separate Exi/lence of the
Soul.
(p) Some Turkifti ghofts are an exception, who ufe lamps or candles in their tombs, when their friends choofe
to fupply them with thefe luxuries.
(Q_) The wejl and darknefs are fynonymous in Homer. £2 ipjAoq ou r’ sttjj £o<p«s, tw) oxn (Odyf.)
“ O my friends!. which is the weft, or which is the eaft, the place of darkneis, or that of the morning, we cam?-
mot learn.”
a8
In new bo¬
dies.
H E S [ 77
Befurrec- Many of the ancient fathers of the church aflferted
tion. only, that the dead are now in abditis receptacuhs, or in
certain hidden and concealed places.
In hidden Orpheus, Origen, and forae others of the fathers,
receptacles, with the ancient Caledonian bard Offian, and the learn-
27 ed Dodwell among the moderns, imagined that the
In the air. foui} when it left the body, went into the air, and re-
fided fomewhere between the furface of the earth and
the moon.
Thofe who believed in a tranfmigration caufed the
foul at death only to enter a new' body, and kept the
departed always with the living. This creed has been
found in India, in Egypt, in Mexico, and in all thofe
countries where piflure-writing has been much ufed.
In this fpecies of writing, the fame picture is on fancied
analogy transferred by metaphor to fignify either a god
or a man, a brute or a plant •, and in thofe countries
where it was pra&ifed, men had ufually their names
from animals, and were reprefented by their figure in
writing (r). From this laft ftage of the procefs, a
tranfmigration was eafily fuppofed : and hence we hear
of the gods of Egypt wandering about like fo many va¬
grants in brute fhapes, and of princes being tranfiated
into ftars, becaufe a ftar was their emblem in hierogly¬
phic, or flood for their name in figurative language.
And, in like manner, we fee, from the fpecimen of this
chara&er which is ftill preferved on celeftial globes,
how the heavens at firft came to be filled with bears,
fcorpions, and dragons, and with a variety of other ani¬
mals.
The opinions concerning the ftate of the dead are
59
State of the
dead ac¬
cording to
fome rude
nations.
3°.
According
to the E-
gyptians.
ftill more numerous than thofe concerning the place
where they refide. Rude nations have generally thought
that the future ftate is fimilar to the prelent \ that plants,
animals, and inanimate things there, have their lhades :
and that thefe contribute as much to the pleafures and
conveniencies of the dead as their realities do to the li¬
ving ; that hulbands have their wives (s), lovers their
miftrefles, warriors their battles, huntfmen their fport •,
and that all their paflions, amufements, and bufinefs,
are the fame as formerly. For this reafon, that the
dead may not appear unprovided in the next world, like
the ancient Gauls, fome tribes of India, America, and
Africa, bury with them in the fame grave their wives,
their arms, their favourite animals, and their neceffary
utenfils.
The ancient Egyptians, who believed in tranfmigra¬
tion, fuppofed that the foul was after death obliged to
animate every fpecies of bird and quadruped, of reptile
and infeft, and was not to return to a human form till
after a period of 3500 years. Others have confined
their tranfmigrations to particular animals, as the foul
of man to the human form, and the foul of the brute to
the bodies of the fpecies to which it belonged. Some
have changed the brute into man, and man into the
t ] RES
brute, that man might fuffer injuries fimilar to what he
had infli&ed, and the brute retaliate what he had fuf- u^r‘l_ ,,
fered. Others have confined the human foul in plants
and in ftones ; and Beil of Antermony mentions an
Indian, who fuppofed that his anceftors might be in
fifties. 31
The notions of Homer were probably thofe of many of According
his time. But thefe notions were difmal indeed. Whent0 HoIceT’
his hero Ulyffes vifited the fliades, many of the ghofts
feemed to retain the mangled and ghaftly appearance
which they had at death ; and, what is worfe, feemed
to be all ftarving with hunger, innumerable multitudes,
with loud ftirieks, flocking to the fleams of his flain vic¬
tim as to a moft fumptuous and delicious banquet.
For fcarcely had the purple torrent flow’d,
And all the caverns fmok’d with ftreaming blood,
When, lo ! appear’d along the dufky coafts
Thin airy fhoals of vifionary ghofts ;
Fair penfive youths, and foft enamour’d maids,
And wither’d elders, pale and wrinkl’d fliades,
Ghaftly with wounds, the forms of warriors flain,
Stalk’d with majeftic port, a martial train.
Thefe, and a thoufand more, fwarm’d o’er the ground.
And all the dire afiembly fliriek’d around.
Ulyffes faiv, as ghoft by ghoft arofe,
All wailing with unutterable woes.
Alone, apart, in difcontented mood,
A gloomy fhade, the fullen Ajax flood j
For ever fad, with proud difdain he pin’d,
And the loft arms for ever flung his mind.
Upon UlyJJes faying to Achilles^
Alive, we hail’d thee with our guardian gods ;
And, dead, thou rul’ft a king in thefe abodes $
The fhade replied:
Talk not of ruling in this dol’rous gloom,
Nor think vain words (he cry’d) can eafe my doom $
Rather I choofe laborioufly to bear
A weight of woes, and breathe the vital air,
A SLAVE TO SOME POOR HIND THAT TOILS FOR BREAD,
Than live a scepter’d monarch of the dead.
In this gloomy region no one is rewarded for his vir¬
tue, nor is punifhed for his crimes, unlefs committed,
like thofe of Sifyphus, Tantalus, and Ixion, againft the
gods. All indeed are claffed into groups, from a cer¬
tain analogy of age, fex, fate, and difpofition j but all
appear to be equally unhappy, having their whole heart
and affedions concentrated in a world to which they are
fated never to return.
The Elyfium of Homer is allotted only for the rela¬
tions and defcendants of the gods ; and Menelaus goes
to this country of perpetual fpring (t), not as a perfon
5 E 2 of
(r) A military gentleman who refided at Penobfcot during the late American war,affured us that the Indians,
when defired to fubfcribe a written agreement, drew always the picture of the objeft or animal whofe name they
bore. But for fuller information on this fubjeft, fee Clavigero’s Hiftory of Mexico.
(s} The queftion which the Sadducees put to ou? Saviour about the wife of the feven brothers, is a proof that
the Pharifees thought there was a marriage and giving in marriage in the future ftate, and that it was fomewhat
•fimilar to the prefent.
-fr') Homer fends the ghoft
of Hercules to the (hades, while Hercules himfelf is quaffing neftar with Hebe in
in
punifh-
ments.
33
Thefe at
firft diftri-
buted ac¬
cording to
phyfical
diftinc-
RES [772
jflefurrec- of fuperlor merit, butbecaufe he had married the daugh-
tLon' ter of Jove.
i v/——' £ven iong after a future date had become the fcene
Becomes a of rewards and punifhments, thefe for the mod part
place of re- were didributed, not according to moral, but phyfical
wards and diftin&ions. With the Greeks and Romans, the foul
was condemned to many calamities for a number of
years, if the body was not honoured with funeral rites.
Among the Scandinavians, a natural death was attend¬
ed with infamy, while a violent death, particularly in
battle, gave a title to dt in the halls of Odin, and to
quaff beer from the fkulls of enemies. Among the
Tlafcalans, it was only the great that were permitted
to animate birds and the nobler quadrupeds; the lower
ranks were transformed into weafels, into paultry
beetles, and fuch mean animals. Among the Mexicans,
thofe who were drowned, who died of a dropfy, tu¬
mors, or wounds, or fuch like difeafes, went along with
the children that had been facrificed to the god of wa¬
ter, and in a cool and delightful place were allowed to
indulge in delicious repafls and varieties of pleafures :
thofe who died of other difeafes, were fent to the north
or centre of the earth, and were under the dominion of
the gods of darknefs. “ The foldiers, who died in
battle, or in captivity among their enemies, and the
women who died in labour, went to the houfe of the
fun, who was confidered as the prince of glory. In his
manfions they led a life of endlefs delight. Every day
the foldiers, on the firfi: appearance of his rays, hailed
his birth with rejoicings and with dancings, and the
mufic of inflruments and voices. At his meridian they
met with the women, and in like feffivity accompanied
* Clamge- him to his fetting. After four years of this glorious life,
ro's tiijl. o/they went to animate clouds, and birds of beautiful fea-
JMexico,
vol. vi.
P1 *36’
earth, to warble their fongs, and to fuck flowmrs
Thefe fentiments of a future Rate, conceived in a fa-
vage and a rude period, could not long prevail among
an enlightened and civilized people. When the times
of rapine and violence therefore began to ceafe ; when
focieties regulated by certain laws began to be eftablilb-
ed ; when martial prowefs was lefs requifite, and the
qualities of the heart had begun to give an importance
to the chara&er, the future Rate w^as alfo modelled on
a different plan. In the iEneid of Virgil, an author
of a highly cultivated mind, and of polifiied manners,
it becomes a place of the mod: impartial and unerring
jullice j every one now receives a fentence fuited to the
a£lions of his pad: life, and a god is made to prefide in
judgment ;
thers and of fweet fong; but always at liberty to rife
again, if they pleafed, to heaven, or defcend to the
34
and after¬
wards ac¬
cording to
moral di-
Bindtions.
Who hears and judges each committed crime,
Inquires into the manner, place and time.
* Or para*
dife of fools.
. 35
Virgil’s
purgatory.
] RES
The confcious wretch mud all his ads reveal, Refurrec-
Loth to confefs, unable to conceal, tion.
From the fird moment of his vital breath, *——v-*—;
To the lad hour of unrepenting death.
The fpirits of the dead no longer mingle together as
in the lefs enlightened period of Homer j the vicious
are difmiffed to a place of torments, the virtuous fent to
regions of blifs : indifferent charaders are confined to a
limbus*; and thofe who are too virtuous for hell, but
too much polluted with the dains of vice to enter hea¬
ven without preparation, are for fome time detained in a
purgatory.
For there are various penances enjoin’d,
And fome are hung to bleach upon the wind ;
Some plung’d in waters, others purg’d in fires,
Till all the dregs are drain’d, and rud expires;
Till nothing’s left of their habitual dains,
But the pure ether of the foul remains.
When thus purified, they become fitted to receive
the rewards of their pad virtues, and now enter into
thofe regions of happinefs and joy.
With ether veded, and a purple Iky,
The blifsful feats of happy fouls below,
Stars of their own, and their own funs they know ;
Where patriots live, who, for their country’s good,
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood.
Prieds of unblemiih’d lives here make abode,
And poets worthy their infpiring god ;
And fearching wits, of more mechanic parts,
Who grac’d their age with new-invented arts :
Thofe who to worth their bounty did extend ;
And thofe who knew that bounty to commend.
Thefe good men are engaged in various amufements,
according to the tade and genius of each. Orpheus is
dill playing on his harp, and the warriors are dill de¬
lighted with their chariots, their horfes, and their
arms.
The place of torment is at fome didance.
. 36
His hea-
A gaping gulf, which to the centre lies,
And twice as deep as earth is didant from the Ikies;
From hence are heard the groans of ghods, the pains
Of founding ladies, and of dragging chains.
Here, thofe who brother’s better claim difown.
Expel their parents, and ufurp the throne.;
Defraud their clients, and, to lucre fold.
Sit brooding on unprofitable gold.
Who dare not give, and even refufe to lend,
To their poor kindred, or a wanting friend.
Vad is the throng of thefe ; nor lefs the train
Of ludful youths for foul adult’ry flain.
Hods
37
His hell.
1C-?' • n*e t^ie heroJs therefore repining with the ghods of mortals in the regions below, while
e o er is enjoying all the happinefs of the gods above. (See book ii. mar the end). Philofophers
r|C.e, aJe injProved on this hint of the poet; and men have now got rational, animal, and vegetable fouls, to
'vr IC \ ome‘imes a fourth one is added, as properly belonging to matter in general. Homer infinuates, that
ene aus was to e tranflated to Elyfium without lading death. This Elyfium is the habitation of men, and
° in the^cT fc8 °e^Cri^et^ as ^e^ng fimilar to the feat of the gods. Compare Odyjf. iv. 1. 563. and Odyjf. vi»
RES
Holts of deferters, who their honour fold.
And bafely broke their faith for bribes of gold :
All thefe within the dungeon’s depth remain,
Defpairing pardon, and expecting pain.
38
His para'
dife of
fools.
39
The ft ate
in Scrip,
ture,
The fouls of babes, of unhappy lovers, and fome
others, feem to be placed in a paradife of fools refiding
in a quarter diftindf from Elyfian Tartarus and Purga¬
tory.
It is curious to obferve, how much thefe ideas of a
future ftate differ from the vague and fimple conjeftures
of rude nations; and yet from their fimple and rude con¬
jectures, we can eafily trace the fuccefiive changes in
the writings of Homer, Plato, and Virgil ; and may ea¬
fily fhow, that thofe laws which different nations have
prefcribed for their dead, have always borne the ftrong-
eft analogy to their ftate of improvement, their fyftem
of opinions, and their moral attainments. Some na¬
tions, as thofe of India, have fancied a number of hea¬
vens and hells, correfponding to fome of the principal
fhades in virtue and vice $ and have filled each of thefe
places refpeClively with all the fcenes of happinefs and
mifery, which friendlhip and hatred, admiration, con¬
tempt, or rancour, could fuggeft. But having already
obferved the progrefs of the human mind in forming the
grand and leading ideas of a future ftate, we mean not
to defcend to the modifications which may have occurred
to particular nations, feCIs, or individuals.
The belief of Chriftians refpeCfing futurity demands
of the dead our attention, as being founded on a different principle,
as revealed namely, on exprefs revelations from heaven. From
many exprefs declarations in Scripture, all Chriftians
feem to be agreed, that there is a heaven appointed for
the good and a hell for the wicked. In this heaven
the faints dwell in the prefence of God and the uninter¬
rupted fplendours of day. Thofe who have been wife
fhine as the firmament, and thofe who have converted
many to righteoufnefs as the ftars. Their bodies are
glorious, immortal, incorruptible, not fubjeCl to difeafe,
The nature to Pa*n> or to death. Their minds are ftrangers to for-
of heaven, row, to crying, to difappointment; all their defires are
prefently fatisfied ; while they are calling, they are an-
fwered; while they are fpeaking, they are heard. Their
mental faculties are alfo enlarged ; they no more fee
things obfcurely, and as through a cloud, but continual¬
ly beholding new wonders and beauties in creation, are
conftantlyexclaiming, “Holy, holy, holy ! is the Lord
of Hofts, worthy is he to receive glory, and honour, and
thankfgiving; and to him be afcribed wifdom, and
power, and might ; for great and marvellous are his
work-:, and the whole univerfe is filled with his glory.”
Their notions of hell differ confiderably. Some un-
derftanding the Scriptures literally, have plunged the
wicked into an abyfs without any bottom ; have made
this gulf darker than night •, have filled it with ranco¬
rous and malignant fpirits, that are worfe than furies j
and have defcribed it as full of fulphur, burning for
ever. This frightful gulf has by fome been placed in
the bowels of the earth j by fome in the fun ; by fome
in the moon 5 and by fome in a comet: but as the Scrip¬
tures have determined nothing on the fubjedf, all fuch
conjefrures are idle and groundlefs.
Others imagine, that the fire and fulphur are here to
be taken in a figurative fenfe. ’i hefe fuppofe the tor¬
ments of hell to be troubles of mind and remorfes of
3
41
Of hell.
[ 773 ] RES
confcience ; and fupport their opinion by obferving, that Refurrec-
matter cannot aft upon fpirit; forgetting, perhaps, that tlCln•
at the refurreftion the fpirit is to be clothed with a bo- v
dy, and, at any rate, that it is not for man vainly to
preferibe bounds to Omnipotence.
What feems to have tortured the genius of divines Of the mid-
much more than heaven or hell, is a middle ftate. On1*16 Rate,
this fubjefl there being little revealed in Scripture,
many have thought it incumbent upon them to fupply nlons°about
the deleft; which they feem to have done in different it.
ways. From the Scriptures fpeaking frequently of the
dead as fleeping in their graves, thofe who imagine that
the powers of the mind are dependent on the body, fup¬
pofe that they deep till the refurreftion, when they are
to be awakened by the trump of God, reunited to their
bodies, have their faculties reftored, and their fentence
awarded.
Th is opinion they fupport by what St Peter fays in
the Afts, that David is not afeended into heaven •, and
that this patriarch could not poffibly be fpeaking of
himfelf when he faid, “ Thou wilt not leave my foul in ^
hell, i. e. the place of the dead.” They obferve, too, According
that the viftory of Chrift over death and the gravet0 f°me a
feems to imply, that our fouls are fubjefl to their power •,ftate ot
and accordingly the Scripture fpeaks frequently of the tfc^’
foul’s drawing near to, of its being redeemed from, and
of its defeending into, the grave ; that the Pfalmift,
however, declares plainly, that when the breath of man
goeth forth, he returneth to his earth, and that very
day his thoughts perilh. And ftiould any one choofe to
confult Ecclefiaftes, he will find, that the living know
that they {hall die, but that the dead know not any¬
thing : that their love, and their hatred, and their en¬
vy, are periftied ; and that there is no work, nor de¬
vice, nor wifdom, nor knowledge, in the grave, whi¬
ther they are gone. ^
Thofe who believe that the foul is not for the exercife According
of its faculties dependent on the body, are upon its fe-t0 others) a
paration at death obliged to difpofe of it fome other way. j^feious
In eftablifiiing their theory, they ufually begin with at- exigence,
tempting to prove, from Scripture or tradition, both its
aflive and feparate exiftence •, but with proofs from tra¬
dition we intend not to meddle. Their arguments from
Scripture being of more value, deferve our ferious confi-
deration ; and are nearly as follow.
Abraham, they fay, Ifaac, and Jacob, are ftill living,,
becaufe Jehovah is their God, and he, it is allowed, is
not the God of the dead, but of the living. But their
opponents reply, That this is the argument which our
Saviour brought from the writings of Mofes to prove a
future refurreftion of the dead ; and that any perfon
who looks into the context, will fee it was not meant of
a middle ftate. From the dead living unto God, our
Saviour infers nothing more than that they {hall live at
the refurreftion ; and that thefe gentlemen would do
well in future to make a diftinftion between limply liv¬
ing and living unto God : For though Abraham, Ifaac,
and Jacob, be living unto God, our Saviour hasaflured
us that Abraham is dead, and the prophets dead.
A fecond argument is that glimpfe which St Paul
had of paradife about 14 years before he had written
his Second Epiftle to the Corinthians. To this argu¬
ment their opponents reply, That as St Paul could not
tell whether, on that occafion, he was out of the body
or in the body, it is more than probable that the whole
was
RES [77
ItfXurree- was a vlfion ; and, at any rate, it is no proof of a lepa-
ti°n- rate exigence.
5     A third argument is, St Paul’s wiflung to be abient
from the body, and prefent with the Lord. But, fay
their opponents, St Paul defired not to be unclothed, but
to be clothed upon and as fome of thofs who maintain
a feparate exiftence, bring Scripture to prove that the
* Shorter bo(jy * continues united to Chrift till the refurreaion ;
Catechifm. Jn that cafej St Pau^ if he wiihed to be prefent with
the Lord, ftiould have rather remained with his body
than left it. r n/r r j
A fourth argument is, the appearance of Mofes ana
Elias upon the mount of transfiguration. To which
their opponents reply, that thefe faints appeared in their
bodies; that Elias was never divefted of his body ; and
that the account which we have of the burial of Mofes,
has led fome of the ableft critics and founded divines to
conclude, that he was like wife tran Hated to heaven with¬
out tailing death. At any rate, fay they, he might
have been raifed from the dead for the very purpofe of
being prefent at the transfiguration, as the bodies of
other faints certainly were, to bear tellimony to our
Lord’s refurreftion and vi&ory over the grave.
A fifth argument is, what our Saviour faid to the
thief, “ Verily I fay unto thee, to-day thou (halt be
with me in paradife.” The objection ufually made here
is, that the expreflion is evidently ambiguous, and that
the fenfe depends entirely on the pundluation ; for if the
point be placed after to-day, the meaning will be “ Ve¬
rily, even now, I tell thee, thou fiialt be with me in
paradife.” But the import of paradife in this place, fay
the opponents, is likewife doubtful. We learn from St
Peter’s explanation of the 16th Pfalm, that our Saviour’s
foul was not to be left in hell ; and we know that on
the day of his crucifixion he went not to heaven : for
after he had rifen from the place of the dead, he forbade
one of the women to touch him, as he had not yet af-
cended to the Father. Hell, therefore, and paradife,
continue they, feem to be in this palfage the very fame
thing, the place of the dead •, and our Saviour’s inten¬
tion, they add, was not to go to heaven at that time,
but to fhow his vi&ory over death and the grave, to
whofe power all mankind had become fubjedl by the dif-
45 obedience of their firft parents.
The foul is Without pretending to enter into the merits of this
by fome difpute, the ingenious Burnet, in his Theory of the
vefide^nthe^"ar^, endeavours to prove, upon the authority of the
till the anc>ent fathers, that paradife lies between the earth and
the moon *, and the learned Dodwell, on the fame au¬
thority, has made it the common receptacle of fouls till
the refurre&ion $ but has not told us whether or not
they are to be accountable for the affions of this fepa¬
rate exiftence at the latter day, or are only to be
judged according to the deeds that were done in their
bodies.
The church This notion of a common receptacle has difpleafed
of Rome many. The ftate of purgation, obfcurely hinted in the
iuppoies a doflrines of Pythagoras, and openly avowed by Plato
purgatory, and Virgii? has been adopted by the Romifti divines,
tion.
47
air
refurrec-
tion.
4 ] RES
who fupport their opinion on certain obfcure palTages of Reiurrec*
Scripture, which are always of a yielding and a waxen
nature, may eafily be twifted to any hypothefis, and
like general lovers efpoufe rather from intereft than
merit.
It has difpleafed others, becaufe they are anxious that Others fUp.
the righteous ftiould have a fore-tafte of their joys, andP°^e that
the wicked of their torments, immediately after death,
which they infer to be certainly the cafe'from the pa-enters‘a
rable of the rich man and Lazarus (u). But to this it ftate of le¬
i's objefted, that the rich man is fuppofed to be in hell, wards and
the place of torments, and that this punithment ought
not to take place on their own hypothefis till after the meft? m *
fen ten ce at the reiurrection. degree.
Another argument ufed for the intermediate ftate is
the vifion of St John in the Apocalypfe. In this vi-
fion the Evangelift faw under the altar the fouls of thofe
that were ilain for the word of God and for the teftimo-
ny which they held. Their opponents doubt whether
thefe vifible fouls were immaterial, as St John heard them
cry with a loud voice, and faw white robes given unto
every one of them. If they had bodies, that circum-
ftance might chance to prove a refurre£Hon immediately
after death, and fo fuperfede the general refurreftion at
the laft day.
While fuch conclufions as are here drawn from the
parable and vifion, fay the oppofers of an intermediate
confcious exiftence, imply that the dead are already
raifed, and are now receiving the refpeftive rewards of
their virtues and their crimes j thofe who maintain an
intermediate feparate exiftence, who fpeak of the body
as a prifon, and of the foul as receiving an increafe of
power when freed from the body, are certainly not more
than confiftent with themfelves, when they think that
this foul would derive an advantage from its after union
with either a new fyftem of matter or the old one,
however much altered. Baxter, they fay, who faw
the inconfiftency, was difpofed to reafon fomewhat like
./Eneas,
O, Father ! can it be that fouls fublime
Return to vifit our terreftrial clime ?
Or, that the gen’rous mind, releas’d at death,
Should covet lazy limbs and mortal breath ?
In no one inftance, they continue, have Chriftians
perhaps more apparently than in this argument wrefted
the Scriptures to their own hurt j by thus raflily attempt¬
ing to accommodate the facred doctrines of religion to a
preconceived philofophical hypothefis, they have laid
themfelves open to the ridicule of deifts, and have been
obliged, for the fake of confiftency, either to deny or
to fpeak flightingly of the refurre£lion ; which is cer¬
tainly the fureft foundation of their hope, feeing St Paul
hath aflured us, that if there be no refurreftion of the
dead, then they which are fallen afleep in Chrift are
perifhed, and thofe who furvive may eat and drink, and
aft as they pleafe, for to-morrow they die ; and die, too,
never to live again.
Though this reproof may be rather fevere, we are
forry
Whitby (hows that this parable was conformable to the notions of the Jews at that time ; and even the
. a ometans> A' ho believe in the refurreftion of the dead, fuppofe likewife a ftate of rewards and punilhments in
<the grave.
RES
[ 775 ]
RES
^Dr Watts,
forry to obferve that there feems to have been fome-
times too much reafon for it. A certain divine f, whofe
piety was eminent, and whofe memory we refpedt, ha¬
ving written “ An Eifay towards the proof of a fepa-
rate State of Souls between Death and the Refurrec-
tion, and the Commencement of the Rewards of Vir¬
tue and Vice immediately after death,” has taken this
motto, “ Becaufe fentence againft an evil work is not
executed fpeedily, therefore the heart of the fons of men
is fully fet in them to do evil.” “ The dodtrine, he
fays, of the refurredlion of the body and the confequent
Rates ©f heaven and of hell, is a guard and motive of
divine force, but it is renounced by the enemies of our
holy Chriftianity; and fhould we give up the recom-
penfes of feparate fouls, while the deift denies the refur-
redlion of the body, I fear, between both we (hould fadly
enfeeble and expofe the caufe of virtue, and leave it too
naked and defencelefs.”
This author, who withes much that the punithment
of crimes thould follow immediately after death, is of
opinion, that if heaven intended to check vice and im¬
piety in the world, it has adted unwifely, if it really has
deferred the punithment of the wicked to fo late a pe¬
riod as the refurredtion. “ For fuch, he obferves, is the
■weaknefs and folly of our natures, that men will not
be fo much influenced and alarmed by diftant profpedts,
nor fo folicitous to prepare for an event which they
fuppofe to be fo very far off, as they would for the fame
event, if it commences as toon as ever this mortal life
expires. The vicious man will indulge his fenfualities,
and lie down to fleep in death with this comfort, I
lhall take my reft here for 100 or 1000 years, and per¬
haps in all that fpace my offences may be forgotten ; or
let the worft come that can come, I lhall have a long
fvveet nap before my forrows begin : and thus the force
of divine terrors is greatly enervated by this delay of
punifhment.”
Thus far our author, who thinks that his hypothefis,
if not true, is at leaf! expedient, and that from motives
of expediency it ought to be inculcated as a dodlrine
of Scripture: but bow far his reafons can be here
juftified we mean not to determine; we lhall leave that
to be fettled by others, reminding them only that the
diftance of future rewards and punifhments is not great¬
er on the fuppofition of the lleep of the foul than on
the contrary hypothefis. Every man who has but dipt
into the fcience of metaphyfics knows, and no man
ever knew better than he who is believed to have been
the author of the work before us, that time unperceived
paffes away as if in an inftant; and that if the foul be
in a Hate void of confcioufnefs between death and the
refurreftion, the man Avho has lain in his grave a. thou-
fand years will appear to himfelf to have died in one
moment and been raifed in the next. We Avould like-
wife recommend to thofe who may henceforth be incli¬
ned to inculcate any thing as a doftrine of fcripture
merely on account of its fuppofed expediency, always Refurrec-
to remember that God is above, that they are below, tloil' .
that he is omnifcient, that they are of yelterday and
know little, that their words therefore Ihould be wary
and few, and that they ihould ahvays fpeak with re-
fpe£l of whatever concerns the Sovereign of the uni-
verfe, or relates to his government either in the natural
or moral world. For wilt thou, fays the Higheft, dif-
annul my judgment ? Wilt thou condemn me that thou
mayeft be righteous ? Shall he that contendeth with
the Almighty inllruft him ? He that reproveth God
let him anfwer it.
If, in Hating thefe oppofite opinions, we may feem to
have favoured wrhat has been called the lleep of the foul,
it is not from any conviflion of its truth, for there are
particular texts of Scripture which appear to us to mili¬
tate again!! it. We are fatisfied, however, that it is a
very harmlefs opinion, neither injurious to the reft of the
articles of the Chriftian faith nor to virtuous pradlice j
and that thofe who have poured forth torrents of obloquy
upon fuch as may have held it in fimplicity and godly
fincerity, have either miftaken the doftrine which they
condemned, or been poffeffed by a fpirit lefs mild than
that of the gofpel (x). 48
Whatever be the fate of the middle Hate, the refur-The refur-
reftion Hands on a different balls. It is repeatedly af_re(^1°n re¬
fer ted in Scripture j and thofe grounds on which we be-|llj-crte^ ;n
lieve it are authenticated fafls, which the affedlation, Scripture-.
the ingenuity, and the hatred of fceptics, have number-
lefs times attempted in vain to difprove. Thefe fafta
we are now to confider, referring our readers for the
chara£ler of the witneffes, the authenticity of the gofpel-
hiftory, and the poffibility of miracles, to the parts of
this work where thefe fubjefts are treated (fee Miracle,
Metaphysics, Part I. chap. vii. and Religion) ; or,
Ihould more particular information be required, to the
writings of Ditton, Sherlock, and Weft.
Our Lord, after proving his divine million by the
miracles which he wrought, and by the completion of
ancient predictions in which he was defcribtd, declared
that the doftrine of a refurreftion was one of thofe
truths which he came to announce. To Ihow that fuch The^offibi-
an event was poflible, he reftored to life the daughter of lity of it
Jairus, a ruler of the fynagogue, a young man of Nain, fliown by
who was carried out on his bier to be buried, and his°!irSJa' .
friend Lazarus, whofe body at the time was thought to feveraj
have become the prey of corruption. Though the twoperfons
firft of thefe miracles were wrought in the prefence of from the
a number of witneffes, yet the laft, owing to particular ^ea<*»
cireumftances, produced a much greater noife among
the Jews. It was performed on a perfon feemingly of
fome note, in the village of Bethany, not far from Je-
rufalem, and in the prefence of a great many perfons
who from the metropolis had come to condole with
Mary and Martha. No doubts were entertained of the
reality of Lazarus’s death. Our Lord was at a diflance
when
(x) Perhaps no man has been more culpable in this refpea than the celebrated Warburton, who feems at firft
to have himfelf denied an intermediate Hate of confcious exiftence. He afterwards imagined that fuch a Hate is
fuppofed, though not exprefsly afferted, in Scripture; and at lafl he maintained it with all the zeal and warmth
of a profelyte. To prove the fincerity of his converfion, he treated his adverfanes with fcurrilous nicknames,
banter, and abufe; a fpecies of reafoning which feldom fucceeds in recommending a bad caufe, and which never
confers credit on one that is gpod.
RES
[ 776 ]
RES
Refurrec- -when he expired, and his body had already been lying
tion. for fome days in the grave. When he came forth at
voiCe of our Lord, all were aftonilhed. Thofe from
Jerufalem, on returning home, are impatient to relate
what they had feen ; thofe who heard of fo memorable
an event cannot conceal it; the report reaches the ears
of the Pharifees and chief priefts. They are foon made
acquainted with every circumftance j and dreading the
iffue, they think it neceffary to call a council upon the
occafion, and concert the meafures that ought to ^e
purfued in a matter which was likely to be attended
with fo many and important confequences. In this
council, it feems to be agreed, that our Lord had per¬
formed, and was ftill continuing to perform, many mi¬
racles : that this laft miracle, as being of an extraor¬
dinary kind, would make many converts } and that if
meafures were not fpeedily taken to prevent thefe un¬
common difplays of his power, all would believe on
him •, the jealoufy of the Romans would be excited, the
rulers depofed, and the nation of the Jews deprived of
its few remaining privileges. Yet notwithftanding thefe
private conceffions made in the council, the members
who dreaded to let their fentiments be known to the
people, aiFeft in public to treat our Saviour as an im-
poftor. But he who had already demonftrated the ab-
furdity of their opinions, who fuppofed that his miracles
were wrought by Beelzebub prince of the devils, is again
ready to confute the ridiculous aflertion of thofe who
pretended to fay that they were a deception. His friend
Lazarus was ftill living at the diftance of only a few
miles, and many of the Jews who had gone to fee him
were ready to atteft the truth of the report. If the ru¬
lers, apprehending the confequences of the truth, be a-
fraid to know it, and if they are unwilling to go to Be¬
thany, or to fend for Lazarus and thofe who were pre-
fent at his refurreftion, our Lord gives them a fair op¬
portunity of detefting his fraud, if there was any fuch to
be found in him. To preferve their power, and remove
the jealous fufpicion of the Romans, it had been already
determined in council to put him to death ; and our Lord
foretels that the third day after his death he lhall rife
from the grave. Here no place was referved for decep¬
tion. The feft of the Pharifees and the chief priefts are
openly warned and put upon their guard ; and very for¬
tunately for the caufe of Chriftianity, this lingular pre-
diftion was not heard with fcorn,or indeed, if with fcorn,
it was only affedled. We know from the fentiments ex-
preffed in the council, that our Lord was fecretly dread¬
ed by the rulers ; and that his predi&ions, in their pri¬
vate opinion, were not to be flighted. The means ac¬
cordingly which they employed to prevent, even in the
very appearance, the completion of his prophecy, were
admirably calculated to remove the fcruples of the moft
wary and fceptical inquirers, if their objea: was only to
fearch after truth. At the next feftival of the paffover,
when the fcheme of Caiaphas was put in execution, and
when it was deemed expedient by the council that he
fhould die, to fave the nation from the jealoufy of the
Romans; as a proof of their Heady loyalty to Rome he
was apprehended, was tried as an enemy to her govern¬
ment, was at laft condemned upon falfe evidence, and
Impended on a crofs until they were fully fatisfied of his
deat'n Even after his death, the fpear of a foldier was
thru!! into his fide : and the water that gulhed out with
t le blood is a proof to thofe who are acquainted with the
ftrudlure and economy of living bodies, that he muft Refarrec-
have been fome time dead. _ tion.
After he was taken down from the crofs, a feal was '
put on the door of the fepulchre in which he was laid,^.^^^
as the beft check againft fecret fraud j and a guard of ap by His
foldiers was ftationed around it, as the beft fecurity own refur.
againft open violence. In fpite, however, of all thefe re<ftion.
precautions, the prediction was accomplilhed 5 the an¬
gel of God, defcending from heaven with a counte¬
nance like lightning, and with raiment white as fnow j
the watch (hake, and become as dead men j the earth
quakes •, the ftone is rolled from the mouth of the fe¬
pulchre j the angel fits on it, and our Lord comes
forth.
It was in vain for the Jews to allege that his difcipks
came in the night, and ftole him away, while the watch
were afleep. One muft fmile at thefe puerile aflertions.
Blow came the difciples to know that the watch were
afleep; or what excufe had the watch for fleeping, and
incurring a puniftiment which they knew to be capital in
the Roman law ? and how came they, in the name of
wonder, to be brought as an evidence for thofe tranfac-
tions that happened at the time when they were afleep ?
Whatever credit may be given by modern infidels to
this ill-framed ftory, it is paft difpute that it had none
among the Jewifh rulers at the time that it was current*
Not long after our Saviour’s refurreftion, the apoftles
were called before the council, and threatened with death
for teaching in the name of Jefus. Their boldnefs upon
that occafion w as fo provoking to the rulers, that the
threat would have been inftantlyput in execution, had not
Gamaliel, a doftor of the law of high reputation, put
them in mind of other impoftors who had perilhed in their
attempts to millead the people j and concluded a very
fenfible fpeech with thefe remarkable words : “ And
now, I fay unto you, refrain from thofe men, and let
them alone j for if this counfel, or this work, be of men,
it will come to nought *, but z/ zV be of God, ye cannot
overthrow it, left haply ye be found even to fight againft;
God.” This advice the council followed. But is it
poflible that Gamaliel could have given it, or the coun¬
cil paid the leaft regard to it, had the ftory of the dif¬
ciples ftealing the body been then credited ? Surely feme
among them would have obferved, that a work or coun¬
fel, founded on impofture and fraud, could not be fuppo¬
fed to be of God, and they would unqueftionably have
flain the apoftles.
The ftory of ftealing the body is indeed one of the
moft fenfelefs fidlions that ever was invented in fupport
of a bad caufe. Our Lord was on the earth 40 days after
he arofe. He appeared frequently to his difciples. He
ate and drank in their prefence ; and when fome of them
doubted, he bade them handle him and fee that he was
not a fpeftre, {bowed the mark of the fpear in his fide,
and the prints of the nails in his feet and hands. Befides
thus appearing to his difciples, he was feen by more than
500 brethren at one time ; all of whom, as well as his
difciples, muft neceffarily have known him previous to
his fuffering, and could therefore atteft that he was the
perfon who was once dead, but was then alive. Yet for
ftrangers in general, who had not feen him previous to
his death, and could not therefore identify his perfon af¬
ter he arofe, our Lord referved many other proofs that
were equally convincing. Before his afeenfion, he bade
his difciples wait till they received power, by the Holy
Ghoft
H E S
51
Minute ob-
jeiflions and
trifling ca¬
vils.
52
Importance
of the doc¬
trine of a
refurrec-
tion.
, S3
Of the or¬
der in
which the
dead are to
-be raifed.
Ghoft defcending upon them : That then they fliould be
witneffes with him, both in Jerufalem, and in all Judea,
and in Samaria, and unto the uttermoft ends of the^earth j
in order that the people of all thefe nations, obferving
the miracles wrought in his name, might themfelves be¬
come ocular witneffes that thofe who preached his re-
furre&ion were warranted to do fo by his authority ;
and that this authority, on which fo numerous miracles
attended, muff be divine.
We intend not here to examine the minute objeftions
and cavils that have been advanced refpedting the truth
of this important fa£t. The kinds, however, we (hall
mention in general. Some have doubted of our Lord’s
refurre£Hon, as being an event which is not confirmed
by general experience, becaufe they imagine that what
happens once Ihould happen again, and even repeatedly,
in order to be true. Some, taking their ow'n to be pre¬
ferable fchemes, have obje&ed to the way in whicli it
happened, and to the manner in which it is narrated.—
Some have imagined, that poflibly the gofpel hiftory
may be falfe ; that pofiibly the difciples were very igno¬
rant, and might be deceived •, that poffibly, too, they
were deep politicians, and a fet of impoftors ; and that
poflibly the writings which dete&ed their falfehoods may
have been dpftroyed. It is difficult to reafon, and worfe
to convince, againfl this evidence of poflibilities : but
we flatter ourfelves, that to the candid reader it will
appear fufficiently overturned in our article Miracle ;
where it is fhown that neither clowns nor politicians
could have afted the part that was a6led by the apoftles,
had not the refurre£tion been an undoubted faft.
Some of the objectors to it have alfo maintained, that
poflibly there is nothing material without us, that there
is nothing mental within us, and that poffibly the whole
world is ideas. This mode of arguing we pretend not to
explain ; it is thought by fome to proceed entirely from
a perverfenefs of mind or difpofition, while in books of
medicine it is always confidered as a fymptom of difeafe,
and the patient recommended to be treated in the hof-
piial, and not in the academy.
By his railing odiers, and particularly by riling him-
felf, from the dead, our Saviour demonfirated that a re-
furreftion from the dead is poffible. And on that au¬
thority, which by his miracles he proved to be divine,
he declared to his followers, that there is to be a gene¬
ral refurre&ion both of the juft and of the unjuft, in-
ftrufting his difciples to propagate this doftrine through
all nations} St Paul confeffing, that if there be no re-
furre&ion of the dead, preaching is vain, and our faith
is vain.
As to the order of fucceffion in which the dead are to
be raifed, the Scriptures are almoft lilent. St Paul fays,
that every man is to rife in his own order, and that the
dead in Chrift are to rife firft : and St John obferved in
his vifion, that the fouls of them which were beheaded
for the witnefs of Jefus, and for the word of God, arid
which had not worfhipped the beaft, neither his image,
Vol. XVII. Part II.
C 777 1
RES
neither had received his mark upon their foreheads, or tGiurree-
in their hands, lived and reigned with Chrift a thoufand tl^n' „
years; but the reft of the,dead lived not again until the
thoufand years (y) were finilhed. ' ^
Aqueftion that has much oftener agitated the minds With what
of men is, with what fort of bodies are the dead to be bodies they
raifed? St Paul has anfwered, with incorruptible andlhil^ “‘e’
immortal bodies (z). And to filence the deputations
caviller of his day, he illuftrated his doftrint- by the
growth of grain. “ Thou foolffaid he), that which thou
foweft, thou foweft not that body that ftvall be, but bare
grain, it may chance of wheat or of fome other grain.’1"
To us it appears very furprifing, that any one who reads
this paffage with the flighted attention, iiiouiu perplex
himfelf, or difturb the church with idle attempts to
prove the identity of the bodies with which we lhail die
and rife again at the laft day. The apoftle exprefidy af¬
firms, that “ flefh and blood cannot inherit the king¬
dom of God ; that we fhall all be changed, in a moment,
in the twinkling of an eye, at the laft trump ; that there
are celeftial bodies and bodies terreftrial; and that the
glory of the celeftial is one, and the glory of the terref¬
trial another.”
That this implies a total change of qualities, will ad¬
mit of no difpute ; but ftill it hats been confidered as an \
article of the Chriftian faith, that we are to rife with the
fame bodies in refpeft of fubftance. What is meant by
the identity of fubftance, with qualities wholly difterent,
it is not very eafy to conceive. Perhaps the meaning
may be, that our incorruptible bodies fhall confift of the
fame ftiaterial particles with our mortal bodies, though
thefe particles will be differently arranged to produce
the different qualities. But as the particles of our pre-
fent bodies are conftantly changing, and as different par¬
ticles compofe the body at different times, aqueftion has
been put, With what fet of particles fhall we rife ? Here
a Angular variety of opinions have been held. Some * # Leibnit*.
contend, that we fliall rife with the original ftamina of
our bodies derived from our parents; fome are for rifing
with that fet of particles which they had at birth ; fome
with the fet which they are to have at death ; and fome
with the particles which remain after maceration in wra-
ter f ; though, God knows, that if this maceration bej//^,,
continued long, thefe mayarife with few or no particles
at all. Another query has given much alarm. What
if any of thefe particles fliould enter a vegetable, compofe
its fruit, and be eaten by a man, woman, or a child ?
Will not a difpute, fimilar to that apprehended by the
Sadducees about the wife of thefeven brothers, neceffarily
follow, whofe particles are they to be at the refurre&ion ?
Againft this confufion, they truft that the goodnefs and
wifdom of heaven will take all the proper and neceffary
meafures; and they even venture to point out a way in
which that may be done. A foot deep of earth, they
obferve, in two or three of the counties of England, fup •
pofing each perfon to weigh on an average about feven
ftones and a few pounds, would amply fupply with ma-
5 F terial
(y) Thefe thoufand years formed the happy millenium fo often mentioned in the ancient fathers; and the learn¬
ed Burnet, in his Theory of the Earth, has endeavoured to prove, that a fimilar notion prevailed among the
Jews. See Millenium.
(z) Our Saviour rofe with the fame body, both as to fubftance and qualities $ becaufe it was neceffary that his
_perlbn fhottid be known and identified after his refurreftion.
RES
[ 778 1
RET
Refurrec-
* See Ho-
dy's Refur-
re £iion of
the fame
body ajfert-
ed.
SS
State after
the refur-
reiflion.
terial bodies 600,000,000 of fouls for no lefs a fpace
than 20,000 years*; and therefore there feems to be
no neceffity for the vamping i>p of their old materials
to lodge and accommodate new fouls. _
But unluckily ‘here, the queftion is not about the
poffibility of keeping the particles of different bodies
feparate and diftina. The queftion is rather What have
the Scriptures determined on the fubjea . Now the
Scriptures fay, that the fpirit returns unto God who
crave it. And fliould it be alked, in what place does he
referve it till the refurreaion ? the. Scriptures reply, in
the place of the dead ; becaufe the foul defcends into
the pit, is redeemed from the grave ; and the fling of
death, ’the laft enemy that is tg be deftroyed, fhall be
taken’away when the trumpet of God ftiall found : at
which time the dead that fleep in their graves (hall
awake, lhall hear the voice, and fnall come forth.
There is not here fo much as a word concerning the
body, and therefore it was alked with what bodies
are the dead to be raifed ? To which it was anfwered,
the vile body is to be changed. The body which is, is
not the body which fhall be; for the incorruptible muft
put on incorruption, and that which is mortal, put on
immortality. .
This curious difcovery of the fentiments of Scripture
we owe to a layman, the celebrated Locke *, who, in
one of his controverfies with the bifhop of Worcefter,
came to underftand what he knew not before, namely,
that nowhere have the Scriptures fpoken of the refur-
redlion of the fame body in the fenle in which it is ufu-
ally conceived. The refurreffion of the fame perfon is
indeed promifed ; and how that promife may be fulfilled,
notwithftanding the conftant change of the particles of
the body, has been ftiown in another place. See Me¬
taphysics, Part III. Chap. iii.
The advocates, therefore, for the refurre&ion of the
mortal body, have again been obliged to .betake them-
ielves to the thifts of reafoning. It is proper, fay they,
that the fame bodies which have been accomplices in
our vices and virtues, ftiould alfo (hare in our rewards
and punifhments. Now, granting they will, fhall one
fet of particles be bound for the crimes, or be entitled
to receive the rewards, of the animal fyftem, from its firft
commencement to its diflolution ? or (hall every particle
rife up fucceflively, and receive its dividend of rewards
and puniftiments for the vices and virtues that belonged
to the fyftem during the time that they were in union
with the fentient principle ? and is the hand that fell in
defending a father to be (as is fuppofed in fome of the
eaftern countries) rewarded in heaven ; while the other
that ftruck him when the fon became vicious, is dif-
miffed into torments ?
Finding this hypothefis fupported by neither Scrip¬
ture nor reafon, they next appeal to the ancient fathers.
And they, it is confefled, are for the refurre£Hon of the
very fame flefh. But this notion is dire6tly contrary to
the Scriptures, which have faid, that flefh and blood
are not to inherit the kingdom of God.
But whatever be the bodies with which the dead are
to be raifed at the general refurreftion, all mankind muft
appear in judgment, and receive fentence according to
the deeds done in the body, without regard, fo far as we
know, to their aflions and conduct in the middle ftate.
After this fentence, the righteous are to enter into ce-
kftial and eternal joys, and the wicked to fuffer the pu-
3
niftiments of hell. Thefe puniihmefits fome have fup¬
pofed to be e.verlafting; others think, that after fome
temporary punifhment, the fouls of the wicked are to be
annihilated *, and others imagine, that after doing pur- 1
gatorial penance for a while in hell, they are to be again
received into favour ; inclining to explain the denuncia¬
tions of the Almighty as a child would do the threaten-
ings of his mother, or a lover the affe&ed eludings of
his miftrefs.
RESUSCITATION, the fame with refureftion and
revivification. See the preceding article and Reanima-
TION.
The term refufeitation, however, is more particularly
ufed by chemifts for the reproducing a mixed body from
its allies ; an art to which many have pretended, as to
reproduce plants, &c. from their allies.
RETAIL, in Commerce, is the felling of goods in
fmall parcels, in oppofition to wholefale. See Com¬
merce.
RETAINER, a fervant who does not continually
dwell in the houfe of his matter, but only attends upon
fpecial occalions.
RETAINING FEE, the firft fee given to a ferjeant
or counfellor at law, in order to make him fure, and
prevent his pleading on the contrary fide.
RETALIATION, among civilians, the aft of re¬
turning like for like.
RETARDATION, in Phyfics, the aft of diminifh-
ing the velocity of a moving body See Gunnery,
Mechanics, Pneumatics, and Projectiles.
RETE mirabile, in Anutomij, a fmall plexus or
network of veffels in the brain, furrounding the pitui¬
tary gland.
RETENTION is defined by Mr Locke to be, a fa¬
culty of the mind, whereby it keeps or retains thofe fim-
ple ideas it has once received, by fenfation or refieftion.
See Metaphysics, Part I. Chap. ii.
Retention is alfo ufed, in medicine, &c. for the ftate
of contraftion in the folids or vafcular parts of the body,
which makes them hold faft their proper contents. In
this fenfe, retention is oppofed to evacuation and excre¬
tion.
RETICULA, or Reticule, in AJlronomy, a con¬
trivance for meafuring very nicely the quantity of eclip-
fes, &c. This inftrument, which was introduced by
the Academy of Sciences at Paris, is a little frame
compofed of 13 fine filken threads, parallel to, and at
'equal diftances from each other, placed in the focus of
objeft glafies of telefcopes ; that is, in the place where
the image of the luminary is painted in its full extent.
The diameter of the fun or moon is of confequence thus
feen divided into 12 equal parts or digits; fo that, in
order to afeertain the quantity of the eclipfe, there is
nothing more to do than to number the parts that are
dark, or that are luminous.
As a fquare Reticule is only proper for the diameter
of the luminary, not for the circumference of it, it is
fometimes made circular, by drawing fix concentric,
equidiftant circles, which perfeftly reprefents the phafes
of the eclipfe.
But it is obvious that whether the Reticule be fquare
or circular, it ftiould be perfeftly equal to the diameter
or circumference of the fun or ftar, fuch as it appears in
the focus of the glafs ; otherwife the divifion cannot
be juft. Another iroperfeftion in the Reticule is, th^at
Refune
tion
Ren
Reticula.
Retie
Reticulum
RET
i Reticula its magnitude is determined by that of the image in the
Re iculum ^ocus’ anc^ courfe it will only fit one particular mag-
. nitude.
But a remedy for thefe inconveniences has been found
out by M. de la Hire, who contrived that the fame Re¬
ticule may ferve for all telefcopes, and all magnitudes
of the luminary in the fame eclipfe. Two object glafles
applied againft each other, having a common focus, and
thefe forming an image of a certain magnitude, this
image will increafe in proportion as the diftance between
the two glaffes is increafed, as far as to a certain limit.
If therefore a Reticule be taken of fuch a magnitude, as
julf to comprehend the greateft diameter the fun or moon
can ever have in the common focus of two objedl glaffes
applied to each other, it is only neceffary to remove
them from each other, as the ftar comes to have a lefs
diameter, to haVe the image ftill exaftly comprehended
in the fame Reticule.
As the filken threads are apt to deviate from the pa-
rallelifm, &c. by the different temperature of the air,
another improvement is, to make the Reticule of a thin
looking glafs, by drawing lines or circles upon it with
the fine point of a diamond.
RETICULAR BOiyY (corpus reticulare), in Anato¬
my, a very fine membrane, perforated, in the manner
of a net, with a multitude of foramina. It is placed
immediately under the cuticle ; and when that is fepa-
rated from the cutis, whether by art or accident, this
adheres firmly to it, and is fcarce poffible to be parted
from it, feeming rather to be its inner fuperficies than
a diftinfl fubftance. In regard to this, we are to ob-
ferve, firft, the places in which it is found, being all
thofe in which the fenfe of feeling is moft acute, as in
the palms of the hands, the extremities of the fingers,
and on the foies of the feet. The tongue, however, is
the part where it is moft accurately to be obferved : it
is more eafily diftinguilhable there than anywhere elfe,
and its nature and ftrufture are moft evidently feen
there.
Its colour in the Europeans is wThite; but in the ne¬
groes and other black nations it is black ; in the tawney
it is yellowifh : the Ikin itfelf in both is white 5 and the
blacknefs and yellownefs depend altogether on the co¬
lour of this membrane.
The ufes of the corpus reticulare are to preferve the
ftru&ure of the other parts of the integuments, and
keep them in their determinate form and fituation. Its
apertures give paffage to the hairs arid fweat through
the papillae and excretory dufts of the Ikin : it retains
thefe in a certain and determinate order, that they can¬
not be removed out of their places, and has fome
lhare in preferving the foftnefs of the papillae, which
renders them fit for the fenfe of feeling. See Anato¬
my, N° 83.
RETICULUM, is a Latin word, fignifying a little
or cajling net. It wTas applied by the Romans to a par¬
ticular mode of eonftrufting their buildings. In the
city of Salino (fee Salino) are ftill to be feen remains
of fome walls, evidently of Roman origin from the reti¬
culum. This ftru&ure confifts of fmall pieces of baked
earth cut lozengewife, and difpofed with great regularity
on the angles, fo as to exhibit to the eye the appearance
of cut diamonds ; and was called reticular, from its re-
femblance to fifhing-nets. The Romans always con¬
cealed it under a regular coating of other matter j and
R E T
Mr Houel informs us, that this was the only fpecimen
of it which he faw in all his travels through Sicily, R(Jre
Malta, and Lipari. It appears to be the remains of ment>
fome baths, which have been built for the convenience •
of fea-bathing.
RETIMO, the ancient Rhitijmnia of Stephen the
geographer, and called by Ptolemy Rhitymna, is a fine
city, lying at one end of a rich and fertile plain, on the
north coat! of the illand of Candia. It is but a fmali
place, containing fcarce 6000 inhabitants ; but it is a
bilhop’s fee, and the harbour is defended by a citadel,
where a bafhaw refides. It was taken by the Turks
in 1647, and has been in their hands ever fince. It is
about 45 miles from Candia. E. Long. 24. 45. N. Lat,
35- 22' ....
The citadel, which Hands on a rock jutting out into
the fea, would be fufficient for the defence of the city,
were it not fituated at the foot of a high hill, from
which it might be cannonaded with great advantage.
The harbour is now almoft filled with fand, and is no
longer acceflible to Ihippingj nor do the Turks in any
meafure oppofe the ravages of time, but behold with a
carelefs eye the moft valuable works in a ftate of ruin.
The French had formerly a vice-conful at Retimo, to
which ftiips ufed to repair for cargoes of oil ; but they
have been long unable to get into the harbour : to re¬
pair which, however, and to revive the commerce of
Retimo, would be a moft ufeful attempt. The plains
around the city abound in a variety of productions.
Great quantities of oil, cotton, faffron, and wax, are
produced here 5 and they would be produced in ftill
greater quantities if the inhabitants could export their
commodities. The gardens of Retimo bear the beft
fruits in the illand •, excellent pomegranates, almonds,
piftachio nuts, and oranges. The apricot-tree, bearing
the michmich, the juice of which is fo delicious, and its
flavour fo exquifite, is found here. It is a kind of
early peach, but fmaller and more juicy than thofe of
France.
RETINA, in Anatomy, the expanfion of the optic
nerves over the bottom of the eye, where the fenfe of
vifion is firft received. See Anat.OMY, N° 142. and
Optics (Index') at Eye and Vijion.
RETINUE, the attendants or followers of a prince
or perfon of quality, chiefly in a journey.
RETIRADE, in fortification, a kind of retrench¬
ment made in the body of a baftion, or other work,
which is to be difputed, inch by inch, after the defences
are difmantled. It ufually confifts of two faces, which
make a re-entering angle. When a breach is made in
a baftion, the enemy may alfo make a retirade or new
fortification behind it.
RETIREMENT, means a private way of life or a
fecret habitation. “ Few (fays an elegant writer) ate Dr Knots.
able to bear folitude } and though retirement is the of-
tenfible objeft of the greater part, yet, when they are
enabled by fuccefs to retire, they feel themfelves un¬
happy. Peculiar powers and elegance of mind are ne¬
ceffary to enable us to draw all our refources from our-
felves. In a remote and folitary village the mind mull
be internally adlive in a great degree, or it will be mi- *
ferable for Avant of employment. But in great and
populous cities, even while it is paflive, it will be coil-
ftarrtly amufed. It is impoffible to ivalk the ftreets
Avithout finding the attention poiverfully folicited on
5 F 2 every
[ 779 1
RET [ ?8o ] RET
Retire- every fide. No exertion is neceffary. Objefts pour
ment, themfelves into the fenfes, and it would be difficult to
Ret01t prevent their admittance. But, in retirement, there
"’~v be a fpirit of philofophy and a ftore of learning,
or elfe the fancied fcenes of blits will vaniih like the co¬
lours of the rainbow. Poor Cowley might be faid to be
melancholy mad. He languiffied for foiitude, and wiffi-
ed to hide himfelf in the wilds of America. But, alas!
he was not able to fupport the foiitude of a country vil¬
lage within a few miles of the metropolis!
“ With a virtuous and cheerful family, with a few
faithful and good-humoured friends, with a well-fele£b-
ed colleclion of elegant books, and with a competency,
one may enjoy comforts even in the deferted village,
•which the city, with all its diverfions, cannot Ripply.”
RETORT, in Chemijlry, an oblong or globular vef-
fel of glafs or porcelain, with its neck bent, proper for
diftillation.
In the fifth volume of the Tranfa£lions of the Lon¬
don Society for the Encouragement of Arts, p. 96. we
find a paper containing a method for preventing Hone
retorts from breaking; or flopping them when crack¬
ed, during any chemical operation without lofing any
of the contained fubjeft. “ I have always found it ne¬
ceffary (fays the writer) to ufe a previous coating for
filling up the interftices of the earth or done, which is
made by diffolving two ounces of borax in a pint of
boiling water, and adding to the foiution as much fla¬
ked lime as will make it into a thin pafte; this, with a
common painter’s brufh, may be fpread over feveral re¬
torts, which when dry are then ready for the proper
preferving coating. The intention of this firft coating
is, that the fubftances thus fpread over, readily vitrify¬
ing in the fire, prevent any of the diftilling matters from
pervading the retort, but do in nowife prevent it from
cracking.
“ Whenever I want to ufe any of the above coated’
retorts; after I have charged them with the fubftance
to be diftilled, I prepare a thin pafte, made with com¬
mon linfeed oil and flaked lime well mixed, and perfeft-
ly plaftic, that it may be eafily fpread: with this let
the retorts be covered all over except that part of the
neck which is to be inferted into the receiver; this is
readily done with a painter’s brufli: the coating will
be fufficiently dry in a day or two, and they will then
be fit for ufe. With this coating I have for feveral
years worked my ftone retorts, without any danger of
their breaking, and have frequently ufed the fame re¬
tort four or five times; obferving particularly to coat
it over with the laft-mentioned compofition every time
it is charged with freffi materials: Before I made ufe
of this expedient, it was an even chance, in conducing
operations in ftone and earthen retorts, whether they
did not crack every time; by which means great lofs
has been fuftained. If at any time during the opera¬
tion the. retorts ffiould crack, fpread fome of the oil
compofition thick on the part, and fprinkle fome pow¬
der of flaked lime on it, and it immediately flops the
fiffure, and prevents any of the diftilling matter from
pervading; even that fubtile penetrating fubftance the
folid phofphoms will not penetrate through it. It may
be applied without any danger, even when the retort is
red hot; and when it is made a little ftiffer, is more
proper for luting veffels than any other I ever have
tried; becaufe if properly mixed it will never crack,
nor Avill it indurate fo as to endanger the breaking the Retort*
necks of the veffels when taken off.” |]
RETRACTS, among horfemen, pricks in a horfe’s , Return-
feet, arifing from the fault of the farrier in driving nails
that are weak, or in driving them ill-pointed, or other-
wife amifs.
RETREAT, in a military fenfe. An army or body
of men are faid to retreat when they turn their backs
upon the enemy, or are retiring from the ground they
occupied: hence every march in withdrawing from the
enemy is called a retreat.
That which is done in fight of an atftive enemy,' who
purfues with a fuperior force, is the moft important part
of the fubjed; and is, with reafon, looked upon as the
glory of the profeflion. It is a manceuvre the moft de¬
licate, and the propereft to difplay the prudence, genius,
courage, and addrefs, of an officer who commands:
the hiftorians of all ages teftify it; and hiftorians have
never been fo laviffi of eulogiums as on the fubjedl of
the brilliant retreats of our heroes. If it is important^
it is no lefs difficult to regulate, on account of the va¬
riety of circumftances, each of which demands different
principles, and an almoft endlefs detail. Hence a good
retreat is efteemed, by experienced officers, the mafter-
piece of a general. He fliould therefore be well ac¬
quainted with the fituation of the country through
which he intends to make it, and careful that nothing
is omitted to make it fafe and honourable. See War,
Retreat, is alfo a beat of the drum, at the firing
of the evening gun; at which the drum-major, with all.
the drums of the battalion, except fuch as are upon du¬
ty, beats from the camp-colours on the right to thofe
on the left, on the parade of encampment: the drums
of all the guards beat alfo; the trumpets at the famb
time founding at the head of their refpeftive troops.-
This is to warn the foldiers to forbear firing, and the
oentinels to challenge, till the break of day that the
reveille is beat. The retreat is likewife calledJetting the
watch.
RETRENCHMENT literally fignifies fomething
cut off or taken from a thing; in which fenfe it is the.
fame with fubtraftion, diminution, &c.
Retrenchment, in the art of Avar, any kind of
Avork raifed to cover a poft, and fortify it againft the>
enemy, fuch as fafcines loaded with earth, gabions,
barrels of earth, fand-bags, and generally all things that-
can cover the men and flop the enemy. See Fortifi¬
cation and War.
RETRIBUTION, a handfome prefent, gratuity, or
acknowledgement, given inftead of a formal lalary or
hire, to perfons employed in affairs that do not fo imme¬
diately fall under eltimation, nor Avithin the ordinary-
commerce in money.
RETROMINGENTS, in Natural Hijory, a clafs-
or divifion of animals, whofe charadleriftic is, that they
Hale or make Avater backwards, both male and fe-.
male.
RETURN {returna or retorna'), in Law, is ufed in
divers fenfes. 1. Return of Avrits by Iheriffs and bailiffs
is a certificate made by them to the court, of what they.
have done in relation to the execution ol the Avrit di-
redled to them. This is Avrote on the back of the Avrit
by the officer, Avho thus fends the Avrit back to the
court from whence it iffued, in order that it may ba
filed. 2« Return of a commiffion, is a certificate or an-
RET f ?8i ] REV
Return, fryer fent to the court from whence the commiflion iflues,
Retufan. concerning what has been done by the commiffioners.
t 3. Returns, or days in bank, are certain days in eacli
term, appointed for the return of writs, &c. Thus Hil¬
lary term has four returns, viz. in the king’s-bench, on
the day next after the odtave, or eighth day after Hil¬
lary day } on the day next after the fifteenth day from
St Hillary 5 on the day after purification } and on the
next after the oftave of the purification. In the com¬
mon pleas, in eight days of St Hillary : from the day
of St Hillary, in fifteen days: on the day after the pu¬
rification : in eight days of the purification. Eafter
term has five returns, viz. in the king’s-bench, on the
day next after the fifteenth day from Eafter : on the day
next after the three weeks from Eafter : on the day
next after one month from Eafter : on the day next af¬
ter five weeks from Eafter : and on the day next after
the day following afcenfion-day. In the common pleas,
in fifteen days from the feaft of Eafter : in three weeks
from the feaft of Eafter : in one month from Eafter
day : in five weeks from Eafter day : on the day after
the afcenfion-day. Trinity term has four returns, viz.
on the day following the fecond day after Trinity : on
the day following the eighth day after Trinity : on the
day next after the fifteenth day from Trinity : on the
day next after three w'eeks from Trinity. In the com¬
mon pleas, on the day after Trinity : in eight days of
Trinity : in fifteen days from Trinity : in three weeks
from Trinity. Michaelmas term has fix returns, viz.
on the day next after three weeks from St Michael: on
the day next after one month of St Michael : on the
day following the fecond day after All-fouls : on the
day next after the fecond day after St Marlin : on the
day following the oftave of St Martin : on the day next
after fifteen days of St Martin. In the common pleas,
in three weeks from St Michael : in one month from
St Michael : on the day after All-fouls: on the day af¬
ter St Martin : on the oftave of St Martin : in fifteen
days from St Martin. It is to be obferved, that, as- in
the king’s-bench, all returns are to be made on feme
particular day of the w'eek in each term, care muft be
taken not to make the w'rits out of that court returnable
on a non-judicial day •, fuch as Sunday, and All-faints,
in Michaelmas term, the purification in Hillary, the af-
cenfion in Eafter, and Midfummer-day, except it ftiould
fall on the firft day of Trinity term.
Returns, in a military fenfe, are of various forts,
but all tending to explain the ftate of the army, regi¬
ment, or company } namely, how many capable of do¬
ing duty, on duty, fick in quarters, barracks, infirmary,
or hofpital ; prifoners, abfent with or without leave j
total effedlive-y wanting to complete the eftablifhment,
&c.
RETUSARI, an ifland in Ruflia, is a.long Hip of
Cow’x TVa-land, or rather fand, through the middle of which runs
ve!s into a ridge of granite. It is 20 miles from Peterfburg by
xujfia. water, four from the fhore of Ingria, and nine from the
coaft of Carelia. It is about 10 miles in circumference,
and was overfpread with firs and pines when Peter firft
conquered it from the Swedes. It contains at prefent
about 30,000 inhabitants, including the failors and gar-
rifon, the former of- whom amount to about 12,000,
the latter to 1500 men. The ifland affords a fmall
quantity of pafture, produces vegetables, and a few.
fruits, iuch as apples, currants, goofeberries, and ftraw- ftetufari
berries, which thrive in this northern climate. 11 .
RETZ, Cardinal de. See Gondi. Revelation,
RETZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs, and to the 29th natural order, Campuna-
cece. See Botany Index.
RETULINGEN, a handforae, free, and imperial
town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, and duchy
of Wirtemberg j feated in a plain on the river Efchez,
near the Neckar, adorned with handfome public build¬
ings, and has a wrell frequented college. E. Long. 9.
10. N. Lat. 48. 31.
REVE, Reeve, or Greve, the bailiff of a franchife,
or manor, thus called, efpecially in the weft of England..
Hence ftiire-reeve, fheriff, port-greve, &c.
REVEILLE, a beat of drum about break of day,
to give notice that it is time for the foldiers to arife, and
that the fentries are to forbear challenging.
REVEL, a port town of Livonia, fituated at the
fouth entrance of the gulf of Finland, partly in a plain
and partly on a mountain •, 133 miles fouth-weft of Pe¬
terfburg, and 85 fouth-eaft of Abo. It is a place of
great trade, and holds two fairs yearly, which are vi-
fited by merchants from all countries, but particularly,
by thofe of England and Holland. It is a ftrong and.
a rich place, with a capital harbour. It is furrounded
with high walls and deep ditches, and defended by a
caftle and flout baftions. It was confirmed to the
Swedes at the peace of Oliva, conquered by Peter the
Great in 1710, and ceded to Ruflia in 1721. The
conqueft of it was again attempted by the Swedes in
1790. The duke of Sudermania, with the Swedifh
fleet, attempted to carry the harbour ; but after an ob-.
ftinate engagement with the Ruffian fleet, he was obli¬
ged to give it up ; but it was but for a very fhort
while. He retired about 10 leagues from the harbour,
to repair the damage his fleet had fuftained, and to pre¬
pare for a fecond attack before any relief could be af¬
forded to the Ruffian fleet. As foon as he had refitted,
he failed for the harbour, at a league diftant from
which the Ruffian fleet was difcovered, ready to difpute
with the Swedes the entrance. Upon a council being
held by the duke, it was refolved to attack the Ruf-.
flans; and the fignals being given, the fleet bore down
for the attack, which was maintained for near fix hours
with the utmoif fury.: at length the Swedes broke the
Ruffian line, which threw them into much confufion ;
when the Swedes, taking the advantage of the general
confufion into which the Ruffians were thrown, follow¬
ed them with their whole force into the harbour, where
the confliff and carnage were dreadful on both fides,
though the Swedes certainly had the worft of it ; but at
the fame time their fkill and bravery are indifputable.
Th is valuable place was again confirmed to Ruflia by
the peace. The government of Revel or Efthonia is
one of the divifions of the Ruffian empire, containing,
five difbi&s. 1. Revel, on the Baltic fea. 2. Bakic-
port, about 40 verfts weftward from Revel. 3. Habfal,
or Hapfal, a maritime town. 4. Weiffenftein, on the .
rivulet Saida, about 80 verfts from Revel. Wefen-
berg, about ico verfts from Revel, at about an equal
diftance from that town and Narva.
REVELATION, the aft of revealing, or making
a thing public that was before unknown ; it is alfoufed
for .
2
R E V
Revelation, for the difcoveries made by God to his prophets, and by
*-—s! them to the world ; and more particularly for the books
of the Old and New Teftament. See Bible, Chris¬
tianity, Miracle, Religion, and Theology.
The principal tefts of the truth of any revelation, are
the tendency of its pra&ical dottrines ; its confiitency
with itfelf, and with the known attributes of God ; and
fome fatisfaftory evidence that it cannot have been de¬
rived from a human fource.
Before any man can receive a written book as a reve¬
lation from God, he muft be convinced that God exifts,
and that he is poffeffed of almighty power, infinite wif-
dom, and perfect juftice. Now fhould a book teaching
abfurd or immoral doctrines (as many chapters of the
Koran do, and as all the traditionary fyItems of Pagan-
ifm did), pretend to be revealed by a God of wifdom
and jultice, we may fafely rejeft its pretenfions without
farther examination than what is neceffary to fatisfy us
that we have not mifunderftood its doftrine. Should a
book claiming this high origin, enjoin in one part of it,
and forbid in another, the fame thing to be done under
the fame circumftances, we may rejeft'it with contempt
and indignation ; becaufe a being of infinite wifdom can
never aft capricioufly or abfurdly. Still, however, as
it is impoffible for us to know how far the powers of
men may reach in the inveftigation or difcovery of ufe-
ful truth, fome farther evidence is neceffary to prove a
doftrine of divine origin, than its mere confiftency with
itfelf, and with the principles of morality •, and this evi¬
dence can be nothing but the power of working miracles
exhibited by him by whom it was originally revealed.
In every revelation confirmed by this evidence, many
doftrines are to be looked for which human reafon can¬
not full comprehend *, and thefe are to be believed on
the teftimony of God, and fuffered to produce their prac¬
tical confequences. At this kind of belief the {hallow
infidel may fmile contemptuoufly 5 but it has place in
arts and fciences as well as in religion. Whoever avails
himfelf of the demonftrations of Newton, Bernoulli, and
others, refpefting the refiftance of fluids, and applies
their conclufions to the art of (hip-building, is as impli¬
cit a believer, if he underftand not the principles of
fluxions, as any Chriftian j and yet no man will fay that
his faith is not produftive of important praftical confe¬
quences. He believes, however, in man, while the
Chriftian believes in God; and therefore he cannot
pretend that his faith refts on a furer foundation.
Mr Locke, in laying down the diftinft provinces of
reafon and faith, obferves, 1. That the fame truths may
be difcovered by revelation which are difcoverable to us
by reafon. 2. That no revelation can be admitted
againft the clear evidence of reafon. 3. That there are
many things of which we have but imperfeft notions, or
none at all j and others, of whofe paft, prefent, or future
exiftence, by the natural ufe of our faculties we cannot
have the leaft knowledge : and thefe, being beyond the
difcovery of our faculties, and above reafon, when re¬
vealed, become the proper objeft of our faith. He
then adds, that our reafon is not injured or difturbed,
but aflifted and improved, by new difcoveries of truth
coming from the fountain of knowledge. Whatever
God has revealed is certainly true ; but whether it be a
divine revelation or not, reafon muft judge, which can
never permit the mind to rejeft a greater evidence to
embrace what is lefs evident. There can be no evi-
REV
dence that any traditional revelation is of divine origi- Revelation
nal, in the words we receive it, and the fenfe we under- i!
Hand it, fo clear and fo certain as that of the principles Re>reriK-,i
of reafon : and, therefore, nothing that is contrary to
the clear and felf-evident diftates of reafon, has a right
to be urged or affented to as a matter of faith, wherein
reafon has nothing to do.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
REVELS, entertainments of dancing, mafking, aft-
ing comedies, farces, &.c. anciently very frequent in the
inns of court and in noblemen’s houfes, but now -much
difufed. The officer who has the direftion of the revels
at court is called the MASTER of the Revels.
REVENGE, means the return of injury for injury,
and differs materially from that fudden refentment w.hich
rifes in the mind immediately on being injured; which,
fo far from being culpable when reftrained within due
bounds, is abfolutely neceffary for felf-prefervation. Re¬
venge, on the contrary, is a cool and deliberate wicked-
nefs, and is often executed years after the offence was
given; and the defire of it is generally the effeft of
littlenefs, weaknefs, and vice ; while, to do right, and
to fuffer wrong, is an argument of a great foul, that
fcorns to ftoop to fuggefted revenges.
Revenge is but a frailty incident
To craz’d and fickly minds; the poor content
Of little fouls, unable to furmount
An injury, too weak to bear affront. DrydEN.
Revenge is generally the concomitant of favage
minds, of minds implacable, and capable of the moft
horrid barbarities ; unable to fet any limits to their dif-
pleafure, they can confine their anger within no bounds
of reafon.
Cruel revenge, which Hill ive find
The weakeft frailty of a feeble mind.
Degenerous paffion, and for man too bafe,
It feats its empire in the favage race.
Juvenal.
The inftitution of law prevents the execution of pri¬
vate revenge, and the growth of civilization (hows its
impropriety. Though in modern times a fpecies of re¬
venge is fanftioned by what is called the law of honour,
which evades the law of the land indeed, but which is
equally mean and difgraceful as the other kinds, and is
of confequences equally baneful. See Anger, Duel¬
ling, and Resentment.
REVENUE, the annual income a perfon receives
from the rent of his lands, houfes, intereft of money in
the flocks, &c.
Royal REVENUE, that which the Britifli conftitution
hath veiled in the royal perfon, in order to fupport his
dignity and maintain his powder; being a portion which
each fubjeft contributes of his property, in order to fe-
cure the remainder. This revenue is either ordinary
or extraordinary.
I. The king’s ordinary revenue is fuch as has either
fubfifted time out of mind in the crown ; or elfe has
been granted by parliament, by way of purchafe or ex¬
change for fuch of the king’s inherent hereditary reve¬
nues as were found inconvenient to the fubjeft.—In fay¬
ing that it has fubfifted time out of mind in the crow n,
we do not mean that the king is at prefent in the aftual
poffeffion of the whole of his revenue. Much (nay the
greateft
r 782 ]
REV [ 783 ] REV
Revenue, greateft part) of it is at this day in the hands of fub-
t——v—jgfts •, to whom it has been granted out from time to
time by the kings of England j which has rendered the
crown in fome meafure dependent on the people for its
Blacks ordinary fupport and fubfiftence. So that we mull be
Comment, obliged to recount, as part of the royal revenue, what
lords of manors and other fubjedts frequently look upon
to be their own abfolute rights ; becaufe they and their
anceltors are and have been veiled in them for ages,
though in reality originally derived from the grants of
our ancient princes.
1. The firlt of the king’s ordinary revenues, which
may be taken notice of, is of an ecolefiallical kind (as
are alfo the three fucceeding ones), viz. the cullody of
the temporalities of bifhops. See Temporalities.
2. The king is entitled to a CORODY, as the law calls
it, out of every bifhopric } that is, to fend one of his
chaplains to be maintained by the bilbop, or to have a
penlion allowed him till the bilbop promotes him to a
benefice. This is alfo in the nature of an acknowledge¬
ment to the king, as founder of the fee, fince he had
formerly the fame corody or penfion from every abbey
or priory of royal foundation. It is fuppofed to be now
fallen into total difufe •, though Sir Matthew Hale fays,
that it is due of common right, and that no prefcription
will difcharge it.
3. The king alfo is entitled to all the tithes arifing in
extraparochial places ; though perhaps it may be doubted
how far this article, as well as the laft, can be properly
reckoned a part of the king’s own royal revenue j fince
a corody fupports only his chaplains, and thefe extrapa¬
rochial tithes are held under an implied trull that the
king will diftribute them for the good of the clergy in
general.
4. The next branch confills in the firlt-fruits and
tenths of all fpiritual preferments in the kingdom. See
Tenths.
5. The next branch of the king’s ordinary revenue
(which, as well as the fubfequent branches, is of a lay
or temporal nature) confills in the rents and profits of
the demefne lands of the crown. Thefe demefne lands,
terrue dominicales regis, being either the lhare referved
to the crown at the original dillribution of landed pro¬
perty, or fuch as came to it afterwards by forfeitures or
: 1 other means, were anciently very large and extenlive ;
comprifing divers manors, honours, and lordlhips; the
tenants of which had very peculiar privileges, when we
fpeak of the tenure in ancient demefne. At prefent they
are contra&ed within a very narrow compafs, having
been almolt entirely granted away to private' fubjedls.
This has occafioned the parliament frequently to inter-
pofe ; and particularly after King William III. had
greatly impoverithed the crown, an a£l pafied, whereby
all future grants or leafes from the crown for any longer
term than 31 years or three lives, are declared to be void;
except with regard to houfes, which may be granted for
50 years. And no reverfionary leafe can be made, fo
as to exceed, together with the ellate in being, the fame
term of three lives or 31 years; that is, when there is a
fubfilling leafe, of which there are 20 years Hill to come,
the king cannot grant a future interell, to commence
after the expiration of the former, f@r any longer term
than 11 years. The tenant mull alfo be made liable to
be punilhed for committing walle j and the ufual rent
mull be referved, or, where there has ufually been no
rent, one-third of the clear yearly value. The misfor- Revenue,
tune is, that this a£l was made .too late, after almoil ^
every valuable polfelfion of the crown had been granted
away for ever, or elfe upon very long leafes ; but may
be of benefit to pollerity, when thofe leafes come to ex¬
pire.
6. Hither might have been referred the advantages
which were ufed to arife to the king from the profits of
his military tenures, to which moil lands in the kingdom
W'ere fubjecl, till the llatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. which in
reat meafure abolilhed them all. Hither alfo might
ave been referred the profitable prerogative of purvey¬
ance and pre-emption : which was a right enjoyed by the
crown of buying up provifions and other neceflaries, by
the intervention of the king’s purveyors, for the ufe of
his royal houfehold, at an appraifed valuation, in preference
to all others, and even without confent of the owner:
and alfo of forcibly imprelfing the carriages and horfes of
the fubjefl, to do the king’s bufmefs on the public roads,
in the conveyance of timber, baggage, and the like,
however inconvenient to the proprietor, upon paying
him a fettled price. A prerogative which prevailed
pretty generally throughout Europe during the fcarcitV
of gold and filver, and the high valuation of money con-
fequential thereupon. In thofe early times, the king’s
houfehold (as well as thofe of inferior lords) were fup-
ported by fpecific renders of corn, and other vi&uals,
from the tenants of the refpeftive demefnes ; and there
was alfo a continual market kept at the palace gate to
furnilh viands for the royal ufe. And this anfwered
all purpofes, in thofe ages of fimplicity, fo long as the
king’s court continued in any certain place. But w hen
it removed from one part of the kingdom to another (as
was formerly very frequently done), it was found necef-
fary to fend purveyors beforehand, to get together a fuf-
ficient quantity of provifions and other neceffaries for the
houfehold: and,left theunufual demandIhould raife them
to an exorbitant price, the powers before-mentioned were
veiled in thefe purveyors j who in procefs of time very
greatly abufed their authority, and became a great op-
preflion to the fubjefl, though of little advantage to the
crown; ready money in open market (when the royal
refidence was more permanent, and fpecie began to be
plenty) being found upon experience to be the bell pro-
veditor of any. Wherefore, by degrees, the powers of
purveyance have declined, in foreign countries as well
as our own : and particularly were abolilhed in Sweden
by Gullavus Adolphus, towards the beginning of the
laft century. And, with us in England, having fal¬
len into difule during the fufpenfion of monarchy,
King Charles, at his reftoration, confented, by the
fame ftatute, to refign entirely thofe branches of his
revenue and power : and the parliament, in part of re~
compenfe, fettled on him, his heirs, and fucceffors, for
ever the hereditary excife of 1 jd. per barrel on all beer
and ale fold in the kingdom, and a proportionable fum
for certain other liquors. So that this hereditary excife
now forms the fixth branch of hismajefty’s ordinary re¬
venue.
7. A feventh branch might alfo be computed to have
arifen from wine licences j or the rents payable to the
crown by fuch perfons as are lieenfed to fell wine by re¬
tail throughout Britain, except in a few privileged
places. Thefe were firft fettled on the crown by the
ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 25. and, together with the here¬
ditary
Revenue.
REV [ 784 ] REV
dltary excife, made up the equivalent in vaiue for the
lofs fuftained by the prerogative in the abolition of the
military tenures, and the right ot pre-emption arid pur¬
veyance : but this revenue was abolifhed by the ftatute
30 Geo. II. c. 19. and an annual fum of upwards of
7000I. per annum, ifluing out of the new damp duties
impofed on wine-licences, was fettled on the crown in
its dead.
8. An eighth branch of the king’s ordinary revenue is
ufually reckoned to confid in the profits arifing from his
foreds. See Forest. Thefe confid principally in the
amercements or fines levied for offences againd the lored-
laws. But as.few, if any, courts of this kind for levying
amercements have been held fince 1632, 8 Char. I. and
as, from the accounts given of the proceedings in that
court by our hidoriesand law-books, nobody would widi
to fee them again revived, it is needlefs to purfue this in¬
quiry any farther.
9. The profits arifing fiom the king’s ordinary courts
of judice make a ninth branch of his revenue. And
thefe confid not only in fines impofed upon offenders,
forfeitures of recognizances, and amercements levied
-upon defaulters ; but alfo in certain fees due to the
crown in a variety of legal matters, as, f®r fetting the
great feal to charters, original writs, and other forenlic
proceedings, and for permitting fines to be levied of
lands in order to bar entails, or otherwife to infure
their title. As none of thefe can be done without the
immediate intervention of the king, by himfelf or his
officers, the law allows him certain perquifites and pro¬
fits, as a recompenfe for the trouble he undertakes for
the public. Thefe, in procefs of time, have been al-
mod all granted out to private perfons, or elfe appro¬
priated to certain particular ufes : fo that, though our
law proceedings are dill loaded with their payment,
very little of them is now returned into the king’s
exchequer: for a part of whofe royal maintenance
they were originally intended. All future grants of
them, however, by the datute 1 Ann. dat. 2. c. 7. are
to endure for no longer time than the prince’s life who
grants them.
10. A tenth branch of the king’s ordinary revenue,
laid to be grounded on the confideration of his guard¬
ing and protedling the feas from pirates and robbers, is
the right to royalJiJh, which are whale and durgeon :
and thefe, when either thrown alhore, or caught near
the coads, are the property of the king, on account of
their fuperior excellence. Indeed, our ancedors feem
to have entertained a very high notion of the importance
of this right ; it being the prerogative of the kings of
Denmark and the dukes of Normandy ; and from one
of thefe it was probably derived to our princes.
11. Another maritime revenue, and founded partly
upon the fame reafon, is that of shipwrecks. See
Wreck.
1 2. A twelfth branch of the royal revenue, the right
to mines, has its original from the king’s prerogative
pf coinage, in order to fupply him with materials 5 and
therefore thofe mines which are properly royal, and to
which the king is entitled when found, are only thofe
of filver and gold. See Mine.
13. To the fame original may in part be referred the
revenue of treafure-trove. See TMEASURE-Trove.
14. Waifs. See Waif.
15. Edrays. See EsTray.
Befides the particular reafons, given in the different Reveime.
articles, why the king Qmuld have the feveral revenues ~v—■**
of royal fi(h, thipwrecks, treafure-trove, waifs, and edrays,
there is alfo one general reafon which holds for them,
all •, and that is, becaufe they are bona vacantia, or
goods in which no one elfe can claim a property. And,
therefore, by the law of nature, they belonged to the
fird occupant or finder •, and fo continued under the im¬
perial law. But in fettling the modern conditutions of
mod of the governments in Europe, it was thought pro¬
per (to prevent that drife and contention which the
mere title of occupancy is apt to create and continue,
and to provide for the fupport of public authority in a
manner the lead burdenfome to individuals) that thefe
rights diould be annexed to the fupreme power by the
pofitive laws of the date. And fo it came to pafs, that,
as Bra&on expreffes it, “ htec, quae nullius in bonis funt,
“ et olim fuerunt inventoris de jure naturali, jam effici-
“ untur principis de jure gentium.”
16. The next branch of the king’s ordinary revenue
confids in forfeitures of lands and goods for offences j
bona conffcata, as they are called by the civilians, be¬
caufe they belonged to the fifcus or imperial treafury \
or, as our lawyers term them, foris fa£ia, that is, fuck
whereof the property is gone away or departed from the
owner. The true reafon and only fubdantial ground
of any forfeiture for crimes, confid in this; that all pro¬
perty is derived from fociety, being one of thofe civil
rights which are conferred upon individuals, in exchange
for that degree of natural freedom which every man
mud facrifice when he enters into focial communities.
If, therefore, a member of any national community vio¬
lates the fundamental contradt of his affociation, by
tranfgreffing the municipal law, he forfeits his right to
fuck privileges as he claims by that contract; and the
date may very judly refume that portion of property,
or any part of it, which the law's have before affigned
him. Hence, in every offence of an atrocious kind, the
laws of England have exacted a total confifcation of the
moveables or perfonal edate ; and, in many cafes, a per¬
petual, in others only a temporary, lofs of the offender’s
immoveables or landed property *, and have veded them,
both in the king, who is the perfon fuppofed to be of¬
fended, being the one vifible magidrate in whom the
majedy of the public refides. See Forfeiture and
Deodand.
17. Another branch of the king’s ordinary revenue
arifes from efcheats of lands, which happen upon the
defeat of heirs to fucceed to the inheritance ; whereupon
they in general revert to and ved in the king, who is
edeemed, in the eye of the law, the original proprietor
of all lands in the kingdom.
18. The lad branch of the king’s ordinary revenue,
eonfids in the cudody of idiots, from whence we ffiall
be naturally led to confider alfo the cudody of lunatics.
See Idiot and Lunatic.
This may fuffice for a fhort view of the king’s ordi¬
nary revenue, or the proper patrimony of the crown j
which was very large formerly, and capable of being
increafed to a magnitude truly formidable : for there
are very few edates in the kingdom that have not, at
fome period or other fince the Norman conqued, been
veded in the hands of the king, by forfeiture, efcheat,
or otherwife. But, fortunately for the liberty of the
fubjeft, this hereditary landed revenue, by a fexies of
improvident
Seven
Revenue.
R' E V [ 78
Improvident management, is funk aim oft to nothing j
and the cafual profits, arifing from the other branches
of the cenfus regalis, are likewife almoft all of them
alienated from the crown. In order to fupply the de¬
ficiencies of which, we are now obliged to have recourfe
to new methods of raifing money, unknown to our early
anceftors •, which methods conftitute,
II. The yjmg's extraordinary revenue. For, the pub¬
lic patrimony being got into the hands of private fub-
jects, it is but reafonable that private contributions
ftiould fupply the public fervice. Which, though it
may perhaps fall harder upon fome individuals, whofe
anceftors have had no {hare in the general plunder,
than upon others, yet, taking the nation throughout, it
amounts to nearly the fame ; provided the gain by the
extraordinary Ihould appear to be no greater than the
lofs by the ordinary revenue. And perhaps, if every
gentleman in the kingdom was to be ftripped of fueh of
his lands as were formerly the property of the crown j
was to be again fubjedl to the inconveniences of pur¬
veyance and pre-emption, the oppreftion of foreft-laws,
and the flavery of feodal-tenures $ and was to refign in¬
to the king’s hands all his royal franchifes of waifs,
wrecks, eftrays, treafure-trove, mines, deodands, forfei¬
tures, and the like ; he would find himfelf a greater
lofer than by paying his quota to fuch taxes as are ne-
ceflary to the fupport of government. The thing, there¬
fore, to be wiftied and aimed at in a land of liberty, is
by no means the total abolition of taxes, which would
draw after it very pernicious confequences, and the very
fuppofition of which is the height of political abfurdity.
For as the true idea of government and magiftracy will
be found to confift in this, that fome few men are de¬
puted by many others to prefide over public affairs, fo
that individuals may the better be enabled to attend
their private concerns *, it is neceffary that thofe indivi¬
duals ftrould be bound to contribute a portion of their
private gains, in order to fupport that government, and
reward that magiftracy, which protedls them in the en¬
joyment of their refpeftive properties. But the things
to be aimed at are wifdom and moderation, not only in
granting, butalfoin the method of raifing, the neceffary
fupplies} by contriving to do both in fuch a manner as
may be moft conducive to the national welfare, and at
the" fame time moft confiftent with economy and the li¬
berty of the fubjeft ; who, when properly taxed, contri¬
butes only, as was before obferved, fome part of his pro¬
perty in order to enjoy the reft,
Thefe extraordinary grants are ufually called by the
fynonymous names of aids, fubjtdies, /applies ; and
are granted by the commons of Great Britain, in par¬
liament affembled. See Parliament and 1 ax.
The clear nett produce of the feveral branches of
the revenue, after all charges of colledting and ma¬
nagement paid, amounted in the year 1786 to about
15,397,000b fterling, while the expenditure was found
to be about 14,477,000b How thefe immenfe fums are
appropriated, is next to beconfidered. And this is, firft
and principally, to the payment of the intereft of the na¬
tional debt. See NATIONAL Debt and Funds.
The refpeftive produces of the feveral taxes were ori¬
ginally feparate and diftinft funds ; being fecurities for
the fums advanced on each feveral tax, and for them
only. But at laft it became neceffary, in order to avoid
confufion, as thev multiplied yearly, to reduce the num-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
5 i R E x
ber of thefe feparate funds, by uniting and blending Revenue
them together $ fuperadding the faith of parliament for ^
the general fecurity of the whole. So that there are
now only three capital funds of any account, the aggre¬
gate fund, and the general fund, fo called from Inch
union and addition ; and the South-fea fund, being the
produce of the taxes appropriated to pay the intereft of
fuch part of the national debt as was advanced by that
company and its annuitants. Whereby the feparatc
funds, which were thus united, are become mutual ie-
curities for each other } and the whole produce of them,
thus aggregated, liable to pay fuch intereft or annuities
as were formerly charged upon each diftinfl fund : the
faith of the legiftature being moreover engaged to fup¬
ply any cafual deficiencies.
The cuftoms, excifes, and other taxes, which are to
fupport thefe funds, depending on contingencies, upon
exports, imports, and confirmptions, muft neceffarily
be of a very uncertain amount j but they have always
been coniiderably more than was fuftreient to anfwer the
charge upon them. The furpluffes, therefore, of the
three great national funds, the aggregate, general, and
South-fea funds, over and above the intereft and an¬
nuities charged upon them, are directed by llatute
3 Geo. I. c. 7. to be carried together, and to attend
the difpofition of parliament 5 and are ufually denomi¬
nated the Jinking fund, becaufe originally deftined to fink
and lower the national debt. To this have been fines
added many other entire duties, granted in fubfequent
years ; and the annual intereft of the fums borrowed on
their refpe&ive credits is charged on, and payable out
of the produce of the finking fund. However, the nett
furpluffes and favings, after all dedudlions paid, amount
annually to a very confiderable firm. For as the in¬
tereft on the national debt has been at feveral times re¬
duced (by the confent of the proprietors, who had their
option either to lower their intereft or be paid their
principal), the favings from the appropriated revenues'
muft needs be extremely large.
But, before any part of the aggregate fund (the fur¬
pluffes whereof are one of the chief ingredients that
form the finking fund) can be applied to dituinifh the
principal of the public debt, it ftands mortgaged by
parliament to raile an annual firm for the maintenance
of the king’s houfehold and the civil lift. For this pur-
pofe, in the late reigns, the produce of certain branches
of the excife and cuftoms, the poll-office, the duty on
wine-licences, the revenues of the remaining crown-
lands, the profits arifing from courts of juftice, (which
articles include all the hereditary revenues of the crown),
and alfo a clear annuity of 120,000!. in money, were
fettled on the king for life, for the fupport of his ma-
jefty’s houfehold, and the honour and dignity of the
crown. And, as the amount of thefe feveral branches
was uncertain,(though in the laft reign they were'com¬
puted to have fometimes raifed almoft: a million), if they
did not rife annually to 8oo,oool. the parliament en¬
gaged to make up the deficiency. But his prefent ma-
jefty having, foon after his acceflion, fpontaneoufly fig-
nified his confent that his own hereditary revenues might
be fo difpofed of as might bell conduce to the utility
and fatisfadlion of the public, and having graciottlly ac¬
cepted a limited fum, the faid hereditary and other re¬
venues are now carried into, and made a part of, the ag¬
gregate fund } and the aggregate fund is charged with
5 G the.
REV [
Reran.*, the payment of the whole annuity to the cronra. The
•   ' limited annuity acceptedby h.aprefentmajefty wasat fcft
800.000I. but it has been fince augmented to 900,0001.
The expences themfelves, being put under the fame eare
and management as the other branches of tiie pubhc
patrimony, produce more, and are better colkaed than
heretofore-, and the public is a gainer of upwards of
lOOjOOOl. per annum by this difinterefted boun y o
^Uh^finking fund, though long talked of as the laft
refource of the nation, proved very inadequate to the
purpofe for which it was eftablilhed. Minifters found
pretences for diverting it into other channels; and the
diminution of the national debt proceeded flowly during
the intervals of peace, whilft each fucceedmg war in-
creafed it with great rapidity. To remedy this evil,
and reftore the public credit, to which the late war had
given a confiderable {hock, Mr Pitt conceived a plan tor
diminiihing the debt by a fund, which (hould be render¬
ed unalienable to any other purpofe. In the feffion 1700,
he moved that the annual furplus of the revenue above
the expenditure {hould be raifed, by additional taxes,
from 900,000!. to one million fterling, and that certain
commiflioners fliould be veiled with the full power of
difpoiing of this fum in the purchafeofftock (fee Funds),
for the public, in their own names. Thefe commiflioners
fliould receive the annual million by quarterly payments
of 250,000!. to be iffued out of the exchequer before
any other money, except the intereft of the national
debt itfelf; by thefe provifions, the fund would be fe-
cured, and no deficiencies in the national revenues could
affeft it, but fuel) muft be feparately provided for by
parliament. # .
The accumulated compound intereft on a million
yearly, together with the annuities that w-ould fall into
that fund, would, he find, in 28 years amount to fuch a
fum as would leave a furplus of four millions annually,
to be applied, if neceflary, to the exigencies of the ftate.
In appointing the commiflioners, he {hould, he faid, en¬
deavour to choofe perfons of fuch weight and character
as correfponded with the importance of the commiffion
they were to execute. The fpeaker of the houfe of
commons, the chanceller of the exchequer, the mafter
of the rolls, the governor and deputy governor of the
bank of England, and the accountant-general of the
high court of chancery, were perfons ivho, from their
feveral fituations, he {hould think highly proper to be
of the number.
To the principle of this bill no obje£Hon was made,
though feveral fpecious but ill-founded ones were urged
againft the fufficiency of the mode which the chancellor
of the exchequer had adopted for the aceomplifhment
of fo great and fo defirable an end. He had made it
a elaufe in his bill, that the accumulating million {hould
never be applied but to the purchafe of ftock. To this
claufe Mr Fox objected, and moved that the commif-
fioners therein named fhould be impowered to accept fo
much of any future loan as they {hould have cafli be¬
longing to the public to pay for. This, he faid, would
relieve that diftrefs the country would otherwife be un-
5 der, when, on account of a war, it might be neceffary
to raife a new loan: whenever that {hould be the cafe,
his opinion was, that the minifter {hould not only raife
taxes fufficiently produ&ive to pay the intereft of the
Revtrfa).
786 ] R E V
loan, but alfo fufficient to make good to the finking Revenue
fund whatfoever had been taken from it.
If, therefore, for inftance, at any future period a loan ^
of fix millions was propofed, and there was at that time
one million in the hands of the commiflioners, in fuch
cafe they {hould take a million of the loan, and the bo¬
nus or douceur thereupon {hould be received by them
for the public. Thus government would only have five
millions to borrow of fix -, and from fuch a mode of pro¬
ceeding, he faid, it was evident great benefit would arife'
to the public.
This claufe was received by Mr Pitt with the ftrong-
eft marks of approbation, as was like wife another, mov¬
ed by Mr Pulteney, enabling the commiflioners named
in the bill to continue purchafing ftock for the public
when it is above par, unlefs otherwife direfted by par¬
liament. With thefe additional claufes the bill was read
a third time on the 15th of May, and carried up to the
Lords, where it alfo paffed without meeting with any
material oppofition, and afterwards received the royal
affent.
The operation of this bill furpaffed perhaps the mi-
nifter’s moft fanguine expeftation. "I he fund was ably
managed, and judicioufly applied j and in 1793
commiflioners had extinguished fome millions of the
public debt. The war, however, in which the nation
was that year involved, and vyhich continued for eight
years after that period, made it neceflary to borrow ad¬
ditional fums, fo large, that many years of peace muft
elapfe before the operation of the fund can contribute
fenfibly to the relief of the people.
The clear produce of the taxes raifed on the people
of this country was, in the year I792> very near
17,OOO,cool, j and in the year ending 5th Jan. 1806, it
amounted to the enormous fum of 48,890,896!.
Revenue, in hunting, a flelhy lump formed chiefly
by a clufter of whitifli wurms-on the head of the deer,
fuppofed to occafion the calling of their horns by gnaw¬
ing them at the root.
REVERBERATION, in Phyjics, the aa of a body
repelling or refleaing another after its impinging there-
RevkrberatioN, in Chemijlry, denotes a kind of
circulation of the flame by means of a reverberatory
furnace.
REVERBERATORY, or ReVERBERJTING Fur¬
nace. See Furnace.
REVEREND, a title of refpea given to eccle-
fiaftics. The religious abroad are called reverend fa¬
thers, and abbefles, prioreffes, &c. reverend mothers. In
England, bilhops are right reverend, and archbilhops
mojl reverend. In France, before the Revolution, their
bifhops, archbilhops, and abbots, were all alike mojl re¬
verend. In Scotland, the clergy individually are reve¬
rend, a fynod is very reverend, and the general aflembly
is venerable.
REVERIE, the fame with delirium, raving, or
diftraftion. It is ufed alfo for any ridiculous, extra¬
vagant imagination,.a<ftion, or propofition, a chimera, or
vifion. But the moft ordinary ufe of the word among
Englilh writers, is for a deep diforderly mufing or me¬
ditation. * • J
REVERSAL 0/Judgement, in Law. _ A Judg®‘
ment mav be falfified, reverfed, or voided, in the tint
piace,
flevei
REV [ 787 ] REV
Reverfal. place, without a writ of error, for matters foreign to or
— w—' dehors the record, that is, not apparent upon the face of
it •, fo that they cannot be afligned for error in the fu-
perior court, which can only judge from what appears
in the record itfelf j and therefore, if the whole record
be not certified, or not truly certified, by the inferior
court, the party injured thereby (in both civil and cri¬
minal cafes) may allege a diminution of the record, and
caufe it to be redtified. Thus, if any judgment what¬
ever be given by perfons who had no good commiffion
to proceed againil the perfon condemned, it is void j
and may be falfified by (hewing the fpecial matter, with¬
out writ of error. As, where a com million iffues to A
and B, and twelve others, or any two of them, of which
A or B (hall be one, to take and try indictments ; and
any of the other twelve proceed without the interpofi-
tion or prefence of either A or B : in this cafe all.pro¬
ceedings, trials, convidtions, and judgments, are void
for want of a proper authority in the commiflioners, and
may be falfified upon bare infpeCtion, without the trouble
of a writ of error •, it being a high mifdemeanor in the
judges fo proceeding, and little (if any thing) (hort of
murder in them all, in cafe the perfon fo attainted be
executed and fuflfer death. So like wife if a man pur-
chafes land of another ; and afterwards the vender is,
either by outlawry, or his own confeffion, convicted and
attainted of treafon or felony previous to the fale or alie¬
nation ; whereby fuch land becomes liable to forfeiture
or efcheat: now', upon any trial, the purchafer is at li¬
berty, without bringing any writ of error, to falfify not
only the time of the felony or treafon fuppofed, but the
very point of the felony or treafon itfelf j and is not
concluded by the confeffion or the outlawry of the ven¬
der, though the vender himfelf is concluded, and not
fuffered now to deny the faCt, which he has by confef¬
fion or flight acknowledged. But if fuch attain¬
der of the vender was by verdiCt, on the oath of his
peers, the alienee cannot be received to fallify or
contradift the faB of the crime committed ; though
he is at liberty to prove a miftake in time, or that
the offence was committed after the alienation, and not
•before.
Secondly, a judgment may be reverfed, % writ of
error, which lies from all inferior criminal jurifdiCHons
to the court of king1s-bench, and from the king’s-bench
t;o the houfe of peers 5 and may be brought for notori¬
ous miftakes in the judgment or other parts of the
record : as where a man is found guilty of perjury,
and receives the judgment of felony, or for other lefs
palpable errors ; fuch as any irregularity, omiffion, or
want of form in the procefs of outlawry, or proclama¬
tions *, the want of a proper addition to the defendant’s
name, according to the ftatute of additions j for not
properly naming the (heriff or other officer of the court,
or not duly defcribing where his county-court was held ;
for laying an offence, committed in the time of the late
king, to be done againft the peace of the prefent 5 and
for many other fimilar caufes, which (though allowed
out of tendernefs to life and liberty) are not much to
the credit or advancement of the national juftice.—-
Thefe writs of error, to reverfe judgments in cafe of
inifdemeanors, are not to be allowed of courfe, but on
fufficient probable caufe (hown to the attorney-general;
and then they are underllood to be grantable of com¬
mon right, and ex dehito jufitice. But writs of error to
reverfe attainders in capital cafes are only allowed ex
gratia-, and not without exprefs warrant under the
king’s (ign-manual, or at leaft by the confent of the
attorney-general. Thefe therefore can rarely be brought
by the party himfelf, efpecially where he is attainted tor
an offence againft the ftate : but they may be brought
by his heir or executor after his death, in more favour¬
able times ; which may be fome confolation to his fa¬
mily. But the eafier and more effedtual way is,
Laftly, to reverfe the attainder by aft of parliament
This may be and hath been frequently done upon mo¬
tives of compaffion, or perhaps the zeal of the times, af¬
ter a hidden revolution in the government, without ex¬
amining too clofely into the truth or validity of the er¬
rors affigned. And fometimes, though the crime be
univerfally acknowledged and confeffed, yet the merits
of the criminal’s family (hall after his death obtain a re-
ftitution in blood, honours, and eftate, or fome or one
of them, by aft of parliament ; which (fo far as it ex¬
tends) has all the effeft of reverting the attainder, with¬
out cafting any refleftions upon the juftice of the pre¬
ceding fentence. See Attainder.
The effeft of falfifying or reverfing outlawry is,
that the party (hall be in the fame plight as if he had
appeared upon the eapias: and, if it be before plea
pleaded, he (hall be put to plead to the indiftment; if,
after conviftion, he (hall receive the fentence of the law;
for all the other proceedings, except only the procefs of
outlawry for his non-appearance, remain good and ef-
feftual as before. But when judgment, pronounced
upon conviftion, is falfified or reverfed, ?ll former pro¬
ceedings are abfolutely fet afide, and the party (lands
as if he had never been at all accufed; reftored in his
credit, his capacity, his blood, and his eftates: with
regard to which laft, though they be granted away by
the crown, yet the owner may enter upon the grantee,
with as little ceremony as he might enter upon a diffei-
for.—But he (fill remains liable to another profecution
for the fame offence : for, the firft being erroneous, he
never was in jeopardy thereby.
REVERSE of a medal, coin, &c. denotes the fe-
cond or back fide, in oppofition to the head or principal
figure.
REVERSION, in Scots Law. See Law, N° clxix.
1—3*
Reversion, in the law of England, has two fignifi-
cations ; the one of which is an eftate left, which con¬
tinues during a particular eftate in being ; and the other
is the returning of the land, &c. after the particular
eftate is ended ; and it is further faid to be an intereft in
lands, when the poffeffion of it fails, or where the eftate
which was for a time parted with, returns to the grant¬
ors, or their heirs. But, according to the ufual defini¬
tion of a reverfion, it is the refidue of an eftate left in
the granter, after a particular eftate granted away ceafes,
continuing in the granter of iuch an eftate.
The difference between a remainder and a reverfion
confifts in this, that the remainder may belong to any
man except the granter; whereas the reverfion returns
to him who conveyed the lands, &c.
In order to render the doftrine of reverfions eafy, we
(hall give the following table; which (hows the prefent
value of one pound, to be received at the end of any
5 G 2 number
Revei fat
11
Reverfion,
 Y '
REV [ /
Itcverlion. TiUmber of years not exceeding 40} dilcounting at the
—-''rate of 5, 4, and 3 per cent, compound intereft.
Value a’
per ct.
10
12
Va,lue at
4 per ct.
9524
9070
8638
8227
7835
.96x5
•9245
.8898
.8548
.8219
7462
7I07
6768
6446
6x39
5847
.5568
5303
5° 51
.48x0
458i
4363
'4155
3957
•3769
•3589
.3418
3255
3100
2953
Value at
Iter ct,
•97°9
.9426
•9151
.8885
.8626
79°3
7599
73°7
.7026
6756
.6496
.6246
.6006
•5775
•5553
•8375
.8x31
•7894
.7664
•7441
•7224
•7OI4
.6809
.661 x
.6419
•5339
•5I34
•4936
.4746
•4564
.2812
.2678
•2551
.2229
.2314
33
35
.2204
.2099
.1999
I903
,1813
.1726
.1644
.1566
•149I
.1420
.4388
.4219
■4057
•39°i
■3757
.3607
.3468
•3335
.3206
•3003
.2965
.2851
.2741
.2636
•2534
•2437
•2343
•2253
.2166
.2083
.6232
.6050
•5874
57°3
5537
•5375
•5219
• S°67
•4919
.4776
•4637
.4502
•437i
•4243
.4120
.4000
•3883
•377°
.3660
•3554
•3450
•3350
•3252
.3066
The ufe of the preceding table To find the prefent
value of any fum to be received at the end of a given
term of years, difcounting at the rate of 3, 4, or 5 per
cent, compound intereft. Find by the above table the
prefent value of xl. to be received at the end of the
given term •, which multiply by the number of pounds
propofed, (cutting off" four figures from the product on
account of the decimals), then the refult will be the va¬
lue fought: For example, the prefent value of io,oool.
5
788 ] REV
to be received 10 years hence, and the rate of intereft Reverfion
5 per cent, is equal to .6139 X 10,000 = 6139.0000!. .11
or 61391. Again, the prefent value of xo,oool. due Ruvmfica-
in ten years, the rate of intereft being 3 per cent, is 1 n’
.7441 X 10,000=7441.
Reversion of Series, in Algebra, a kind of reverfed
operation of an infinite feries. See SERIES.
REVETEMENT, in Yortifcation, a ftrong wall
built on the outfide of the rampart and parapet to fup-
port the earth, and prevent its rolling into the ditch.
REVIVIFICATION, in Chemijlry, a term general¬
ly applied to the diftillation of quickiilver from cim»a-
bar.
Revivification, in PhysiQlogy, the recalling of ani¬
mals apparently dead, to life. There are many kinds of
inlefts which may be revivified, after all the powers of
animation have been fufpended for a confiderable time.
Common flies, fmatl beetles, fpiders, moths, bugs, &c.
after being drowned in fpirit of wine, and continuing
apparently dead for upwards of 15 minutes, have been
reitored to life merely by being thrown among wood-
afhes flightly warm.
While Dr Franklin was in France, he received a
quantity of Madeira wine from America, which had
been bottled in Virginia. He found a few dead flies in
fome of the bottles, which he expofed to the fun in the
month of July and in lefs than three hours thefe feem-
ingly dead animals recovered life which had been fo
long fufpended. At firft they appeared as if eonvulfed j
they then raifed themfelves on their legs, wafhed their
eyes with their fore feet, dreffed their wings with thofe
behind, and in a ftiort time began to fly about.
But the moft remarkable inftance of revivification we
have heard of, is the following. In the warmer parts
of France there is an infeft very pernicious to the rye,
apparently beginning its operations at the foot of the
plant, and gradually proceeding towards the ear. If
the plant be thoroughly dried while the infeft is in the
root or ftem, the animal is irrecoverably killed j but af¬
ter it has reached the grain, the cafe is very different.
There have been inftances of thefe infefts being brought
to life in 15 minutes, by a little warm water, after the
grains, in which they were lodged, had been kept dry
for 30 years.
What is the metaphyfician to think of thefe pheno¬
mena, or what conclufion is he to draw from them re-
fpefting the mind ? If he be a fober man he will draw
no conclufion, for this reafon, that he knows nothing of
the fentient principle of infefts, or of any animal but
man. He is confcious that it is the fame individual be¬
ing which in himfelf, thinks, and wills, and feels } be
knows that part of his thought is not in one place, and
part of it in another j and therefore he concludes that
this thinking being is not matter, while experience
teaches him that it quits the material fyftem, when that
becomes unfit to difcharge its funftions, and cannot be
recalled. Experience teaches him, on the other hand,
that the fentient principle of thefe infefts does not quit
the fyftem when unfit for its funftions $ and hence he
ought to infer, that the minds of men and of infefts are
very different, and that the bond which unites the ma¬
terial and immaterial parts of an infeft, is certainly dif¬
ferent from that which unites the mind and body of man.
This is the only inference which can be fairly drawn
from
REV
[ 739 ]
BEY
RcviviSoa
tion
from thefe phenomena *, and he who makes them the
bafis of materialifm, muft have his judgment warped
R-evolution. by fome paffion or prejudice .
. -t— ^ Commission of KEVIii. vV, is a commilhon iome-
times granted, in extraordinary cafes, to revife the
fentence of the court of delegates, when it is appre¬
hended they have been led into a material error. This
commiflion the king may grant, although the ftatutes
24 and 25 Hen. VIII. declare the fentence of the de¬
legates definitive : becaufe the pope, as fupreme head by
the canon law, ufed to grant fuch commiffion of review ^
and fuch authority as the pope heretofore exerted is
now annexed to the crown by ftatutes 26 Hen. VIII.
c. I. and I Eliz. c. 1. But it is not matter of right,
which the fubjeft may demand ex debito jujlitice; but
merely a matter of favour, and which therefore is of¬
ten denied.
Review, is the drawing out all or part of the army
in line of battle, to be viewed by the king, or a gene¬
ral, that they may know the condition of the troops.
At all reviews, the officers ffiould be properly arm¬
ed, ready in their exercife, falute well, in good time,
and with a good air) their uniform genteel, &c. The
men ffiould be clean and Aveil dreffed •, their accoutre¬
ments well put on ; very well fized in their ranks} the
ferjeants expert in their duty, drummers perfeiR in their
beatings, and the fifers play correft. The manual ex¬
ercife muft be performed in good time, and with life •,
and the men carry their arms well; march, wheel, and
form with exaftnefs. All manoeuvres muft be perform¬
ed with the utmoft regularity, both in quick and flow
time. The firings are generally 36 rounds •, viz. by
companies •, by grand divifions ; by fub-divifions •, ob¬
liquely, advancing, retreating; by files; in the fquare;
ftreet firings, advancing and retreating ; and laftly, a
volley. The intention of a review is, to know the
condition of the troops, fee that they are complete and
perform their exercife and evolutions well.
Review is alfo applied to literary journals, which
give a periodical view of the ftate of literature ;—as
the Monthly Review, the Critical Review, the Britifli
Critic, &c. The number of works of this defcription
in Britain has increafed greatly of late years and fome
of them have a very extenfive circulation.
RE-UNION island, an ifland in the South fea, dif-
covered by the French on the 16th December 1773 ;
lying, according to M. de Pages, in latitude 48° 21",
and longitude 66° 47", the variation of the needle being
30° always towards north-weft. The road and harbour
are extremely good, and the latter from 16 to 8 fathoms
deep at the very ffiore. The coaft on each fide is lof¬
ty, but green, with an abrupt defeent, and fwarms with
a fpecies of buftards. The penguins and fea-lions which
fwarmed on the fands, were nowife alarmed at the ap¬
proach of thofe who landed ; from whence M. de Pages
concluded that the country was wholly uninhabited.
The foil produces a kind of grafs about five inches long,
with a broad black leaf, and feemingly of a rich quali¬
ty ; but there was no veftige of a tree or human habi¬
tation. See Travels round the World, by M. de Pages,
vol. iii. chaps. 8. and 9.
REVOLUTION, in politics, fignifies a change in
the conftitution of a ftate ; and is a word of different
import from revolt, with which it is fome times confound¬
ed. When a people withdraw their obedience from
their governors for any particular reafon, without over- Revolution,
turning the government, or waging an offenfive war Rev';eau>
againft it, they are in a ftate of revolt; when they over- ^
turn the government, and form a new one for them-
folves, they effect a revolution.
That which is termed the revolution in Britain is the
change which, in 1688, took place in confequence of
the forced abdication of King James II. when the Pro-
teftant fucceffion was eftabliffied, and the conftitution
reftored to its primitive purity. Of this important
tranfaftion, which confirmed the rights-and liberties of
Britons, we have endeavoured to give an impartial ac¬
count under another article (fee Britain, N°28i,&c.).
Of the rife and prpgrefs of the American revolution,
which is ftill freftr in the memory of fome of our readers,
a large detail is given under the article America. By
the revolution which took place in Poland about the end
of the 18th century, that kingdom was difmembered and
feized by Auftria, Pruffia and Ruffia. For an account of
this revolution, fee Poland ; and for the hiftory and
progrefs of the French revolution, the moft extraordi¬
nary of all, whether confidered with regard to the e-
vents which accompanied, or the eonfequences which
followed it, fee France.
Revolution, in Geometry, the motion of rotation
of a line about a fixed point ur centre, or of any figure
about a fixed axis, or upon any line or furface. Thus,
the revolution of a given line about a fixed centre, ge¬
nerates a circle ; and that of a right-angled triangle a-
bout one fide, as an axis, generates a cone ; and that of
a femicircle, about its diameter, generates a fpbere or
globe, &c.
Revolution, in AJlronomy, is the period of a ftar,
planet, or comet, &c. or its courfe from any point of
its orbit, till it return to the fame again.
REVULSION, \n Medicine, turning a flux of hu*
mours from one part to another by bleeding, cupping,
fri&ion, finapifms, blifters, fomentations, bathings, if-
fues, felons, ftrong purging of the bowels, &c.
REYN, Jan DE, an eminent hiftory and portrait
painter, born at Dunkirk in 1610. He had the good
fortune to be a difciple of Vandyke, was the firft per¬
former in his fchool, and was fo attached to his mafter
that he followed him to London, where it is thought ha
continued as long as he lived. In thefe kingdoms he
is moftly known by the name of Lang Jan. He died
in 1678: and it is imagined that the fcareity of his
works is occafioned by fo many of them being imputed
to Vandyke ; a circumftance which, if true, is beyond
any thing that could be faid in his praife.
REYNE AU, CheaRLS-Rene, commonly known by
the name of Father Reyneau, a celebrated mathematician
of France, was born in the year 1656, at Briflac in the
province of Anjou. When 20 years of age, he conneft-
ed himfelf with the Oratorians, a fort of religious order,
the members of which lived in community without bind¬
ing themfelves to the obfervance of any vows, and turn¬
ed their chief attention to the inftruftion of youth. He
afterwards taught philofophy at Pezenos, and next, at
Toulon, which requiring fome degree of geometrical
knowledge, he became extremely fond of that fcicnce,
and cultivated and improved it to a great extent. He
was, in confequence of his knowledge, invited *■ fill
the mathematical chair at Angers in 1683, and ,;
alfo elefled a member of the academy, in •. ..
R E Y [ 79° 3 KEY
.Reyneau, JJe undertook to reduce into a body, for the benent
Reyno’ds of h;s pUpiiS) the chief theories which were fcattered
^ through the works of Newton, Des Cartes, Leibnitz,
Bernoulli, the Leipfic A£ls, the Memoirs ot the Paris
Academy, and feveral other works, to which he gave
the name o[ Analyfe Demontree, or Analvfis Demon-
Hrated, which was publilhed in i^oS, in 2 vols. 410.
He gave to this work the name of Analyfis Demon-
flrated, becaufe he therein demonftrates various methods
which had not been demonftrated by their authors, or
at leaft not with fufficient accuracy and perfpicuity.
This work of Reyneau was very much applauded, and it
became a general maxim in France, that to follow him
was the bell, if not the only way, to make any extra'-
ordinary progrefs in the ftudy ef mathematics.
Such was his ambition to be ufeful, that in I7I4
publilhed his Science du Culcul lies Grandeurs, intended
for the benefit of fuoh as were wholly unacquainted with
the fcience of geometry. Of this work a very able
judge was pleafed to obferve, that “ though feveral
books had already appeared upon the fame fubjeft, fuch
-a treatife as that before him was ftill wanting, as in it
every thing was'handled in a manner fufficiently exten-
five, and at the fame time with all polTible exadtnefs
and perfpicuity.” Although many branches of the ma-
"thematics had been well difcufied prior to his time, no
good elements were to be met with, even of praftical
-geometry.
When the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris gave
admifiion to other learned and eminent men, Father Rey-
neau was received into the number. The works already
mentioned are all he ever publifhed, or perhaps ever
compofed, with the exception of a little piece upon
logic *, and materials for a fecond volume of his Science
du Calcul were left behind him inmanufcript. Towards
the clofe of life he was too much afflifled with ficknefs
to give much application to ftudy; and he died in 1728,
at 7 2 years of age. His many virtues and extenfive eru¬
dition made this event much regretted by all who had
the pleafure of being acquainted with him. It was re¬
garded as an honour and a happinefs by the firft men in
France, to number him among their friends, fuch as the
. chancellor of the kingdom and Malbranche, of the lat¬
ter of whom Reyneau was a ‘faithful and zealous dif-
ciple.
REYNOLDS, Sir Joshua, the celebrated painter,
was, on July the 16th 1723, born at Plympton, a Fmall
town in Devonlhire. His father was minifter of the pa-
rifti, and alfo mafter of the grammar-fchool j and being
a man of learning and philanthropy, he was beloved
and refpefted by all to whom he was known.—Such a
man, it will naturally be fuppofed, was affiduous in the
cultivation of the minds of his children, among whom
his fon Joftiua (hone confpicuous, by difplaying at a very
early period a fuperiority of genius, and the rudiments
of a correft tafte. Unlike other boys, who generally
content themfelves with giving a literal explanation of
their author, regardlefs of his beauties or his faults
voung Reynolds attended to both thefe, difplaying a
happy knowledge of what he read, and entering with
ardour into the fpirit of his author. He dlfcovered like-
wife talents for compofition, and a natural propenfity to
drawing, m which his friends and intimates thought him
qualified to excel. Emulation was a diftinguiftiing
feature in his mind, which his father perceived with Reynolds,
the delight natural to a parent; and defigning him for
the church, in which he hoped that his talents might
raife him to eminence, he fent him to one of the univer-
lities.
Soon after this period he gr6w paflionately fond of
painting*, and, by the perufal ef Richardfon’s theory
of that art, was determined to make it his profeflion
-throwgh life. At his own earneft requeft, therefore, he
was removed to London ; and about the year 1742 be*-
came a pupil to Mr Hudfon, who, though not himfelf
an eminent painter, was preceptor to feverals who af¬
terwards excelled in the art. One of the firft advices
which he gave to Mr Reynolds was to copy carefully
Guereino’s drawings. This was done with fuch fkill,
that many of the copies are faid to be now preferved in
the cabinets of the curious as the originals of that very
-great mafter.
About the year 1749, Mr Reynolds went to Italy
under the aufpices, and in the company, of the late
Lord (then Commodore) Keppel, who was appointed
to the command of the Britilh fquadron in the Medir
-terranean. In this garden of the world, this magic
feat of the arts, he failed not to vifit the fchools of the
great mafters, to ftudy the productions of different
ages, and to contemplate with unwearied attention the
various beauties which are charafteriftic of each. His
labour here, as has been obferved of another painter,
was “ the labour of love, not the talk of the hireling*,”
and how much he profited by it is known to all Eu¬
rope.
Having remained about two years in Italy, and flu-
died the language as well as the arts of the country
with great fuccefs, he returned to England, improved
by travel and refined by education. On the road to
London from the port where he landed, he accidentally
found in the inn where he lodged Johnfon’s life of Sa¬
vage j and was fo taken with the charms of compofi¬
tion, and the mafferly delineation of charafter difplay-
ed in that performance, that, having begun to read
it while leaning with his arm on the chirdney-piece, he
continued in that attitude infenfible of pain till he was
hardly able to raife his hand to his head. The admira¬
tion of the work naturally led him to feek the acquain¬
tance of its author, who continued one of his fincereft
admirers and warmeft friends, till 1784, when they
were feparated by the ftroke of death.
The firft thing that diftinguiflied him after his return
to his native country, was a full length portrait of
Commodore Keppel; which in the polite circles was
fpoken of in terms of the higheft encomium, and tef-
tified to what a degree of eminence he had arrived in
his profeflion. This was followed by a portrait of
Lord Edgecumbe, and a few others, which at once
introduced him to the firft bufinefs in portrait painting;
and that branch of the art he cultivated with fuch fuc¬
cefs as will for ever eftablifh his fame with all defcrip-
tions of refined fociety. Having painted fome of the
firft-rate beauties of the age, the polite world flocked
to fee the graces and the charms of his pencil; and he
foon became the mod faffiionable painter, not only in
England, but in all Europe. He has indeed preferved
the refemblance of fo many illuffrious charadlers, that we
feel.the kfs regret for his having left behind him fo few
hiftorical
Key
KEY [ 79i ] HE Y
Reynolds, hiitorical paintings ; though what he has done in that
“*"*V '■ way fliows (a) him to have been qualified to excel in
both departments. The only landfcape, perhaps, which
he ever painted, except thofe beautiful and chafie ones
which compofe the back grounds of many of his por¬
traits, is “ A View on the Thames from Richmond,”
which in 1784 was exhibited by the Society for Pro¬
moting Painting and Defign in Liverpool.
In 1 764 Mr Reynolds had the merit of being the
firft promoter of that club, which, having long exifted
without a name, became at lad diftinguifhed by the ap¬
pellation of the Literary Club. Upon the foundation
of the Royal Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Ar-
chete&ure, he was appointed prefident j and his ac¬
knowledged excellence in his profeffion made the ap¬
pointment acceptable to all the lovers of art. To add
to the dignity of this new inftitution, his majefty con¬
ferred on the prefident the honour of knighthood 5 and
Sir Jolhua delivered his firft difeourfe at the opening of
the Academy on January 2. 1769. The merit of that
difeourfe has been univerfally admitted among painters ;
but it contains fome directions refpeCling the proper
mode of profecuting their ftudies, to which every ftu-
dent of every art would do well to pay attention. “ I
would chiefly recommend (fays he), that an implicit
obedience to the rules of art, as eftablilhed by the prac¬
tice of the great mafters, (hould be exafted from the
young ftudents. That thofe models, which have paffed
through the approbation of ages, fhould be confidered
by them as perfeCt and infallible guides $ as fubjefts for
their imitation, not their criticifm. I am confident,
that this is the only efficacious method of making a
progrefs in the arts •, and that he who fets out with
doubting, will find life finilhed before he becomes mafter
of the rudiments. For it may be laid down as a ma¬
xim, that he who begins by prefuming on his own fenfe,
has ended his ftudies as foon as he has commenced them.
Every opportunity, therefore, fliould be taken to dif-
countenance that falfe and vulgar opinion, that rules
are the fetters of genius. They are fetters only to men
of no genius j as that armour which, upon the ftrong,
becomes an ornament and a defence, upon the weak and Reynolds,
mifhapen turns into a load, and cripples the body which ' 1 v’"" ^
it was made to proteCI.”
Each fucceeding year, on the diftribution of the
prizes, Sir Joftiua delivered to the ftudents a difeourfe
of equal merit with this : and perhaps we do not ha¬
zard too much when we fay, that, from the w hole col¬
lected, the lover of belles lettres and the fine arts will
acquire jufter notions of what is meant by tafte in ge¬
neral, and better rules for acquiring a correCt tafte,
than from multitudes of thofe volumes which have been
profeffedly written on the fubjeCt.
In the autumn of 1785 he went to Bruffels, where
he expended about 1000I. on the purchafe of paint- *
ings, which, having been taken from the different mo-
nafteries and religious houfes in Flanders and Germany,
were then expofed to fale by the command of the em¬
peror Jofeph ! Gainfborough and he had engaged to
paint each other’s portrait; and the canvas for both be¬
ing aftually ftretched, Sir Joftrua gave one fitting to
his diftinguiflied rival $ but, to the regret of every ad¬
mirer of the art, the unexpected death of the latter pre¬
vented all further progrefs.
In 179° h® was anxioufly defirous to procure the va¬
cant profelforflup of perfpeCtive in the academy for Mr
Bononi, an Italian architect j but that artift not having
been yet eleCted an aflbeiate, was of courfe no acade¬
mician, and it became neceffary to raife him to thofe
fituations, in order to qualify him for being a profeffor.
Mr Gilpin being his competitor for the aflbeiateihip,
the numbers on the ballot proved equal, when the pre¬
fident by his calling vote decided the eleCtion in favour
of his friend, who was thereby advanced fo far towards
the profefiorlhip. Soon after this, an academic feat be¬
ing vacant, Sir Joftiua exerted all his influence to ob¬
tain it for Mr Bononi; but finding himfelf outvoted by
a majority of two to one, he quitted the chair with
great dilfatisfaCtion, and next day fent to the fecretary
of the academy a formal refignation of the office, which
for tw'enty-one years he had filled with honour to him¬
felf and his country. His indignation, however, fubfi-
ding,
(a) As the lovers of painting may wiffi to have a catalogue of this great mafter’s hiftorical pieces, we fubjoin
the following from the European Magazine, which we have good reafon to believe accurate, as the editors of
that mifcellany grudge neither trouble nor expence to procure authentic information. Sir Jothua’s principal hi¬
ftorical pieces, then, are the following : Hope nurfing Love *, Venus chaftifing Cupid for having learned to call
accounts ; Count Ugolino in the dungeon ; the calling of Samuel ; Ariadne ; a Captain of banditti j Beggar
Boy 5 A Lady in the character of St Agnes j Thais •, Dionyfius the Areopagite j an infant Jupiter ; Mafter
Crewe in the character of Henry VIII. ; the death of Dido ; a Child afleep ; Cupid fleeping ; Covent Garden
Cupid ; Cupid in the Clouds •, Cupids painting •, Boy laughing ; Mafter Herbert in the character of Bacchus j
Hebe j Mifs Meyer in the character of Hebe *, Madona, a head the Black-guard Mercury ; a little boy (Sa¬
muel) praying ; an old Man reading 5 Love loofing the zone of Beauty •, the Children in the Wood ; Cleo¬
patra diflolving the Pearl j Garrick in the character of Kitely Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy j Mrs
Abingdon in the character of Comedy ; a Child furrounded by Guardian Angels ; Mifs Beauclerc in the cha¬
racter of Spenfer’s Una ; Refignation the Duchefs of Manchefter in the character of Diana ; Lady Blake in
the character of Juno ; Mrs Sheridan in the character of St Cecilia ; Edwin, from Beattie’s Minftrel ; the Na¬
tivity, Four Cardinal Virtues, and Faith, Hope, and Charity, for the window of New College Chapel, Ox¬
ford ; the Studious Boy ; a Bacchante $ a daughter of Lord W. Gordon as an Angel j the Holy Family ; the
Cottagers, from Thomfon ; the Veftal ; the Careful Shepherdefs ; a Gypfey telling Fortunes the infant Her¬
cules ftrangling the Serpent; the Moufe-trap girl; Venus; Cornelia and her Children ; the Bird; Melancholy ;
Mrs Siddons in Tragedy ; Head of Lear ; Mrs Talmalb in the character of Miranda, with Profpero and Cali
ban ; Robin Goodfellow ; Death of Cardinal Beaufort; Macbeth, with the Caldron of the Witches.
k
HE?
HeynoMs. ding, fe fuffercd himfelf to he prevailed “P0" to return
—v 1 to the chair, which within a year and a half he was
awain defirous to quit for a better reaion.
° Finding a difeafe of languor, occafioned by an en¬
largement of the liver, to which he had for foine time
been fubieft, increafe upon him, and daily expecting the
total lofs of fight, he wrote a letter to the academy, in¬
timating his intention to refign the office of prefident on
account of bodily infirmities, which diiabled him from
executing the duties of it to his own fatisfaftion. Ihe
academicians received this intelligence witn the relpeft-
ful concern due to the talents and virtues oi their pre¬
fident ; and either then did enter, or de'figned to enter,
into a refolution, honourable to all parties, namely, that
a deputation from the whole body of the academy fhould
wait upon him, and inform him of their wiffi, that the
authority and privileges of the office of prefident might
be his during his life', declaring their willingnefs to per¬
mit the performance of any of its duties which might
be irkfome to him by a deputy.
From this period Sir Jofhua never painted more.
The laft effort of his pencil was the portrait of the Ho¬
nourable Charles James Fox, which was executed in his
befl ftyle, £nd ffiows that his fancy, his imagination, and
his other great powers in the art which he profeffed, re¬
mained unabated to the end of his life. When the laft
touches were given to this pifture,
“ The hand of Reynolds fell, to rife ho more.”
On Thurfday February the 23d 1792, the world was
deprived of this amiable man and excellent artift, at the
age of 68 years; a man than whom no one, according
-to Johnfon, had paffod through life with ftiore obferva-
tion of men and manners. The following charafter of
him is faid to be the produflion of Mr Burke *
“ His illnefs was long, but borne with a mild and
cheerful fortitude, without the leaft tnixture of any
thing irritable or querulous, agreeably to the placid and
even tenor of his whole life. He had from the begin¬
ning of his malady a diftinft view of his diflblution,
which he contemplated with that entire compofure
which nothing but the innocence, integrity, and ufeful-
nefs of his life, and an unaffefted fubmiftion to the will
of Providence, could beftow. In this fituation he had
every confolation from family tendernefs, which his
tendernefs to his family had always merited.
“ Sir Joftma Reynolds was, on very many accounts,
one of the moft memorable men of his time : He was
the firft Englifliman who added the praife of the ele¬
gant arts to the other glories of his country. In t&fte,
in grace, in facility, in happy invention, and in the.
richnefs and harmony of colouring, he was equal to the
great mafters of the renowned ages. In portrait he
went beyond them j for he communicated to that de*
fcription of the art in which Englilh artifts are the
moftx engaged, a variety, a fancy, and a dignity, deri¬
ved from the higher branches, which even thofe who
792 ] R FI A
profeffed them in a fuperior manner did not always pre-
ferve when they delineated individual nature. His por¬
traits remind the fpeftatcr of the invention of hiftory
and the amenity ot landfcape. In painting portraits he
appears not to be railed upon that platform, but to de-
fcend to it from a higher fphere. His paintings illu-
ftrate his leffons, and his leffons feem to be derived from
his paintings.
“ He poffeffed the theory as perfe&ly as the pradh’ce
of his art. To be fuch a painter, he was a profound and
penetrating philofopher.
“ In full happinefs of foreign and domeftic fame, ad¬
mired by the expert in art, and by the learned in fci-
ence, courted by the great, careffed by fovereign powers,
and celebrated by diftinguilhed poets, his native humi¬
lity, modefty, and candour, never forfook him, even on
furprxfe or provocation $ nor was the leaft degree ef ar¬
rogance or aflumption vifible to the moft fcrutinizing
eye in any part of his conduct or difeourfe.
“ His talents of every kind-powerful from nature,
and not meanly cultivated in letters—his focial virtues
in all the relations and all the habitudes of life, rendered
him the centre of a very great and unparalleled variety
of agreeable focieties, which will be diflipated by his
death. He had too much merit not to excite fome jea-
loufy, too much innocence to provoke any enmity. The
lofs of no man of his time can be felt with more fincere,
general, and unmixed forrow.”
REZAN, or Rezanskoi, an ancient town of Rulfia,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with an arch-
biftiop’s fee. It was formerly confiderable for its extent
and richesr, but it was almoft ruined by the Tartars in
1568. The country is populous, and was formerly go¬
verned by its own princes. E. Long. 42. 37. N. Lat.
54- 54*
RHABDOLOGY, or Rabdology, in arithmetic,
a name given by Napier to a method of performing
fome of the more difficult operations of numbers by
means of fquare little rods. Upon thefe are infcribed
the fimple numbers ; then by ffiifting them according to
certain rules, thofe operations are performed by fimply
adding or fubtradling the numbers as they ftand upon
the rods.
RHADAM ANTHUS, a fevere judge, and king of
Lydia } the poets make him one of the three judges of
he'll.
RHAGADES, in Medicine, denotes chaps or clefts
in any part of the body. If feated in the anus, and
recent, the patient muft fit ftill, and fit over the fteam
of warm water. The epulotic cerate may alfo be ap¬
plied. If the lips of thefe fiffures are callous, they
muft be cut or otherwife treated as to become new ul¬
cerations.
RHAMA, or Rama, an incarnate deity of the firft
rank, in Indian mythology. Sir William Jones believes
he was the Dionyfos (a) of the Greeks, whom they
named Bromiu^, without knowing why ; and Eugenes,
„ when
Reyttolda
'll
Rhama.
(a) The learned prefident, whofe death ■will be lamented by every fcholar, by the orientalift and the divine
efpecially, imagines, that this would fully appear from comparing together the Dionysiaca of Nonnus and the
Ramayan of Valmic, the firft poet of the Hindoos. He adds, that, in his opinion, Rhama was the fon of Cuffi,
and that he might have eftabliflied the firft regular government in that part of Afia, in which his exploits are fan .
to have been performed.
R H A
[ 793 ]
R H A
Marches,
rol. i-
p, 321, &c.
Rhama. when they reprefented him horned, as well as Lyaois and
 v E/eutherios the deliverer, and Tryambos or Dythyram-
fyiat'' Re~ b0s triump{iant. “ Moft of thofe titles (fays Sir
William) were adopted by the Homans, by whom he
was called Bruma, Tauriformis, Liber, and Triumphus ;
and both nations had records or traditionary accounts of
his giving laws to men and deciding their contefts, of
his improving navigation and commerce, and, what may
appear yet more obfervable, of his conquering India and
other countries with an army of fatyrs, commanded by
no lefs a perfonage than Pan ; whom Lillius Gyraldus,
on what authority I know not, aflerts to have refided in
Iberia ‘ when he had returned, fays the learned mytho-
Jogift, from the Indian war, in which he accompanied
Bacchus.’ It were fuperfluous in a mere effay to run
any length in the parallel between this European god
and the fovereign of Ayodhya, whom the Hindoos be¬
lieve to have been an appearance on earth of the preler-
ving power •, to have been a conqueror of the higheft
renown, and the deliverer of nations from tyrants, as
well as of his confort Sita from the giant Ravan king of
Lanca ; and to have commanded in chief a numerous
and intrepid race of thofe large monkeys, which our na-
turalifts, or fome of them, have denominated Indian fa¬
tyrs : his general, the prince of fatyrs, was named Ha~
numat, or “ with high cheek bones y” and, with work¬
men of fuch agility, he foon raifed a bridge of rocks
over the fea, part of which, fay the Hindoos, yet re¬
mains 5 and it is probably the feries of rocks to which the
Muffulmansor the Portuguefe have given the foolilh name
of Adam's (it (hould be called Rama'1 s') bridge. Might
not this army of fatyrs have been only a race of moun¬
taineers, whom Rama, if fuch a monarch ever exifted,
had civilized ? However that may be, the large breed
of Indian apes is at this moment held in high veneration
by the Hindoos, and fed with devotion by the Brah¬
mans, who feem in two or three places on the banks of
the Ganges to have a regular endowment for the fupport
of them : they live in tribes of three or four hundred,
are wonderfully gentle (I fpeak as an eye-witnefs), and
appear to have fome kind of order and Subordination in
their little fylvan polity.” The feftival of Rhama is held
on the 9th day of the new moon of Chaitra, on which
the war of Lanca is dramatically reprefented, conclu¬
ding with an exhibition of the fire-ordeal, by which the
vigor’s wife Sita gave proof of her connubial fidelity.
Among the Hindoos there is a variety of very fine
dramas of great antiquity on the ftory of Rhama.
There are three Rhamas mentioned in the Indian
mythology, who, together with Crilhna, the darling
god of the Indian women, are defcribed as youths of
perfeft beauty. The third Rhama is Crithna’s elder
brother, and is confidered as the eighth Avatar (a), in-
vefted with an emanation of his divine radiance. Like
all the Avatars, Rhama is painted with gemmed Etbi-
Vol. XVII. Part II.
opian or Parthian coronets $ with rays encircling his Rli-nu
head, jewels in his ears, two necklaces, one ftraight and
one pendant on his bofom, with dropping gems j gar- - 1
lands of well-difpofed many-coloured flowers, or collars
of pearls, hanging down below’ his waifl ; loofe man¬
tles of golden tiffue or dyed filk, embroidered on the
hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one (houlder,
and folded like ribbands acrofs the breaft with brace¬
lets, two on one arm and on each wrift: all the Avatars
are naked to the waifts, and uniformly with dark azure
flelh, in allufion probably to the tint of that primordial
fluid on which Narayan moved in the beginning of time j
but their Ikirts are bright yellow, the colour of the cu¬
rious pericarpium in the centre of the water-lily.
RHAMNUS, the Buckthorn, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 43d order, Dunwfce. See Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica Index.
The paliurus, or thorn of Chriil, a deciduous fhrub or
tree, belongs to this genus, and is a native of Palefiine,
Spain, Portugal, and Italy. It grows to nearly the
height of 14 feet, and is armed with fliarp thorns, two
of W'hich are at each joint, one of which is about half an
inch long, ftraight, and upright; the other is fcarcely
half that length, and bent backward ; and between them
is the bud for next year’s flioot. June is the time of
flowering, and the flowers are fucceeded by a fmall fruit,
furrounded by a membrane. “ This plant (fays Han-
bury) is undoubtedly the fort of which the crown of
thorns for our blefled Saviour was compofed. The
branches are very pliant, and the fpines of it are at
every joint ftrong and fliarp. It grows naturally about
Jerufalem, as well as in many parts of Judaea ; and there
is no doubt that the barbarous Jews would make choice
of it for their cruel purpofe. But what farther confirms
the truth of thefe thorns being then ufed, are the an¬
cient pidlures of our bleffed Saviour’s crucifixion. The
thorns on the crowm of his head exactly anfwer to thofe
of this tree ; and there is great reafon to fuppofe thefe
were taken from the earlieft paintings of the Lord of
Life : and even now our modern painters copy from
them, and reprefent the crown as compofed of thefe
thorns. Thefe plants, therefore, ftiould principally have
a ftiare in thofe parts of the plantation that are more
peculiarly defigned for religious retirement; for they
will prove excellent monitors, and conduce to due re¬
flexion on and gratitude to ‘ Him who hath loved us,
and has walked us from our fins,’ &c.
RHAMPHASTOS, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of Piue. See Ornithology Index.
RHAPIS, a genus of plants belonging to the hexan-
dria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under
the firft order Palmce. See Botany Index.
RHAPSODI, Rhapsodists, in Antiquity, perfons
who made a bufinefs of finging pieces of Homer’s
5 H poems.
(a) Avatar means the defcent of the deity in his capacity of preferver. I he three firft of thefe defccnts reiate
to fome ftupendous convulfion of our globe from the fountains of the deep, an,d the fouith exhibits the miraculous
punilhment of pride and impiety, appearing to refer to the deluge. Three of the others were ordained for the
overthrow of tyrants or giants. Of thefe Avatars, we have mentioned m the text that Rhama is the eighth 4
Buddha, who appears to have been a reformer of the doXrines contained in Vedas, is the ninth : the tenth Ava¬
tar, we are told, is yet to come, and is expeXed to appear mounted (like the crowned conqueror in the Apucalypfe)
on a white horfe, with a feimitar blazing like a comet, to mow down all incorrigible and impenitent oftenders
who lhall then be on the earth.
lUiapfodi
II
•Rheims.
K H E
poems. It has been faid, that the Rhapfodi were
clothed in red when they fung the Iliad, and in blue
when they fung the Odyffey. They performed on the
theatres, and fometimes drove for prizes in contexts or
poetry, Tinging, &c. After the two antagonifts had
finifhed their parts, the two pieces or papers they were
written in were foon joined together again: whence the
name, vi’Z. from and alin, canticum: but there
feem to have been other Rhapfodi of more antquity
than thefe people, who compofed heroic poems or
fongs in praife of heroes and great men, and fung their
own compofitions from town to town for a livelihood ;
of which profeflion Homer himfelf is faid to have been.
See Bard.
RHAPSODOM ANCY, an ancient kind of divina-
K H E
peer of France, It is about four miles in circumference,
and contains feveral fine fquares, well-built houfes, and
magnificent churches. It had a mint, an univerfity,
and five abbeys, the mod famous of which is that of St
Remy. There are alfo feveral triumphal arches and
other monuments of the Romans. It is feated on the
river Vefie, on a plain furrounded by hills, which pro¬
duce excellent wine. E. Long. 4. 8. N. Lat. 49. 14.
RHENISH WINE, that produced on the hills about
Rheims. This wine is much ufed in medicine as a
folvent of iron, for which it is w^ell calculated on ac¬
count of its acidity. Dr Percival obferves, that it is
the bed folvent of Peruvian bark ; in which, how¬
ever, he thinks its acidity has no (hare, becaufe an ad¬
dition of vinegar to water does not augment its folvent
[ 794 1
Rlielms
li
Rhtum.
tion performed by pitching on a paflage of a poet at
hazard, and reckoning on it as a predidlion of what was
to come to pafs. There were various ways of pra&i-
iing this rhapfodomancy. Sometimes they wrote feve¬
ral papers or fentences of a poet on fo many pieces of
wood, paper, or the like, dxook them together in an
urn, and drew out one which was accounted the lot:
fometimes they cad dice on a table whereon verfes were
written, and that whereon the die lodged contained the
prediftion. A third manner was by opening a book,
and pitching on fome verfe at fird fight. This method
they particularly called the fortes Prcenefitue ; and af¬
terwards, according to the poet, made ufe of fortes Ho-
mericce., fortes Virgiliance, &c. See SORTES.
RHAPSODY, in Antiquity, a difcourfe in verfe fung
or rehearfed by a rhapfodid. Others will have rhapfody
to fignify a colleftion of verfes, efpecially thofe of Ho¬
mer, which having been a long time difperfed in pieces
and fragments, were at length by Piddratus’s order di-
geded into books called rhapfodies, from ^tLirrw, fuo, and
u\/\, canticum. Hence, among moderns, rhapfody is alfo
ufed for an affemblage of paffages, thoughts, and autho¬
rities, raked together from divers authors, to co'mpofe
fome new piece.
RHE, or Ree, a little ifland in the bay of Bifcay,
near the coad of Aunis in France. It was taken during
the war with France which ended in 1763, in the expe¬
dition commanded by Hawke and Mordaunt.
RHEA AMERICANA. The American odrich of au¬
thors has been frequently mentioned, but till of late
years very imperfectly known. See Ornithology
Index.
RHEEDI A, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
RHEGIUM, in Ancient Geography, fo very ancient
a city as to be fuppofed to take its name from the violent
burding of the coad of Italy from Sicily, thought to
have been formerly conjoined (Mela, Virgil). A city
of the Bruttii, a colony of Chalcidians from Eubcea :
a drong barrier oppofed to Sicily (Strabo) ; mentioned
by Luke-, furnamed Julium (Ptolemy), from a frefli
fupply of inhabitants fent hither by Augudus, after
driving Sextus Pompeius out of Sicily (Strabo) ; and
thus was in part a colony, retaining dill the right of a
municipium (Infcription). The city is now called Reg¬
gio, in the Farther Calabria.
RHEIMS, a city of France, in the department of
Marne, and capital of of Rhemois. It is one of the mod
ancient, celebrated, and larged places in the kingdom,
had an archbidxop’s fee, whofearchbidxopwas a duke and
3
power.
RHETORES, amongd the Athenians, were ten
in number, eleCled by lot to plead public caufes in the
fenate-houfe or affembly. For every caufe in which
they were retained, they received a drachm out of the
public money. They were fometimes called Zuniysgw,
and their fee to Soytiyogocov. No man was admitted to
this office before he was 40 years of age, though others
fay 30. Valour in war, piety to their parents, pru¬
dence in their affairs, frugality, and temperance, were
neceffary qualifications for this office, and every candi¬
date underwent an examination concerning thefe vir¬
tues, previous to the eleftion. The orators at Rome
were not unlike the Athenian rhetores. See Orator.
RHETORIANS, a fe£k of heretics in Egypt, fa
denominated from Rhetorius their leader. The didin-
guidxing tenets of this herefiareh, as reprefented by Phi-
ladrius, was, that he approved of all the herefies before
him, and taught that they were all in the right.
RHETORIC, the art of fpeaking copioudy on any
fubjeft, with all the advantages of beauty and force.
See Oratory.
RHEUM, a thin ferous humour, occafionally oozing
out of the glands about the mouth and throat.
Rheum, Rhubarb; a genus of plants of the enneandria
clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 12th
order, Holoracece. See Botany and Materia Me-
DlCA Index. Here, after enumerating the fpecies, we
dxall introduce what has been faid on the cultivation of
this valuable plant. There are five fpecies, viz. 1. The
rhaponticum, or common rhubarb, has a large, thick,
fieffiy, branching, deeply-driking root, yellowidi with¬
in j crowned by very large, roundiffi, heart-diaped
fmooth leaves, on thick, dightly-furrowed foot-dalks j
and an upright drong dem, two or three feet high,
adorned with leaves fingly, and terminated by thick
clofe fpikes of white dovrers. It grows in Thrace and
Scythia, but has been long in the Englifh gardens. Its
root affords a gentle purge. It is, however, of inferior
quality to fome of the following forts-, but the plant be¬
ing adringent, its young dalks in fpring, being cut and
peeled, are ufed for tarts. 2. The palmatum, palma-
ted-leaved true Chinefe rhubarb, hath a thick dedxy root,
yellow within j crowned with very large palmated leaves,
being deeply divided into acuminated fegments, exr
panded like an open hand ; upright dems, five or fix
feet high or more, terminated by large fpikes of flowers.
This is now proved to be the true foreign rhubarb, the
purgative quality of which is well known. 3.. The
compa&um, or Tartarian rhubarb, hath a large, fleflxy,
branched root, yellow within j crowned by very large,
heart*
Rheum.
R H E [ 795 ] R H E
heart-ftiaped foraewhat lobated, ftiarply indented, fmooth
leaves, and an upright large Item, five or fix feet high,
garnilhed with leaves fingly, and branching above ; ha¬
ving all the branches terminated by nodding panicles of
white flowers. This has been fuppofed to be the true
rhubarb ; which, however, though of fuperior quality to
fome forts, is accounted inferior to the rheum palmatum.
4. The undulatum, undulated, or waved-leaved Chinefe
rhubarb, hath a thick, branchy, deep-ftriking root, yel¬
low within j crowned with large, oblong, undulate,
fomewliat hairy leaves, having equal foot-ftalks, and
an upright firm Item, four feet high j garnitbed with
leaves Angle, and terminated by long loofe fpikes of
white flowers. 5. The Arabian ribes, or currant rhu¬
barb of Mount Libanus, has a thick flefliy root, very
broad leaves, full of granulated protuberances, and with
equal foot-ftalks, and upright firm ftems, three or four
feet high terminated by fpikes of flowers, fucceeded
by berry-like feeds, being furrounded by a purple pulp.
All thefe plants are perennial in root, and the leaves
and ftalks are annual. The roots being thick, flefliy, ge¬
nerally divided, ftrike deep into the ground ; of a brown-
ifli colour without and yellow within : the leaves rife
in the fpring, generally come up in a large head folded
together, gradually expanding themfelves, having thick
foot-ftalks j and grow from one to two feet high, or
more in length and breadth, fpreading all round : amidft
them rife the flower-ftems, which are garniftied at each
joint by one leaf, and are of ftrong and expeditious
growth, attaining their full height in June, when they
flower ; and are fucceeded by large triangular feeds, ri¬
pening in Auguft. Some plants of each tort merit cul¬
ture in gardens for variety j they will effeft a Angulari¬
ty with their luxuriant foliage, fpikes, and flowers j and
as medical plants, they demand culture both for private
and public ufe.
They are generally propagated by feeds fown in au¬
tumn foon after they are ripe, or early in the fpring, in
any open bed of light deep earth •, remarking, thofe in¬
tended for medical ufe fhould generally be fowed where
they are to remain, that the roots, being not difturbed
by removal, may grow large. Scatter the feeds thinly,
either by broad-caft all over the furface, and raked
well in j or in (hallow drills a foot and a half diftance,
covering them near an inch deep. L he plants will riie
in the fpring, but not flower till the fecond or third
year $ when they, however, are come up two or three
inches high, thin them to eight or ten inches, and clear
out all weeds ; though thofe defigned always to (land
(hould afterwards be hoed out to a foot and a half or
two feet diftance : obferving, if any are required for the
pleafure ground, &c. for variety, they ftiould be tranf-
planted where they are to remain in autumn, when
their leaves decay, or early in fpring, before they (hoot:
the others remaining where fowed, muft have the ground
kept clean between them ; and in autumn, when the
leaves and ftalks decay, cut them down, and (lightly dig
the ground between the rows of plants, repeating the
fame work every year. The roots remaining, they in-
creafe in fize annually : and in the fecond orthhd year
many of them will (hoot up ftalks, flower, and perfe<5l
feeds j and in three or four years the roots will be ar¬
rived to a large fize ; though older roots are generally
preferable for medical ufe.
In Mr Bell’s Travels we have an account of fome
curious particulars relating to the culture of rhubarb. R-l,eum-
He tells us, that the bed: rhubarb grows in that part—V—
of Eaftern Tartary called Mongolia, which now ferves
as a boundary between Ruflia and China. The mar¬
mots contribute greatly to the culture of the rhubarb.
Wherever you fee 10 or 20 plants growing, you are
fure of finding feveral burrows under the (hades of their
broad-fpreading leaves. Perhaps they may fometimes
eat the leaves and roots of this plant j however, it is
probable the manure they leave about the roots contri¬
butes not a little to its increafe ; and their calling up
the earth, makes it (hoot out young buds and mul¬
tiply. This plant does not run, and fpread itfelf,
like docks and others of the fame fpecies ; but grows
in tufts, at uncertain diftances, as if the feeds had
been dropped with defign. It appears that the Mon-
gals never accounted it worth cultivating j but that
the world is obliged to the marmots for the quanti¬
ties fcattered, at random, in many parts of this coun¬
try : for whatever part of the ripe feed happens to be
blown among the thick grafs, cfm very feldom reach
the ground, but muft there wither and die ; whereas,
(hould it fall among the loofe earth thrown up by the
marmots, it immediately takes root, and produces a new
plant.
After digging and gathering the rhubarb, the Mon-
gals cut the large roots into (mail pieces, in order to
make them dry more readily. In the middle of every
piece they fcoop a hole, through which a cord is drawn,
in order to fufpend them in any convenient place. They
hang them, for the mod part, about their tents, and
fometimes on the horns of their (heep. This is a mod
pernicious cuftom, as it deftroys fome of the bed: part
of the root j for all about the hole is rotten and ufelefs,
whereas, were people rightly informed how to dig and
dry this plant, there would not be one pound of refufe
in an hundred which would fave a great deal of trouble
and expence, that much diminifti the profits on this com¬
modity. At prefent, the dealers in this article think
thefe improvements not worthy of their attention, as
their gains are more confiderable on this than on any
other branch of trade. Perhaps the government may
hereafter think it proper to make fome regulations with
regard to this matter.
Two forts of rhubarb are met with in the (hops.
The firft is imported from Turkey and Ruflia, in round-
ifli pieces freed from the bark, with a hole through the
middle of each j they are externally of a yellowifli co¬
lour, and on cutting appear variegated with lively red-
difti ftreaks. The other, which is lefs efteemed, comes
immediately from the Eaft Indies in longifli pieces,
harder, heavier, and more compaft than the foregoing.
The firft fort, unlefs kept very dry, is apt to grow
mouldy and worm-eaten •, the fecond is lefs fubjedl to
thefe inconveniences. Some of the more induftrious ar-
tifts are faid to fill up the worm holes with certain mix¬
tures, and to colour the outfide of the damaged pieces
with powder of the finer forts of rhubarb, and fometimes
with cheaper materials : this is often fo nicely done, as
effe&ually to impofe upon the buyer, unlefs he very care¬
fully examines each piece.
The Turkey rhubarb is, among us, univerfally pre¬
ferred to the Eaft India fort, though this laft is for
fome purpofes at lead equal to the other j it is mani-
feftly more aftringent, but has fomewhat lefs of an
j H 2 aromatic
R H E [ 796 1 R H E
Rheum, aromatic flavour. Tinaures drawn from botli vvith
 v-— reaified fpirit have nearly the fame tafte: on diltilling
off the menftruum, the extraa left from the tinaure
of the Eart India rhubarb proved coniiderably the
ftrongefl. . .
Rhubarb has been cultivated in Britain with con-
fiderable fuccefs, and for medical purpofes is found
to equal that of foreign growth, as is proved by the
Tranfaaions of the London Society for encouraging
Arts, Manufaaures, and Commerce, who have reward¬
ed feveral perfons both for cultivating and curing it.
In the Tranfaaions for 1792, the gold medal was ad¬
judged to Sir William Fordyce, for raifing from feed
in the year 1791 upwards of 300 plants of the true
rhubarb, or rheum palmatum of the London Pharma¬
copoeia 1788, which in the fecond and third weeks of
Oaober were tranfplanted into a deep loam, at four
feet diflance from each other, according to rules laid
down by the fociety. In 1793 it was adjudged to Mr
Thomas Jones, from whofe papers we derive the fol¬
lowing information. *
After giving an accurate account of his experiments
and obfervations, he concludes, that the feafon for fow-
ing is the fpring about March or April, or in autumn
about Auguft and September •, that tbofe plants which
are raifed in the fpring fliould be tranfplanted in autumn,
and vice verfa ; that they cannot have too much room j
that room and time are effentially neceffary to their be¬
ing large, of a good appearance, and perhaps to the in-
creafe of their purgative qualities ; that to effeft thefe
purpofes, the foil muft be light, loamy, and rich, but
not too much fo, left the roots fhould be too fibrous \
that their fituation can fcarcely be too dry, as more
evils are to be expefted from a fuperabundancy of moi-
flure than any actual want of it: and laftly, we may
conclude, that in particular the injuries which they are
fubjeft to are principally during their infancy, and to
be imputed to infects and inattention to the planting
feafon : afterwards, from too great an expofure to froft :
but that none can be dreaded from heat ; and that in
general they are hardy and eafy of cultivation, when ar¬
rived beyond a certain term.
The method of curing rhubarb, as propofed by Dr
Tirruogel of Stockholm, is as follows : “ No roots fhould
be taken up till they have been planted ten years : they
fhould be taken out of the ground either in winter, be¬
fore the froft fet in, or in the beginning of fpring, and
immediately cut into pieces, and carefully barked j let
them be fpread upon a table for three or four days, and
be frequently turned, that the juices may thicken or
condenfe within the roots. After that procefs, make
a hole in each piece, and put a thread through it ■, by
which let them hang feparately, either within doors,
or in fome fheltered fhadv died. Some perfons dry
them in a different way ; they inclofe the roots in clay,
and make a hole in the clay, about the thicknefs of a
goofe-quill, and in this manner hang up each piece to
cry feparately, that the moifture may not evaporate,
nor the ftrength of the root be weakened. But the
method which the Tartars follow is a bad one : they
dig the roots out of the deferts where they grow, bark
them, and immediately firing them, and hang them
round the necks of their camels, that they may dry as
they travel ; but this greatly leffens the medical virtue
ef the root.”
Mr Thomas Halley of Pontefraft in Yorkfhire, to Rf.etm
whom the London Society voted the filver medal in v*—
1793, informs us, that his father tried various experi¬
ments for curing rhubarb, as waffling, brufhing, bark¬
ing, and peeling, and he dried them in the fun, on a
kiln, in a ftove, or in a warm kitchen. But of the fuc-
cefles of all or either of thefe methods we have no ac¬
count, owing to the death of Mr Halley’s father. He
fent, however, to them five different fpecimens, which
the Society acknowledges to be fuperior to any rhubarb
hitherto cured in England, and produced to them. The
roots fent, Mr Halley fays, were planted about the
year 1781 in a light fandyifh foil, but were much ne¬
glected. They were taken up in the fpring of 1792,
and being thoroughly divefted of the adhering earth,
were placed for fome weeks on the floor of a cool ware-
houfe : the fibres were then taken off, cut up, and dried
on the flue of a greenhoufe j but, from miimanagement,
were entirely fpoiled. The prime roots were fevered in
fmall pieces, peeled clean, and thoroughly cleared of
every particle of unfourtdnefs. Part was feparately laid
in fieves, and the remainder perforated, flrung, and fuf-
pended in feftoons from the ceiling of a warm kitchen.
The manner of drefling confifts in paring oft' the exter¬
nal coat with a lharp knife, as thin and clean as poflible,
and then finilhing it off by a bit of fifti fkin, with its
own powder ; which powder may be procured from the
chips and fmall pieces, either by grinding or pounding
it in a large mortar.
In the year 1794 the Society adjudged the gold me¬
dal to Mr William Hayward of Hanbury, Oxfordlhire,
for propagating rhubarb by offsets taken from the
crowns of large plants, inftead of feeds, for the purpofe
of bringing it to perfeCfion in a fhorter time, which ful¬
ly anfwered his expeditions. Mr Hayward was a can¬
didate in the year 1789 for the gold medal j but having
mifunderftood their rules, he was not entitled to it,
though with great propriety they voted to him the filver
medal ; in confequence of which he fent them his me¬
thod of culture and cure. His method of cultivating
Turkey rhubarb from feed is thus explained in the So¬
ciety : “ I have ufually fown the feed about the begin¬
ning of February, on a bed of good foil (if rather fandy
the better), expofed to an eaft or weft afped, in prefe¬
rence to the fouth ; obferving a full fun to be prejudi¬
cial to the vegetation of the feeds, and to the plants
whilft young. The feeds are beft fown moderately thick
(broadcaft), treading them regularly in, as is ufual with
parfneps and other light feeds, and then raking the
ground fmooth. I have fometimes, when the feafon has
been wret, made a bed for fowing the rhubarb feeds up¬
on, about two feet thick, with new dung from the liable,
covering it near one foot thick with good foil. The in¬
tent of this bed is not for the fake of warmth, but foie-
ly to prevent the riling of earth-worms, which, in a
moift feafon, will frequently deftroy the young crop.
If the feed is good, the plants often rife too thick *, if
fo, when they have attained fix leaves they Ihould be
taken carefully up (where too clofe), leaving the Hand¬
ing crop eight or ten inches apart : thofe taken up may
be planted at the fame diftance, in a ffelh fpot of ground,
in order to furnifh other plantations. When the plants
in general are grown to the fize that cabbage plants are
ufually fet out for a Handing crop, they are beft planted
where they are to remain, in beds four feet wide, one
row
4-
H H E [ 797 ] R H I
Rheum, row along tlie mid'dle of the bed, leaving two yards dif-
 V tance betwixt the plants, allowing an alley between
the beds about a foot wide, for conveniency of weed¬
ing the plants. In the autumn, when the decayed
leaves are removed, if the (hovedings of the alleys are
thrown over the crowns of the plants, it will be found
of ferviee.
His mode of cultivating the fame plant by offsets is
thus given : “ On taking up fome plants the laft fpring,
I flipped off feveral offsets from the heads of large
plants : thefe I fet with a dibble about a foot apart, in
order, if I found them thrive, to remove them into other
beds. On examining them in the autumn, I was fur-
prifed to fee the progrefs they had made, and pleafed to
be able to furnifh my beds with 40 plants in the moft
thriving date. Though this was my firft experiment of
its kind, I do not mean to arrogate the difcovery to '
myfelf, having known it recently tried by others, but
without being informed of their fuccefs. I have reafon
to think this valuable drug will, by this method, be
brought much fooner to perfeftion than from feed.”
His method of curing rhubarb is thus defcribed :
“ The plants may be taken up either early in the fpring,
or in autumn, when the leaves are decayed, in dry wea¬
ther if poffible, when the roots are to be cleared from
dirt (without waffling) : let them be cut into pieces,
and with a (harp knife freed from the outer coat, and
expofed to the fun and air for a few days, to render the
outfide a little dry. In order to accelerate the curing
of the largeft pieces, a hole may be fcooped out with a
penknife : thefe and the fmaller parts are then to be
ftrung on packthread, and hung up in a warm room (I
have always had the conveniency of fuch a one over a
baker’s oven), where it is to remain till perfectly dry.
Each piece may be rendered more fightly by a common
file, fixing it in a fmall vice during that operation : af¬
terwards rub over it a very fine powder, which the fmall
roots furniffi in beautiful perfection, tor this and every
other purpofe where rhubarb is required.”
In the year 1794, too, the fociety adjudged the gold
medal to Mr Ball for his method of curing the true rhu¬
barb, which is as follows : “ I take the roots up when
I find the ftalks withering or dying away, clean them
from the earth w’ith a dry bruffi, cut them in fmall pieces
of about four or five inches in breadth, and about two in
depth, taking away all the bark, and make a hole in
the middle, and firing them on packthread, keeping
every piece apart; and every morning, if the weather is
clear and fine, I place them in the open part of the gar¬
den, on flages, erefted by fixing fmall polls about fix
feet high in the ground, and fix feet afunder, into which
I fix horizontal pegs, about a foot apart, beginning at
^he top ; and the rhubarb being flringed crofswife on
fmall poles, I place them on thefe pegs 5 fo that if it
fhould rain, 1 could eafily remove each pole with the
fufpended pieces, into any covered place. I never fuf-
fer them to be out at night, as the damps at this feafon
would be apt to mould them; and if at any time I per¬
ceive the leaft mark of mould, I rub it off with a dry
cloth. In fome of the pieces of rhubarb which I have
cured this year, I have made holes about half an inch
diameter in the middle, for the free paffage of air, and Rhentn
have found that every one of thefe pieces dried better Rll|re
than the others where no fuch holes were made ; and ‘ ,t,
have likewife hung feveral firings in the kitchen, and
never expofed them in the open air, and found them to
dry exceedingly well, and much better than thole in
the open air. Some years fince I dried a quantity of
rhubarb on a malt-kiln, keeping up the thermometer to
80 degrees, which anfvvered well, but J think rather
dried too quick : the roots which I have cured this
year are a part of the plantation of 1789, and for
which the Society was fo kind as to give me a me¬
dal (a).”
RHEXIA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc-
tandria clafs $ and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of the xyth order, Caltjcanthemce. See Botany
Index.
RHINANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the didynamia clafs *, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Verfonatcc. See Botany Index.
RHINE, a large river of Germany, famous both in
ancient and modern hiflory. It rifes among the Alpes
Lepontiae, or Grifons j and firft traverfing the Lacus
Acronius, divides the Rhaeti and Vindelici from the-
Helvetii, and then the Germans from the Gauls and
Belgee ; and running from fouth to north for the great-
eft part of its way, and at length bending its courfe
weft, it empties itfelf at feveral mouths (Casfar) \ at
three mouths into the German ocean, (Pliny) 5 viz. the
weftern, or Helius 5 the northern, or Fleuvus ; and the
middle between both thefe, which retains the original
name, Rhenus ; and in this Ptolemy agrees.—Mela and
Tacitus mention two channels, and as many mouths,
the right and left •, the former running by Germany,
and the latter by Gallia Belgica: and thus alfo Afinius
Pollio, and Virgil; the cut or trench of Drufus not be¬
ing made in their time, whereby the middle channel
was much drained and reduced, and therefore overlook¬
ed by Tacitus and Mela j and which Pliny calls the
Scanty. To account for Ctelar’s feveral mouths, is a.
matter of no fmall difficulty with the commentators 5
and they do it no otherwife than by admitting that the
Rhine naturally formed fmall drains or rivulets from it¬
felf; the cut of Drufus being long pofterior to him ; in
whofe time Afinius Pollio, quoted by Strabo, who
agrees with him therein, affirmed that there were but
two mouths, finding fault with thofe who made them
more : and he muft mean the larger mouths, which
emitted larger ftreams. The Romans, efpecially the
poets, ufed the term Rhenus for Germany, (Martial).
 At prefent, the river, after entering the Netherlands
at Schenkinhaus, is divided into feveral channels, the
two largeft of which obtain the names of the Lech and
the Waal, which running through the United Pro¬
vinces, falls into the German ocean below Rotter¬
dam.
Lower Circle of the RHINE, confifts of the palatinate
of the Rhine, and the three ecclefiaftical eledlorates, viz.
thofe of Cologne, Mentz, and Triers.
Upper Circle of the RHINE, confifted of the landgra-
viates of Alface and Heffe, comprehending the Wete-
raw $
(a7 The Society alfo adjudged to Mr Ball the medal in I79°> ^or cultivating rhubarb.
R H I [ 798 ] R H I
lihine raw $ but now only HelTe can be accounted a part of
II Germany, Alface being long ago united to France.
Rhmegau. RHINEBERG, a town of Germany, in the circle
' of the Lower Rhine, and diocefe of Cologne. It was
in the poffeflion of the French, but reftored to the
archbifhop of Cologne by the treaty of Utrecht. It
is feated on the Rhine, in E. Long. 6. 39. N. Lat.
51. 30.
RHINECK, a town of Germany, in the arehbifhop-
ric of Cologne, feated on the Rhine, E. Long. 7. 53.
N. Lat. 50. 27.—There is another town of the fame
name in Swiflerland, capital of Rhinthal, feated on the
Rhine, near the lake of Conftance, with a good cattle.
E. Long. 9. 53. N. Lat. 47. 38.
RHINFELD, a fmall but Itrong town of Germany,
in the circle of Suabia, and the beft of the four foreft-
towns belonging to the houfe of Auttria. It has been
often taken and retaken in the German W’ars ; and is
feated on the Rhine, over which there is a handfome
bridge. E. Long. 7. 53. N. Lat. 47. 40.
RHINEGAU, a beautiful diftridt of the ekaorate
of Mentz, is lituated on the Rhine, about three miles
from the city of Mentz, and is fo populous that it looks
like one entire town intermixed with gardens and vine¬
yards. The Rhine here grows aftonifhingly wide, and
forms a kind of fea, near a mile broad, in which are fe-
Reifbach's vera^ weII wooded little iflands. The Rhinegau forms
Travels an amphitheatre, the beauties of which are beyond all
through defcription. At Walluf, the very high hills come near-
Germany, ]y down to the river fide $ from thence they recede
in. 226. agaJn into the country, forming a kind of half circle,
the other end of which is 15 miles on at Rudeftieim, on
the banks of the Rhine. The banks of the river, the
hills which form the circles, and the Hopes of the great
mountains, are thick fown with villages and hamlets.
The white appearance of the buildings, and the fine
blue flated roofs of the houfes playing amidft the various
green of the landfcape, have an admirable effedt. In
the fpace of every mile, as you fail down the river, you
meet with a village w'hich in any other place would pafs
for a town. Many of the villages contain from 300 to
400 families; and there are 36 of them in a fpace of
15 miles long and fix miles broad, which is the width
of this beautiful amphitheatre. The declivities of all
the hills and mountains are planted thick with vineyards
and fruit trees, and the thick wooded tops of the hills
call: a gloomy horror over the otherwife cheerful land¬
fcape. Every now and then a row of rugged hills run
direftly down to the fiiore, and domineer majeftically
over the leffer hills under them. On one of thefe great
mountains, juft about the middle of the Rhinegau, you
meet Johannis-Berg, a village which produces fome of
the beft Rhenifh. Before this village is a pretty little
rifing, and near the banks of the river there is a very
fine old caftle, which gives unfpeakable majefty to the
whole landfcape. Indeed, in every village, you meet
with fome or other large building, which contributes
very much to the decoration of the whole. This coun¬
try is indebted for its riches to this femicircular hill,
which proteas it from the cold winds of the eaft and
north, at the fame time that it leaves room enough for
the fun to exercife his benign influences. The groves
and higher Hopes of the hills make excellent paftures,
and produce large quantities of dung, which, in a coun¬
try of this fort, is of ineftimable value.
The bank of the Rhine, oppofite to the Rhinegau, is Rhinegau,
exceedingly barren, and heightens the beauty of the
profpedt on the other fide by the contraft it exhibits j
on this fide, you hardly meet above three or four villa¬
ges, and thefe are far diftant from each other. The
great interval between them is occupied by heaths and
meadows, only here and there a thick bulb affords fome
ftiade, and a few corn fields among the villages enliven
the gloomy landfcape. The back ground of this coun¬
try is the moft pklurefque part of it. It is formed by
a narrow gullet of mountains, which diminifti in perfpec-
tive between Rudeftieim and Bingen. Perpendicular
mountains and rocks hang over the Rhine in this place,
and feem to make it the dominion of eternal night. At
a diftance, the Rhine feems to come out of this land¬
fcape through a hole under ground ; and it appears to
run tedioufiy, in order to enjoy its courfe through a
pleafant country the longer. Amidft the darknefs
which covers this back ground, the celebrated Moufe
tower feems to fwim upon the river. In a word, there
is not any thing in this whole tradt that does not contri¬
bute fomething to the beauty and magnificence of the
whole 5 or, if I may be permitted the exprefiion, to
make the paradife more welcome. As you fail along
the Rhine, between Mentz and Bingen, the banks of
the river form an oval amphitheatre, which makes one
of the richeft and moft pifturefque landfcapes to be feen
in Europe. The inhabitants of thefe regions are fome
of them extremely rich, and fome extremely poor. The
happy middle ftate is not for countries the chief produft
of which is wine j for, befides that the cultivation of
the vineyard is infinitely more troublefome and expenfive
than agriculture, it is fubje&ed to revolutions, which in
an inftant reduce the holder of land to the condition of
a day-labourer. It is a great misfortune for this coun¬
try, that, though reftrained by law, the nobility are,
through connivance of the eleftor, allowed to purchafe
as much land as they pleafe. The peafant generally be¬
gins by running in debt for his vineyard j fo that if it
does not turn out well, he is reduced to day-labour, and
the rich man extends bis poffeffions to the great detri¬
ment of the country. There are feveral peafants here,
who having incomes of 30,000, 50,000, or 100,000
guilders a-year, have laid afide the peafant, and affumed
the wine-merchant; but fplendid as their fituation is,
is does not compenfate, in the eyes of the humane man,
for the fight of fo many poor people with which the vil¬
lages fwarm. In order to render a country of this kind
profperous, the ftate fhould appropriate a fund to the
purpofe of maintaining the peafant in bad years, and
giving him the afliftance which his neceflities, and his
want of ready money, may from time to time make
convenient.
The inhabitants of the Rhinegau are a handfome and
uncommonly ftrong race of men. You fce at the very
firft afpe<R that their wine gives them merry hearts and
found bodies. They have a great deal of natural wit,
and a vivacity and jocofenefs, which diftinguifiies them
very much from their neighbours. You need only com¬
pare them with fome of thefe, to be convinced that the
drinker of wine excels the drinker of beer and water,
both in body and mind, and that the inhabitant of the
fouth is much ftouter than he who lives in the north ;
for though the wine-drinker may not have quite as
much flefti as he who drinks only beer, he has better
K H I [ 799 ] R H I
Rhinegau, blood, and can bear much more work. Tacitus had
Rhinfeld. already obferved this, in his treatife De moribus Germa-
v——v—^ norum. “ The large and corpulent bodies of the Ger¬
mans (fays he) have a great appearance, but are not
made to laft.” At that time almoft all the Germans
drank only water; but the mere drinking of wine has
effe&ed a revolution in feveral parts of Germany, which
makes the prefent inhabitants of thefe countries very
different from thofe defcribed by Tacitus. Black and
brown hair is much commoner here than the white,
■which made the Germans fo famous in old Rome. “ It
will be eafily imagined (fays Baron Reifbeck), that the
monks fare particularly well in fo rich a country. We
made a vifit to the prelate of Erbach. Thefe lordly
monks, for fo in every refpeft they are, have an excel¬
lent hunt, rooms magnificently furnifhed, billiard ta¬
bles, half a dozen beautiful finging women, and a ftu-
pendous wine cellar, the well ranged batteries of which
made me fhudder. A monk, who faw my aftonifhment
at the number of the cafks, affured me, that, without
the benign influence which flowed from them, it would
be totally impofllble for the cloifler to fubfift in fo damp
a fituation.”
RHINFELD, a caftle of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine, in a county of the fame name. It is
looked upon as one of the moft important places feated Rhinfeld
on the Rhine, as well in regard to its ftrength as fitua-
tion. It is near St Goar, and built on a craggy rock. .
This fortrefs commands the whole breadth of the Rhine,
and thofe who pafs are always obliged to pay a confider-
able toll. In the time of war it is of great importance
to be mafters of this place. It was taken by the French
in 1794. E. Long. 7. 43. N. Lat. 50. 3.
RHINLAND, a name given to a part of South
Holland, which lies on both fides of the Rhine, and of
which Leyden is the capital town.
RHINOCEROS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging
to the order of belluge. See Mammalia Index.
RHINOCEHOS-Bird. See BuCEROS, ORNITHOLOGY
Index 9
RHITYMNA. See Retimo.
RHIZOBALUS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
polyandria clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 23d order, Trihilatte. Of this there is only
one fpecies, viz. Peiia. The nuts are fold in the {hops
as American nuts $ they are flat, tuberculated, and kid-
ney-fhaped, containing a kernel of the fame fhape, which
is fweet and agreeable. Clufius gives a good figure of
the nut, and Aublet has one of the whole plant.
END OF THE SEVENTEENTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XVII
Part I.
Plate CCCCXXXIV. to face page 88
CCCCXXXV. - - - 144
CCCCXXXVI. ... i7o
CCCCXXXVII. - - - 208
CCCCXXXVIII. - ... 272
CCCCXXXIX. ... 348
CCCCXL. _ 376
Part II.
CCCCXLI. CCCCXLII. - - 422
CCCCXLIII—CCCCXLVII. - - 436
CCCCXLVIII. _ . . 460
CCCCXLIX CCCCLI. - - 520
CCCCLII.—CCCCLVII. - - 568
CCCCLVIII. ... 580
CCCCLIX. CCCCLX. - - 638
CCCCLXI 760
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